Geothermal Energy, Energy from Biomass & Hydrogen Energy.

Module 5
• Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal
station with schematic diagram, geothermal plants in the world, problems
associated with geothermal conversion, scope of geothermal energy.
• Energy from Bio Mass: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production,
energy plantation, bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic
fermentation, description of bio-gas plants, transportation of biogas, problems
involved with bio-gas production, application of bio-gas, application of bio-gas in
engines, advantages.
• Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respected to its utilization as a
renewable form of energy, sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen,
electrolysis of water, thermal decomposition of water, thermo chemical
production bio-chemical production.
Geothermal Energy
• “Geothermal” comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermal (heat). So,
geothermal means “earth’s heat”.
• The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called geothermal
energy.
• Geothermal heat originates from earth's fiery consolidation of dust and gas over
four billion years ago.

• The geothermal energy is enormous and will last for several millions of years
and is therefore called renewable.

• Geothermal energy is one of the only renewable energy sources not dependent
on the Sun. Instead, it relies on heat produced under the surface of the Earth
• The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to
melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in parts of the mantle
convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock and
temperatures at the core–mantle boundary can reach over 4000°C (7200°
F).
• Geothermal heating, for example using water from hot springs has been
used for bathing since Palaeolithic times and for space heating since
ancient Roman times, however more recently geothermal power, the term
used for generation of electricity from geothermal energy, has gain in
importance.
• It is estimated that the earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more
than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, although only a very
small fraction is currently being profitably exploited, often in areas near
tectonic plate boundaries.
• Geothermal energy already has several applications and could potentially
provide a significant source of renewable power for the United States.
• However, it is limited by a multitude of factors revolving around the issues
of sustainability and economics.
• There are two main applications of geothermal energy, which include
producing electricity at specialized power plants, and direct-heating, which
puts to direct use the temperature of water piped under the earth’s
surface.
• Geothermal power plants take on several types of forms, depending on
the type of geothermal area from which they extract energy.
• In any case, the plants depend on steam to power turbines and generate
electricity, though the methods of producing steam varies depending on
the type of geothermal reservoir.
• Direct-heating, on the other hand, provides immediate, usable energy.
This type of energy can heat individual buildings or entire areas, as in the
city of Klamath Falls, Oregon.

• It can also cool buildings by pumping water underground where the

temperature remains relatively stable near 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and
then into buildings, where the water absorbs heat, thus helping to air
condition the building.
Sources of Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal Sources are Classified Based on:

• (1) Temperature,
• (2) Physical State of H20 (i.e. water or steam), and
• (3) Type of Energy Usage
Primary Classification is Resource Temperature:
– Low Temperature Reservoir: 50-200 °F (10-94 °C)
– High Temperature Reservoir: >200 °F
Geothermal Power
• Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy. Technologies in
use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary
cycle power stations.
• Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries, while
geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.
• As of 2015, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts
(GW), of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States.

• International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last
three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach
14.5–17.6 GW by 2020.
• Based on current geologic knowledge and technology, the Geothermal
Energy Association (GEA) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global
potential has been tapped so far, while the IPCC reported geothermal
power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW.
• Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from
geothermal sources include El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland
and Costa Rica.
• Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of
energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's
heat content.[4]
• The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on
average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less
than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants.
Principle and Working of Geothermal Power Plants
Geothermal Energy:
• Heat has been radiating from the Earth's core for billions of years. This heat is
originated since the formation of the Earth and it is continuously regenerated
by the decay of radioactive elements.
• The rate of this regeneration of geothermal heat is so high that it makes the
geothermal energy a renewable resource. Near the Earth's core, the
temperature ranges about 5500 degree Celsius.
• This heat is basically the thermal energy stored inside the Earth's core and the
Earth's crust acts like an insulator and keeps the heat trapped inside. This
thermal energy is known as geothermal energy. (geo=earth and thermal=heat).
• This energy is estimated to be one or two orders larger than all the energy
recoverable from nuclear sources. The heat trapped inside the core (by
the Earth's crust) is transferred to the surface by the following ways:

1. Direct heat conduction

2. Bubble like magma that buoys up to the surface
3. Rapid injection of magma into deep, natural rifts
• Direct heat conduction does not produce much heat on the surface. Also,
magma buoys up to the surface only at selected locations like active
volcanoes. Whereas magma is injected into deep rifts and causes
heating of the underground water.
• This geothermal energy rises upwards due to one of the above reasons
and causes large amounts of underground water to be heated on or
below the surface of the Earth. Such locations are called Geothermal
reservoirs. Such reservoirs are either on the surface in the form of hot
springs or underground reservoirs which are reached by drilling wells.

• The heat energy in geothermal reservoirs can be carried up to the surface

and utilized to produce electricity by geothermal power plants.
Geothermal Power Plants:
• A geothermal power plant uses steam obtained from these geothermal
reservoirs to generate electricity.
• Wells are drilled at the appropriate locations to bring this geothermal energy up
to the surface. A mixture of steam and water is collected from the production
well.
• Steam separators are employed to separate the steam and use it to operate
turbines. The further process is quite similar to a thermal power plant - steam
turbines run the generators and, hence, electricity is generated.
• The condensed steam and the water collected from the production well are
injected back into the reservoir through the injection well.
• This is, however, a general working principle of a geothermal power plant.
The particular working of the plant depends upon the type of the plant.
Types of Geothermal Power Plants
• Different Types of Plants are Required to Take Advantage of the Particular
Characteristics of Each Specific Geothermal Site
• Main Types of Geothermal Power Plants:
– Dry Steam
– Flash Steam
– Binary Cycle
Dry Steam Plant:
• This is the simplest and oldest type of geothermal plant. It directly uses
steam from the reservoir to operate the turbine. The steam is collected
from the production well and used to operate low-pressure turbines.
Hence, the working fluid is steam. The used steam is then condensed and
injected back through the injection well.
Flash Steam Power Plants:
• A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam ,the steam once it has been
separated from the water is piped to the powerhouse where it is used to
drive the steam turbine.

• The steam is condensed after leaving the turbine, creating a partial

vacuum and thereby maximising the power generated by the turbine
generator.
• The steam is usually condensed either in a direct contact condenser, or a
heat exchanger type condenser. In a direct contact condenser the cooling
water from the cooling tower is sprayed onto and mixes with the steam.
• The condensed steam then forms part of the cooling water circuit, and a
substantial portion is subsequently evaporated and is dispersed into the
atmosphere through the cooling tower.

• Excess cooling water called blow down is often disposed of in shallow

injection wells. As an alternative to direct contact condensers shell and
tube type condensers are sometimes used, as is shown in the schematic.
• In this type of plant, the condensed steam does not come into contact with
the cooling water, and is disposed of in injection wells.

• Typically, flash condensing geothermal power plants vary in size from 5

MW to over 100 MW.
• Depending on the steam characteristics, gas content, pressures, and
power plant design, between 6 and 9 tonne of steam each hour is required
to produce each MW of electrical power.

• Small power plants (less than 10 MW) are often called well head units as
they only require the steam of one well and are located adjacent to the
well on the drilling pad in order to reduce pipeline costs.
• Often such well head units do not have a condenser, and are called
backpressure units. They are very cheap and simple to install, but are
inefficient (typically 10-20 tonne per hour of steam for every MW of
electricity) and can have higher environmental impacts.
Binary Cycle Power Plants:
• In reservoirs where temperatures are typically less than 220oC (430oF).but
greater than 100oC (212oF).binary cycle plants are often utilised.
• The illustration below shows the principal elements of this type of plant.
• The reservoir fluid (either steam or water or both) is passed through a heat
exchanger which heats a secondary working fluid which has a boiling point
lower than 100oC (212oF). This is typically an organic fluid such as
Isopentane, which is vaporised and is used to drive the turbine.

• The organic fluid is then condensed in a similar manner to the steam in the
flash power plant described above, except that a shell and tube type
condenser rather than direct contact is used.

• The fluid in a binary plant is recycled back to the heat exchanger and
forms a closed loop. The cooled reservoir fluid is again re-injected back
into the reservoir.
• Binary cycle type plants are usually between 7 and 12 % efficient
depending on the temperature of the primary (geothermal) fluid.

• If the geothermal resource has a temperature between 100o C and

150oC, electricity can still be generated using binary plant technology.

• The produced fluid heats, through a heat exchanger, a secondary

working fluid (isobutene, Isopentane or ammonia), which vaporises at a
lower temperature than water.

• The working fluid vapour turns the turbine and is condensed before
being reheated by the geothermal water, allowing it to be vaporised and
used again in a closed-loop.
Combined Cycle (Flash and Binary):
• Combined Cycle power plants are a combination of conventional steam
turbine technology and binary cycle technology.
• By combining both technologies, higher overall utilisation efficiencies can
be gained, as the conventional steam turbine is more efficient at
generation of power from high temperature steam, and the binary cycle
from the lower temperature separated water.
• In addition, by replacing the condenser-cooling tower cooling system in a
conventional plant by a binary plant, the heat available from condensing
the spent steam after it has left the steam turbine can be utilised to
produce more power.
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Technology:
• The technology to mine the heat from the hot rock found almost
everywhere at some depth beneath the surface of the earth was
conceived and developed at Los Alamos between the years of 1970 and
1996.

• Conceptually, hot dry rock (HDR) heat mining is quite simple. As shown in
the drawing water is pumped into hot, crystalline rock via an injection well,
becomes superheated as it flows through open joints in the hot rock
reservoir, and is returned through production wells.

• At the surface, the useful heat is extracted by conventional processes, and

the same water is recirculate to mine more heat.
• The key element in successful heat mining is the development of an
engineered geothermal reservoir in a hot body, impermeable rock.
• The point in a hot rock body at which an HDR reservoir is created is
determined by the selection of the location on the surface from which the
injection well is drilled and the depth within the wellbore at which the water is
injected into the hot rock, while the overall size of the reservoir is a direct
function of the total amount of water pumped into the rock during its
development.

• Although these parameters can be engineered, the shape, orientation, and

internal structure of the reservoir, are entirely functions of the local geologic
conditions and are, at present, beyond human control. For this reason, it is
important to understand the local geology before attempting to develop an
HDR reservoir.
• As an HDR reservoir is being formed, rock blocks are moved very slightly
by the injected water. These small movements give rise to low frequency
stress waves similar to, but much smaller than, those caused by
earthquakes.
• Micro seismic technology has been developed to identify these signals
and locate their points of origin. The data from many such signals provide
a picture of the size, shape, and orientation of the reservoir.
• With this information in hand, production wells can be drilled into the
reservoir to most efficiently tap the superheated water that has been
injected.
Geothermal Plants in the World:
• There are geothermal power plants all over the world, but a group of ten stand out
as seriously powerful producers.

1. The Geysers Geothermal Complex, USA.

• This large complex, located about 100km north of San Francisco, California, is made
up of 18 power plants , offering an active production capacity of 900MW.

• It’s huge, spread across 45 square miles, and generates enough energy to power
almost 1 million homes.
2. Larderello Geothermal Complex, ITALY
• The second largest plant in the world is the massive Larderello Complex, which is
comprised of 34 plants.

• The net capacity of this geothermal facility is 769 MW.

• The first plant was constructed in 1913, making it the oldest of its kind.

• This complex is responsible for 10% of all geothermal energy that is produced
worldwide, and is utilized for almost 27% of the power demands of the region.
3. Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station, MEXICO
• Located in North Mexico, the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Plant is the third largest
in the world, with an output of 720 MW.

• This plant, as with every Mexican power plant, is owned by the Commission Federal
de Electricidad.

• The plant is built on a somewhat unique point of geology, a spreading fault line in a
landlocked area. The phenomenon is normally found only on the ocean floor.
4. Makban Geothermal Complex, PHILIPPINES
• The fourth largest geothermal plant, with an output capacity of 458 MW, is the
Makban Geothermal Power Complex.

• Six plants make up this complex, located in both the Laguna province and Batangas
province.
• The Philippines possesses an excellent geothermal infrastructure, but would need to
increase geothermal production by a few hundred thousand to meet 100%
sustainability.
5. Calenergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants, USA
• Ten geothermal plants clustered together comprise this large plant, located in
southern California.

• With a total output of 340MW, this series of plants makes up the fifth largest
geothermal energy producer on Earth.

• Experts say this area has more geothermal potential than any other in the United
States, and the plant is actually helping combat soil erosion and the spread of toxic
levels of salt across the region.
6. Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant, ICELAND
• Iceland is riddled with hot springs, and many homes outside the capital, Reykjavik,
have secondary, private, geothermal generators.

• With a production capacity of 400MW thermal energy and 303MW electric energy,
the sixth largest geothermal plant is located on Hengill volcano in Iceland.

• It’s the largest power plant in Iceland and rests, mostly, above the plate boundary
between the North American and European tectonic plates.
7. Tiwi Geothermal Complex, PHILIPPINES
• More than ¼ of the Philippines’ power comes from geothermal plants.
• The seventh biggest geothermal plant is located in the Philippine province of Albay.

• It comprises three power plants of two units each, and provides a net capacity of 289
MW.

• This plant has been operational since 1979, and is among the oldest functional
geothermal plants in the world.
8. Malitbog Geothermal Power Station, PHILIPPINES
• With an output capacity of 232.5MW, this power station in the Philippines is the
eighth largest in the world.

• This plant is owned by the Energy Development Corporation and it supplies Luzon
island with energy.

• It has been operating since 199, and has an expected lifespan of at least 30 more
years.

• It is actually the largest single roof geothermal power plant in the world, and is
situated in an area that many people would call paradise.
9. Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant, INDONESIA
• The ninth largest plant is also located in Indonesia, in the province of West Java.
• It is operated by a subsidiary of Star Energy, and was designed and constructed by
Aecom, Sumitomo Corporation, & Fuji Electric.

• It has an output capacity of 227 MW, but spans a larger area than the Darajat station.

• Altogether, the geothermal field at Wyang Windu covers 40sq. km.

10. Darajat Power Station, INDONESIA
• The tenth largest geothermal plant in the world is located in the Pasirwangi District of
Garut in Indonesia.

• It is comprised of three plants that were created separately between 1994 and 2007.

• This plant has a capacity of 259MW, which produces about 50% more power than
the Sir Adam Beck pump generating hydroelectric station at Niagara Falls.

• Indonesia has a particularly active volcanic geology, and geothermal is increasingly

popular in all corners of the country.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy:
• Geothermal energy is cheaper.

• It is versatile in its use.

• It is the least polluting as compared to other conventional energy sources.

• It is amenable for multiple uses from a single resource.

• Geothermal power plants have the highest annual load factors of 85 per cent to
90 per cent compared to 45 per cent to 50 per cent for fossil fuel plants.
• It delivers greater amount of net energy from its system as compared to other
alternative or conventional systems.
• Geothermal energy from the earth's interior is almost as inexhaustible as solar or
wind energy, so long as its sources are actively sought and economically tapped.
Disadvantages:
• Low overall power production efficiency (about 15% as compared to 35 to
40% for fossil fuel plants).

• Drilling operation is noisy.

• Large areas are needed for exploitation of geo-thermal energy.

• The withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a hydro-thermal

reservoir may result in surface subsidence or settlement.
Energy from Bio Mass:
Introduction:
• The energy obtained from organic matter, derived from biological organisms
(Plants and animals) is known as biomass energy.
• Animals feed on plants, and plants grow through the photosynthesis process
using solar energy.
• Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of
biomass energy.
• A small portion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in the plants during
photosynthesis process.
• Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar into biomass energy is estimated to be 0.5
– 1.0%.
• To use biomass energy, the initial biomass may be transformed by
chemical or biological processes to produce intermediate bio-fuels such as
methane, producer gas, ethanol and charcoal etc.
• On combustion it reacts with oxygen to release heat, but the elements of
the material remain available for recycling in natural ecological or
agricultural processes.
• It is estimated that the biomass, which is 90% in trees, is equivalent to the
proven current extractable fossil fuels reserves in the world. The dry
matter mass of biological material cycling in biosphere is about 250 x 109
tons/y.
• The associated energy bound in photosynthesis is 2 x 1021 J/y (0.7 x 1014
W of power).
• Biomass mainly in the form of wood, is mankind‘s oldest form of energy. It
has traditionally been used both in domestic as well as industrial activities,
basically by direct combustion.

• Though biomass energy share in primary energy supply for the

industrialized countries is not more than 3%, a number of developing
countries still use a substantial amount of it, mostly in the form of
non-commercial energy.
Main advantages of biomass energy are:
• It is a renewable source.
• The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
• It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange.
• The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower
than those from fossil fuels.
• Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of waste
disposal in other industries, particularly municipal solid waste in urban
centers.
• The nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from biogas plant serves
as a very good soil conditioner and improves the fertility of the soil.
Main disadvantages are:
• It is a dispersed and land intensive source.

• It is often of low energy density.

• It is also labour intensive, and the cost of collecting large quantities for
commercial application is significant.
• Most current commercial applications of biomass energy use material that
has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food processing
residues and urban waste.
Biomass:
• It is the organic matter consisting of plant animal matter. Any matter which
is biodegradable is known as biomass or organic matter.

• Generation of energy from biomass is referred to as “Photo chemical”

harnessing of solar radiation since to generate biomass; solar radiation is
a must as seen from the following equation.
Direct burning:
• When biomass is directly burnt, energy is generated as given by the
following expression,

Liquefaction:
• Biomass is liquefied either by thermo-chemical method or biochemical
method to generate alcohols like methyl and ethyl alcohol.
• These are mixed with petrol and used in IC Engines as fuels.
Bio Gas:
• Biomass is converted to biogas by the process of digestion or fermentation in
the presence of micro-organisms. This biogas mainly contains methane
which is a good combustible gas.
• Biogas consists of 50-55% of methane, 30-35% of CO2 and remaining waste
gases like H2, N2, H2S etc. since it contains a hydrocarbon gas it is a very
good fuel and hence can be used in IC engines.
• It is a slow burning gas with calorific value of 5000-5500 Kcal/kg. the raw
material used to generate this are algae, crop residue, garbage, kitchen
waste, paper waste, waste from sugar cane refinery, water hyacinth etc. apart
from the above mentioned raw materials excreta of cattle, piggery waste and
poultry droppings are also used as raw materials.
• Biogas is generated by fermentation or digestion of organic matter in the
presence of aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms.
• Fermentation is the process of breaking down the complex organic
structure of the biomass to simple structures by the action of
micro-organisms either in the presence of O2 or in the absence of O2.

• The container in which the digestion takes place is known as the digester.
Advantages of Biogas:
• The initial investment is low for the construction of biogas plant.
• The technology is very suitable for rural areas.
• Biogas is locally generated and can be easily distributed for domestic use.
• Biogas reduces the rural poor from dependence on traditional fuel
• sources, which lead to deforestation.
• The use of biogas in village helps in improving the sanitary condition and
• checks environmental pollution.
• The by-products like nitrogen rich manure can be used with advantage.
• Biogas reduces the drudgery of women and lowers incidence of eye and
• lung diseases.
The digestion in biogas takes place in the following steps

• i)Enzymatic hydrolysis ii) Acid formation iii) Methane formation.

Enzymatic hydrolysis:
• In this step the complex organic matter like starch, protein, fat,
carbohydrates etc are broken down to simple structures using anaerobic
micro-organisms.
Acid formation:
• In this step the simple structures formed in the enzymatic hydrolysis step
are further reacted by anaerobic and facultative microorganisms (which
thrive in both the presence and absence of oxygen) to generate acids.
Methane formation:
• In this step the organic acids formed are further converted to methane and
CO2 by anaerobic micro-organisms (anaerobes).
Factors affecting biogas generation:

- pH value - Mixing
- Temperature - Retention time

- Total solid content - Type of feedstock

- Load rating - Toxicity
- Seeding - Pressure
- Uniform feeding

- Diameter to depth ratio

- Carbon to nitrogen ratio

- Nutrient
pH Value:
• It is an index of hydrogen ion concentration in the mixture which also
predicts acidity or alkalinity of the mixture.
• For effective gas generation the required pH value is 6.5 to 7.6.

• If this value decreases to 4-6, the mixture becomes acidic and if the value
becomes 9-10 then it becomes alkaline.
• Both for acidic and alkaline conditions the methane forming bacteria
becomes inactive and the gas generation is reduced.

• Thus for effective gas generation the required pH value is 6.5-7.5.

Temperature:
• The effect of temp on gas generation is as
shown in graph.
• The two curves represent two types of
bacteria which are sensitive to two
different temp levels.

• Mesophilic type of bacteria will effectively

generate gas at a temp of about 35º C.

• Thermophilic type of bacteria will generate

gas effectively at a temp of about 55º C.
• As the temperature decreases or increases from the above values the
period of gas generation will be increased.
• Since it is easy to maintain a temp of 35º C, it is advisable to select
mesophilic type of bacteria for digestion.
Total Solid Content:
• The raw material added to the digester contains both solid and liquid in the
ratio of 20:80 by weight.

• From the experience it is found that the gas generation is improved by

maintaining the solid content of the mixture at about 8 to 10% by weight.
• This is done by adding water to the mixture.
Loading rate:
• It is the addition of the raw material to the digester/day/unit volume.
• The effective load rating is found to be 0.5 to 1.6 kg of solid
material/day/m3.
Seeding:
• During digestion the methane forming bacteria are consumed rapidly and
their number will decrease affecting the gas generation.
• In order to maintain the quantity of methane forming bacteria, digested
slurry from the previous batch is added to the digester.

• The digested slurry is rich in methane forming bacteria and the process is
known as seeding.
Uniform Feeding:
• This is one of the prerequisites of good digestion.
• The digester must be fed at the same time every day with a balanced feed
of the same quality and quantity.

Dia to Depth Ratio:

• From the experiments it is seen that the gas generation is improved by
maintaining a dia to depth ratio of 0.66 to 1.
• This provides uniform temp distribution throughout the digester resulting in
increased gas generation.
Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio:
• The bacteria in the digester utilize carbon for energy generation (as food)
while nitrogen is used for cell building.
• Hence a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 30:1 is maintained for effective gas
generation.

• If the ratio is not maintained the availability of carbon and nitrogen will
vary resulting in reduced gas generation.
Nutrients:
• The nutrients required by the bacteria for food digestion are hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, phosphorous and sulphur.
• Of these nitrogen and phosphorous have to be provided externally while
the others are contained in the raw material itself.

• Nitrogen is provided by adding “leguminous plants”(plants with seeds

enclosed in casings, eg: Maize) which are rich in nitrogen content.
Phosphorous is provided by adding “night soil” (soil mixed with excreta of
animals and humans) to the digester.
Mixing:
• Since bacteria in the digester have very limited reach to their food it is
necessary that the slurry is properly mixed and the bacteria get their food
supply.

• It is found that the slight mixing improves the digestion and a violent
mixing retards the digestion.
Retention Time:
• It is the time period required for the gas generation. It completely depends on the
type of the raw materials used.

• Eg: Night soil requires 30 days, pig dump and poultry droppings require 20 days
while cow dung and other kitchen waste requires 50 days of retention time.

Type of feed stock:

• The usual feed stock used are cow dung, human excreta, poultry dropping, pig
dump, kitchen waste etc.
• To obtain an efficient digestion these feed stocks are in some proportions,
• Pre-digested and finally chopping will be helpful for fibrous type of raw materials.
Toxicity:
• If the digester is left with the digested slurry it results in toxicity which in
turn reduces the gas generation. Hence the digested slurry should be
removed after the gas is generated.

Pressure:
• It is found that the gas generation is increased with the decrease in the
pressure of the digester.
Photosynthesis Process:
• Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthetic
organisms performs two basic functions:
• (i) temperature control for chemical reactions to proceed, and

• (ii) Photosynthesis process.

• The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis,

which is the process of combining CO2 from the atmosphere with water
plus light energy to produce oxygen and carbohydrates (sugars, starches,
celluloses and hemicelluloses).
• They are the ultimate source of most of our foods and other necessities of
daily life such as clothes (in the form of cotton), furniture (in the form of
wood), etc.

• The generalized symbol Cx (H2O)y is used to indicate the carbohydrates.

The products of this reaction are about 5ev per C atom higher in energy
than the initial material.
• Photosynthesis is a complex process.
• It involves several successive stages, but the overall basic reaction is the
formation of hexose (glucose, fructose, etc.) as represented by:

• More complex hydrocarbons (sucrose, starch, cellulose, etc.) are formed

by a chain of these simple structures.
• The reverse of this process is called respiration, in which CO2, H2O and
energy are produced using carbohydrate and oxygen. In green plants,
both photosynthesis and respiration occur during the day and only
respiration at night.
• The process also results in net gain of oxygen and fixation of carbon in the form
of biomass. The net energy absorbed from solar radiation during photosynthesis
can be measured from its combustion.

• ΔQ is enthalpy change of the combustion process, equal to the energy absorbed

from photons of solar radiation, less the energy of respiration during growth. The
value of ΔQ is 4.8eV per carbon atom, 470kJ per mole of carbon or 16 MJ/kg of
dry carbohydrate material.
• It is to be noted that the combustion requires the temperature of approximately
4000C, where as respiration occurs at 200C through catalytic enzyme reactions.
• The uptake of CO2 by a plant leaf is a function of many factors, especially
temperature, CO2 concentration and the intensity and wavelength
distribution of light.
• Solar radiation incident on a leaf is reflected, transmitted and absorbed.
• Part of the absorbed radiation (<5%) provides the energy stored in the
photosynthesis and produces oxygen and carbohydrate; the remainder is
absorbed in the plant as sensible heat raising its temperature, or as latent
heat for water evaporation.

• Absorption is usually most marked in the blue and red regions.

Biochemical reactions in anaerobic digestion:
• There are four key biological and chemical stages of anaerobic digestion:
• Hydrolysis
• Acido genesis
• Aceto genesis
• Methano genesis.

Fig: Anaerobic pathway of complex organic matter degradation

• In most cases biomass is made up of large organic compounds. In order
for the microorganisms in anaerobic digesters to access the chemical
energy potential of the organic material, the organic matter
macromolecular chains must first be broken down in to their smaller
constituent parts.

• These constituent parts or monomers such as sugars are readily available

to microorganisms for further processing. The process of breaking these
chain sand dissolving the smaller molecules in to solution is called
“hydrolysis”.
• Therefore hydrolysis of high molecular weight molecules is the necessary first
step in an aerobic digestion.
• It may be enhanced by mechanical, thermal or chemical pre-treatment of the
waste.
• Acetates and hydrogen produced in the first stages can be used directly by
methanogens. Other molecules such as volatile fatty acids (VFA‘s) with a chain
length that is greater than acetate must first be catabolised into compounds that
can be directly utilized by methanogens.
• The biological process of Acidogenesis is where there is further break down of
the remaining components by acidogenic (fermentative) bacteria. Here VFA‘s
are generated along with ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide as
well as other by-products.
• The third stage anaerobic digestion is Aceto genesis. Here simple molecules
created through the Acido genesis phase are further digested by acetogens to
produce largely acetic acid (orits salts) as well as carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
• The final stage of anaerobic digestion is the biological process of Methano
genesis.
• Here Methano genic archaea utilize the intermediate products of the preceding
stages and convert the minerals to methane, carbon dioxide and water.

• It is these components that makes up the majority of the biogas released from
the system.
• Methano genesis is – beside other factors-sensitive to both high and low
pH values and performs well between pH 6.5 and pH 8.
• The remaining, non-digestible organic and mineral material, which the
microbes cannot feed upon, along with any dead bacterial residues
constitutes the solid digestate.
• Classification of the biogas plants:

3) Different variation in the drum type

1. Continuous and batch types:
• Continuous plants are fed and emptied continuously. They empty
automatically through the overflow whenever new material is filled in.
• Therefore, the substrate must be fluid and homogeneous. Continuous
plants are suitable for rural households as the necessary work fits well into
the daily routine.
• Gas production is constant, and higher than in batch plants. Today, nearly
all biogas plants are operating on a continuous mode.
• Single stage continuous plant:
• The entire process of conversion of complex organic compounds into
biogas in completed in a single chamber.
• This chamber is regularly fed with the raw materials while the spent
residue keeps moving out.
• Serious problems are encountered with agricultural residues when
fermented in a single stage continuous process.
• Two stage continuous plant:

(i) Acid & ii) Methane forming:

• The Acido genic stage and Methano genic stage are physically separated
into two chambers. Thus the first stage of acid production is carried out in
a separate chamber and only the diluted acids are fed into the second
chamber where bio-methanation takes place and the biogas can be
collected from the second chamber.

• Considering the problems encountered in fermenting fibrous plant waste

materials the two stage process may offer higher potential of success.
• However, appropriate technology suiting to rural India is needed to be
developed based on the bauble stage process.
• The main features of continuous plant are that:

• It will produce gas continuously;

• It requires small digestion chambers;

• It needs lesser period for digestion;

• It has fewer problems compared to batch type and it is easier in operation.
3. Different variations in the drum type:
• There are two main variations in the floating drum design. One with water
seal and the other without water seal.
• Water sealing makes the plant completely anaerobic and corrosion of the
gas holder drum is also reduced.
• The other variations are of materials used both in construction of the
digester and the gas holder.
• Bricks and stones are the commonly used materials. Ferro cement rings
are also used in the construction of digester, which are best suited for
clayey soils and sandy tracks.
• Gas holders are manufactured out of Ferro cement, as Mild steel sheets
get corroded.
• Polyethylene is also used in the construction of gas holder.

• The latest design uses fibre glass reinforced plastic.

Biogas plants used in India are:
• Indian Digester (Floating drum type/ Khadi Village Industries
Commission Plant (KVIC)):

• This mainly consists of a digester or pit for fermentation and a floating

drum for the collection of gas. Digester is 3.5-6.5 m in depth and 1.2 to 1.6
m in diameter.

• There is a partition wall in the center, which divides the digester vertically
and submerges in the slurry when it is full.
• The digester is connected to the inlet and outlet by two pipes. Through the
inlet, the dung is mixed with water (4:5) and loaded into the digester.
• The fermented material will flow out through outlet pipe. The outlet is
generally connected to a compost pit. The gas generation takes place
slowly and in two stages.

• In the first stage, the complex, organic substances contained in the waste
are acted upon by a certain kind of bacteria, called acid formers and
broken up into small-chain simple acids.
• In the second stage, these acids are acted upon by another kind of
bacteria, called methane formers and produce methane and carbon
dioxide.
Gas Holder:
• The gas holder is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets. This is
cylindrical in shape with concave top. The top is supported radially with
angular iron stripes.
• The holder fits into the digester like a stopper. It sinks into the slurry due to
its own weight and rests upon the ring constructed for this purpose.
• When gas is generated the holder rises and floats freely on the surface of
slurry. A central guide pipe is provided to prevent the holder from tilting.
• The holder also acts as a seal for the gas.
• The gas pressure varies between 7 and 9 cm of water column.
• Under shallow water table conditions, the adopted diameter of digester is
more and depth is reduced.
• The cost of drum is about 40% of total cost of plant. It requires periodical
maintenance.
• The unit cost of KVIC model with a capacity of 2 m 3/day costs
approximately Rs.14, 000/.
Janata type Biogas Plant (Chinese):
• The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been introduced
under the name ―”Janata biogas plant” by Gobar Gas Research Station,
Ajitmal, in view of its reduced cost.
• This is a plant where no steel is used, there is no moving part in it and
maintenance cost is low.
• The plant can be constructed by village mason taking some pre-explained
precautions and using all the indigenously available building materials.
• Good quality of bricks and cement should be used to avoid the afterward
structural problems like cracking of the dome and leakage of gas.
• This model have a higher capacity when compared with KVIC model,
hence it can be used as a community biogas plant. This design has longer
life than KVIC models.

• Substrates other than cattle dung such as municipal waste and plant
residues can also be used in Janata type plants.

• The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester made of bricks

and cement having a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground
level is shown in figure.
• At almost middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing
each other and coming up to a little above the ground level, act as an inlet
and outlet of the plant.

• Dome shaped roof is fitted with a pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of
the plant.
• The principle of gas production is same as that of KVIC model.

• The biogas is collected in the restricted space of the fixed dome; hence
the pressure of gas is much higher, which is around 90cm of water
column.
Deenbandhu Biogas Plant:

• Deenbandhu model was developed in 1984, by Action for Food Production

(AFPRO), a voluntary organization based in New Delhi.
• Schematic diagram of a Deenbandhu biogas plant entire biogas
programme of India as it reduced the cost of the plant half of that of KVIC
model and brought biogas technology within the reach of even the poorer
sections of the population.
• The cost reduction has been achieved by minimizing the surface area
through joining the segments of two spheres of different diameters at their
bases. The cost of a Deenbandhu plant having a capacity of 2 m3/day is
about Rs.8000/.
• The Deenbandhu biogas plant has a hemispherical fixed dome type of gas
holder, unlike the floating dome of the KVIC-design is shown.
• The dome is made from pre-fabricated Ferro cement or reinforced
concrete and attached to the digester, which has a curved bottom.
• The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the
digester.
• After fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome.
• It is taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of the dome,
while the sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an opening in
the side of the digester.

• About 90% of the biogas plants in India are of the Deenbandhu type.
Problems related to Bio-gas plants:
• Some problems are natural and some are created by the persons biogas
plants owners but all are controllable.
1. Handling of effluent slurry is major problem if the person is not having
sufficient open space or compost pits to get the slurry dry. Use of press
filters and transportation is expensive and out of reach of poor farmers.
The gas forming-methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive towards the
temperature compared to those of non-methanogenic.
During winter as the temperature falls, there is decrease in the activity of
methanogenic bacteria and subsequently fall in gas production rate.
2. Many methods have been suggested to overcome this temperature problem as
described earlier, e.g.,
a) Use of solar heated hot water to make a slurry of influent but the temperature
of water should not exceed 60oC otherwise the mesophilic bacteria will die.
b) Circulation of hot water obtained either from solar heater or I.C. engine heat
exchanger, through pipes inside the digester.

c) Green house effect also give good results but it is costlier and after few years
the polythene sheet used in it becomes opaque.

d) Addition of various nutrients for bacteria.

e) Converting the biogas plant by straw bags during night hours.
3. Due to lack of proper training to the bio-gas plant owners for the operation
of plant, a lot of problems arises. It has been noticed that many persons
increase the loading rate and some also do not try to mix the cattle dung with
water, keeping in mind more gas production.
• Due to this, the flow of slurry from inlet towards outlet is very slow or even
stops. This may cause accumulation of volatile fatty acids and drop in ph.
and then failure of digester.
• Also it is not possible to stir the digester content of high solid
concentration.
4. Some persons add urea-fertilizer in large quantities due to which toxicity of
ammonia nitrogen may cause a decrease in gas production.
5. pH and volatile fatty acids play an important role in anaerobic digestion and
should remain under optimum range otherwise this may cause upsetting of digester
and even its failure.
• pH can be checked from time to time by the use of cheep and easily available
pH paper but volatile fatty acids can only be determined in a laboratory having
its testing facilities.

• For controlling pH in optimum range, it tends to fall below 7.0, lime has been
suggested, as it is easily available cheap material and does not harm the activity
of bacteria.
• Leakage of gas from gas holder especially in case of Janta type biogas
plants is a major and very common problem. When there is quite enough
gas in a gas holder, the leakage should be checked by using water and
the points marked and then get repaired.
• During repairing there should be no gas inside the gas holder and the stop
cock remains open till repaired points get dry. Quality of constructing
material such as cement is important.
Advantages of Biogas:
• 1. Biogas is an energy carrier which can be used for several energy
applications (eg. Electricity generation, heat production, combine heat and
power production, transport fuel, injection to the natural gas grid).
• 2. Biogas can contribute to several sectors:

• i) Environment - (eg. Fight against Climate change)

• ii) Energy - (eg. Energy security, local source)

• iii) Agriculture - (eg. Sustainable cultivation and animal breeding)

• iv) Society - (eg. Employment enhancement, rural development)

3. Some Environmental benefits of biogas:

• i) Reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, direct and indirect (eg. CO2,

CH4 and nitrous oxide–N2O).

• ii) Water and Waste management (Reduced consumption of resources

and increased recycling, reduced water environment pollution from
leaching of nutrients, environmental friendly solution to the waste disposal
problem).
• iii) Reduced odour and flies nuisances.

• iv) Soil and landscape

• 4. Emissions reduction of greenhouse gases (eg. CO2, CH4 and nitrous
oxide –N2O).
Direct:

• The combustion of biogas also releases CO2. Compared to fossil fuels, the
carbon in biogas was recently up taken from the atmosphere, by
photosynthetic activity of the plants (closed carbon cycle) .

• Biogas production by AD reduces also emissions of methane (CH4) and

nitrous oxide (N2O) from storage and utilization of animal manure as
fertilizer. It is worth mentioning that although biogas is a potential low.
• Carbon energy source, this depends on the way biogas is produced. In the
case that biogas comes from residues, waste or from energy crops grown
on abandoned agricultural and this offers sustained GHG advantages.

• - Emissions reduction of greenhouse gases (eg. CO2, CH4 and nitrous

oxide –N2O).

Indirect:
• - Utilisation of biogas substitute fossil fuel (such as lignite, hard coal, crude
oil and natural gas) and thus reduces emissions (externalities).
5. Water and Waste management

• Compared to other biofuels, biogas needs the lowest amount of process

water. This aspect is very important since many regions of the world face
huge water problems
• One of the main advantages of biogas production is the ability to transform
waste material into a valuable resource, by using it as feedstock for AD.

• Biogas technologies contribute to reduce the volume of wastes and the

costs for waste disposal (transportation, disposal).
6. Health issues, odour and flies

• Utilisation of digestate as fertilizer improves veterinary safety, when

compared to untreated manure and slurries.

• AD reduces odours (positive change in the composition of odours as well).

• Digestate is almost odourless and the remaining disappear shortly after
application as fertilizer on the fields (ammonia odours).
7. Employment

8. Rural development

9. Local economy and Energy Market development

• Application of bio-gas in engines:
• Biogas in Diesel Engine applications:
• Biogas generally has a high self-ignition temperature hence; it cannot be
directly used in a CI engine. So it is useful in dual fuel engines. The dual
fuel engine is a modified diesel engine in which usually a gaseous fuel
called the primary fuel is inducted with air into the engine cylinder. This
fuel and air mixture does not auto ignite due to high octane number. A
small amount of diesel, usually called pilot fuel is injected for promoting
combustion.
• Biogas can also be used in dual fuel mode with vegetable oils as pilot fuels in
diesel engines. Introduction of biogas normally leads to deterioration in
performance and emission characteristics.
• The performance of engine depends on the amount of biogas and the pilot fuel
used. Measures like addition of hydrogen, LPG, removal of CO₂ etc. have shown
significant improvements in the performance of biogas dual fuel engines.
• The CO₂ percentage in biogas acts as diluents to slow down the combustion
process in Homogenous charged compression ignition (HCCI) engines.
However, it also affects ignition. Thus a fuel with low self-ignition temperature
could be used along with biogas to help its ignition. This kind of engine has
shown a superior performance as compared to a dual fuel mode of operation.
Biogas in Dual Fuel Engine applications:
• In this case, the normal diesel fuel injection system still supplies a certain
amount of diesel fuel. The engine however sucks and compresses a
mixture of air and biogas fuel which has been prepared in external mixing
device.
• The mixture is then ignited by and together with the diesel fuel sprayed in.
The amount of diesel fuel needed for sufficient ignition is between 10%
and 20% of the amount needed for operation on diesel fuel alone.
• Operation of the engine at partial load requires reduction of the biogas
supply by means of a gas control valve.
Biogas as Alternate Fuel in Diesel Engines:
• Any contribution of biogas from 0% to 85% can substitute a corresponding
part of diesel fuel while performance remains as in 100% diesel fuel
operation.

• Because of existence of a governor at most diesel engines automatic

control of speed/power can be done by changing the amount of diesel fuel
injection while the biogas flow remains uncontrolled.
• Diesel fuel substitutions by biogas are less substantial in this case.
Limitations:
• The dual fuel engine cannot operate without the supply of diesel fuel for ignition.

• The fuel injection jets may overheat when the diesel fuel flow is reduced to 10%
or 15% of its normal flow. Larger dual fuel engines circulate extra diesel fuel
through the injector for cooling.

• To what extent the fuel injection nozzle can be affected is however a question of
its‗ specific design, material and the thermal load of the engine, and hence
differs from case to case.

• A check of the injector nozzle after 500 hours of operation in dual fuel is
recommended.
Biogas in HCCI Engine applications:
• The Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) concept is a
potential for achieving a high thermal efficiency and low Nitrogen Oxide
(NO) emission.
• The HCCI engine with 50 % biogas as a primary fuel and 50% diesel as
pilot fuel gives a maximum NO of 20 ppm is a major advantage over
biogas diesel dual fuel mode.
• In biogas diesel dual fuel mode the presence of CO₂ in biogas lowers the
thermal efficiency however, in biogas diesel HCCI (BDHCCI) mode CO₂
reduces high heat release rate.
• The break mean effective pressure (BMEP) in BDHCCI mode is in the
range of 2.5 bar to 4 bar.
• For HCCI operation the inducted charge temperature is required to be
maintained at 80-135°C, which can be obtained from the exhaust heat.
Thus biogas with HCCI engine gives high efficiency and low emission.
Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is a clean, efficient, and versatile energy carrier, which together
with electricity, may satisfy all the energy needs and form an
energy system that would be permanent and independent of energy
sources.
• It has unique characteristics that make it an ideal energy carrier which
include the fact that:
• It can be produced from and converted into electricity at relatively high
efficiencies;
• Its raw material for production is water-available in abundance.
• It is a completely renewable fuel.

• It can be stored in gaseous form (convenient for large scale storage), in

liquid form (convenient for air and space transportation), or in the form of
metal hydrides (convenient for surface vehicles and other relatively small
scale storage requirements).
• It can be transported over large distances through pipelines or via tankers.

• It can be converted into other forms of energy in more ways and more
efficiently than any other fuel (such as catalytic combustion, electro
chemical conversion, and hydriding).
• It is environmentally compatible as its production, storage, transportation,
and end-use do not produce any pollutants (except for small amounts of
nitrogen oxides), greenhouse gases, or any other h armful effects on the
environment.
• Figure I shows a global energy system in which electricity and hydrogen are
produced from available energy sources and used in every application where
fossil fuels are being used today-in transportation, residential, commercial,
and industrial sectors. In such a system, electricity and hydrogen are
produced in large industrial plants as well as in small, decentralized units,
wherever the primary energy source (solar, nuclear, and even fossil) is
available.
• Electricity is used directly or transformed into hydrogen. For large-scale
storage, hydrogen can be stored underground in ex-mines, caverns and/or
aquifers.

• Energy transport to the end-users, depending on distance and

overall economics, is either in the form of electricity or in the form of
hydrogen.
• Hydrogen may be transported, by means of pipelines or super tankers. It
is then used in transportation, industrial, residential, and commercial
sectors as a fuel. Some of it may be used to generate electricity via fuel
cells, depending on demand, geographical location or time of the day.
Scope of Hydrogen
• Hydrogen is ecologically an ideal fuel for transportation purposes. Its heating
value of 28000 kcal/kg is almost three times that of hydrocarbon fuels.
• So when used in aircrafts, it reduces the take-off load considerably.
The possible areas of use for hydrogen in the near future are as follows:
▪ Production of electrolytic hydrogen, for full-load exploitation of nuclear power
stations.
▪ Direct addition of hydrogen to the existing natural gas distribution network.
▪ Use of hydrogen in the processing of heavy oil.

▪ Use of hydrogen for the manufacture of synthetic liquid or gaseous fuels.

▪ Direct use of hydrogen as a motor vehicle fuel in urban transport,
particularly where air pollution problems are already critical.
▪ Reduction of iron oxides by means of hydrogen in the steel industry.

▪ Direct use of hydrogen as an aircraft fuel in air transport.

Hydrogen Properties
• Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and non-poisonous gas
under normal conditions on Earth.
• It typically exists as a diatomic molecule, meaning each molecule has two
atoms of hydrogen; this is why pure hydrogen is commonly expressed as
“H2“.
• Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, accounting for 90
percent of the universe by weight. However, it is not commonly found in its
pure form, since it readily combines with other elements.
• It is also the lightest element, having a density of 0.08988 grams per litre
at standard pressure.
Hydrogen has several important chemical properties that affect its use as a
fuel:
• It combines with oxygen to form water, which is absolutely necessary for
life on this planet.
• It has a high energy content per weight (nearly 3 times as much as
gasoline), but the energy density per volume is quite low at standard
temperature and pressure. Volumetric energy density can be increased by
storing the hydrogen under increased pressure or storing it at extremely
low temperatures as a liquid. Hydrogen can also be adsorbed into metal
hydrides.
• Hydrogen is highly flammable; it only takes a small amount of energy to
ignite it and make it burn. It also has a wide flammability range, meaning it
can burn when it makes up 4 to 74 percent of the air by volume.
• Hydrogen burns with a pale-blue, almost-invisible flame, making hydrogen
fires difficult to see.
• The combustion of hydrogen does not produce carbon dioxide (CO2),
particulate, or sulphur emissions. It can produce nitrous oxide (NOX)
emissions under some conditions.
• Hydrogen can be produced from renewable resources, such as by
reforming ethanol (this process emits some carbon dioxide) and by the
electrolysis of water (electrolysis is very expensive).
Hydrogen Sources
• Hydrogen can be produced from diverse, domestic resources. Currently, most
hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, specifically natural gas.
• Electricity—from the grid or from renewable sources such as wind, solar,
geothermal, or biomass—is also currently used to produce hydrogen.
• In the longer term, solar energy and biomass can be used more directly to
generate hydrogen.
• Natural Gas and Other Fossil Fuels.
• Solar.
• Biomass.
• Wind.
• Renewable and Grid Electricity.
Natural Gas and Other Fossil Fuels:
• Fossil fuels can be reformed to release the hydrogen from their hydrocarbon
molecules and are the source of most of the hydrogen currently made in the
United States.
• Combining these processes with carbon capture, utilization, and storage will
reduce the carbon dioxide emissions.
• Natural gas reforming is an advanced and mature hydrogen production
process that builds upon the existing natural gas infrastructure. Today 95% of
the hydrogen produced in the United States is made by natural gas reforming
in large central plants. This is an important pathway for near-term hydrogen
production.
Solar Energy:
• Sunlight can directly or indirectly provide the energy to produce hydrogen.
This resource is abundant, but it is diffuse and only available for a portion
of the day. Hydrogen production processes using solar energy:

• Solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH)

• Photo electrochemical (PEC)
• Electrolysis.

• Photo biological.
Biomass:
• Biomass is an abundant renewable resource that can be produced
domestically, and it can be converted to hydrogen and other
byproducts through a number of methods. Because growing biomass
removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the net carbon
emissions of these methods can be low. Hydrogen production
processes using biomass:
• Biomass gasification.
• Biomass-derived liquid reforming.
• Microbial biomass conversion.
Wind:
• Wind is an abundant but variable resource for generating electricity.
• Wind-generated electricity can power water electrolysis to produce
hydrogen, which could be used to fuel vehicles, or stored and then used in
fuel cells to generate electricity during times of the day when the wind
resource is low.
Renewable and Grid Electricity:
• Electricity can be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This
technology is well developed and available commercially, and systems
that can efficiently use renewable power—for example, wind, geothermal,
or solar—are being developed.
Hydrogen Production:
• Hydrogen is the most plentiful element in the universe, making up about
three quarters of all matter. All the stars and many of the planets
essentially consist of hydrogen. However, on earth hydrogen in free from
is scarce.
• The atmosphere contains only trace amounts of it (0.07 per cent), and it is
usually found in small amounts mixed with natural gas in crustal
reservoirs.
• A few wells, however, have been found to contain large amounts of
hydrogen, such as some wells in Kansas that contain 40 per cent
hydrogen, 60 per cent nitrogen and trace amounts of hydrocarbons.
• The Earth's surface contains about 0. 14 per cent hydrogen (10th most
abundant element), most of which resides chemical combination with oxygen as
water.
• Hydrogen, therefore, must be produced. Logical sources of hydrogen are
hydrocarbon (fossil) fuels (CxHy) and water (H20). Presently, hydrogen is
mostly being produced from fossil fuels (natural gas, oil, and coal).
• However, except for the space program, hydrogen is not being used directly as
a fuel or an energy carrier. It is being used in refineries to upgrade crude oil
(hydro treating and hydrocracking), in the chemical industry to synthesize
various chemical compounds (such as ammonia. methanol, etc.), and in
metallurgical processes (as a reduction or protection gas).
• The total annual hydrogen production worldwide in 1996 was about 40
million; less than 10 per cent of it was supplied by industrial gas companies;
the rest is being produced at consumer owned and operated plants (so
called captive production), such as refineries, and ammonia and methanol
producers.
• Production of hydrogen as an energy carrier would require an increase in
production rates by several orders of magnitude.
• In order to facilitate an early market introduction of fuel cell-powered
vehicles, car manufacturers in collaboration with oil and fuel processing
companies are intensively working on development of on-board fuel
processors.
• Logical source for large-scale hydrogen production is water, which is
abundant on Earth. Different methods of hydrogen production from water
have been, or are being developed. They includes, which are detailed
below
• Electrolysis,

• Direct thermal decomposition or thermolysis,

• Thermochemical processes, &
• Photolysis.
Electrolysis:
• Electrolysis appears to be the only method developed to date, which can
be used for large-scale hydrogen production in a post-fossil fuel era.
Production of hydrogen by water electrolysis is a mature technology,
based on a fundamentally simple process, it is very efficient, and does not
involve moving parts.

• The following reactions take place at the electrodes of an electrolysis cell

filled with a suitable electrolyte (aqueous solution of KOH or NaOH or
NaCl) upon the application of a potential:
The reversible decomposition potential (Erev = ∆GlnF) of the above reaction is 1.229 V
at standard conditions. The total theoretical water decomposition potential is 1.480 V
corresponding to hydrogen' s enthalpy (since ∆H = ∆G + T∆S). Due to irreversible
processes occurring at the anode and cathode, including the electrical resistance of
the cell, the actual potentials are always higher, typically 1. 75 - 2. 05 V. It corresponds
to efficiencies of 72-82 per cent.
• Electrolysis is a promising option for carbon-free hydrogen production from
renewable and nuclear resources.
• Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to split water into hydrogen
and oxygen.
• This reaction takes place in a unit called an electrolyzer.
• Electrolyzers can range in size from small, appliance-size equipment that
is well-suited for small-scale distributed hydrogen production to
large-scale, central production facilities that could be tied directly to
renewable or other non-greenhouse-gas-emitting forms of electricity
production.
How Does it Work?

• Like fuel cells, electrolyzers consist of an anode and a cathode separated

by an electrolyte. Different electrolyzers function in different ways, mainly
due to the different type of electrolyte material involved and the ionic
species it conducts.
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolyzers

• In a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, the electrolyte is a

solid specialty plastic material.

• Water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively charged hydrogen
ions (protons).
• The electrons flow through an external circuit and the hydrogen ions
selectively move across the PEM to the cathode.
• At the cathode, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from the external
circuit to form hydrogen gas.
• Anode Reaction: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
• Cathode Reaction: 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2.
Alkaline Electrolyzers
• Alkaline electrolyzers operate via transport of hydroxide ions (OH-) through
the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode with hydrogen being
generated on the cathode side.
• Electrolyzers using a liquid alkaline solution of sodium or potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte have been commercially available for many
years. Newer approaches using solid alkaline exchange membranes
(AEM) as the electrolyte are showing promise on the lab scale.
Solid Oxide Electrolyzers
• Solid oxide electrolyzers, which use a solid ceramic material as the
electrolyte that selectively conducts negatively charged oxygen ions (O2-)
at elevated temperatures, generate hydrogen in a slightly different way.
• Steam at the cathode combines with electrons from the external circuit to
form hydrogen gas and negatively charged oxygen ions.
• The oxygen ions pass through the solid ceramic membrane and react at
the anode to form oxygen gas and generate electrons for the external
circuit.
• Solid oxide electrolyzers must operate at temperatures high enough for
the solid oxide membranes to function properly (about 700°–800°C,
compared to Polymer Electrolyte Membrane electrolyzers, which operate
at 70°–90°C, and commercial alkaline electrolyzers, which typically
operate at less than 100°C).
• Electrolysis is a leading hydrogen production pathway to achieve
the ”Hydrogen Energy Earthshot” goal of reducing the cost of clean
hydrogen by 80% to $1 per 1 kilogram in 1 decade ("1 1 1").

• Hydrogen produced via electrolysis can result in zero greenhouse gas

emissions, depending on the source of the electricity used.
• The source of the required electricity—including its cost and efficiency, as
well as emissions resulting from electricity generation—must be
considered when evaluating the benefits and economic viability of
hydrogen production via electrolysis.
• Hydrogen production via electrolysis is being pursued for renewable (wind,
solar, hydro, geothermal) and nuclear energy options.
• These hydrogen production pathways result in virtually zero greenhouse
gas and criteria pollutant emissions; however, the production cost needs to
be decreased significantly to be competitive with more mature
carbon-based pathways such as natural gas reforming.
Direct Thermal Decomposition of Water {Thermolysis):
• Water can be split thermally at temperatures above 2000 K. The overall thermal
dissociation of water can be shown as:

• The degree of dissociation is a function of temperature: only I per cent at 2000

K. , 8.5 per cent at 2500 K and 34 per cent at 3000 K.
• The product is mixture of gases at extremely high temperatures. The main
problems in connection with this method are related to materials required for
extremely high temperatures, recombination of the reaction products at high
temperatures and separation of hydrogen from the mixture.
Thermochemical Cycles:
• Thermochemical production of hydrogen involves chemical splitting of
water at temperatures lower than those needed for thermolysis, through a
series of cyclical chemical reactions that ultimately release hydrogen.

• Some of the more thoroughly investigated thermochemical process

cycles include the following: sulfuric acid-iodine cycle, hybrid sulfuric acid
cycle, hybrid sulfuric acid - hydrogen bromide cycle, calcium bromide -
iron oxide cycle (UT-3), and iron chlorine cycle.
• Depending on the temperatures at which these processes are occurring,
relatively high efficiencies are achievable (40-50 percent).
Photolysis:
• Photolysis (or direct extraction of hydrogen from water using only sunlight
as an energy source) can be accomplished by employing photo biological
systems, photochemical assemblies, or photoelectro chemical cells.
• Intensive research activities are opening new perspectives for
photo-conversion, where new redox catalysts, colloidal semiconductors,
immobilized enzymes and selected micro-organisms could provide means
of large-scale solar energy harvesting and conversion into hydrogen.
Hydrogen Production From Biomass:
• Hydrogen can be obtained from biomass by a pyrolysis/gasification process.
The biomass preparation step involves heating of the biomass/water slurry
to high temperatures under pressure in a reactor.
• This process decomposes and partially oxidizes the biomass, producing a gas
product consisting of hydrogen, methane, CO2, CO, and nitrogen.

• Mineral matter is removed from the bottom of the reactor. The gas stream goes
to a high temperature shift reactor where the hydrogen content is increased.
Relatively high purity hydrogen is produced in subsequent pressure swing
adsorption unit.
• The whole system is very much similar to a coal gasification plant, with the
exception of the unit for pretreatment of biomass and the design of the
reactor.

• Because of the lower calorific value per unit mass of biomass as

compared to coal, the processing facility is larger than that of a
comparably sized coal gasification plant.
Gaseous Hydrogen Storage:
• Hydrogen as an energy carrier must be stored to overcome daily and
seasonal discrepancies between energy source availability and demand.
• Depending on storage size and application, several types of hydrogen
storage systems may be differentiated.

• This includes stationary large storage systems (which are typically

storage devices at the production site or at the start or end of pipelines
and other transportation pathways).
• Stationary small storage systems at the distribution or final user level (for
example, a storage system to meet the demand of an industrial plant).
• Mobile storage systems for transport and distribution including both
large-capacity devices (such as a liquid hydrogen tanker - bulk carrier) and
small systems (such as a gaseous or liquid hydrogen truck trailer); and vehicle
tanks to store hydrogen used as fuel for road vehicles.

• Table I shows achievable storage densities with different types of

hydrogen storage methods.
Large Underground Hydrogen Storage:
• Future hydrogen supply systems will have a structure similar to today's
natural gas supply systems.
• Underground storage of hydrogen in caverns, aquifers, depleted
petroleum and natural gas fields, and man-made caverns resulting from
mining and other activities is likely to be technologically and economically
feasible.
• Technical problems, specifically for the underground storage of hydrogen
other than expected losses of the working gas in the amount of 1-3 per
cent/y are not anticipated.
• The city of Kiel's public utility has been storing town gas with a hydrogen
content of 60-65 per cent in a gas cavern with a geometric volume of
about 32,000 m and a pressure of 80 to 160 bar at a depth of 1,330 m
since 1971.
• Imperial Chemical Industries of Great Britain stores hydrogen in the salt
mine caverns near Teesside, United Kingdom.
Above Ground Pressurized Gas Storage Systems:
• Pressurized gas storage systems are used today in natural gas
business in various sizes and pressure ranges from standard pressure
cylinders (50L, 200 bar) to stationary high-pressure containers (over 200
bar) or low-pressure spherical containers (>30,000 m',12 to 16 bar).
This application range will be similar for hydrogen storage.
Vehicular Pressurized Hydrogen Tanks:
• Development of ultra-light but strong new composite materials has
enabled storage of hydrogen in automobiles. Pressure vessels that allow
hydrogen storage at pressures >200 bar have been developed and used
in automobiles (such as Daimler-Benz NECAR II).

• A storage density higher than 0.05 kg of hydrogen per I kg of total weight

is easily achievable.
Metal Hydride Storage:
• Hydrogen can form metal hydrides with some metals and alloys.
• During the formation of the metal hydride, hydrogen molecules are split
and hydrogen atoms are inserted in spaces inside the lattice of suitable
metals and/or alloys.
• In such a way, effective sstorage comparable to the density of liquid
hydrogen is created.
• During the hydrogen release process (discharging or desorption) heat
must be supplied to the storage tank.
• An advantage of storing hydrogen in hydriding substances is the safety
aspect.
• During the hydrogen release process (discharging or desorption) heat
must be supplied to the storage tank. An advantage of storing hydrogen in
hydriding substances is the safety aspect.

• Liquid hydrogen has some important uses such as in the space program,
in high-energy nuclear physics, and in bubble chambers.
Liquid Hydrogen:
• Liquid hydrogen's favorable characteristics include its high heating value
per unit mass and large cooling capacity due to its high specific heat.
• Liquid hydrogen has some important uses such as in the space program,
in high-energy nuclear physics, and in bubble chambers.
• The transport of hydrogen is vastly more economical when it is in liquid
form even though cryogenic refrigeration and special dewar vessels are
required.
• Liquefying I kg of hydrogen in a medium-size plant requires 10 to 13 kWh
of energy (electricity).
Hydrogen Liquefaction:
• The production of liquid hydrogen requires the use of liquefiers that utilize
different principles of cooling. In general, hydrogen liquefiers may be
classified as conventional, magnetic, or hybrid.

• Many types of conventional liquefiers exist such as the Linde-Hampson

liquefiers, the Linde Dual-Pressure liquefiers, the Claude liquefiers, the
Kapitza liquefiers, the Heylandt liquefiers, and the Collins liquefiers, just to
name a few.
Liquid Hydrogen Storage:
• Hydrogen is usually transported in large quantities by tnlck tankers of 30 to
60 m3 capacity, by rail tank cars of 115 m3 capacity, and by barge
containers of 950 m3 capacity).
• Liquid hydrogen storage vessels are usually available in sizes ranging
from one liter dewar flasks used in laboratory applications to large
tanks of 5000 m capacity.
• The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 6 (NASA) typically
uses large tanks of 3, 800 m3 capacity (25 m dia).
Hydrogen Transport:
• In the hydrogen energy system it is envisaged that from the production plants
and/or storage, hydrogen will be transmitted to consumers by means of
underground pipelines (gaseous hydrogen) and/or supertankers (liquid
hydrogen).
• Presently, hydrogen transportation through pipelines is used either in links
between nearby production and utilization sites (up to 10 km) or in more
extensive networks (roughly 200 km).
• As a rule, hydrogen transmission through pipelines requires larger
diameter piping and more compression power than natural gas for the
same energy throughout.
• In economic terms, most of the studies found that the cost of large-scale
transmission of hydrogen is about 1.5 to 1.8 times that of natural gas
transmission.
• However, transportation of hydrogen over distances greater than 1,000 km is
more economical than transmission of electricity.
• Hydrogen in the gas phase is generally transported in pressurized cylindrical
vessels (typically at 200 bar) arranged in frames adapted to road transport. The
unit capacity of these frames or skids can be as great as 3,000m3.

• Hydrogen gas distribution companies also install such frames at the user site
to serve as a stationary storage.
Hydrogen Conversion:
• Hydrogen as an energy carrier can be converted into useful forms of
energy in several ways including combustion in internal combustion
engines and jet and rocket engines, combustion with pure oxygen to
generate steam, catalytic combustion to generate heat, electrochemical
conversion to electricity, and metal hydride conversions.

Combustion in Internal Combustion, Jet, and Rocket Engines:

• Hydrogen powered internal combustion engines are on average about 20
per cent more efficient than comparable gasoline engines.
• The ideal thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine is:
where r is the compression ratio and k is the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv).

• The equation shows that thermal efficiency can be improved by increasing

either the compression ratio or the specific heat ratio.
• In hydrogen engines both ratios are higher than in a comparable gasoline engine
due to hydrogen's lower self-ignition temperature and ability to burn in lean
mixtures.
Liquid Hydrogen Transportation:
• Hydrogen in bulk can be transported and distributed as the liquid.
• Double walled, insulated tanks of liquid hydrogen with capacities of 7000
gal (26.5 cu m) or more are carried by road vehicles and upto 34,000 gal
(129 cu m) by rail road cars.

• Distribution of liquid hydrogen by pipelines, jacketed with liquid nitrogen,

has been proposed.
Metal Hydride Transportation:
• Hydrogen can also be transported as a solid metal hydride.
• The main drawback is, weight of the hydride relative to its hydrogen
content.
• An important property of metal hydrides is that the pressure of the gas
released by heating a particular hydrides depends mainly on the
temperature and not the composition.
• At a fixed temperature, the gas pressure remains essentially constant until
hydrogen content is almost exhausted.
Utilization of Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen Gas can be utilised in the following ways:

• For residential uses.

• For industrial uses.

• For as an alternative transport fuel.
• For as an alternative fuel for aircraft.
• For electric power generation (Utilities).
For Residential Uses:
• Electricity for lighting and for operating domestic appliances could be
generated by fuel cell in which Hydrogen is used as a fuel.
• Hydrogen can be used in domestic cooking with the help of changing in
the design of burner, including the hole size and air supply system.
• Hydrogen can be useful in radiant space heaters, because of the
possibility of flameless combustion on a catalytic surface. These devices
would be operate spontaneously when the gas was turned on and no pilot
light or other ignition system would be required. Because of the low
combustion temperature, nitrogen oxide formation would be negligible and
venting would be unnecessary.
Industrial Uses:
• Many potential uses for hydrogen in industry, either as a fuel or a chemical
reducing (oxygen removal) agent if the economics were favourable.

• Hydrogen gas could also be used with advantage, instead of coal or coal
derived gases, to reduce oxide ores (iron ore) to the metal (iron).
Road Vehicles:
• The use of hydrogen as a fuel in I.C. Engines has attracted interest as a means of
conserving petroleum products and of reducing atmospheric pollution.

• Because of fuel as a gas, the conventional carburettor of a S.I Engine must be

modified for use with hydrogen.
• The hydrogen gas under pressure is injected through a valve directly into the engine
cylinder, and the air is admitted through the another intake valve. Since they both
supplied separately, an explosive mixture does not occur except in the cylinder.
• The engine power output is controlled by varying the pressure of hydrogen gas .
• The hydrogen is required to be stored as a compressed gas.
• Another modification arises from the high speed of the hydrogen flame in the air; this
require that ignition time be retarded compared to gasoline engine.
Advantages Claimed For Hydrogen Fuel Engines Are:
• They can utilize a higher proportion of the energy in the fuel than gasoline engine.
• The amount of CO and hydrocarbons in the exhaust would be very small since they
would originate only from the cylinder lubricating oil.

• However the nitrogen oxides level due to high combustion temperature may be high,
it may be reduced by reducing the combustion temperature by injecting water vapour
into cylinder from the exhaust .

• The other way to utilised hydrogen as a fuel is thee use of fuel cells. Electricity
generated by the fuel cells could be utilized to operate electric motors to propel the
vehicles.
• For vehicles the storage of hydrogen can be as compressed gas, liquid and metal
hydrides.
Air Craft Application:
• The earliest application of liquid hydrogen fuel is expected to be in a jet air craft;
this possibility was demonstrated in a subsonic air craft in 1957.
• The main advantage is the much lower overall weight of the fuel and the
storage tank than for ordinary jet fuel.
• The volume of liquid hydrogen would be greater than regular jet fuel, but this
could be accommodate on the large aircraft.
• The cool liquid hydrogen could be used directly of indirectly to cool the engine
and the air frame surfaces of a high speed aircraft.
• If the hypersonic aircraft is developed , the liquid hydrogen may be the only
practical fuel.
• Because of the smaller total weight it is possible to achieve shorter take off
runs, steeper climbing paths and/or smaller engine thrust.
• It may also be possible to decrease the size and weight of the engines.
• Hydrogen’s favourable diffusion properties and high thermal conductivity
lead to better mixing even with shorter combustion chamber.
• The wide range of ignition for hydrogen air mixtures (5 to 75 % by volume)
makes the engine more readily controllable, especially under partial loads,
and reduces the emission of noxious substances.
• The heat required to vaporize and heat up the hydrogen for the engines
can be obtained through the certain sections of the outer skin of the wings.
• In this way the boundary layer is cooled so as to produce laminar flow,
resulting in a lowering of the aerodynamic drag and hence of the fuel
consumption, this could not be achieved to the same extent in any other
way.
Electric Power Generation:
• It is unlikely that hydrogen would serve as a major fuel for electrical power generation by
a utility. However, its substitution for natural gas in peak hours is possible.
• Hydrogen could also be used as a means for storing and distributing electrical energy.
• This also comprises the production of electricity by using hydrogen in fuel cell systems.
• It is also important that the conversion efficiency of the fuel cells is independent of the
load factor over a wide range, so that a high efficiency can be obtained even with partial
loads.
• Furthermore , with fuel cells which are at high temperatures high grade waste heat can
be used for thermal energy production.
• Presently the research and development work is in progress with the object of developing
fuel cell power stations for the centralized and local generation of electricity.
Hydrogen as an Alternate Fuel for Motor Vehicles:
• The consequences of using hydrogen in motor vehicles are best seen by
comparing it with other chemical energy vectors.
• The table 11.6.1 shows the required tank volume and weight of fuel for
typical non-conventional fuels compared with iso-octane, which is the
typical of the various hydrocarbons that constitute gasoline.
Table 11.6.1: Comparison of various alternative fuels & storage
Advantages of Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is renewable.

▪ Hydrogen is a renewable energy source which means we cannot run out

of it, at least not on a human timescale.

• Hydrogen is a clean energy source.

▪ When we burn hydrogen no harmful by products are released into the
atmosphere.
• Hydrogen energy is not toxic.

▪ Hydrogen does not cause damage to human health unlike nuclear energy
or natural gas.
• Hydrogen energy is highly efficient.
▪ Hydrogen is incredibly dense in energy and is able to provide a lot of power.

• The Use of Hydrogen Greatly Reduces Pollution.

▪ When it combines with oxygen, the only by products are water and heat, which
is the advantage of using hydrogen as an energy carrier.

• A Sustainable Production System.

▪ In this case, renewable energy can be used to power electrolyzers to produce
hydrogen from water that provides a sustainable system independent of
petroleum products and is also non polluting, producing no emissions.
• Numerous Sources to Produce Hydrogen Locally.

▪ Hydrogen gas can be produced from methane, gasoline, biomass, coal or

water.

▪ Hydrogen can be produced either onsite where it will be used or centrally

and then distributed.
• Used For Powering Space Ships.
▪ Hydrogen energy’s efficiency and power make it an ideal fuel source for
spaceships. Its power is so high that it’s able to quickly rocket spaceships
to exploration missions.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is volatile.
❖ Hydrogen gas is a highly flammable and volatile substance which makes it a risky
fuel to work with

• Hydrogen energy is expensive to produce:

❖ Both steam-methane reforming and electrolysis are expensive processes which

prevents a lot of countries from committing to mass production.

• Hydrogen energy is difficult to store:

❖ Hydrogen is a much lighter gas than gasoline which makes it difficult to store and
transport. To be able to store it we need to compress it into a liquid and store it at a
low temperature.
• Hydrogen can be dangerous:

❖ Hydrogen is incredibly flammable which makes it a dangerous fuel if not

handled correctly. There is also no smell to hydrogen so sensors are
required to detect leaks.
Applications of Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only
water, electricity, and heat.
• Hydrogen and fuel cells can play an important role in our national energy
strategy, with the potential for use in a broad range of applications, across
virtually all sectors-transportation, commercial, industrial, residential, and
portable.
• Hydrogen and fuel cells can provide energy for use in diverse applications,
including distributed or combined-heat-and-power; backup power; systems for
storing and enabling renewable energy; portable power; auxiliary power for
trucks, aircraft, rail, and ships; specialty vehicles such as forklifts; and passenger
and freight vehicles including cars, trucks, and buses.
• Due to their high efficiency and zero-or near zero-emissions operation,
hydrogen and fuel cells have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas
emission in many applications.
• Light-duty highway vehicles: more than 50% to more than 90% reduction
in emissions over today’s gasoline vehicles.

• Specialty vehicles: more than 35% reduction in emissions over current

diesel and battery-powered lift trucks.
• Transit buses: demonstrated fuel economies of approximately 1.5 times
greater than diesel internal combustion engine (ICE) buses and
approximately 2 times higher than natural gas ICE buses.
• Auxiliary power units (APUs): more than 60% reduction in emissions
compared to truck engine idling.
• Combined heat and power (CHP) systems: 35% to more than 50%
reduction in emissions over conventional heat and power sources (with
much greater reductions—more than 80%—if biogas or hydrogen from
low- or zero-carbon sources is used in the fuel cell).
END