LECTURE NOTE – OTM 315

INTRODUCTION

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity

to another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at
least two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules.
Communication is commonly defined as “the imparting or interchange of
thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs”.
Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an
exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually
accepted goal or direction.

Communication Concept

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a

package and is discrete and imparted by sender to a receiver via a
channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a
feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of
communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking,
singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as
body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using
writing.

Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information

between two or more persons to bring about mutual understanding and desired
action. It is the information exchange by interpersonal processing, listening,
observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through
communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. In other words, it
involves transmission and interacting of facts, ideas, opinions, feeling and
attitudes. It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective communication
around the world that has shrunk the world and made globalization a reality.
Umoh (2000) defines communication as the process by which
information is transmitted between individuals and/or organizations so that an
understanding response results; Dance (1970) stated that communication is an
exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.

Communication can also be defined as the process of passing information

and understanding from one person to another. Communication is a process by
which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. It
should include both transference and the understanding of meaning. It is the
ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond boundaries that
has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and
effective communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made
‘globalization’ a reality. Communication can be defined as the process through
which two or more persons come to exchange ideas and understanding among
them.

The definition involves two aspects in communication:

First, there is something, which is transmitted, such as, facts, feelings,

ideas, etc. It implies that there must be a receiver if communication is to occur.
The sender of message must consider the receiver while structuring his message
from a technical standpoint as well as in delivering it. When the receiver is not
considered, there is either no response or there is wrong response.

Second, the definition emphasizes the understanding element in the

communication. Sharing of understanding would be possible only when the
person, to whom the message is meant, understands it in the same sense in
which the sender of the message wants him to understand. Thus, communication
involves something more than mere transmission of the message or transmission
and physical receipt thereof. The correct interpretation of the message is
important from the point of view of organizational efficiency. As such, the
greater the degree of understanding present in the communication, the more the
likelihood that human action will proceed in the direction of accomplishment of
goals. Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey
meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a
vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening,
observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through
communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.

Basic Functions of Communication in an Organisation

The most basic functions of communication in an organization are to

inform, control, motivate and emotional expression.

i. Information

An organization needs a vast amount of information to function and

operate a business. The top management would require timely and accurate
information for the various departments to make effective decisions.
Information is dispersed throughout an organization through written or verbal
communication. The idea of informing within an organization is to provide data
and information so that employees can effectively complete their job
(Verderber, 1984). Information ensures that an employee is aware of the rules
and procedures of an organization. It also eliminates job uncertainty for workers
when they are fully informed.

ii. Control

The management of any organization will always have plans with long,
medium or long term objectives for the months and years ahead. To achieve
these objectives, the daily & monthly activities must proceed as planned in
order to achieve the objectives for the period. Communication acts to control
member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and
formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. When employees, for
instance are required to first communicate any job related grievance to their
immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company
policies, communication is performing a control function. But informal
communication also controls behavior. A company uses communication as a
way to maintain control over employees and their work environment. Written
human resources policies and procedures dictate how employees are permitted
to act in the workplace. Job descriptions outline the parameters of an
employee’s job functions. Performance reviews control whether an employee
receives a raise or attains a promotion.

iii. Motivation

Managers use communication to motivate workers to achieve peak

performance. By clarifying the expectations of employees and providing
incentives for meeting or exceeding expectations, communication can help
companies reach specific objectives. Communication fosters motivation by
clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing and what
can be done to improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw this operating in our
review of goal-setting and reinforcement theories. The formation of specific
goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and reinforcement of desired
behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The process of communication involves two or more persons

participating through a medium that carries the information or message for a
particular purpose which is mutually understood by both the sender and
receiver. Only when these conditions are fulfilled, a significant communicative
situation will take shape.

Elements of Communication Process

The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s
feedback or reaction to the sender constitute the communication cycle. The
process of communication begins when one person (the sender) wants to
transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to someone else (the
receiver). This fact, idea or opinion has meaning to the sender. The next step is
translating or converting the message into a language which reflects the idea.
That is, the message must be encoded. The encoding process is influenced by
content of the message, the familiarity of sender and receiver and other
situational factors. After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through
the appropriate channel or medium. Common channels in organization includes
meetings, reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail, fax and telephone calls. When
the message is received, it is decoded by the receiver and gives feedback to the
sender as the confirmation about the particular message has been carefully
understood or not.

To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without

misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of
problems at each stage of this process, with clear, concise, accurate, well-
planned communications. We follow the process through below:

i. Source

As the source of the message, you need to be clear about why you’re
communicating, and what you want to communicate. The source has ideas,
needs, intentions, information and a purpose for communication, which he
translates into a code or language. The source/sender is the person who
originates and encodes information that he desires to share with others. The
process of communication begins when one person (the sender) wants to
transmit an idea, opinion or information to someone else (the receiver). These
facts or ideas have meaning to the sender who then translates or converts the
message into a language which reflects the idea. For the process of
communication to be effective, there should be a well-defined goal in the mind
of the sender. You also need to be confident that the information you’re
communicating is useful and accurate.

ii. Encoding

This is the process of transferring the information you want to

communicate into a form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the other
end. Your success in encoding depends partly not only on your ability to convey
information clearly and simply, but also on your ability to anticipate and
eliminate sources of confusion (for example, cultural issues, mistaken
assumptions, and missing information.) A key part of this is knowing your
audience: Failure to understand who you are communicating with will result in
delivering messages that are misunderstood. The process of putting these ideas
in some form that can be received and understood by another individual is
called encoding. Encoding is using a code to structure a message in an effort to
achieve our communicative objective. A code is a coherent set of symbols plus
the rules needed to structure a message. For example, a language code consists
essentially of a list of words, and a set of rules for preparing a text. These rules
are the grammar or syntax of the language. The encoding process is influenced
by content of the message, the familiarity of the sender and receiver and other
factors.

iii. Message

The message is the information that you want to communicate. The

symbols themselves constitute the message. The message may be oral or written
and its transmission may be through any of the above mentioned channels.

There are three factors that should be taken into account while
considering the message:
(a) Message Code: which has to do with the way in which symbols are
structured?

(b) Content: This is the selection of material to express the purpose.

(c) Treatment: the way in which the message is presented, that is the
frequency and emphasis.

Another factor is the filter or frame of reference through which the

audience receives the message which includes meanings that may enhance or
cripple the effect. For communication to occur at all, the source and receiver
must have at least some minimum degree of prior experience, some level of
similarity and some level of shared meanings at the other extreme, no two
individuals have exactly the same experience. Hence the symbols in the
message have somewhat different meanings for the source and the receiver.

iv. Channel

Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal channels including

face-to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written channels
including letters, emails, memos and reports. Communication channel is the
medium utilized to convey a message. It is the means by which a message
travels between the communications source to the receiver. After the message
has been encoded it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium.
Common channels in organizations include meetings, reports, memoranda,
letters, email, fax and telephone calls. The channel is the physical system which
carries the message from sender to receiver, which can vary from the air
carrying the voice between two speakers to something like an email where the
author is separated from the reader by complicated electronic processes.

v. Decoding
Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding
(involving, for example, taking the time to read a message carefully, or listen
actively to it.) Just as confusion can arise from errors in encoding, it can also
arise from decoding errors. This is particularly the case if the decoder doesn’t
have enough knowledge to understand the message.

vi. Receiver

Your message is delivered to individual members of your audience. No

doubt, you have in mind the actions or reactions you hope your message will get
from this audience. Keep in mind, though, that each of these individuals enters
into the communication process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtedly
influence their understanding of your message, and their response. The receiver
is that person to whom the source is attempting to share information. This
individual receives the signal and decodes or interprets the message to
determine its meaning. Successful communication can occur only when both the
sender and the receiver attach the same or at least similar meanings to the
symbols that compose the message. The source determines what information he
or she intends to share, encodes this information in the form of a message, and
then transmits the message as a signal to the receiver through a channel. The
receiver decodes the transmitted message to determine its meaning and then
responds accordingly. To be a successful communicator, you should consider
these before delivering your message, and act appropriately.

vii. Feedback

Your audience will provide you with feedback, as verbal and nonverbal
reactions to your communicated message. Effective communication takes place
only when there is feedback. The errors and flaws that abound in business
situations are a result of lack of feedback. Pay close attention to this feedback,
as it is the only thing that can give you confidence that your audience has
understood your message. If you find that there has been a misunderstanding, at
least you have the opportunity to send the message a second time.

How to overcome barriers in Communication

Problems with communication can occur at every stage of the

communication process. At each stage, there is the potential for
misunderstanding and confusion.

Considering the importance of effective communication in the successful

functioning of business organizations, it is essential on the part of the
management to overcome these barriers.

1. Organizational policy must be clear and explicit and

encouraging the communication flow so that people at all levels realize the full
significance of communication.

2. Every person in the organization shares the responsibility of

good communication; however, persons at the top have special responsibility in
this regard.

3. Organization should have adequate facilities for promoting

communication. Proper attention must be given towards their proper and
effective use.

4. The development of inter-personal relationships based on

mutual respect, trust and confidence is essential for its promotion. The
organizational climate, therefore, should be modified to make it more intimate
and personal.

5. There should be continuous programme of evaluating the

flow of communication in different directions. This would highlight problems in
this area, identify their causes and thereby enable the adoption of suitable
corrective actions.
WRITING A FORMAL BUSINESS LETTER

The art of writing a letter takes practice, knowledge about proper form
and the ability to put into words the thoughts and feelings which are associated
with the letter. Learning to write a letter can be difficult, as there are multiple
types of letters which can be written (Whitney, 2008). To avoid the time that it
may take to learn to write each one of these letters, if you are able to learn to
write a basic letter that will help you to create letters for a variety of occasions.

“A good letter can pacify an angry customer as much as a bad one can
anger a friendly one. It may sell a new product or spoil the sales of an
established one.”

Making and/or soliciting enquiries; placing orders for goods;

acknowledging and executing orders; granting or applying for credit; sending
statements of accounts to debtors; requesting for settlement of accounts;
complaining about delay or mistake in supply of goods, making adjustments for
customers’ grievances; canvassing for the first new lines of goods or ideas; and
a lot of such matters require communication. We need to write a business letter
to maintain contacts with the external world including other businessmen,
customers and government departments.

Reasons for writing business letters

i. To provide a convenient and inexpensive means of communication

without personal contact.

ii. To give or seek information.

iii. To furnish evidence of transactions entered into.

iv. To provide a record for future reference.

Functions of a Business Letter

i. Widen Contracts: Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the
area of operations.

ii. Sharing Information: It is used for sharing all big and small
information with the related organization.

iii. Evidence of Contracts: It is used as a legal document.

iv. Record and Reference: A business letter serves as a record for future
reference.

v. Building Goodwill: In customer–company relationships, it helps in

holding present customers and capturing new ones, reviving inactive accounts
and inviting customers to buy more and varied products.

vi. Lasting Impression: It leaves a more durable impression on the

receiver’s mind than an oral message.

Parts of a Business Letter

Addresses

1. Your Address: The return address should be written in the

top right-hand corner of the letter.

2. The Address of the Person You Are Writing To: The inside
address should be written on the left, starting below your address.

Date

Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You can write
this on the right or the left on the line after the address you are writing to. Write
the month as a word.

Salutation or Greeting

1. Dear Sir or Madam,

If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It
is always advisable to try to find out a name.

2. Dear Mr. Okocha,

If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and
the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses
Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for married and single women.

Ending a Letter

1. Yours faithfully – If you do not know the name of the

person, end the letter this way.

2. Yours sincerely – If you know the name of the person, end

the letter this way.

3. Your Signature – Sign your name, then print it underneath

the signature. If you think the person you are writing to might not know whether
you are male or female, put your title in brackets after your name.

Contents of a Formal Letter

First Paragraph

The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter – to
make an enquiry, complain, request something, etc. This can address any issues
that are outstanding and is used to set the tone for the entire rest of the letter. In
this first paragraph, the summary of the letter can be found and the intentions
which will be displayed through the rest of the letter should be outlined. From
the first paragraph of the letter, the individual should be able to note the tone of
the letter.

The Body
The body of the letter will expand upon the introductory paragraph and
the individual can extend their thoughts and feelings further when it comes to
the letter. The body of the letter can be anywhere from multiple pages for
personal letters to one or two pages for most business letters and other types of
proposals.

The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the
relevant information behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English are
not very long, so keep the information to the essentials and concentrate on
organizing it in a clear and logical manner rather than expanding too much.

The Closing

In the closing of the letter, the individual will close the letter and finish
any thoughts that have been mentioned. The closing of the letter comes in
various forms from yours truly, for those individuals that are familiar with one
another, to a traditional sincerely, which is a versatile closing that can be used in
a variety of letters detailing many situations.

The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect
the recipient to take – to refund, send you information, etc.

WRITING A BUSINESS PROPOSAL

A business proposal is a written document sent to a prospective client in

order to obtain a specific job. It is a persuasive presentation intended to elicit
business from a prospective buyer. A proposal is usually written, but it can also
be an oral presentation or a combination of both. Proposals may be made by
individuals or organizations, including business organizations, and can be
directed to a variety of individuals or organizations such as government
agencies, foundations, or other businesses. A business proposal differs from a
business plan, which is primarily constructed to obtain start-up capital by
detailing the organization and operational aspects of the business to demonstrate
its profit potential (Smeltzer, Glab, & Golen, 1983). Unlike a business plan, a
proposal is more focused on identifying and targeting a specific market and
solidly demonstrating how the bidder can deliver customized solutions to meet
the needs of buyers within that market.

Proposals can even be made internally within a business, from one

department to another or to the management of the business. There are two main
types of proposals: Invited and Prospecting.

• Invited Proposals: These occur when the awarding

organization announces that it will make an award and solicits proposals. A
government agency, for instance, might have funds available for research
projects. In these cases, the awarding organization typically outlines their needs
and specifies the unique requirements the proposals should cover. In business
situations, invited proposals usually follow preliminary meetings where the
need is discussed with suppliers.

• Prospecting Proposals: These are similar to rational sales

letters. They are essentially descriptions of what the writer’s organization could
do if awarded a contract. An individual or institution may write a proposal to a
philanthropic foundation to request funds.

TYPES OF BUSINESS PROPOSALS

1. Solicited Business Proposal

A solicited business proposal is much more detailed and specific. A

company or government agency may publish a Request for Proposal (RFP) or
Invitation for Bid (IFB) for a certain project. Since the project is usually offered
to multiple candidates, the winning business proposal will meet the specific
requirements of the RFP or IFB.

2. Unsolicited Business Proposal

An unsolicited business proposal is more general, similar to collateral
marketing materials such as brochures. These proposals are not aimed at a
particular company but are designed to introduce a product or service to
potential customers. They are often distributed through direct mail, after cold
sales calls, or during trade shows.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNSOLICITED AND SOLICITED

PROPOSALS

• Solicited Proposals are written in response to a request and

address specific needs that have already been identified. These proposals are
often welcomed by the recipient because they are actively seeking solutions for
their problems.

• Unsolicited Proposals are written without a request and aim

to introduce the writer’s solutions, often to a potential customer who has not
indicated an immediate need for the service or product. These are often seen as
sales pitches and may not be as welcomed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BUSINESS PROPOSAL

The key elements that make a business proposal successful include:

1. Solutions: After addressing the client’s needs and problems,

clearly present how your business can provide solutions. Ensure that the
solutions you propose are feasible and achievable.

2. Benefits: Outline the benefits the client will gain from doing
business with you. Highlight how your product or service will help them solve
their problems, increase efficiency, or reduce costs.

3. Credibility: Demonstrate your experience and reliability. If

you’ve worked with similar clients or have received awards, make sure to
include third-party endorsements that validate your ability to deliver.
4. Samples: Providing samples of your work can strengthen
your proposal and prove your capability to deliver results.

5. Targeted: Tailor your proposal to speak the language of your

audience. If the evaluators are from a technical or financial background, ensure
that your language and terminology align with their expectations.

FORMAT AND ORGANIZATION OF A PROPOSAL

The physical arrangement and organization of proposals can vary

depending on the complexity and formality. Some proposals are straightforward
and resemble formal email reports, while more complex proposals may be long
reports that include prefatory pages.

• Formality Requirements: The level of formality in a proposal

depends on the nature of the relationship between the parties involved. For
example, proposals for university research grants often require strict formalities,
while internal proposals may be more informal.

• Content of the Proposal:

• Writer’s Purpose and Reader’s Need: Begin with a statement

of the purpose of your proposal and the reader’s need.

• Background: Provide context to justify the proposal and

explain the problem in more detail.

• Description of the Plan: Describe what you propose to do,

including the goals and actions required.

• Particulars: Include specifics such as timeline, costs,

personnel requirements, equipment needed, etc.
• Evidence of Ability to Deliver: Demonstrate your ability to
carry out the proposal by providing information about your experience, staff
qualifications, and past successes.

• Benefits: Emphasize the positive outcomes of your proposal.

• Concluding Comments: Close with a summary of the

highlights, suggest actions to be taken, or offer additional information as
needed.

Business Report Writing

Thousands of reports, long or short, formal or informal, crucial or

ordinary, special or routine are written every day. A supervisor, at the end of the
day, reports to the manager the progress of the work carried on in his
supervision. The manager of a bank sends a periodic report to the Head Office
on the state of deposits, advances, overdraft limits, etc. A report can be
described as a communication from someone who has some information to
someone who wants to use that information.

A report is a ‘basic management tool used in decision-making’. Hence, it

is extremely important. In a one-man business, the functions of reporting and
decision-making are combined in one man—the proprietor. He knows his
business inside out and is capable of making on-the-spot decisions. So, he does
not need any reports. Nevertheless, large-scale organizations are engaged in
multifarious activities, which are being handled by different departments. Their
top executives cannot keep a personal watch over all these activities. So, they
have to base their decisions on the reports they get from the heads of various
departments. For large organizations, reports are just indispensable.

All too often, business reports start with some sort of introduction that
includes a bit of history and, perhaps, the approach taken to getting the results
or items being reported (Zhang, 2006). Usually, however, the readers already
have this information, so start with the bottom line. This might involve money
or it may be the action the report recommends, or both. Groups of numbers
should probably go into some sort of table or chart. They not only break up
large blocks of text, they also can clarify the information. Once you have a
handle on the information, create an abstract or executive summary. Include the
recommended action and put this section right up front.

Now you have been introduced to a business report that communicates

the needed information easily. A complete business report must concentrate on:

• Understanding the readers’ expectations

• Objectives and specifications for the research report

• Facts, conclusions, inferences, and judgments

• Moving data to messages objectively

• Organizing

• Using guideposts for clarity

• Writing clearly

• Writing user-friendly audit reports

• Editing and writing concisely

Types of Business Reports

We can classify business reports in various ways. On the basis of legal

formalities to be complied with, we can have:

1. Informal Reports

An informal report is usually in the form of a person-to-person

communication. It may range from a short, almost fragmentary statement of
facts on a single page, to a more developed presentation taking several pages.
An informal report is usually submitted in the form of a letter or a
memorandum.

2. Formal Reports

A formal report is one, which is prepared in a prescribed form and is

presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority.

• Statutory Reports: A report prepared and presented

according to the form and procedure laid down by law is called a statutory
report. Reports submitted at the Statutory Meeting of Shareholders, Directors’
Report to the Annual General Meeting, Annual Return, Auditors’ Report are
statutory reports.

• Non-statutory Reports: Formal reports which are not

required under any law but which are prepared to help the management in
framing policies or taking other important decisions.

On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be:

1. Periodic or Routine Reports

These reports are prepared and presented at regular, prescribed intervals

in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted annually, semi-
annually, quarterly, monthly, fortnightly, weekly, or even daily. Generally, such
reports contain a mere statement of facts, in detail or in summarized form,
without an opinion or recommendation. Branch Managers of banks submit
periodic reports to the Head Office on the quantum of business transacted
during a particular period.

2. Special Reports

Special reports are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the

desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular
branch are special reports. Special reports deal with non-recurrent problems.
On the basis of function, a report can be:

1. Informative Reports

If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is

informative.

2. Interpretative Reports

If a report analyzes the facts, draws conclusions, and makes

recommendations, it may be described as analytical, interpretative, or
investigative.

Example: If a report presents production figures in a particular period, it

is informative. But if it goes into the causes of lower production in that period,
it becomes analytical, interpretative, or investigative.

On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have:

1. Problem-Determining Report

We try to determine the causes underlying a problem or ascertain whether

the problem actually exists.

2. Fact-Finding Report

This type of report aims to gather and present facts.

3. Performance Report

Focuses on evaluating the performance of an activity or system.

4. Technical Report

Presents data on a specialized subject, with or without comments.

On the basis of the number of persons entrusted with the drafting of

reports, we can have:
1. Reports by Individuals

Reports submitted by the Branch Manager, Personnel Manager,

Marketing Manager, the Company Secretary, The Auditor, the Solicitor, etc., are
reports by individuals. These reports are naturally related to the work in their
own departments.

2. Reports by Committees or Sub-Committees

Sometimes reports are needed on subjects that concern more than one
department, or they are so important that it is thought advisable to associate
more than one person with them. In such cases, committees or sub-committees
are formed to prepare reports. These reports are formal in style and impersonal
in tone and are prepared after careful and cautious deliberation by the members.

Characteristics of A Good Report

1. Precision

In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of
writing it. His investigation, analysis, and recommendations are directed by this
central purpose. Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report and
makes it a valuable document.

2. Accuracy of Facts

The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report. Since

reports invariably lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts may lead to
disastrous decisions.

3. Relevance

The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant
also. While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the
central purpose, it is equally essential to ensure that nothing relevant has been
left out. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing; exclusion of relevant facts
renders it incomplete and likely to mislead.

4. Reader-Orientation

A good report is always reader-oriented. While drafting a report, it is

necessary to keep in mind the person(s) who will read it. A report meant for the
layman will be different from one meant for technical experts.

5. Objectivity of Recommendations

If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be

impartial and objective. They should come as logical conclusions to
investigation and analysis and must not reveal any self-interest on the part of the
writer.

6. Simple and Unambiguous

A good report is written in a simple, unambiguous language. It is a kind

of scientific document of practical utility; hence, it should be free from various
forms of poetic embellishment like figures of speech.

7. Clarity

A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on the proper

arrangement of facts. The report writer must proceed systematically. He should
make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings, and finally make
necessary recommendations. He should divide his report into short paragraphs
giving them headings, and insert other suitable signposts to achieve greater
clarity.

8. Brevity

A report should be brief. It is difficult to define brevity in absolute terms.

Nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report
is as brief as possible. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity or
completeness. Sometimes, the problem being investigated is of such importance
that it calls for a detailed discussion of facts. In such cases, this discussion
should not be evaded. Brevity in a report is the kind of brevity one recommends
for a précis. Include everything significant and yet be brief.

9. Grammatical Accuracy

The grammatical accuracy of language, though listed at number 9 in the

characteristics of a good report, is of fundamental importance. It is one of the
basic requisites of good report writing. Who is going to read a report if its
language is faulty? Besides, faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning
obscure and ambiguous.

Public Speaking

The process of planning a talk in public speaking involves several key

steps that ensure the speaker is well-prepared and can effectively communicate
with the audience. Here’s an explanation of the process:

1. Developing a Purpose Statement:

• The purpose statement is the foundation of the presentation.

It defines what the speaker aims to accomplish. The purpose should go beyond
just stating the topic; it should describe the goal of the talk, such as persuading
the audience, informing them, or motivating them. For example, “I am giving
this talk to persuade the audience to adopt a new way of thinking about climate
change.”

2. Crafting an Opening Strategy:

• The opening sets the tone for the entire presentation. A good
opening strategy helps build rapport with the audience and captures their
attention. This could be achieved through anecdotes, jokes, startling facts, or
addressing the audience’s needs. It’s important to ensure that the opening is
relevant to the content and doesn’t take too much time. The objective is to
connect the audience emotionally or intellectually to the topic.

3. Defining the Main Idea:

• The main idea is the core message of the talk. It is what the
speaker wants the audience to remember after the presentation. The main idea
should clearly outline the topic and end goal of the presentation, using strong
verbs for clarity. For example, instead of saying, “I’m going to talk about
Project X,” say, “We will analyze the challenges faced by Project X and offer
actionable solutions.”

4. Providing an Overview:

• An overview gives the audience a roadmap of the talk. It

lays out the structure and main points that will be covered. This helps the
audience follow the flow of the talk and prepares them for what’s to come. For
example, “Today, I will explain why Project X is delayed, discuss the factors
contributing to this, and propose ways to mitigate these delays.”

5. Preparing the Conclusion:

• The conclusion ties everything together and signals the end

of the talk. A good conclusion briefly summarizes the main points and
reinforces the main idea. It should not be a recap of every detail but should
highlight the most important takeaways. For example, “In conclusion, the
adoption of Bluetooth technology can significantly improve the management of
LANs by simplifying connections.”

6. Creating a Take-Away Statement:

• The take-away statement is the final thought or call to action
that the speaker leaves with the audience. This is the last thing the audience
hears and should be memorable. It reinforces the main message and provides
the audience with something actionable or reflective. For example, “So, the next
time you think about the complexities of wiring your office, consider the
simplicity and efficiency of Bluetooth networks.”