Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS

(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson: 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Objective: The main objective of this lesson is to make the students learn
about the concept of communication and its importance for the
success of any business organization.

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Presentation of Contents
1.2.1 Communication Defined
1.2.2 Importance of Communication
1.2.3 Nature of Communications: A Case Study
1.3 Summary
1.4 Key Words
1.5 Self Assessment Questions
1.6 Suggested Readings

1.1 Introduction
“You cannot not communicate”. This statement is quite often
misunderstood by many of us. We may be fussy about the grammar of
this sentence and that is at the cost of the its spirit. It, in fact, this
statement let us know that we cannot remain without commutation even
if we feel as we have not communicated anything but still we have
commutated everything. If you are like the majority of us, you spend
more time in communicating than doing anything else. Probably you
spend a hefty part of each day in one-to-one speaking, writing and
listening. When you are not talking or listening, you are presumably
communicating in supplementary ways like - understanding, lettering,
gesturing, and drawing. Or perhaps, you are just taking in information by
seeing, feeling, or smelling. All of these activities are forms of
communication and certainly you do them right through most of your
time.

Obviously, such activity, which we are engrossed in so much, has to be

significant. Perhaps, it is the most important of all our activities. It is easy
to make out that communication is what has enabled us to develop the
civilized society. It is one activity that we human beings clearly do better
than the other creatures, and it basically explains our dominant role in this
universe. Communication has enabled us to organize - to work in groups;
and through organization, we have been able to overcome barriers to our
existence that we could not have subjugated individually. But we need
not discuss further how communication has contributed to our
development as human beings. Its role is understandable to all of us. We
have to articulate that communication is vital to our success and well-
being in enlightened civilization.

1.2.1 Communication Defined

The word communication has been derived from the Latin word
'communis' that means ‘common’. However, communication
incorporates, besides commonality, the concepts of transfer, meaning and
information. The communication can be defined as the process
through which two or more persons come to exchange ideas and
understanding among them.

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The definition involves two aspects in communication:
First, there is something, which is transmitted, such as, facts, feelings,
ideas, etc. It implies that there must be a receiver if communication is to
occur. The sender of message must consider the receiver while
structuring his message from a technical standpoint as well as in
delivering it. When the receiver is not considered, there is either no
response or there is wrong response.

Second, the definition emphasizes the understanding element in the

communication. Sharing of understanding would be possible only when
the person, to whom the message is meant, understands it in the same
sense in which the sender of the message wants him to understand. Thus,
communication involves something more than mere transmission of the
message or transmission and physical receipt thereof. The correct
interpretation of the message is important from the point of view of
organizational efficiency. As such, the greater the degree of
understanding present in the communication, the more the likelihood that
human action will proceed in the direction of accomplishment of goals.

How do we define communication?

"Communication is something so simple and difficult that we can never
put it in simple words," says T.S. Mathews.

But we do need a definition to understand the term. In his book

Communication in Business, Peter Little defines communication as
follows:

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“Communication is the process by which information is transmitted
between individuals and / or organizations so that an understanding
response results.”

Another very simple definition of 'communication' has been provided by

W.H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr:

“Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by

two or more persons.”

'Information' is the key word in the first definition communication

consists in transmitting 'information'. But this definition does not indicate
the objects about which information is to be transmitted. This is precisely
what is being done in the second definition. Communication transmits
information not only about tangible facts and determinable ideas and
opinions but also about emotions. When a communicator passes on or
transmits some information, he may also, either deliberately or
unconsciously, be communicating his attitude or the frame of his mind.
And sometimes the latter may be more relevant to the reality that is being
communicated. Often we may have come across words of high praise
spoken in a scoffing tone. In such a case, the words signify nothing and
the tone is the real thing. Similarly, high-sounding expressions of bravery
may be only a mask to conceal a person's timidity and cowardice that
may be betrayed by his facial expressions.
The following definition offered by William Scott appear comprehensive
and particularly satisfying to the students of 'Communication' since it
touches all aspects of the communication process:

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“Managerial communication is a process which involves the transmission
and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”

This definition highlights four imperative points:

1. The process of communication involves the communication of
ideas.
2. The ideas should be accurately replicated (reproduced) in the
receiver's mind, i.e., the receiver should get exactly the same ideas
as were transmitted. If the process of communication is perfect,
there will be no dilution, exaggeration, or distortion of the ideas.
3. The transmitter is assured of the accurate replication of the ideas
by feedback, i.e., by the receiver's response, which is
communicated, back to the transmitter. Here it is suggested that
communication is a two way process including transmission of
feedback.
4. The purpose of all communication is to elicit action.

It is a fairly comprehensive definition and covers almost all aspects of

communication. But two comments can be made on it:
1. The concept of ideas should be adequately enlarged to include
emotions also.
2. Even in administrative communication, the purpose may not
always be to elicit action. Seeking information or persuading
others to a certain point of view can be equally important
objectives of communication.

1.2.2 Importance of Communication

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Communication is as important to the organization as blood is to the
body. Communication is a medium through which works being done in
the organization can be explained, change can be affected, a feeling of
cooperation can be aroused by establishing uniformity among the works
of various people working in the organization, clear human relation can
be established and finally the objective of the organization are realized.
No business can develop in the absence of effective internal and external
communication. The top hierarchy in an organization spends most of the
time in communication while the people at the lower level spend
comparatively less time in communication process. The importance of
communication in management can be understood through the following
points:
1. Basis of decision making: In the absence of communication it is not
possible for the top management to take any decision. Much
information has to be collected for decision making and for giving
final shape to any idea. The information connected with the taking of
decision can be obtained only through communication. With effective
communication it can be ascertained as to what was said? What was
done? What is being done? And what is to be done?
2. Effective communication promotes spirit of cooperation and
coordination: An atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence between
employer and employee can be possible with the existence of
effective communication. Through this the management can collect
required information related to limitation and potential of employees
and the employees can be well aware of what is expected from them.
In this way, mutual understanding can be build between employer and
employee. This leads to job satisfaction to employees and good return
to employers. Thus, the work can be accomplished only when there is

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coordination and cooperation among the people working in the
organization.
3. Effective Control: Communication has an important place in the
process of controlling. The managers get information about the work
performance through communication on the basis of which they can
improve upon the irregularities well in time. On the basis of the
information received the future plans can also be amended.
4. Basis of Motivation: An efficient system of communication helps the
managers in changing the point of view of the subordinates, raising
their morale and presenting a basis of satisfaction. In any organization
the differences emerge out of the wrongly defined objectives and
ignorance of facts. A timely communication can settle the disputes
among various sides and reduce the possible difference of opinion. In
this way everybody gets greatly attached with the enterprise and the
work goes on smoothly.
5. Establishment of Effective Leadership: In order to be a successful
leader a manager must have the knowledge of the art of
communication. In other words, leadership can not be imagined
without effective communication. A manager can be an efficient
leader by improving upon his art of communication. A good
communication system brings the employees close to one another and
removes their difference of opinion.
6. Basis of organizational image: Business communication also help in
improving relationship with outside parties like the government
authorities, foreign trade officials, licensing and custom authorities,
bankers and financial institutions, income tax and sales officials,
transporters, distributors, retailers and customers. With the help of
communication the enterprise increases its reputation by giving
information about its progress to the outside parties. The enterprise

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discharges its social responsibilities by informing the entire human
community as to what improvement is being done to preserve their
interests and this results in achieving their confidence. Thus,
communication gives information about the level of work
performance of the organization.
7. Business activity has become extremely complex: For the success of a
big industrial unit, the work is performed by different functional
department like production, planning, sales, stores, advertising,
finance, accounts etc. Their will be no coordination among these
departments if there is no communication. Example- A project
manager have made a plan to work on a new project, but later on
realize that no finance and man power are available to work on it.
This situation arises because of lack of communication among
different departmental heads.
8. High weightage in job and promotion: The communication skills vary
with the nature of job. Effective communication is required in the
area of personnel, public relation, marketing, sales etc. Editors,
writers, teachers, advocates, researchers also need highly developed
ability to communicate. Executives are required to make speeches,
brochures, pamphlets and give interviews to media in order to
improve organizational image. The successes of the individual to
write highly persuasive letters and to produce very concise reports
increase the chances of promotion. It is believed that communication
skills of the employees are given due weightage at the time of their
appointment as well as promotion.
The above-mentioned facts make it clear that communication is the key to
the success of a business enterprise. Success is automatic for an
enterprise whose employees are acquainted with the art of

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communication. Good communication is the foundation of sound
management.
Just as communication is vital to our existence in civilized society, it is
essential to the functioning of the organizations our society has produced.
In fact, we could go so far as to say that organizations exist through
communication; without communication, there would be no
organizations. As Herbert Simon expresses it. "Without communication
there can be no organization, for there is no possibility then of the group
influencing the behaviour of the individual."

If you need proof of the importance of communication to organized

activity, you need only apply your good logic to any real life example.
Take a very simple organization made up of just you and one other
person. Assume that this organization has an objective - one that is
unfamiliar to each of you. Now assume that each of you no longer can
communicate. You cannot read; you cannot speak; you cannot write; you
cannot gesture; you cannot draw. If the two of you make any progress at
all, it is likely to be through individual effort. Strain your imagination as
you will, there simply is no likelihood of coordinated effort without
communication.

Needless to say, communication is the ingredient that makes organization

possible. It is the vehicle through which the basic management functions
are carried out. Managers direct through communication; they coordinate
through communication; and they staff, plan, and control through
communication. Virtually all actions taken in an organization are
preceded by communication.

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Just how much communicating a business organization needs depends on
a number of factors. The nature of the business certainly is one. Some
businesses (such as insurance companies) have a much greater need to
communicate than do others (such as janitorial services). The company's
organization plan also affects the volume of communication, for it
generates much of the information flow. Finally, the people who make
up the organization affect the extent of communication. As we would
point out later, every human being is different. Each one has unique
communication needs and abilities. Thus, varying combinations of people
produce varying needs for communication.
Although communication needs may be dissimilar in different
organizations and different groups of people in such organizations
communication more than of us suspect. According to one generally
accepted estimate, between 40 and 60 percent of the work time spent in a
typical manufacturing plant involves some form of communication
(speaking, writing, listening, reading). Of course, these percentages are
only averages. Some employees spend much more of their time
communicating. In fact, the higher up the organization structure the
employee is, the more communicating he or she is likely to do.
Typically, top executives spend from 75 to 95 percent of their time
communicating. Unskilled labourers, on the other hand, need to
communicate lesser in order to do their work.

Without question, communication is important to business organizations.

Therefore, it stands to reason that a business wants its communication to
be done well. But all too rarely is a business satisfied with what it gets.
Unfortunately, to use the often quoted words of an authority in the field,
"Of all the things business executives do, they are worst at
communicating”.

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Communication is the life blood of business. No business can develop in
the absence of effective internal and external communication. Besides,
communication skills of the employees are given high weightage at the
time of their appointment as well as promotion.

Internal Communication viz Within Organization

Effective internal communication is considered important for the
following reasons:
1. Business has grown in size. Large business houses have a number of
branches within the country and even abroad. Some of the
multinational corporations are no smaller than huge empires. The
central organization of a large business house is its nerve center. For
its healthy and even growth, it is extremely important that the central
organization maintains a thorough and up-to-date knowledge of the
various activities at the branch offices, and in turn keep the branch
offices will acquainted with the activities at the center, and some kind
of link is maintained among the various branches. This calls for an
effective and efficient network of communication.
2. Business activity has become extremely complex. This being an age
of specialization, planning, production, sales, stores, advertising,
financing, accounts, welfare, etc., are handled by different
departments. If these departments do not communicate with one
another as well as with the management, there will be no coordination
among them. This may give rise to some awkward and embarrassing
situations for the management. When production is fully geared up,
the stores department may report shortage or non-availability of raw
materials. The planners, having spent one full month to work out the

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details of a new project, may suddenly discover that there are no
finances available to execute the project.
3. Effective communication promotes a spirit of understanding and
cooperation. If there exists effective communication between the
management and the employees, it helps to bring about an atmosphere
of mutual trust and confidence. The employees know exactly what is
expected of them, the management is aware of the potentialities and
limitations of the employees and knows how to exploit the first and
make up for the latter. This mutual understanding is extremely
beneficial to both the parties. The management gets better returns; the
employees get job satisfaction. They also develop a sense of
belonging and loyalty to the enterprise.
4. The significance of communication in the context of today’s complex
organizations is even greater. These organizations being designed on
the basis of specialization and division of labour constitute a large
number of persons. The larger the size of the organization, the greater
generally is the degree of specialization and division of labour and
hence, the more urgent is the need for coordination. This coordination
requires mutual understanding about the organizational goals, the
mode of their achievement and the interrelationship between the work
being performed by various individuals; and all this can be achieved
through communication only. Effective communication, as such, is
essential in any type of human grouping. As Haney has put it,
"Communication is imminently essential in business, in government,
military organizations. It is difficult, in fact, to imagine any kind of
interpersonal activity which does not depend upon communication."
Dealing with the problems of communication, then, becomes an
important area of activity in management whose objective is the

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direction of individual efforts in such a way as to secure overall
coordination of organizational activities.

External Communication
External communication includes communication with the government
agencies and departments on the one hand and distributors, retailers,
individual customers and general public on the other.
1. Government agencies and departments. Business organizations
are required to deal with licensing authorities, foreign trade
offices, customs authorities, banks and other financial institutions,
income tax and sales tax offices, post offices, transporters, etc.
Quite frequently, they find themselves tricky situations that can be
handled only through tactful negotiation are nothing but
communication.
2. Distributors, retailers, individual customers, etc. Modern business
is a highly competitive phenomenon. Each product of common
consumption is available in hundreds of brands, not all of which
sell equally well. Marketing research has revealed that the
organizations that can communicate better also sell better. Sales
are promoted through persuasion and persuasion is a very
important aspect of communication.

Communication Skill is Job Requirement

Some areas like personal, public relations, marketing, sales, labour
relations call for exceptional communication skills. Professionals like
editors, writers, teachers, advocates, researchers etc., need a highly
developed ability to communicate. Executives are also expected to make
speeches, prepare pamphlets, brochures, souvenirs, and give interviews to
the media in order to project a favourable image of their organization.

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Thus the ability to communicate effectively has become a very important
job requirement.

Important factor for promotion

In an article titled What Do You Mean I Can't Write? [Harvard
Business Review, May-June 1965], John Fielden lists the ability to
communicate as the most essential prerequisite for promotion of the
executives. He ranks this ability higher than other essential attributes
such as the capacity for hard work, the ability for making sound
decisions, academic qualifications and ambition-drive. And this view is
endorsed by numerous surveys conducted by a number of American
universities and other scholars in the field.

1.2.3 Nature of Communication: A Case Study

The role of communication in organized activities is perhaps explained

by a real-life illustration. By design, our illustration is both detailed and
scant. It is detailed because it consists of examples of the minute and
specific communication events that occur in business. It is scant because
at best it covers only a sample of an almost infinite number of events.
For this review we could select any organization, as communication is
vital to every conceivable type. Our choice is the Typical Company,
manufacturer of a line of quality whatsits. The Typical Company is
moderately large, with scores of departments and hundreds of workers
doing a thousand and one tasks. It employs crews of salespeople who sell
the manufactured whatsits to wholesalers all over the country. Like most

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companies in its field, Typical works to move its products from
wholesaler to retailer and from retailer to the final consumer. And it
works to keep the consumer happy with the purchase. The Typical
Company is indeed typical.

Our review begins with the workday of Dan D. Worker, a clerk in

Typical's order department. (We could, of course, have selected any of
Typical's employees). Dan's daily communication activities begin the
moment he awakens. But for our purposes, we shall pick up Dan's
activities as he rides to work in a car pool with three co-workers. Of
course, Dan and his car-pool companions communicate as they travel.
Obviously, communication has a social use, and riding to work is a form
of social occasion for Dan and his friends.

Most of their talk is about trivial matters. They talk primarily to entertain
themselves and to while away the time. There is a joke or two, some
comments about politics, a few words about an upcoming football game,
and some talk about plans for a getaway weekend fishing trip. Such talk,
of course, is of little direct concern to Typical, except perhaps as it affects
the general happiness and welfare of the company's workers.

In time, the conversation drifts to subjects more pertinent to Typical and

its operations. Someone mentions a rumor about a proposed change in
promotion policy. Then Dan and the others bring up their own collection
of rumors, facts, and opinions on the subject. And in the process, they
giving, receiving, or handling information. Nothing that he did directly
involved making whatsits, which, of course, is the Typical Company's
main reason for being. Yet the importance of his activities to Typical's
operations is unquestionable. Obviously, Dan's work assignment more

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directly involves communication than do many others at Typical. But
there are many other communication-oriented assignments in the
company, and every Typical employee's workday is peppered with
communication in one form or another. If we were to trace the workday
of each Typical employee and combine our findings, we would come up
with an infinitely complex picture of the communication that goes on at
Typical. We would see that communication indeed plays a major role in
Typical's operations.

The importance of communication in business becomes even more

apparent when we consider an organization's communication activities
from an overall perspective. As we can see from reviewing Dan's half
hour at Typical, these activities fall in three broad categories of
communication: internal-operational, external-operational, and personal.

Internal-Operational Communication

Internal-operational communication consists of structured communication

within the organization that directly relates to achieving the
organization's work goals. By ‘structured’ we mean that such
communication is built into the organization's plan of operations. By
‘organization's work goals’ we mean the organization's primary reason
for being - to sell insurance, to manufacture nuts and bolts, to construct
buildings, and the like.

The Typical Company, to use a familiar example, has as its major work
goals the making and selling of whatsits. To achieve these work goals, it
has an established plan of operations, in which communication plays a
major role. More specifically, each Typical employee has an assignment

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within the plan. In order for the plan to work, some communicating must
be done. Some of the assignments require certain working information.
In order for all assignments to be performed as a harmonious and unified
effort, certain coordinating information must be communicated. All of
this information flow is internal-operational communication.

Specifically, internal-operational communication is carried out through

any number of structured activities. In the Typical Company, for
example, must of the internal-operational information is entered into the
company computer from executive workstations to become part of
Typical's database. From the database, programmed reports are
developed to give each operations department the information it needs.
Then the reports are communicated back to specific workstations; for
example, sales reports and inventory records combine to communicate
production needs to the production planning department. Finally, the
production planning department communicates these needs to the various
production departments through a strategically planned work schedule.

Within each production unit and among production units, of course,

additional communicating must go on. Superiors make decisions and
transmit them to subordinates. Departments exchange information, and
workers communicate working information with one another.
Memorandums are written, reports are prepared, and conversations are
held-all in the process of coordinating efforts and supplying the
information needed for achieving the organization's goals. In every
company division and in every activity, similar internal-operational
communication occurs.

External-Operational Communication

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External-operational communication is that part of an organization's
structured communication concerned with achieving the organization's
work goals that is conducted with people and groups outside the
organization. It is the organization's communication with its publics-
suppliers, service companies, customers, and the general public.

In this category fall all of the organization's efforts at direct selling-sales

representatives sales spiels, descriptive brochures, telephone call-backs,
follow-up service calls, and the like. Also included are all of the
organization's advertising efforts-for what is advertising but a deliberate,
structured communication with an organization's publics? Radio and
television messages, newspaper and magazine space advertising, and
point-of-purchase display material obviously play a role in the
organization's plan for achieving its work objective. Also in this category
is everything the organization does to enhance its public relations. These
activities include the organization's planned publicity, and the condition
of its physical plant. All these and many more communication efforts
combine to make up the organization's external-operational
communication.

The extreme importance of an organization's external communications

hardly requires supporting comment. Certainly it is obvious that any
business organization depends on outside people and groups for its
success. It is an elementary principle of business that because a business
organization's success depends on its ability to satisfy customers' needs,
the organization must communicate effectively with these customers. It
is equally elementary that in today's complex business society,
organizations depend on one another in manufacturing and distributing

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and services. This interdependence necessarily creates needs for
communication. Like internal communications, these outside
communications are vital to an organization's operation.

Personal Communication

Not all the communication that goes on in an organization is operational

however: in fact, much of it is without purpose as far as the organization
is concerned. Such communication may be classified as personal.

Personal communication is all the incidental exchange of information and

feelings in which human beings engage whenever they come together.
Human beings are social animals. They have a need to communicate, and
they would communicate even when they have little or nothing to say. In
fact, they communicate even when they do not communicate anything.

Much of the time friends spend with one another is devoted to

communication, for it is simply the thing to do when people get together.
Even total strangers are likely to communicate when they are placed
together, such as on a plane trip, in a waiting room, or at a ball game.
Such personal communication also takes place in the work situation, and
it is part of the communication activity of any business organization.
Although not a component of an organization's plan of operations,
personal communication can have a significant effect on its success. This
effect stems from the influence personal communication can have on the

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viewpoints (opinions, attitudes, and beliefs) of the organization's
members.

Workers' viewpoints towards the organization, their fellow employees,

and their assignments directly affect their willingness to do assigned
tasks. And the nature of conversation in a work situation affects
viewpoints. In a work situation in which heated words and flaring
tempers are frequent, the participants are unlikely to make their usual
productive effort. A rollicking, jovial work situation is likely to have an
equally adverse effect on productivity. No doubt, somewhere between
these extremes lie the ideal productive viewpoints.

Organization members' work viewpoint is also affecting the extent of

personal communication permitted to them. Outright denial of the
communication privilege can lead to emotional upset, for people hold
dear their right to communicate. On the other hand, excessive personal
communication can interfere directly with their work effort. Probably
somewhere in the middle ground lies the optimal policy toward personal
communication.

Personal communication can also help form viewpoints (opinions,

attitudes, beliefs). As illustrated in the account of Dan's workday at
Typical, Dan and his car-pool friends spent some of their conversation
time discussing a proposed new promotion policy; and in so doing, each
helped crystallize the others' viewpoints. It is a process that determines
much of what organization members think about their organization, co-
workers and work situation in general. What they think can affect their
relationship with the organization and have a direct influence on their
productivity.

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1.3 Summary
The foregoing discussion merely browses the surface of our mind. It may
hopefully help in appreciating the importance of communication to an
individual and an organization. It shows how extensive communication is
and how it permeates through every segment of the organization in a
most complex way. It shows that good communication is vital to the
organization’s successful operation and equally imperative for a man’s
personality development. These conclusions, combined with the
convincing evidence that most organizational communication is
inadequate, leads to yet another conclusion: that communication is an
area that deserves further study by those concerned with improving the
organizational operations.

1.4 Key Words

1. Communication: It is an attempt to share understanding by two or more
persons.
2. Sender: He is a person who initiates the communication process.
3. Receiver: The listener who receives and encoded message and attempt to
decode the same in its true spirit.
4. Message: it is an encoded idea transmitted by the sender.
5. Internal and External Communication: A communication within
organization is internal communication and communication with outside
the organization is external communication.

1.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define communication. Why communication has assumed importance in
modern industrial organizations?

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2. “Good communication is the foundation of sound management”
Comment.
3. “The single most significant characteristic of the human race is the
ability to communicate”. Discuss.
4. What are the various steps in the communication cycle? What is brain
drain? Why does brain drain occur?

1.6 Suggested Readings

1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th

edition, 1998.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication:
Theory and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.
4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business
Communication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi, 2001.

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Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)

Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106

Lesson: 2

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Objective: The foremost objective of this lesson is to generate the thoughtful

ideas in the psyche of students as regards the process of
communication and the sequencing of different steps that the
process of communication contains.

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Presentation of Contents
2.2.1 Understanding Communication Process
2.2.2 The Common Misconception
2.2.3 The Communication Environment.
2.2.4 A Well Designed Communication Process
2.3 Summary
2.4 Key Words
2.5 Self Assessment Questions
2.6 Suggested Readings.

2.1 Introduction
A famous English writer Francis Bacon has said, “Reading makes a full man,
writing an exact man, and its symposium a ready man”. In order to make a
man ‘exact’ i.e. to say effectively what he wants to say, the writer has to
make considerable effort. While speech comes to us very naturally and
spontaneously, writing comes after serious practice and careful organization
of thought. The word ‘write’ has been derived from the old English word
‘writan’ that meant to scratch draw or inscribe. It shows that man learnt
writing through a long process of drawing, scoring or incising symbols on
rock faces, dried skins, tree barks and clay tablets. The alphabet of any
language is, therefore, a result of evolution.

In the same way, the combination of the characters or letters of alphabet into
words, words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs have gone
through a long history of man’s attempt to communicate, and give some kind
of permanence or preservation to his communication. For this purpose every
language has evolved its own rules of grammar, though many languages
grouped together have more or less similar rules.

It may be clear from the definition of communication discussed in the

previous lesson that it is two-ways process that takes place when the receiver
provides feedback to the sender. For instance, giving an instruction to a
subordinate and receiving its acceptance is an example of two-way
communication. On other hand, in case of one-way communication, feedback
is absent. Here the sender communicates without expecting or getting
feedback from the receiver. A policy statement from the chief executive is an
example of one way communication. One-way communication takes less
time than two-way communication. In certain situations, one-way
communication is more effective to get work from the subordinates.
Two-way communication is superior to one way communication in the
following respects:

(i) Two-way communication is more effective than one-way

communication. The feedback allows the sender to refine his
communication so that it becomes more precise and accurate.

2
(ii) Receivers' self-confidence is higher in case of two-way
communication as they are permitted to ask questions and seek
clarification from the senders.

However, in case of two-way communication, the sender may feel

embarrassed when the receiver draws his attention to sender's mistakes and
ambiguities. It is therefore, essential to discuss the communication process in
comprehensive manner. This lesson discusses the same.

2.2.1 Understanding Communication Process

A conventional analysis of communication begins with a definition of the
term. Many such definitions exist, so we would have no difficulty finding
one suitable for our use. But our approach is not conventional. We do not
use words to define words, for, as we will see, such definitions are
dangerous. Instead, we use an operational definition. By operational
definition we mean one that demonstrates how something works. The
following pages present an operational definition in the form of a model.

In this presentation of the model, we strive to look with scientific diligence

into the phenomenon of human communication. We take the event involving
one human being communicating with another. We choose a face-to-face
oral communication event because this is the communication situation with
which we are best acquainted. Later in the chapter, we adapt the model to
written communication. Our plan is to take the communication event and
place it under the microscope of our minds. Our goal is to show how the
process works and how it does not work.

In developing our model, we must incline heavily on the theoretical aspects,

as we are not dealing with a subject that has received total factual support.
The theoretical material presented, however, represents authoritative thinking
on the subject: and research is constantly producing facts that lend support to

3
this thinking. Regardless of its factual bases, this presentation will give us a
meaningful understanding of communication and will provide us with
principles that we can successfully apply to real-life communication
problems.

2.2.2 The Common Misconception

Before beginning our analysis of the model, let us dispense with a common
misconception. If you are like most people, you have never thought much
about what communication really is. If you have thought about it, probably
you have viewed communication as a very normal human activity. This
assumption is far from correct.

Human communication at least the verbal part of it is far from being a natural
function; that is, it is not the sort of thing we would do if left to nature's
devices, as we would many of our other activities. Our hands, for example,
would perform their natural functions of picking up and handling things
whether we grew up with jungle animals or with civilized people. Likewise,
our mouths would take in food and our teeth and jaws would chew it in either
event. And most of our other body parts would function naturally without
instruction from other human beings. However, we cannot say the same
about the major organs used in communication. Our vocal apparatus would
not make words if we were not taught to make them. Neither would our
brains know them nor our hands write them without instruction. Clearly,
communication is a function that we must learn. It was originated by human
beings, and it must be acquired from human beings.

2.2.3 The Communication Environment

Study of the communication process logically is preceded by an analysis of
the environment in which communication occurs. This is the sensory
environment, in which we find ourselves every moment. It is made up of all
the signs existing in the world of reality that surrounds each of us. Your

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sensory environment is the real world surrounding you as you read these
words. It consists of all the signs your senses can detect. More specifically,
it is all you can see, taste, smell, hear, or feel in that part of the world that
surrounds you.

By ‘world of reality’ or ‘real world’ we mean that what actually exists. It

contrasts with the world that exists only in people's minds i.e. world of
imagination. Of course, one may argue that what exists in the mind also is
real that, right or wrong, the content of a mind exists in that mind. For our
purpose, however, we must allow this variation in our definition. It is
important to distinguish between what actually is in the world around a
communicator and what the communicator says or thinks it is. Often the two
are not the same.

By signs we mean everything from the real world that can act as a stimulus to
us. In other words, it is everything that our sensory receptors can detect. It is
what our eyes can see, our ears can hear, our nostrils can smell, our tongues
can taste, and our flesh can touch. It may be a spoken word, the sound of
objects crashing together, a printed word, the aroma of a flower, or the
movement of a bird. Thus, an individual sign is a portion of the real world
that can create a response within us.

From the preceding comment we can deduce the meaning of sensory

receptors: those body organs that we use to detect the signs in the real world.
Specifically, the term refers to our eyes, noses, ears, mouths, and flesh with
its ability to detect surface and temperature differences.

I. Sign Detection
Our sensory receptors continuously pick up some of the infinite
number of signs existing in our communication environment. Stated
another way, the signs around us continuously produce responses

5
within us through our receptors. Perhaps this phenomenon can best be
explained by an example.

At this very moment, you are looking at this printed page. On it is the
words (signs) that your eyes are picking up. We hope that these are
the primary signs you are receiving, but there are others. Probably
you are picking up some of them from time to time. Perhaps there are
various noises around you -- voices from another room, the ticking of
a clock, a radio playing in the distance, a roommate's movements and
sounds. From time to time you may become aware of being hot or
cold, or your back may itch, or your sitting position may become
uncomfortable. Thus, as you read these pages your sensory receptors
are continuously picking up signs from all these parts of the reality
that surrounds you.

II. Sensory Limitations

The number and types of signs we can detect from the real world,
however, are limited by our sensory abilities. In short, the human
sensory receptors are restricted. They are not capable of detecting all
the signs that we know exist in the real world. For example, our eyes
can detect only a small part of the total spectrum of wavelengths; and
the ability to detect within these wavelengths varies from person to
person. We can see only a fraction of the distance a hawk can see.
Our ears can pick up only a narrow band of the vast range of air
vibrations, and people's ability to pick up sounds within these ranges
varies. As we all know, dogs and birds can hear much that we cannot.
Likewise, we can smell only the stronger odors around us, while dogs
and most other animals do a much better job of smelling and so.
Clearly, our senses are limited and can detect only a small portion of
the reality surrounding us.

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III. Selective Perception
Although incapable of detecting all that exists in the real world, our
sensory receptors can select some signs and ignore others. Place
yourself, for example, in a roomful of talking people, and notice how
it is possible to tune in on one conversation and ignore others. Or
notice how you are able to focus your vision on one minute object and
then expand your view to a much broader picture. All of us have this
ability to varying extents, and we can make use of it with all of our
senses.

IV. Varying Alertness and Perception

Our detection or non-detection of signs also depends on our
receptiveness to signs. There are times when we are keenly alert to
our communication environment and times when we are less alert.
Certainly you have experienced occasions when you were sleepy, in a
daze, or just daydreaming. During such times, you missed many of
the signs in your communication environment. When you are asleep,
you detect almost none.

2.2.4 The Communication Process

To this point we have seen how each of us lives in an environment of signs
and how these signs are with us throughout each day. We have also seen
how our ability to detect these signs varies, how we can tune them in or tune
them out, and how our alertness to them varies across time. With this
knowledge of the communication environment as a foundation, we are now
ready to describe the communication process.

Communication is a two-way process in which there is an exchange and

progression of ideas towards a mutually accepted direction or goal. For this
process to materialize, it is essential that the basic elements of
communication be identified. These elements are:

7
Sender/Encoder/Speaker

Message

Medium

Receiver/Decoder/Listener

Feedback

Sender/Encoder/Speaker
The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to
as the sender. From his personal data bank he selects ideas, Encoding of
encodes them and finally transmits them to the receiver in the form of a
message. The entire burden of communication then rests upon the sender
or encoder. His choice of images and words, and the combination of the two
is what goads the receiver to listen carefully. In this process a number of
factors come into play, primary among them being an understanding of the
recipient and his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance with
the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is going to be higher.
For example, a consultant wishes to communicate with the HRD manager of
a company. The objective is to secure consultancy projects on training of
personnel. If the consultant wishes the HRD manager to communicate with
him, he has to ensure that their goals converge. He has a tough task ahead of
him. The manager has been interacting with many consultants. Why should
he pay heed to the proposal of this consultant? In a situation such as this, a
good strategy to be adopted is to expand the purview of the proposal and
make it company specific. The result could be highlighted and spelt out in
terms of increase in sales. If sufficient preparation has been done, the
message too would be formulated in a manner conducive to the interests of
the HRD manager.

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Receiver/Decoder/listener
The listener receives an encoded message, which he attempts to decode. This
process is carried on in relation to the work environment and the value
perceived in terms of the work situation. If the goal of the sender is clear in
the mind of receiver the job of decoding becomes quite easy and the listener
find the message more receptive. The decoding of the message is done in
almost entirely the same terms as were intended by the sender. In the
example cited above, as soon as the HRD manager realizes that the proposal
of the consultant is going to result in tangible benefits, he becomes more
receptive and his interest in communication is reinforced.

Message
Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. The formulation of
the message is very important, for an incorrect patterning can turn the
receiver hostile or make him lose interest. At this stage the sender has to be
extremely cautious. What is the order in which he would like to present his
ideas? Suppose he has four points to make. Would he (a) move in the
stereotyped manner of presenting them in a sequence or (b) would he like to
be innovative and proceed in a creative way? Probability is high that in the
first case and he might become monotonous and in the latter case (b) he
might touch a wrong spot. How then should the message be formulated and
transmitted? The ordering, as stated earlier, should be based on the
requirements of the listener so that its significance is immediately grasped.
The minute the receiver finds his goals codified in the message, he sits up,
listens and responds. The message thus has made an impact.

Medium
Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It
could be oral, verbal or non-verbal. Prior to the composition of the message,
the medium. channel should be decided. Each medium follows its own set of
rules and regulations. For example, in oral communication one can afford to

9
be a little informal, but when using the written mode, all rules of
communication need to be observed. It must be remembered that anything in
writing is a document that would be field for records or circulated to all
concerned.

Feedback
This is the most important component of communication. Effective
communication takes place only when there is feedback. The errors and
flaws that abound in business situations are a result of lack of feedback. Let
us take a look at the typical responses of people involved in
miscommunication: "This is not what I meant" or "This is not what I said" or
"This was not my intention". If feedback is solicited on all occasions, this
error can be minimized or even completely done away with. Fallacious
statements or erroneous conclusions are made because of lack of
confirmation through feedback and discrepancy between the message
transmitted and message understood.

Process of Communication
The sender, according to his ideas, behaviour pattern and intention, selects a
message, encodes it, and transmits it to the receiver through a medium-be it
oral, verbal or non-verbal. As soon as the message reaches the receiver, he
decodes it and gives an internal response to the perceived message. It is
noteworthy that the response is not in relation to the actual content but rather
to the "perceived content" of the original message. This completes the first
phase of the communication process. Interestingly at this point words in
themselves have no meaning. It is the perception of a particular word and the
intention behind it that assign it meaning. The manner in which the sender
and receiver perceive the same word could give rise to difference in encoding
and decoding.

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In the second phase, the receiver formulates his message, encodes it and
transmits it to the original sender-now-turned-receiver. This stage is referred
to as providing feedback and is most crucial. Unless and until there is
feedback - be it in the verbal or the non-verbal form-, we cannot say that
effective communication has taken place. If the feedback is in tune with the
original intent of the sender, communication proceeds without a hitch.
However, there could be moments when the receiver does not agree with the
message of the sender. This does not mean that there is breakdown of
communication. We can, in such instances, state that effective
communication is stalled for the time being. It could resume after
subsequent discussions.

For the process of communication to be effective, there should be a well

defined goal in the mind of the sender. Harmony between the goals of the
two communicators makes for good and easy progression of ideas and
concepts. Whatever be the initial situation, the sender necessarily needs to
adhere to the following stages:

1. Create awareness in the mind of the receiver on the topic.

2. Propose his own point of view with clarity and preciseness so as to
eliminate possibilities of confusion in the mind of the receiver.
3. Enable smooth flow of discussion through observance of
communication strategies.

MESSAGE
ENCODING DECODING

IDEA SENDER CHANNEL RECEIVER

DECODING OF FEEDBACK ENCODING OF FEEDBACK

FEEDBACK

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(Figure: 2.1 Communication Process)

4. Reinforce or correct ideas in the mind of the receiver concerning the

goal of communication.
5. Achieve the goal of communication.

At the time of transmission and reception of message, all our five senses play
an important role in grasping its intent. The sense that is predominantly
active at a particular stage, helps in a higher degree of absorption, for
example, in the course of the communication, if the visual sense at a
particular moment, is highly active, we respond only to the visual cues.

2.3 Summary
Two-way communication is more effective than one-way communication.
The feedback allows the sender the refine his communication so that it
becomes more precise and accurate. Receivers' self-confidence is higher in
case of two-way communication as they are permitted to ask questions and
seek clarification from the senders.

Thus, these were the various spices which must be added to make each and
every element of the communication process is of its utmost importance and
with the absence of any of these elements the communication can’t be
effective or we can say that the absence of any of the above elements makes
the communication process same as a handicap person living his life in the
absence of any important part of the body. So, as a business communicator
our efforts should be to make communication process as effective as possible
and let each element of the process to play its part, sufficiently well.

2.4 Key Words

1. Human Communication: It is the verbal part of communication that is far
from being a natural function; that is, it is not the sort of thing we would do if
left to nature's devices, as we would many of our other activities.

12
2. Communication Environment: It is the process that is logically preceded by
an analysis of the atmosphere in which communication occurs.
3. Communication Process: It is a two-way course in which there is an
exchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually accepted direction or
goal. For this process to materialize, it is essential that the basic elements of
communication be identified.

2.5 Self Assessment Exercise

1. "Communication is sharing of understanding”, Discuss this and bring
out the process of communication.
2. "Management is a two-way traffic; it is based upon the effective
machinery of communication.” Discuss this statement.

2.6 Suggested Readings

1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition,
1998.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication: Theory
and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.
4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business Communication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi, 2001.

13
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson: 3

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Objective: The major objective of this lesson is to create an understanding in the

minds of students regarding various communication skills and also let
them know the relevance of such skills.

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Presentation of Contents
3.2.1 Objective of Business Communication.
3.2.2 Effective Communications Skills
3.2.3 Barriers and Gateways of Communication
3.3 Summary
3.4 Key Words
3.5 Self Assessment Exercise
3.6 Suggested Readings.

3.1 Introduction
The science of communication is almost as old as civilization. From time
immemorial, the need to share or to communicate had been felt. Different
vehicles/channels were identified and subsequently improvised for the
purpose of transmission of ideas and concepts. A study of these channels
enables us to gain an insight into the process of communication within and
outside an organization.

Since communication is the lifeblood of an organization so, without proper

communication organization cannot stay alive. As such, the top management
of an organization should ensure that adequate and smooth communication
flows in all directions and it is effective as well. A periodic review of the
existing pattern of communication effectiveness should be made. This
review would, on the one hand, reveal the direction in which the existing
situation falls short of organizational requirements and, on the other would
reveal the underlying forces responsible for the prevailing state of affairs as
also the actions required to remove those.

Communication is, however, one of the most difficult of all the managerial
activities to measure. Quantitative and objective proof of the success of
effectiveness is extremely hard to come by. However, in evaluating
communication, much can be accomplished by a systematic approach
utilizing a planned method of evaluation that likes for results in terms of
stated objectives and takes into account both success and failure.

Any assessment of communication, as such, requires the determination of the

criteria for this evaluation and fixation of norms in respect of these criteria.
Both of these are, further, to be oriented to the basic objective of the process
itself. In general terms, the objective of communication may be defined as
the passing of ideas and understanding from the sender to the target with the
view to getting the desired behavioural response from the latter. The finding
out of the actual behavioural responses and comparing these with the
expected ones, however, in case of this continuously on-going process,
presents insurmountable difficulties. The ultimate objectives of the
communication are related to the communication programmes through their
relationships with immediate objectives.

Effective communication, as such, might be the accurate transmission and

receipt thereof and its correct understanding. There are several elements in
communication that can be evaluated to assess directly the effectiveness of
communication.

2
3.2.1 Objectives of Business Communication
The main purpose of all communication in an organization is the general
welfare of the organization. Effective communication is needed at all stages
in order to ensure this welfare. At the planning stage, information is needed
on the various aspects of the enterprise, the feasibility of the project being
undertaken, finances involved, man-power required, marketing conditions,
publicity campaigns, etc. At the execution stage, orders are issued to the
employees to start work, the workers associated with the project are
constantly motivated and kept involved, a sense of discipline is cultivated
among them and their morale is kept high. All this requires constant two
way communication between the managers and the employees. Then at the
assessment stage, the manager is again required to communicate with various
sources, both internal and external, to assess the success of the project, and if
a need is felt, to envisage modifications in the future plans. In view of this
elaborated and complex commercial structure, communication can be used
for any or more of the following objectives:
1. Information 2. Advice
3. Order 4. Suggestion
5. Persuasion 6. Education
7. Warning 8. Raising morale
9. Motivation

INFORMATION
One of the most important objectives of communication is passing or
receiving information about a particular fact or circumstance. It can be done
either through spoken or written language or by using other system of signs
or signals. Managers need complete, accurate and precise information to
plan and organize; employees need it to translate planning into reality.

External information

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Information on the following aspects is very vital for the existence and
welfare of any organization:
1. Information about its products: (i) consumer response to its products
in comparison with competing products with reference to quality as
well as price, (ii) whether they are being produced in conformity with
the latest trends.
2. Information about the availability of credit: the nature of the various
financial institutions and the terms and conditions on which credit is
offered by them.
3. Information about the availability of raw materials: how better quality
raw materials can be procured on easier terms, or if there are any
cheaper substitutes available.
4. Information about the Government rules and regulations: what kind of
effect the rules and regulations of the Government and the changing
political scene can have on the product policy of the organization.
5. Information about the advertising media: their efficiency, suitability,
relative merits and the expenses involved.
6. Information about the latest development in the fields of science and
technology: how latest innovations can be used to modernize the
production techniques wither to improve the quality of the products or
to effect economy in labour, time, money, etc.

Internal information
Internally, information should e freely given to the employees on the
following points:
1. Information on job assignments and procedures governing them:
Information about the precise nature of every employee's job, its scope
and the procedures governing it should be readily available with every
employee as well as in the files of the organization.

4
2. Information on status and decision-making powers: The exact
designation of the officers and their decision-making powers enjoyed
by them should be clearly defined.
3. General information on the policies and activities of the organization:
If the employees are kept well informed about the policies of the
organization and other related aspects, it inculcates among a sense of
belonging and gives them greater job satisfaction. It also helps them
to acquire confidence in themselves.
ADVICE
Giving advice is another important objective of communication. Information
is always factual and objective. But advice, since is involves personal
opinions, is likely to be subjective. Information is neutral in itself. When it
is offered to a person, he may use it as he likes. But advice is given to him
either to influence his opinion or his behaviour. I may prove helpful, but it
may also lead to disaster.

Importance of advice
Commercial activities in the modern world have become extremely complex.
Each individual activity needs specialized handling, which cannot be
expected from people working single-handed. However competent a
businessperson may be, he cannot have specialized knowledge of all
branches like fiancé, taxation, publicity, engineering, public relations, etc. If
he wants to run his business successfully, he will have to seek expert advice
quite frequently.

Within the organization, the supervisory staff is required to advise the junior
employees. Supervisors are usually persons of long standing and have a
great deal of experience at their command. Being in close contact with their
superiors (usually the board of directors) they are well familiar with the
policies and functioning of the organization. They are, therefore, in an
excellent position to guide, counsel or advise their subordinate staff.

5
Advice flows horizontally or downwards
Advice by its very nature, flows horizontally or downwards. Expert advice
from outside flows horizontally. The boards of directors advising one
another on some policy matter are also engaged in a kind of horizontal
communication. But advice soon starts flowing down to the management
personnel, the supervisory staff and the subordinate staff or the operatives.

How to make advice effective

While offering advice, the advisor should keep the following points in mind:
1. Advice should be both man-oriented and work-oriented, i.e., it should
be related to a specific piece of work, and should be given in such a
way that it suits the individual needs of the recipient. It means that
while explaining the complexities and subtleties of a job, the adviser
ought to keep in mind the understanding power of the person he is
advising.
2. Advice should not be given to a persons to make him feel conscious of
his inferior knowledge or skill. If the adviser assumes a patronizing
tone, the other person is bound to resent it. So the adviser ought to be
very friendly in his attitude.
3. The only justified motive of giving advice is the betterment of the
worker. The adviser should genuinely feel this motive. And he
should give this very feeling to the worker. He should so mould his
tone and phrase his language that he makes the other persons feel
absolutely at ease.
4. If given in a right tone, advice can often promote better understanding
between the adviser and his subordinates. It can prove that the adviser
is taking personal interest in his subordinate staff and is, therefore,
interested in their welfare.
5. If the subordinate staff is given freedom to react, advice can become a
two-way channel of communication. It may perhaps bring about some

6
excellent suggestions for the improvement of the organization's
functioning.

COUNSELING
Counseling is very similar giving advice. Only, counsel is objective and
impersonal. The counselor is a man of greater skill or knowledge on some
specific subject and he offers his counsel without any personal interest or
involvement. Advice has a personal touch about it; counsel is almost
professional. Advice is often unsought and is unwelcome; counsel is eagerly
sought.
A number of large business houses now have their counseling departments,
which offer the employees advice on domestic or personal problems. Even
an efficient employee may become tardy and indifferent if he is facing some
personal problems at home. This may adversely affect the working of the
organization. It may also infect other employees and lower their morale.
Such employees are encouraged to consult the counseling department, which
has on its staff a panel of doctors, psychologists and social workers. These
experts hold a series of sittings with the employees and thrash out their
problems. The employees are restored to their mental and physical health
and the conditions in the organization are brought back to the normal.

ORDER
Order is an authoritative communication. It is a directive to somebody,
always a subordinate, to do something, to modify or alter the course of
something he is already doing, or not to do something. Whatever be the
nature and size of an organization, orders are absolutely necessary for it. The
downward flow of information is dominated by orders.

Types of order
Keeping different aspects of orders in mind, we can classify orders in
various ways:

7
(a) Written and oral orders.
Written orders are usually given in the following cases:
1. The order is of a highly responsible nature. It is essential to keep a
record of it and to make it absolutely specific.
2. The task is repetitive in nature. It is cumbersome and inconvenient to
issue oral orders every time the task is to be done.
3. The person being ordered is remotely situated and it is not possible to
give him oral orders.
Oral orders are given in the following cases:
1. The job is required to be done immediately.
2. It is ordinary job and there is no need of maintaining any written
record.
3. There is a kind of permanent superior-subordinate relationship
between the giver and the receiver of the order and the order-giver
does not feel the need of entering into the cumbersome process of
issuing written orders.

(b) General and specific orders.

If orders are related to one particular activity, they are specific. If there are a
number of activities having operational similarities, general orders may be
issued to cover all of them. Again, in case it is not possible to foresee all the
attendant situations connected with an activity, it may become necessary to
issue general orders.

(c) Procedural and operational orders.

Procedural orders specify procedures to be adopted. They are general by
nature. Operational orders are more closely related to the job in hand. They
specify how a particular job is to be done.

(d) Mandatory and discretionary orders.

8
Mandatory orders have to be obeyed. Discretionary orders are usually in the
nature of recommendations. They suggest what is desirable, what should be
done. But it is up to the receive; to see their feasibility and to decide whether
he ought to carry them out or not. The Head Office may issue discretionary
orders to the branch manager, for the branch manager, being present on the
spot, knows better whether the orders are to be carried out or not.

Characteristics of an effective order

1. I must be clear and complete so that the person who receives the order
knows exactly what to do, how to do and when to do it.
2. It execution should be possible, that is, the person who has to execute
it has the materials, tools, equipment, time and ability to execute it. If
any hurdles are likely to be experienced, the order should specify how
they are to overcome.
3. It should be given in a friendly way so that it is not resented and is not
carried out reluctantly.

Instruction
Instruction is a particular type of order in which the subordinate is not only
ordered to do a job but is also given guidance on how to do it. If the
accounts officer asks one of his clerks to prepare a voucher, he has issued an
order. If he shows the clerk how to prepare a voucher and then asks him to
prepare more, he has issued instructions.

SUGGESTION
It would be wrong to presume that the best ideas on a subject come only from
the supervisory staff or the directors. The lower staff, in fact being actually
in touch with the operative aspect, is capable of giving some positive
suggestions on procedural and operational aspects.

9
Suggestion enjoys one great advantage over other means of communication
like advice or order. Advice comes from an expert, order comes from a
higher authority. In either case, the recipient of the communicator, is slightly
conscious of his inferiority and may resent it. Accepting a suggestion is at
his discretion, so a suggestion is usually welcome.

Suggestion is supposed to be a very mild and subtle form of communication.

Still, since it flows horizontally or vertically upwards, it may hurt someone's
ego to recognize its utility and readily accept it. But enlightened executives
should set aside the ridiculous notions of false self-importance and welcome
positive, constructive suggestions with an open mind.
These days, progressive houses make a provision for suggestion boxes,
which are placed at some convenient place in the office or the factory.
Workers are encouraged to drop their suggestions into these boxes.
Sometimes these suggestions have to be written on specially prepared cards.
If an employee does not want to reveal his name, there is a provision for it.
These suggestion boxes are opened at regular intervals, the suggestions
received are scrutinized and the employees offering the best suggestions are
awarded prizes.

PERSUASION
Persuasion may be defined as an effort to influence the attitudes, feelings, or
beliefs of others, or to influence actions based on those attitudes, feelings, or
beliefs. Persuasion is an important objective of communication. Buyers
have often to be persuaded to buy a particular article available with the seller
in place of the one they actually wanted to buy. In the office of the factory,
the lazy, the incompetent and the disgruntled workers have to be persuaded
to do their work.

Human nature is not amenable to coercion or repression. Whenever force is

applied to command a particular action, it breeds resentment and indignation.

10
It is better to use persuasion than compulsion. But even persuasion seeks to
change beliefs and attitudes, which people do not like at all. So in order to be
successful, persuasion has to be indirect and suggestive. The buyers and the
workers should be so manipulated that they change their mind without
getting conscious of the change, or if they are conscious, they believe that the
change is to their advantage. Persuasion is an art, which has to be learnt with
great care.

The art of persuasion

1. Persuasion needs conviction on your part. You should be genuinely
convinced that the alternative course of action being suggested by you
is in the interest of the organization as well as in the receiver's interest.
You must not try to persuade others from a purely selfish motive.
2. Do not impose yourself on the receiver of your communication. Do
not overwhelm him with arguments. Give indirect hints and subtle
suggestions. Gently channelise his thinking in such a way that he
adopts the point of view or the course of action suggested by you as if
he had arrived at it as a result of his own thinking.
3. If the other person is docile and has a flexible mind, he will be easily
persuaded. But if he is headstrong, a self-opinionated person, try to
meet him half-way. Concede a few points to hi in the beginning.
Then gradually bring him round on the other points.
4. Bring yourself to the level of the other person. Try to look at the issue
from his point of view and mould your arguments accordingly. Of the
numerous arguments available with you, select those that may have
special appeal to him.

The art of persuasion consists of four important steps:

1. Analyzing the situation. This is the preparatory step. The
communicator analyses the situation to find out why the need of
persuasion has arisen and what will be the advantages and

11
disadvantages of the new course of action being suggested. He also
studies the psychology of the man to be persuaded in order to plan a
suitable strategy.
2. Preparing the receiver. It is but natural that people resent being
persuaded to change their views or behaviour. The receiver has to be
prepared for it. This can be done by putting him in a pleasant frame of
mind. He may be complimented on some of his outstanding qualities
and achievements. An appeal may be made to his adaptability and
open-mindedness. The points on which the communicator agrees with
him may be mentioned first, so that a kind of meeting ground for the
communicator and the receiver is prepared. It is also necessary that
the communicator discusses the whole issue from the receiver's point
of view.
3. Delivering the message. The third step is to deliver the message. The
message should be delivered stage by stage, with the help of forceful
arguments, beginning with those parts of the message, which are
easier to accept, and delaying the unpleasant parts as much as
possible.
4. Prompting action. Prompting action is but a logical consummation of
the first three steps. If the first steps have been taken carefully, the
receiver of the message will be easily persuaded to adopt a different
course of action (or hold a different view).

EDUCATION
Education is a very conscious process of communication. It involves both
teaching and learning and extends over considerably long periods. The main
purpose of education is to widen knowledge as well as to improve skills. It is
carried on at three levels: (a) at the management level; (b) at the level of the
employees; and (c) at the level of the outside public.

12
1. Education for the management: Knowledge is multiplying fast. Each
new day brings with it innovations, which if suitably applied can
revolutionize the working of an organization. Managers are required
to keep abreast of the latest innovations. In other words, they have to
be educated. Their education can take place through books, lectures,
seminars, case studies, study tours, etc. Junior managers have to be
educated to assume responsibility when they succeed to higher
positions.
2. Education for the employees. Just as the managers are required to
keep abreast of the latest innovations in the field of commerce and
technology, when these innovations are introduced in the office or the
factory, the employees have to be educated to use them. Such a
programme of education is called reorientation. Employees can be
educated through talks, demonstrations, bulletins and house organs.
3. Education for the outside public. The outside needs knowledge on the
new products being introduced into the market, the relative merits of
the various brands already existing, the availability of the substitutes,
complementary and supplementary products, comparative prices,
concessions and discounts, if any. This useful knowledge is offered
through advertisements, specially sponsored features in the
newspapers, information talks and articles.

WARNING
If employees do not abide by the norms of the organization, or violate the
rules and regulations, it may become necessary to warn them. Tardiness,
negligence, defiance, tempering with the records, mishandling equipment,
lack of regularity and punctuality, gossiping, pilfering office stationery and
material, spreading rumours, misleading new employees are some of the
actions that call for a reprimand or a warning. Warning is a forceful means
of communication, for it demands immediate action. But in order to retain its

13
effectiveness, it should be used sparingly and discreetly. While issuing
warnings, the following points should be kept in mind:

1. Some warnings are general. 'No smoking', 'No talking', 'Beware of the
dog' are general warnings. They are not aimed at any particular
person, nor are they likely to hurt anybody's feelings. Such warnings
are usually given in the form of notices. They are almost akin to
information.
2. More often, warning are given to particular persons. They involve
disciplinary action in the form of reprimand. Reprimands are very
demoralizing; they may also evoke resentment. Before reprimanding
an employee, it is very important to ascertain the truth of the charges
leveled against him. Reprimand should never spring from personal
prejudices. It should be as fair and dispassionate as possible. And it
should never be accompanied with a display of rage.
3. Reprimand should not be administered to a person in the presence of
others. It will make him feel humiliated and nobody likes to be
humiliated. The worker should be summoned in the privacy of the
supervisor's room and dispassionately talked to. He should be given
an opportunity to explain himself. If his arguments fail to convince
the supervisor, he should, without losing temper, clearly tell the
worker what is expected of him.
4. It is also useful to investigate the causes of the worker's undesirable
behaviour. He may be burdened by some domestic or personal
problems. Or he may be nursing some personal grudge against the
supervisor or the organization. If the supervisor can succeed in
talking him out of his problems, the warning given to him will become
constructive.
5. The aim of giving a warning should be the betterment of the
organization. It should not be used to cause disruption. It is very

14
important to be judicious in the choice of words used in administering
warning and reprimands.

RAISING MORALE
Moral stands for mental health. It is the sum of several qualities like
courage, fortitude, resolution and confidence. High morale and efficient
performance go hand in hand. It acts as a kind of lubricant among people,
binds them with a sense of togetherness and impels them to work in
cooperation with one another in the best interest of their organization.

Factors conducive to the creation of a high morale

1. Every worker gets work suited to his physical and intellectual caliber.
He feels his work is important and it is appreciated by the authorities.
He is free to do his work as he likes. He is encouraged to give
suggestions.
2. The atmosphere in the premises is congenial. The superiors are
efficient and their attitude is constructive. They enjoy the worker's
respect.
3. Promotional avenues are available to the workers.
4. Genuine grievances of the workers are promptly removed.

MOTIVATION
Motivation energizes and activities a person and changeless his behaviour
towards the attainment of desired goals. Motivation and behaviour are
intimately related to each other. In order and persuasion, the communicator
enjoys an upper hand. But in motivation he keeps himself in the background.
He does not order his employees to work, he motivates them so that they
work willingly and eagerly. A motivated worker does not need much
supervision. He does his work as if it were his own, as if his own interests
were closely tied up with the successful performance and completion of the
work entrusted to him. An office or factory that enjoys the support of

15
motivated workers shows much better results than another office or factory in
which workers are commanded to work.

Offering monetary incentives is perhaps the most effective form of

motivation. People working on contract basis are always motivated to work,
for their earning increase in proportion to their work. People work
reluctantly during the office hours but willingly stay back to work overtime.
However, it may not be always possible, or even desirable, to offer monetary
incentives. Such a practice is likely to set unhealthy precedents with the
implication that whenever such motives are absent, the workers will just
refuse to work.

Though earning money may be the most important motive for working
harder, it is not the only motive. Other factors like job satisfaction, prestige,
a sense of belonging to a great organization can also induce or motivate
workers to work sincerely and efficiently. Motivation as a form of
communication deals with these factors.

Human minds are not identical and are not stimulated to the same extent by
the forces. It is for the supervisor to clearly understand all the motivating
forces, analyze the psychological needs of the individual workers and to use
proper motivation to make all his workers work in cooperation.

The following points deserve consideration in discussing motivation as a

form of communication:
1. Workers should be invited to give suggestions and to participate in the
decision-making process, if a suggestion coming from a junior
employee is accepted, he will feel motivated to work hard and prove
that his suggestion was really good.

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2. If clear achievement goals are set before the workers so that they
know what they are working for, they will work hard to achieve these
goals.
3. Apart from the satisfaction of their basic human needs like food,
clothing and shelter, all human beings yearn for security, healthy
social relationships and a dignified and respectable existence. They
would definitely feel motivated to work in an organization capable of
offering them these things. The management should take effective
steps to offer the workers security of work and a congenial atmosphere
in which they can work in harmony with their colleagues.
4. Example, they say, is better than precept. If the supervisory staff is so
sincere and competent that it can command the respect and confidence
of the workers, the latter will feel motivated to work harder.

3.2.2 Effective Communication Skills

In any business environment, adherence to the 7 C's and the 4 S's helps the
sender in transmitting his message with ease and accuracy. Let us first take a
look at the 7 C's:

Credibility
Builds trust: If the sender can establish his credibility, the receiver has no
problems in accepting his statement. Establishing credibility is not the
outcome of a one-shot statement. It is a long-drawn out process in which the
receiver through constant interaction with the sender understands his credible
nature and is willing to accept his statements as being truthful and honest.

Courtesy
Improves relationships: Once the credibility of the sender has been
established, attempts should be made at being courteous in expression. In the
business world, almost everything starts with and ends in courtesy. Much

17
can be accomplished if tact, diplomacy and appreciation of people are woven
in the message.
Example
(a) Jane: "You can never do things right. Try working on this project. If
you are lucky you may not have to redo it."
(b) Jane: "This is an interesting project. Do you think you would be able
to do it. I know last time something went wrong with the project, but
everyone makes mistakes. Suppose we sat down and discussed it
threadbare I'm sure you would be able to do wonders".

The two statements convey totally different impressions. While the first
statement is more accusative, the second is more tactfully and appreciative of
the efforts put in by the receiver at an earlier stage. The crux of the message
in both the statements is the same: You want an individual within an
organization to undertake a project. The manner in which it is stated brings
about a difference in approach. Further, expressions that might hurt or cause
mental pain to the receiver should, as far as possible, be ignored. For this it
becomes essential that the "I" attitude be discarded in favour of the "you"
attitude. Development of interest in the "you" will perforce make the other
individual also see the point of view of the other. At the time of emphasizing
the "you-attitude", only the positive and pleasant "you-issues" should be
considered. If it is being used as a corrective measure, then the results are
not going to be very positive or encouraging.

Clarity
Makes comprehension easier: Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the
meaning of the message. The first stage is clarity in the mind of the sender.
The next stage is the transmission of the message in a manner, which makes
it simple language, and easy sentence constructions, which are not difficult
for the receiver to grasp, should be used.

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Correctness
Builds confidence: At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that
his knowledge of the receiver is comprehensive. The level of knowledge,
educational background and status of the decoder help the encoder in
formulating his message. In case there is any discrepancy between the usage
and comprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. If the sender
decides to back up his communication with facts and figures, there should be
accuracy in stating the same. A situation in which the listener is forced to
check the presented facts and figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of
terms should be nondiscriminatory, e.g., the general concept is that women
should be addressed for their physical appearance whereas men for their
mental abilities. This, however, is a stereotype and at the time of addressing
or praising members of both the sexes, the attributes assigned should be the
same. Similarly for occupational references. In the business world almost all
professions are treated with respect. Addressing one individual for
competence in his profession but neglecting the other on this score because
of a so-called 'inferior' profession alienates the listener from the sender.

Consistency
Introduces stability. The approach to communication should, as far as
possible, be consistent. There should not be too many ups and downs that
might lead to confusion in the mind of the receiver. If a certain stand has
been taken, it should be observed without there being situations in which the
sender is left groping for the actual content or meaning. If the sender desires
to bring about a change in his understanding of the situation, he should
ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard for the receiver to comprehend.

Concreteness
Reinforces confidence. Concrete and specific expressions are to be
preferred in favour of vague and abstract expressions. In continuation of the
point on correctness, the facts and figures presented should be specific.

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Abstractions or abstract statements can cloud the mind of the sender. Instead
of stating: "There has been a tremendous escalation in the sales figure",
suppose the sender made the following statement: "There has been an
escalation in the sales figures by almost 50% as compared to last year”. The
receiver is more apt to listen and comprehend the factual details.

Conciseness
Saves time. The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise
as possible. Weighty language definitely sounds impressive but people
would be suitably impressed into doing precisely nothing. As far as possible,
only simple and brief statements should be made. Excessive information can
also sway the receiver into either a wrong direction or into inaction.
Quantum of information should be just right, neither too much nor too little,
e.g. In most cases it has been seen that the date of the policy … Usually
the policy date…
In the first example, the statement is rather long and convoluted. However, the
second example gives it the appearance of being crisp, concise and to the point.

7 C's of Business Communication

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C's Relevance
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Credibility Builds trust
Courtesy Improves relationships
Clarity Makes comprehension easier
Correctness Builds confidence
Consistency Introduces stability
Concreteness Reinforces confidence
Conciseness Saves time
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4 S's of Business Communication
An understanding of the 4 S's is equally important.

Shortness
Economizes. "Brevity is the soul of wit”, it is said. The same can be said
about communication. If the message can be made brief, and verbosity done
away with, then transmission and comprehension of messages is going to be
faster and more effective. Flooding messages with high sounding words does
not create an impact. Many people harbour a misconception that they can
actually impress the receiver, if they carry on their expeditious travails.
Little do they realize how much they have lost as the receiver has spent a
major chunk of his time in trying to decipher the actual meaning of the
message.
Simplicity
Impresses. Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals a clarity
in the thinking process. It is normally a tendency that when an individual is
himself confused that he tries to use equally confusing strategies to lead the
receiver in a maze. Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simple
terminology and equally simple concepts.

Strength
Convinces. The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the
sender. If the sender himself believes in a message that he is about to
transmit, there is bound to be strength and conviction in whatever he tries to
state. Half-hearted statements or utterances that the sender himself does not
believe in add a touch of falsehood to the entire communication process.

Sincerity
Appeals. A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If
the sender is genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he
communicates. Suppose there is a small element of deceit involved in the

21
interaction or on the part of the sender. If the receiver is keen and observed,
he would be able to sense the make-believe situation and, business
transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.

3.2.3 Barriers and Gateways of Communication

The success of a manager depends on how clear he is in his mind about his
basic functions and how effectively he can transfer this clarity of thought to
others. This involves a skill of helping others to understand the manager and
to be understood by him. Thus, the need for better mutual understanding
between labour and management in industry cannot be over-emphasized. It
is, in fact, a prerequisite of congenial climate necessary for the overall
advancement and productivity. The importance of communication in
management for getting the work done may also be seen from the estimate of
time which is spent by a manager in communication - verbal or written, in
conferences or meetings, giving directions or receiving information. Most of
the managers spend more than 60% of their time in communication with
others.

Barriers in Communication: The various inadequacies that can be

identified through communication evaluation are required to be analyzed in
terms of various factors - obstructions and barriers - that impede flow
communication. Any managerial action in this regard can be effective only
when it strikes at the very root of the factors that lie at the very root of the
problem. From this viewpoint, identification of different factors is necessary.

There might be a number of such barriers impeding the flow of

communication in the organization. These may be classified as: (i) external
(ii) organizational, and (iii) personal factors. However, such a classification
does not suggest that these are mutually exclusive. Rather, such a
classification is helpful in understanding the nature of communication
barriers.

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External Barriers
Barriers to communication may be either external to the parties involved or
they might be internal to them. External barriers may affect communication
in any context, whether organizational or otherwise. Such external barriers
may be in the following forms:
1. Semantic Barriers: Semantic barriers are obstructions causes in the process
of receiving or understanding of the message during the process on encoding
and decoding ideas and words. These barriers arise from the linguistic
capacity of the parties involved. Words are the principal communication
instrument but a common difficulty with the words is that each word has
several meanings. For example, in English language, the word 'round' has
seventy five meanings. The Oxford Dictionary records an average of twenty-
eight separate meanings for each of the 500 most used words in the English
language. Similar is the position in other languages. Thus, words sometimes
fail to convey real meanings. Moreover, they work as barriers in
communication in the following manner.
(i) Badly Expressed Message: Lack of clarity and precision in a message
makes it badly expressed. Poorly chosen and empty words and
phrases, careless omission, lack of coherence, bad organization of
ideas, awkward sentence structure, inadequate vocabulary, platitudes,
numbering repetition jargon, failure to clarify implications are some
common faults found in this case.
(ii) Faulty Translations: Every manager receives various types of
communications from superiors, peers, subordinates and he must
translate information destined for subordinates, peers and superiors
into language suitable to each. Hence the message has to be put into
words appropriate to the framework in which the receiver operates, or
it must be accompanied by an interpretation, which will be understood
by the receiver. This needs a high level of linguistic capacity.

23
Approximate understanding of words and the consequent faulty
translations lead to impaired efficiency and heavy costs.
(iii) Unclarified Assumptions: There are certain un-communicated
assumptions, which underlie practically all messages. Though a
message appears to be specific, it underlying assumptions may not be
clear to the receiver.
(iv) Specialist's Language: It is often found that technical personal
and special groups tend to develop a special, peculiar and technical
language of their own. This increases their isolation from others and
builds a communication barrier. Whatever be the intention of this
special language, it hinders their communication with persons not in
their specialty, because of the receiver's ignorance of that type of
language.

2. Emotional or Psychological Barriers: Emotional or psychological factors

are the prime barriers in inter-personnel communication. The meaning
ascribed to a message depends upon the emotional or psychological status of
both the parties involved. In a communication, apart from the message, there
is a meta-message, that is, what one gets out of a message when decoding.
Meta-message, the emotions of the receiver play a vital role and he may not
be at a wavelength as that of the communicator. Keith Davis opines that
these "exist in the people's minds or because of their actions, such as being
hard to contact or difficult to understand. These barriers to communication
are just at effective as an actual physical wall. Often these human barriers
are more like filter paper then a brick wall. They let through some
communications, but hold back others, thereby making communication
inadequate….This 'half-way' communication gets 'half-way' results".
Following are some emotional barriers:
(i) Premature Evaluation: Rogers and Roethlisberger in 1952, first
pointed out this barrier. Premature evaluation is the tendency of
prematurely evaluating communications, rather than to keep an un-

24
compromised position during the interchange. Such evaluation stops
the transfer of information and begets in the sender a sense of futility.
This barrier can be remedied by 'empathy', non-evaluative listening,
where the communication is listened to in a non-committal and
unprejudiced way, so that sagacious decision and action can follow.
(ii) Inattention: The preoccupied mind of a receiver and the resultant
non-listening is one of the major chronic psychological barriers. It is a
common phenomenon that people simply fail to react to bulletins,
notices, minutes and reports.
(iii) Loss by Transmission and Poor Retention: When communication
passes through various levels in the organization, successive
transmissions of the same message are decreasingly accurate. It is
said that in case of oral communications about 30 percent of the
information is lost in each transmission. Even in case of written
communication, loss of meaning might occur as far as the appended
interpretation, if any, is concerned. Poor retention of the information
is again a malady. It is shown that employees retain about 50 percent
of information only, whereas supervisors retain about 60 percent of it.
(iv) Undue Reliance on the Written Word: Written word is no substitute
for sound face-to-face relationships and that employees cannot be
persuaded to accept companies' viewpoint and policies through 'slick',
easy to read, will-illustrated publications, unless there is a fair degree
of mutual trust and confidence between the organization and its
employees. Further, a written communication might fail to explain the
purpose of order, procedure or directive. Chester Barnard has laid
down that a communication must appeal to the receiver as consonant
with the organization's purpose and with his own personal interest.
Written communication often tells what is to be done, but not why it
should be done, and it lacks the persuasive quality. Moreover, a
written communication can be above the level of readership, and
failure to ascertain the response to communication is also there.

25
Hence written media must be considered as supplementary to
productive face-to-face relationships.
(v) Distrust of Communicator: It arises out of ill-considered judgements
or illogical decisions or frequent countermanding of the original
communication by the communicator. Repeated experience of this
kind gradually conditions the receiver to delay action or act
unenthusiastically, hence making the communication unsuccessful,
though apparently it is complete.
(vi) Failure to Communicate: It is quite accepted fact that managers
often fail to transmit the needed messages. This might be because of
laziness on the part of the communicator, or assuming that 'everybody
knows', or procrastination or 'hogging' information or deliberately to
embarrass.

Organizational Barriers
An organization being a deliberate creation for the attainment of certain
specified objectives, day-to-day happenings within it required being
regulated in such a manner that they contribute to attain these objectives in
the most efficient manner. This is usually attempted through a variety of
official measures such as designing the organizational arrangements for
performance of various activities, prescribing of various policies, rules,
regulations and procedures, laying down of norms of behaviour, instituting a
reward-and-punishment system, etc. All the inner processes, including
communication in different directions, are markedly affected by these
prescriptions. As such major organizational barriers may be as follows:
(i) Organizational Policy: The general organizational policy
regarding communication acts as an overall guideline to every one in
the organization regarding how he is normally expected to behave in
this matter. The policy might be in the form of explicit declaration in
writing, or as is very commonly the case, it has to be interpreted from
the behaviour of organization members, particularly people at the top.

26
If this policy is not supportive to the flow of communication in
different directions, communication flow would not be smooth and
adequate.
(ii) Organizational Rules and Regulations: Organizational rules and
regulations affect the flow of communication by prescribing the
subject-matter to the communicated and also the channel through
which these are to be communicated. The rules may restrict the flow
of certain messages and may leave many important ones. On the other
hand, communication through proper channel in a specified way
prescribed by these rules delays it and works against the willingness of
persons to convey the message. This barrier is strongly operative in
Indian public sector enterprises where observance of rules and
regulations is more rigid.
(iii) Status Relationships: The placing of people in superior
subordinate capacity in the formal organization structure also blocks
the flow of communication and more particularly in upward direction.
Greater the difference between hierarchical positions in terms of their
status, greater would be the possibility of communication breakdown.
(iv) Complexity in Organization Structure: In an organization where
there are a number of managerial levels, communication gets delayed,
chances of communication getting distorted are more and the number
of filtering points are more. This is more true in case of upward
communication, because people generally do not like to pass up the
adverse criticism either or themselves or of their superiors.
(v) Organizational Facilities: Organizational facilities provided for
smooth, adequate, clear and timely flow of communication may take a
number of forms. Some of these have been mentioned earlier in the
communication media such as meetings, conferences, complaint box,
suggestion box, open door system, social and cultural gatherings, etc.
If these are not properly emphasized generally people fail to make
effective communication.

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Personal Barriers
While the organizational factors discussed above are, no doubt, important
influences operating on communication, a host of factors internal to the two
parties-sender and receiver-to this process also exert important influences on
its operation, as communication is basically an inter-personal process. Here,
for the sake of convenience in the analysis, these barriers have been analyzed
separately and these are relevant in the case of downward and upward
communication.

Barriers in Superiors
The role of superiors in communication is very vital. Because of their
hierarchical relationships with subordinates, they act as barriers in a number
of ways discussed below:
(i) Attitude of Superiors: The attitudes of superiors towards
communication in general or in any particular direction affect the flow
of messages in different directions. For example, if this attitude in
unfavourable, there is a greater possibility that messages would not
flow adequately from and / or to superiors.
(ii) Pear of Challenge to Authority: A person in the organization always
tries to get a higher position and prestige to satisfy his needs. As such,
managers in general try to withhold the information coming down the
line or going up as frequent passing of information may disclose their
weakness.
(iii) Insistence on Proper Channel: One of the basic features of
superiors exercising of the authority is that they wish to remain in
communication links and they do not like any type of bypassing in
communication. Communication through bypassing may, sometimes,
be necessary but superiors treat this as the warting of their authority
and blocks the flow of communication.

28
(iv) Lack of Confidence in Subordinates: Superiors generally perceive,
correct or otherwise, that their subordinates are less competent and
capable, they are not able to advise superiors or they may not have
some information coming downwards.
(v) Ignoring Communication: Sometimes superiors consciously and
deliberately ignore the communication from their subordinates to
maintain their importance. This works against the willingness of
subordinates to communicate.
(vi) Lack of Time: Superiors feel, whether correct or otherwise, that they
are overburdened with the work and they have time to talk to their
subordinates.
(vii) Lack of Awareness: Sometimes, superiors may lack the awareness
about the significance and usefulness of communication in different
directions in general or of particular subject-matter. In such a case,
communication flow is blocked.

Barriers in Subordinates
Vertical communication in either direction can take place only when
subordinates also actively participate in this process. There are various
factors in the subordinates that adversely affect such active participation on
their part. Some factors, which have been traced in the case of superiors, are
also applicable have such as attitude, time availability, awareness about the
significance, etc. Tow factors are more important in the case of subordinates
and these are responsible for blocking communication in upward direction.
(i) Unwillingness to Communicate: Sometimes, subordinates do not
communicate upwards certain information because they are not
willing to do so. Thus, if a subordinate feels that he is likely to be
adversely affected by a particular piece of information to his superior,
he would not be willing to supply it. Information going up is utilized
for control purposes and subordinates would not be willing to give any
information to their superiors about any unfavourable happening and

29
if its supplication is necessary they would modify the information in
such a way so as to protect their own interest.
(ii) Lack of Proper Incentive: Lack of motivation to communicate also
refrains subordinates to communicate upwards. The reward and
punishment system of the organization is more responsible for this.
Thus, if a novel suggestion by a subordinate does not evoke any
attention from the organization, he would not convey it.

Gateways in Communication: Considering the importance of effective

communication in the successful functioning of business organizations, it is
essential on the part of the management to overcome these barriers. Though
it may not be possible to eliminate these barriers altogether, yet suitable
managerial actions in this direction can minimize the effect of these barriers
to such an extent that adequate and objective information flow in different
directions. Following measures can be adopted in this regard:
1. It is imperative that organizational policy must be clear and explicit
and encouraging the communication flow so that people at all levels
realize the full significance of communication. The organizational
policy should express in clear and unambiguous terms that
organization favours the promotion of communication in the
organization.
2. This policy should also specify the subject matter to be
communicated. This does not mean that contents of communication
are to be prescribed in a completely exclusive manner but that the list
should be illustrative and it should emphasize that the subject matter
of communication should be determined by the needs of the
organization.
3. Though communication through proper channel is essential for orderly
flow of information, it should not always be insisted upon. The system
of communication through proper channel serves the purpose
adequately as far as routine types of information are concerned.

30
However, when and whatever the situation so warrants, this has to be
overlooked and persons concerned need being told explicitly that
insistence on proper channel is not necessary in all cases.
4. Every person in the organization shares the responsibility of good
communication; however, persons at the top have special
responsibility in this regard. A successful communication system will
only be achieved if top management is determined that it is to be so. It
must set good examples itself, clearly expects others to follow them,
and check from time to time that there are no bottlenecks.
5. Organization should have adequate facilities for promoting
communication. Adequate provision of these facilities is not
sufficient, but proper attention must be given towards their proper and
effective use. These need being carefully looked into and the
responsibility of superior managers in encouraging the use of these
facilities through the adoption of supportive attitude and behaviour
needs being emphasized.
6. Communication being an inter-personal process, the development of
inter-personal relationships based on mutual respect, trust and
confidence is essential for its promotion. In large organization, status
differentials and class distinctions are overemphasized making inter-
personal relationships amongst the executives highly impersonal and
official. The organizational climate, therefore, should be radically
modified to make it more intimate and personal. A modification in the
attitude and behaviour of persons is essential for promotion of
communication. Towards this end, an educative programme in
communication should be organized for managers at all levels. In this
programme, managers should be instructed in the need and
significance of communication, need for developing close personal
contacts amongst individuals.
7. These should be continuous programme of evaluating the flow of
communication in different directions. This would highlight problems

31
in this area identify their causes and thereby enable the adoption of
suitable corrective actions.

3.3 Summary

“She's so cold and uncommunicative. She never shows any emotion.

Why does he talk like that? I wish he would get straight to the point
instead of beating around the bush that way. He's so direct and brash.
Doesn't he know that it's rude to keep people waiting like this? He's an
hour late! She talks so much. I get tired just listening to her talk…”

We often hear remarks like the above made by people around us. In fact, we
may even have made some of these remarks ourselves. Sometimes these
remarks are justifiable; at other times they may not be so. But what actually
triggers such remarks? Usually we make such remarks about other people
when they display behaviors that we consider inappropriate or unacceptable
in our culture. But what is deemed acceptable in our culture may be
considered strange or totally inappropriate in other cultures. So when the
target of the above remarks are people who come from cultures different
from ours, there may actually be no justification at all for making such
remarks because the behaviors displayed may be perfectly acceptable in their
cultures.

With more and more companies going global in today's changing business
environment, it is not at all uncommon to walk into an office and to find
ourselves looking at a multinational multi-cultural workforce. In fact, this is
becoming the norm of these days. Gone are the days when developing
intercultural communication skills was relevant only to business executives
who had to cross national borders for overseas assignments. Today, you don't
even have to leave your own country to find yourself in face-to-face contact
with people whose cultures are markedly different from yours. So, in order to
succeed at the workplace today, it is important for you to develop effective
inter-cultural communication skills.

32
Indispensable to Human Behaviour or the art of dealing or interacting with
people is communication. When one relates with people, he has to
communicate with them, either through verbal or non-verbal language, or
both. Verbally, one communicates by using words, figures and symbols.
Non-verbally, he communicates through gestures, facial expressions and
other forms of body language. Clarity is one of the essential ingredients to
effective communication. Thus, care in the proper choice of words is crucial
towards enhancing mutual understanding, rapport and support.

The study of individual for communication behaviour draws heavily on the

discipline of psychology and explains why individuals behave and react as
they do in response to different situations. Theories of learning, motivation
and leadership have been developed to explain the communication behaviour
of individuals. Also socio-psychological theories have tried to explain how
attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values are inculcated and influence
individual behaviour. Thus, individuals will behave differently depending
upon their motivation, learning, values, and perception they have and it
would certainly barriers to take place.

Differences in individuals’ communication styles may be reflected in

different types of behaviour on their part. Such differences range from
desirable to undesirable in terms of factors. Thus, all the three individual and
organizational and environmental variables are considered equally
responsible for communication barriers.

Positive Thinking is equally important in communicating and relating with

people. A person who strives to communicate positive thoughts and actions is
readily able to maintain Smooth Interpersonal Relationships (SIR) and easily
gains the respect and esteem of those around him.

33
3.4 Key Words
1. Effective Communication: Effective communication, as such, might be the
accurate transmission and receipt thereof and its correct understanding.
2. Communication Barriers: Various inadequacies that can be identified
through communication evaluation are required to be analyzed in terms of
various factors - obstructions and barriers - that impede flow
communication.

3.5 Self Assessment Exercise

1. What do you think can be the major objectives of communication? Briefly
explain any two of them.
2. Do you agree that the basic objective of all human communication is to
obtain an understanding response? How can this be applied to the objectives
of business communication?
3. If you are appointed the manager of a business organization with declining
business, what objectives of communication will you use to check the
decline in business?
4. Discuss and illustrate with suitable examples the effective skills required in
communication.
5. What are the main barriers to organizational communication?
6. Discuss the psychological barriers to effective communication.
7. How do the personal opinions and prejudices of various individuals act as
barriers to effective communication? Illustrate your answer with suitable
examples.

3.6 Suggested Readings

1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition,
1998.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication: Theory
and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.

34
4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business Communication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi, 2001.

35
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)

Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106

Lesson: 4

ORAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND REPORT WRITING

Objective: The main objective of this lesson is to make the students learn about
the basics of Oral and Non-verbal Communication.

Lesson Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Presentation of Contents
4.2.1 Oral and Non-verbal Communication
4.2.2 Written Communication: Report Writing
4.3 Summary
4.4 Key Words
4.5 Self-Assessment Exercise
4.6 Suggested Readings.

4.1 Introduction

The subconscious mind works on past experiences, hopes and fears. In

being apprehensive ahead of non-verbal communication, it is easy for your
sub-conscious to focus on downbeat outcomes and thereby magnify your
concerns. In such situation, you need to be aware of your body language,
space language, time language, physical layout and para language from the
moment you stand up until your presentation is completed. The importance
of positive eye contact and the correct use of posture and hand movement to
accompany your presentation cannot be overstated.
4.2.1 Oral and Non-verbal Communication
An individual’s facial expression, tone of voice, body posture and
movement often convey a world of detail about what they are thinking and
feeling and how they are reacting to what you are saying. The effective use
and interpretation of body language communication will help you to
identify delicate aspects of the audiences’ attitudes and reactions. This
understanding and interpretation of body language is a key component of
intelligent listening.

Members of your audience will analyze your body language, even if they
are unaware of this at the conscious level. A brilliantly prepared
presentation delivered in an interesting voice will fall well short of the mark
if accompanied by negative, intrusive or hostile body language.

You will probably be aware of the concept of personal space - that area
around an individual into which other people should not venture uninvited.
Audiences too are very conscious of this space and when presenting you
should not stand within 10 feet of the audience. This distance is known as
the public zone and if you violate it you are likely to antagonize those
affected. This distance also creates an effective stage area in which you, the
presenter, can perform.

Once you are positioned in the correct zone - this will be further away the
larger the audience. There are four main aspects of body language that you

2
should consider: what to do with your eyes; what your facial expressions
indicate; the positioning and movement of your body and limbs; and your
hand gestures.

Eye Contact: Eye contact with the audience is an essential part of any
presentation. Without it the audience will feel remote from the presenter
and are unlikely to relate to them or their message in a meaningful way. Not
many presenters realize how important eye contact is, or how sensitive
people are to it. Eye contact should be a positive form of body language
communication, but if it is not used correctly it can easily become negative.

The face shown has a shaded area that indicates the correct target zone for
positive eye contact. That is looking anywhere within this shaded zone
represents positive eye contact.

Looking at someone’s face anywhere outside of the triangular target zone is

likely to cause some degree of embarrassment. However, the no-go zones,
which look red, are both associated with strong adverse reactions.

Zone A represents the intimate zone and by moving just a fraction below
the base of the target triangle, you will enter it. When this happens people
typically react by feeling that the other person is staring at them, or that the
observer looks shifty.

Zone B represents a dominant zone and by looking at the forehead of

another person you are likely to invoke a reaction that you appear to be
arrogant, that you are staring straight through them or more commonly that
you are talking down at them.

3
As well as understanding how to make positive eye contact with an
individual it is also important to ensure that your gaze encompasses your
whole audience - including those at the back and the sides. Try to avoid
holding eye contact only with audience members who appear enthusiastic
and interested. Whilst you may find it more difficult to engage members of
the audience who appear neutral, it is important to try to involve them.

Body and Limb Movement: The way that you use your body and limbs
will also have a major influence on how your audience perceives you.
When presenting you will normally be standing, and an ideal stance is with
your feet close together and your weight evenly distributed between them.

It is important not to grow roots - don't stand in one position, but try to
inject movement as you speak. This helps to add a natural animation to your
presentation, as the audience will have to adjust their gaze to follow you
rather than stay looking at a fixed position.

By developing a practiced way of moving you can add a confident and

professional air to your presentation style. Precisely how you choose to
move is a personal thing - but try to develop and rehearse your style so that
you end up moving without conscious effort.

Whilst it is a good thing to be animated don’t walk around too much or the
audience will find it distracting and annoying. One of the best tactics is to
use the main features of your presentation as cues for movement, until you
have developed this skill it may be worth annotating your cue cards with
movement cues or symbols.

4
When conversing socially you probably don’t think consciously about what
you are doing with your arms, they are just there, moving in support of
what you are saying. Somehow in a formal presentation you are constantly
aware of them, hanging awkwardly from your shoulders, always seeming to
be in the way.

The key point about arms is to ignore them - move them back into your
subconscious so that they can support what you are saying in a natural way.
That said, there is one movement that you should develop when presenting
which will display confidence and openness. This involves moving your
arms away from your body and showing open palms to your audience.

Hand Movement and Gestures: One of the most obvious forms of

conscious body language communication is the hand gesture:

A wagging or pointing finger often indicates a threat or accusation.

A clenched fist is indicative of anger or a threat.
A hand held to the ear indicates difficulty in hearing.
A finger held in front of pursed lips is an instruction to be quiet.

The best advices when using hand signals is to be aware of the standard
interpretations associated with them and avoid any with a strong negative
meaning - such as a threatening gesture. When you rehearse your
presentation, you may want to include some pre-planned hand movements
but let others occur in a natural and spontaneous way.

Your Posture and Stance: There are further aspects of posture that you
should be aware of - as they can easily communicate subconscious
messages, some of which you will want to avoid:

5
The forward sloping stance indicates a wish to dominate other people, often
it is accompanied by an over-stressed point. The presenter may be
attempting to impose a concept or point of view on their audience. This is
made worse by aggressive or intrusive behavior - such as entering the
public zone or the use of hostile gestures.

A backward sloping stance indicates a presenter who is not happy with their
situation. This defensive or submissive stance tends to indicate that they
lack confidence in what they are saying and would rather not be there.

A bent posture is indicative of a person who is saying something without

conviction. Saying one thing whilst meaning another - such as a salesperson
giving an exaggerated sales pitch or a customer who wants to say no but has
been placed in an awkward position.

The upright posture demonstrates adult, assertive behavior with no hidden

meaning or manipulations in the communication. This stance indicates that
the person has conviction and confidence in what they are saying. This is
the posture you should practice and use when presenting.

Staying in Control: The professional presenter will know how to deal

effectively with disruptive members of an audience and manage a question
and answer session in a constructive manner.

When you are making a presentation the best way of staying in control and
keeping your audience with you, is to keep them interested in what you are
saying. The best strategy is to prepare and then deliver a presentation that

6
your audience find spellbinding. Unfortunately, many business
presentations will be based on subject matter that is not that interesting.

Another complication is that audiences are made up of individuals, who

will not share the same interests, attention span or boredom threshold.
People vary in the way they express disagreement, boredom and frustration
and you should be able to read signs of this from the body language
demonstrated by your audience. Members of an audience don’t usually
think of themselves as being observed, and consequently their guards tend
to be down - making their body language relatively easy to read.

Reading Signals from Your Audience: There are a variety of body

language signals that you might observe among members of an audience:

Members of an audience can show signs of disapproval or hostility in a

variety of ways. You may observe people pointedly discussing things with a
neighbor, looking at the ceiling, out of a window or frowning whilst
looking at you.

A negative posture, with an impassive or slightly hostile expression, arms

folded as if to form a barrier and legs crossed with the person leaning back -
suggesting resistance to the presenter. However, you should be careful to
avoid making judgments based on observing one piece of body language in
isolation. For example crossed legs or crossed, arms on their own should
not be automatically read as a negative reaction.

A neutral and open attitude is often accompanied by a neutral or slightly

friendly facial expression and an upright or slightly forward leaning seating
position. As these people have not yet decided whether or not they agree

7
with your main message you may observe a mixture of gentle nods and
shakes of their head as you make your key points. Neutrals should be
viewed as a positive resource - it is after all the job of your presentation to
win them over.

Someone interested in what you are saying may be smiling and nodding in
agreement or frowning in thought, possibly leaning forward attentively.
Hands clasped together may also indicate that a person is carefully
considering what you are saying, as may lean on their chin.

If boredom is affecting any members of your audience this may manifest

itself in reversion to common habits - such as fidgeting with personal
belongings like glasses, watches, pens and earrings. Whilst looking at a
watch or clicking a pen may demonstrate boredom, don’t confuse these
signs with such things as the chewing of the end of a pen, which may
indicate thoughtfulness. Members of the audience who become bored may
also whisper among themselves, rustle papers, scribble aimlessly on
notepads, throw back their head between their cupped hands and even make
audible sighs.

Adjusting to Signals from Your Audience: Recognizing both positive and

negative signals from your audience should not change your planned
presentation fundamentally. Your message and the material with which you
are communicating should have been carefully prepared and radical
changes will almost certainly not be realistic.

The real point of reading signals from your audience is that it can help you
to judge who you have on-side, who is opposing your point of view and
who has yet to decide. This should help you to focus your message where it

8
can have maximum impact, talking round those that can be swayed, whilst
keeping your supporters with you and trying not to alienate the opposition.

One or more members of your audience may attempt to disrupt your

presentation, usually because they strongly disagree with your message.
Learn to recognize how this disruption may manifest itself and you will be
better equipped to cope with it. The keywords when dealing with disruption
are to be polite but firm, never lose your temper or your cool - if you enter
into a shouting match with a heckler then they win and you lose.

Coping with Hostility: It is vital you don’t let disruptive members of the
audience derail your presentation - you are working to a tight schedule so
don’t get involved in protracted discussions. Try to approach the point of
contention from any common ground that you share, but if this fails to work
then politely request that the point is discussed later at the pre-planned
question and answer session.

If someone denounces something that you have said, avoid getting into an
argument with him or her. If your point was based on fact then make this
clear and present the evidence. However, if it was based on your personal
opinions then don’t attempt to pass this off as factual - it is your
presentation and therefore your opinion should be worth expressing.

Always remember that what is underlying the point of contention may be a

genuine concern and that if you try to brush it aside it is likely to be taken
up by other members of the audience, who may then swing against you.

9
Another point that you should always bear in mind is that any hostility
shown by an audience is aimed at your message not at you personally.

Attention seekers may make silly or sarcastic comments simply to get

themselves noticed, whilst other members of your audience may respond
unwittingly to a rhetorical question that you pose - simply because they
weren’t paying full attention. Try to analyze these sort of events as they
occur and respond, perhaps with humor or support but don’t try to put
people down - as this nearly always reflects badly on the presenter.

Summing-up the Presentation: It was recommended earlier that you

planned your presentation to have a question and answer session at the end.
This will enable you to deliver your message and then end strongly with a
clear and concise summing up before entering the relatively unpredictable
area of tackling questions from the floor.

Unless you are using visual aids, make sure that they are switched off to
avoid them causing a distraction during your conclusion. Step forward so
that you are confidently asserting yourself as the center of attention and
deliver your summing up with confidence and authority. It may be a good
idea to announce that the end is near - as this can refocus the attention of
any members of the audience who are beginning to suffer from listening
fatigue. For example, you could say now to sum up briefly before I answer
your questions.

Your conclusion, or summing up, should be strong and clear but not
protracted. Ideally, it will represent about 10 per-cent of the overall
presentation. The last impression you make with the audience will be the

10
lasting one and the last words that you say may be the best remembered - so
always plan to finish strongly.

Aim to reiterate the main points from your presentation. Use a combination
of pauses, intonation and other verbal techniques - such as alliteration, in
order to create a memorable statement.

A good presentation can be ruined by a poor question and answer session.

Conversely, a mediocre one can be saved by a confident final session. The
key to being confident in dealing with questions is preparation. When you
have finished drafting your presentation read through it carefully and note
any questions that it is likely to raise, and prepare answers to these in
advance. This is the time to focus on any areas in which your message is
short of facts or vulnerable to being challenged - in this way it is usually
possible to anticipate most questions that are likely to arise. This analysis
will also help you to prepare one or more lengthy answers in advance for
questions that you are sure will be raised.

Sometimes, you may be facing an unresponsive group, one that just sits
inert and will not show any interest in taking part - even during the planned
question and answer session. You may think that the obvious conclusion to
draw is that they have no interest in what you are saying.

However, it is equally likely that you are just facing an unresponsive group;
this may be due to the character types within it or the intra-group politics. If
your presentation has a chair then the chairperson should intervene and ask
some initial questions in an attempt to involve your audience. If not, then
you might pose some general questions at the audience in order to get them
to loosen up.

11
When answering questions do so by speaking clearly and confidently,
otherwise you will appear unsure of what you are saying. Do not let nerves
draw you into responding hastily, always think about your answer before
you speak and if necessary refer back to your notes in order to answer a
question.

If the question requires clarification then ask the questioner to do this,

rather than risk answering a question that wasn’t asked. When answering,
address the entire audience and not just to the questioner, and avoid getting
into a protracted debate on any point that is raised - you may offer to see a
questioner after the presentation to continue a point that is of specific
personal interest to them.

You may face questions that are unanswerable. These may be posed by
people who are hostile to your message or by those just wishing to make a
point. If you feel unable to answer a question you may find it useful to have
a standard reply ready in order to reduce its impact on your presentation.
Here are a couple of examples that you might find useful:

I would rather not answer that here and now, but if you see me after the
session, I will take your details and get back to you as soon as I have
checked some facts.

Let me think about that for a minute, can we come back to it later? Next,
question please.

I don’t think that the information necessarily supports either view

definitively, however my personal opinion is that . . .

12
Regaining Your Composure: Consider an example where the presenter
has started well, and delivered a clear and concise introduction. However
early into the main body of the presentation she became confused about
where she was in relation to her cue cards, nerves set in and subsequently
she lost the attention of the audience. At this stage the presentation could
have degenerated into chaos, which is what would happen if control was
not regained.

However, by pausing, taking a drink of water and regaining eye contact

with supportive members of the audience the presenter has managed to
compose herself once more. She followed this by telling a joke at her own
expense, and then firmly re-established her position in the presentation by
summing up the main points made so far. Following this her confidence
returned and the presentation proceeded well, with the help of smooth
running audio-visual aids and some well researched but spontaneously
delivered examples.

The presentation ended with a clear and memorable conclusion and the
question and answer session was also well managed. The overriding
impression was of a professional and successful presentation. This example
illustrates a key point - that if the presenter can remain calm and composed
and deal with situations as they arise then they should be able to stay in
control, hold the interest of the audience and make a successful
presentation.

13
4.2.2 Written Communication: Report Writing

Business managers, often, are required to write business reports/letters of

one sort or another. In fact, such writing can be lucrative and the
organizations that do not have the need or budget to hire a full time
manager look for hiring such business executives who can discharge the
work on part time basis. Therefore, if you have read many business reports,
you know they tend to be dull and turgid. They do not have communication
balance that they need to have. While writing a business report won’t let
you use all your creativity, you can apply the principles of good writing to
create a document that communicates the meaning with its underlying spirit
and at the same time it needs to be readers’ friendly.

As always, knowing to whom the report is more critical, implicit in that

knowledge is the question, “What do they want to know?” As a rule,
readers of business reports are looking for two things: the bottom line and
how will it effect them. It is also safe to say that your readers are busy,
often extremely so, use these facts to well structure the report.

All too often business reports start with some sort of introduction that
includes a bit of history and, perhaps, the approach taken to getting the
results or items being reported. Usually, however, the readers already have
this information, so start with the bottom line. This might involve money or
it may be the action the report recommends, or both.
Make sure assertions and recommendations are backed up with solid
information. History and methods can often be used as back-up
information, but it will usually need to be rewritten so it fits. Business
readers scan for the information they need. Well-written headlines and

14
subheads will help or guide them to the parts of the report they actually
need.
If possible, write in the first person, as a ghostwriter. Avoid the passive
voice like the plague. Even if the samples you are given use a lot of passive
language, use the active voice; chances are the company will be delighted.

Groups of numbers should probably go into some sort of table or chart.

They not only break up large blocks of text, they also can clarify the
information. Once you have a handle on the information, create an abstract
or executive summary. Include the recommended action and put this
section right up front.
Now you have been introduced with a business report that communicates
the needed information easily. A complete business report must concentrate
on: understanding the readers’ expectations; objectives and specifications
for the research report; facts, conclusions, inferences, and judgments;
moving data to messages objectively; organizing; using guideposts for
clarity; writing clearly; writing user-friendly audit reports; editing and
writing concisely

Business reports are used extensively in organizations, and it is valuable for

any executive to develop an effective report writing style. Business reports
come in many forms, from lengthy formal reports to the shorter variations
used within departments. Therefore, the writing style should reflect the
nature of the report content.

A report can be organized in three ways: Letter form; Memorandum form;

and Letter text combination form.

1. Letter form: In the case of brief, informal reports, the arrangement

followed in business letter is adopted. Its main parts are: heading or the

15
title, date, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close, and
signature. It is usually written in the first person- I or we. The body of the
letter can be further divided into the following parts:

• Introduction: The introductory paragraphs present the terms of

reference and the subject of study. Here the writer states the problem
confronting him in the light of the terms of reference and the relevant
circumstances.
• Findings: The next few paragraphs present the finding of the
investigation.
• Recommendations: Recommendations that logically follow the
findings are given in the last paragraph of the body.

2. Memorandum form: Adopting the memorandum form is a simpler

way of presenting the report, since here the formalities of the
letterform are done away with. The data is mentioned at the top. It is
followed by the name of the person to whom the report. Next
follows the actual text and the conclusion. As in the letterform, the
text of the report is divided into paragraphs with headings and sub-
headings. Large business houses have different types of printed
forms to send reports. This simplifies the procedure and ensures
uniformity of style.

3. Letter-text combination form. Long reports are usually written in

the letter –text combination form.

Structure of Formal Reports: In general, long formal reports follow a

recognized structure, made up of a tile page, table of contents, executive
summary, introduction section, the main body of the report, conclusions
section, recommendations and appendices.

16
Title Page: The title page, as its name suggests, identifies the report, so that
it can be distributed to those individuals who are authorized to receive it.
The title page should also contain sufficient information to enable the
report to be retrieved easily once it is in storage. This page should be
attractively laid out, as it is the first page that the reader see’s, and first
impressions are important!

Table of Contents: The table of contents lists the main sections or chapters
that appear in the report and the page number for each.

Executive Summary: The executive summary plays an important role in

the business report. Its function is to provide busy individuals with an
overview of the report contents. Therefore, the summary should be
interesting enough to encourage the executive to return to the report when
he/she is less busy! The normal length of the summary is between 350 –
550 words, and the summary should contain the objective(s) of the report,
main findings, conclusions or recommendations. However, some extensive
reports concentrate on presenting an overview of the conclusions or
recommendations.

Introduction Section: The introduction should set out the aims and
objectives of the report and provide background information about the
matter being investigated or discussed. In addition, the author(s) of the
report should explain how the data presented in the report has been
gathered, and how the report itself is structured.

Main Body of Report: This section presents the main findings concerning
the report’s subject matter. These findings should be laid out in a clear and
logical fashion, so that it is easy for the reader to follow the author(s) train
of thought. It is usual to put the most important findings at the beginning of

17
the section. It is important to use a system of headings, sub-headings and
numbers to break large chunks of text down into smaller paragraphs.

Conclusions Section: In the section, the main findings are assessed. Any
conclusions presented should be fair and unbiased, and should not be used
as a means of highlighting the author’s subjective opinions.

Recommendations: Recommendations for further action should only be

made when the specific aims of the report, or terms of reference, dictate
that recommendations be provided in the final report. Any
recommendations made should be presented in order of importance and be
written in a very precise manner, so that the readers are clear about the
author’s intentions.

Bibliography: If the report is based on extensive research, the works

consulted by the writer are given in the bibliography. The bibliography may
also include works recommended for further study.

Appendices: There are times when large amounts of data or statistics

cannot be easily inserted into the main findings. Therefore, this information
can be placed in an appendix at the end of the report. Clear references
should be made to the appendix in the main body of the report. This
approach is very valuable where several long tables of data must be
contained in the report.

Glossary: It is the list of technical words used in the reports and their
explanations. Whether these words are to be given in the beginning or the
end or in footnotes is entirely a matter of the writer’s choice. Besides,
whether the glossary is needed al all depends upon who is going to read the
report. If it is going to be read by knowledgeable people who are already

18
familiar with the terms, there is no need to include the glossary in the
report.

Signature: A report must be dated and signed by the person(s) who has
(have) submitted it. In the case of a report prepared by a committee or a
sub-committee, if it is very important, all the members may sign it, other
wise the signature of the Chairman will suffice. If the report is not
unanimous, it may be signed only be the assenting members. The dissenting
members may submit a separate minority report or they may sign the
majority report with a note of dissent

Finally, it is wise to proof-read the report before it is printed to ensure that

there are no spelling errors, and that the page numbers indicated in the table
of contents match exactly the pages on which headings appear in the report!

4.3 Summary
The oral and non-verbal communication is equally important. Make sure
that you start by speaking confidently and at a natural pace. Try not to refer
to your notes more than once or twice in your opening segment. A
confident opening style should establish you as a credible and authoritative
speaker who is open and friendly. One very useful tip for generating a
relaxed and friendly presentation style is to speak to your audience,
regardless of its size, as though you were chatting to a friend in a far less
formal environment.

Try to look at all of the members of your audience - so that they feel
included, and hold brief eye contact with a handful of them. It can be worth
seeking eye contact in a methodical way - by switching from the rear right
corner of your audience to the center to front left, then back to rear left and
so on. Adopting this approach should ensure you cover all areas of your

19
audience. One final point regarding your opening is that you should make it
crisp and telling - giving your audience something to think about right at
the start. This will have the effect of gaining their attention; it is then your
job to make sure that you keep it.

Thousand of reports, long or short, formal or informal, crucial or ordinary,

special or routine are written everyday. A supervisor, at the end of the day,
reports to the manager the progress of the work carried on in his
supervision. The manager of bank sends a periodic report to the Head
Office on the sate of deposits, advances, overdraft limits, etc.

C.A. Brown offers a very simple definition: A report is a communication

from someone who has some information to someone who wants to use that
information.

A report is a ‘basic management tool used in decision-making’. Hence, it is

extremely important. In a one-man business, the functions of reporting and
decision-making are combined in one man-the proprietor. He knows his
business inside out and is capable of making on-the-spot decisions. So he
does not need any reports. Nevertheless, large-scale organizations are
engaged in multifarious activities, which are being handled by different
departments. Their top executives cannot keep a personal watch over all
these activities. So they have to base their decisions on the reports they get
from the heads of various departments. For large organizations, reports are
just indispensable.

4.4 Key Words

1. Oral and Non-verbal Communication: An individual’s facial expression,
tone of voice, body posture and movement often convey a world of detail

20
about what they are thinking and feeling and how they are reacting to
what you are saying.
2. Presentation Styles: The presentation style that you adopt should be
influenced by the size of your audience together with the level of
formality that is appropriate.
3. Report: A report is a communication from someone who has some
information to someone who wants to use that information.

4.5 Self-Assessment Questions

1. "The single most significant element of non-verbal communication is

the body language." Discuss the statement.
2. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he wants
to create understanding in the mind of another through gestures."
Discuss and elaborate the statement.
3. Write a note on the need and importance of body language in business
communication.
4. What are the factors a presenter should keep in mind while going for
non-verbal communication with three different groups of audiences?
5. Your manager has asked you to determine whether or not the office staff
would welcome the introduction of canteen facilities. Most of the staff
have indicated that they would, but only if the facilities were of a high
standard. Some of the staff would prefer luncheon vouchers. Make your
recommendation in a report to your manager.

4.6 Suggested Readings

1. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business
Communication.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.

21
3. Lesikar, R. V. and Pettite J. D., Business Communication.
4. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
5. Shinha, P., Business Communication.

22
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson: 5

LETTER WRITING AND INTERVIEW

Objective: This lesson educates the students as to how to communicate clearly

and effectively through commercial letters. It also explains the basic
skills necessary to write various types of letters and essentials of
public speaking.

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Presentation of Contents
5.2.1 Do’s and don’t of Commercial Letter
5.2.2 Public Speaking
5.3 Summary
5.4 Key Words
5.4 Self Assessment Exercise
5.5 Suggested Readings

5.1 Introduction

A business communication letter differs from other kinds of writing

activities in several ways. First, it is usually addressed to only one specific
person. Therefore, it is important for the writer to think about the reader
with a you-viewpoint or a you-attitude. Second, every business letter can
become a legal document or contract, so it is critical to maintain an
appropriate service attitude. It is also important to have a good strategy or
heuristic. There are three basic types of strategies for business letters: the
good news or neutral letter, the bad news or problem-solving letter, and the
sales letter. The heuristics in each of these three types can be very
important to the outcome or success. For each type of letter, there are some
characteristic strategies, which will allow the writer to achieve the best
results with specific cases. Look at the format for letters in the examples
provided in the text content, particularly the use of block form and semi-
block form. Let us elaborate the brief outline of the different parts of the
formal letter in terms of: the letterhead block with address and date; the
inside address block, presented as on the envelope; the salutation, with the
various problems of gender and identity address; the body (block form, no
indentation, single-space within / double-space between paragraphs)
usually in three paragraphs on a single page; the signature block, with
legible signature and the addendum (p.s., enc., cc:).

5.2 Do’s and Don’t of Commercial Letter

Individual words are our basic units of commercial letter writing, the bricks
with which we build meaningful messages. All writers have access to the
same words. The care with which we select and combine words can make
the difference between a message that achieves its objective and one that
does not. Discussed below are five principles of words choice to help you
write more effectively.

1. Write Clearly
The basic guideline for writing, the one that must be present for the other
principles to have meaning, is to write clearly – to write message in such a
way that the reader can understand, depend on, and act on. You can achieve
clarity by making your message accurate and complete, by using familiar
words, and by avoiding dangling expression and unnecessary jargon.

2
Be Accurate: A writer’s credibility is perhaps his or her most important
asset, and credibility depends greatly on the accuracy of the message. If by
carelessness, lack of preparation, or a desire to manipulate, a writer
misleads the reader, the damage is immediate as well as long lasting. A
reader who has been fooled once may not trust the writer again.
Accuracy can take many forms. The most basic is the truthful presentation
of facts and figures. But accuracy involves much more. For example,
consider the following sentence from a memo to a firm’s financial backers;
The executive committee of Mitchell Financial Services met on Thursday,
May 28, to determine how to resolve the distribution fiasco.

Suppose, on checking, the reader learns that May 28 fell on a Wednesday

this year – not on a Thursday. Immediately, the reader may suspect
everything else in the message. The reader’s thinking might be, “If the
writer made this error that I did catch, how many errors that I didn’t catch
are lurking there?”

Now consider some other subtle shades of truth. The sentence implies that
the committee met, perhaps in an emergency session, for the sole purpose
of resolving the distribution fiasco. But suppose this matter was only one
of five agenda items being discussed at a regularly scheduled meeting. It
the statement still accurate? Suppose the actual agenda listed the topic as
“Discussion of Recent Distribution Problems.” Is fiasco the same as
problems?

The accuracy of a message, then, depends on what is said, how it is said,

and what is left unsaid (see, for example, the following section on the
importance of completeness). Competent writers assess the ethical

3
dimensions of their writing and use integrity, fairness, and good judgment
to make sure their communication is ethical.

Be Complete: Closely related to accuracy is completeness. A message that

lacks important information may create inaccurate impressions. A message
is complete when it contains all the information the reader needs – no more
and no less – to react appropriately.

As a start, answer the five Ws: Tell the reader who, what, when, where and
why. Leaving out any of this information may result either in decision
based on incomplete information or in extra follow-up correspondence to
gather the needed information.

Use Familiar Words: Your message must be understood before someone

can act on it. So you must use words that are both familiar to you (so that
you will not misuse the word) and familiar to your readers.

Avoid Dangling Expressions: A dangling expression is any part of a

sentence that does not logically fit in with the rest of the sentence. Its
relationship with the other parts of the sentence is unclear; it dangles. The
two most common types of dangling expressions are misplaced modifies
and unclear antecedents.

To correct dangling expressions, (1) make the subject of the sentence the
doer of the action expressed in the introductory clause; (2) move the
expression closer to the word that it modifies;
Don’t: After reading the proposal, a few problems occurred to me. (As
written, the sentence implies that “a few problems” read the
proposal).

4
Do : After reading the proposal, I noted a few problems.
Don’t: Dr. Ellis gave a presentation on the use of drugs in our auditorium.
(Are drugs being used in the auditorium).
Do: Dr. Ellis gave a presentation in our auditorium on the use of drugs.
Don’t:Robin explained the proposal to Joy, but she was not happy with it.
(Who was not happy – Robin or Joy).
Do: Robin explained the proposal to Joy, but Joy was not happy with it.

Avoid Unnecessary Jargon: Jargon is technical vocabulary used within a

special group. Every field has its own specialized words, and jargon offers
a precise and efficient way of communicating with people in the same field.
Nevertheless, problems arise when jargon is used to communicate with
someone who does not understand it. For example, to a banker the term
CD means a “certificate of deposit,” but to a stereo buff or computer user it
means a “compact disc.” Even familiar words can be confusing when given
a specialized meaning.

Does the field business communication have jargon? It does – just look at
the Key Terms list at the end of each chapter. The work jargon itself might
be considered communication jargon. In this text, such terms are first
defined and then used to make communication precise and efficient.
Competent writers use specialized vocabulary to communicate with
specialists who understand it. And they avoid using it when their readers
are not specialists.

2. Prefer Short, Simple Words

Short and simple words are more likely to be understood, less likely to be
misused, and less likely to distract the reader. Literary authors often write

5
to impress; they select words to achieve a specific reader reaction, such as
amusement, excitement, or anger. Business writers, on the other hand,
write to express; they want to achieve comprehension. They want their
readers to focus on their information, not on how they convey their
information. Using short, simple words helps achieve this goal.
Don’t:To recapitulate, our utilization of adulterated water precipitated the
interminable delays.
Do: In short, our use of impure water caused the endless delays.

It is true, of course, that quite often short, simple words may not be
available to convey the precise shade of meaning you want. For example,
there is not one-syllable replacement for ethnocentrism (the belief that
one’s own cultural group is superior). Our guideline is not to use only short
and simple words but to prefer short and simple words. (As Mark Twain,
who was paid by the word for his writing, noted, “I never write metropolis
for seven cents because I can get the same price for city. I never write
policemen because I can get the same money for cop”).
Here are some examples of needlessly long words, gleaned from various
business documents, with their preferred shorter substitutes shown in
parentheses:
Ascertain (learn) Endeavor (try)
Enumerate (list) Fluctuate (vary)
Indispensable (vital) Initiate (start)
Modification (change) Recapitulate (review)
Substantial (large) Termination (end)
Utilization (use) However (but)

You need not strike these long words totally from your written or spoken
vocabulary; any one of these words, used in a clear sentence, would be

6
acceptable. The problem is that a writer may tend to fill his or her writing
with very long words when simpler ones could be used. Use long words in
moderation. Heed the following advice from author Richard Lederer:

When you speak and write, no law says you have to use big words. Short
words are as good as long ones, and short, old words like sun and grass and
home are best of all. A lot of small words, more than you might think, can
meet your needs with a strength, grace, and charm that large words lack.

Big words can make the way dark for those who hear what you say and
read what you write. They add fat to your prose. Small words are the ones
we seem to have known from birth. They are like the hearth fire that
warms the home, and they cast a clear light on big things: night and day,
love and hate, war and peace, life and death.

Short words are bright, like sparks that glow in the night; sharp, like the
blade of a knife; hot, like salt tears that scald the cheek; quick, like moths
that flit from flame to flame; and terse, like the dart and sting of a bee.

If a long word says just what you want, do not fear to use it. But know that
our tongue is rich in crisp, brisk, swift, short words. Make them the spine
and the heart of what you speak and write. Like fast friends, they will not
let you down.

Leader practices what he preaches. All 223 words in these four paragraphs
are one-syllable words! Similarly, 71% of the words in Lincoln’s
Gettysburg Address (190 out of 267) are only one syllable long.

7
You have probably heard the advice “Write as you speak.” Although not
universally true, such advice is pretty close to the mark. Of course, if your
conversation were peppered with redundancies, jargon, and clichés, you
would not want to put such weaknesses on paper. But typical conversation
uses mostly short, simple words – the kind you do want to put on paper.
Don’t assume that the bigger the words, the bigger the intellect. In fact,
you need a large vocabulary and a well developed word sense to select the
best word. And more often than not, that word is short and simple. Write
to express – not to impress.

3. WRITE WITH VIGOR

Vigorous language is specific and concrete. Limp language is filled with
clichés, slang, and buzz words. Vigorous writing holds your reader’s
interest. But if your reader isn’t even interested enough to read your
message, your writing can’t possibly achieve its objective. A second
reason for writing with vigor has to do with language itself. Vigorous
writing tends to lend vigor to the ideas presented. A good idea looks even
better dressed in vigorous language, and a weak idea looks even weaker
dressed in limp language.
Use Specific, Concrete Language: As discussed in the lesson of
communication barriers caused by over abstraction and ambiguity, when
possible, choose specific words – words that have a definite, unambiguous
meaning. Likewise, choose concrete words – words that bring a definite
picture to your reader’s mind.
Don’t:The vehicle broke down several times recently.
Do: The delivery van broke down three times last week.

In the first version, what does the reader imagine when he or she reads the
word vehicle – a golf cart? Automobile? Boat? Space shuttle? Likewise,

8
how many times is several –two? Three? Fifteen? The revised version tells
precisely what happened.

Sometimes we do not need such specific information. For example, in “The

president answered several questions from the audience and then adjourned
the meeting”, the specific number of questions is probably not important.
But in most situations, you should watch out for words like several,
recently, a number of, substantial, a few, and a lot of. You may need to be
more exact.

Likewise, use the most concrete word that is appropriate; give the reader a
specific mental picture of what you mean. That is, learn to talk in pictures:
Don’t:The vice president was bored by the presentation.
Do: The vice president kept yawning and looking at her watch.

But sure that your terms convey as much meaning as the reader needs to
react appropriately. Watch out for terms like emotional meeting (anger or
gratitude?), bright color (red or yellow?), new equipment (postage meter or
cash register?), and change in price (increase or decrease?).

Avoid Cliches, Slang, and Buzz Words: A cliché is an expression that has
become monotonous through overuse. It lacks freshness and originality
and may also send the unintended message that the writer couldn’t be
bothered to choose language geared specifically to the reader.
Don’t:Enclosed please find an application form that you should return at
your earliest convenience.
Do: Please return the enclosed application form before May 15.

9
As noted earlier, slang is an expression, often short-lived, that is identified
with a specific group of people. If you understand each word in an
expression but still don’t understand what it means in context, chances are
you’re having trouble with a slang expression. For example, read the
following sentence:
It turns my stomach the way you can break your neck and beat your brains
out around here, and they still stab you in the back.

To anyone unfamiliar with American slang (a nonnative speaker, perhaps),

this sentence might seem to be about the body because it refers to the
stomach, neck, brains, and back. The real meaning, of course, is something
like this:
I am really upset that this company ignores hard work and loyalty when
making personnel decisions.

Same Rules the World Over: The strategies for writing effective business
messages discussed in this chapter are universal. The passage below, from
a business communication text for Chinese business executives,
recommends substituting concise phrases for long, empty ones.

Wordy Concise Wordy Concise

enclosed herewith enclosed under separate separately
cover
enclosed you will enclosed is a long period of a long time
find time
please don’t hesitate please write us continuous and continuous
uninterrupted
to call upon us during the year during 1971
1971
please feel free to please write endorse on the endorse this
write

10
prior to before back of this check check

Avoid slang in most business writing, for several reasons. First, it is

informal, and much of business writing, although not formal, is still
businesslike and calls for standard word usage. Second, slang is short-
lived. A slang phrase used today may not be in use – and thus may not be
familiar – in three years, when your letter is retrieved from the files for
reference. Third, slang is identified with a specific group of people, and
others in the general population may not understand the intended meaning.
For these reasons, avoid these terms in most business writing:
can of worms pay through the nose
chew out play up to
go for broke security blanket
hate one’s guts use your noodle
knock it off wiped out
once-over zonked out

A buzz word is an important-sounding expression used mainly to impress

other people. Because buzz words are so often used by government
officials and high ranking business people – people whose comments are
“newsworthy” – these expressions get much media attention. They become
instant clichés and then go out of fashion just as quickly. At either end of
their short life span, they cause communication problems. If an expression
is currently being used by everyone, it sounds monotonous, lacking
originality. If it is no longer being used by anyone, readers may not
understand the intended meaning. Here are examples of recent “in”
expressions:
bottom line paradigm

11
done deal parameter
impact (verb) scenario
interface user-friendly
no-brainer vision statement

Be especially careful of turning nouns and other types of words into verbs
by adding-ize. Such words as agendize, prioritize, unionize, and
operationalize quickly become tiresome.

4. Write Concisely
Businesspeople are busy people. The information revolution has created
more paperwork, giving businesspeople access to more data. Having more
data to analyze (but presumably not being able to read any faster or having
more time in which to do so), managers want information presented in the
fewest possible words. To achieve conciseness, make every word count.
Avoid redundancy, wordy expressions, hidden verbs and nouns, and other
“space-eaters”.

Avoid Redundancy: Redundancy is unnecessary repetition of an idea that

has already been expressed or intimated. Eliminating the repetition
contributes to conciseness.
Don’t: Signing both copies of the lease is a necessary requirement.
Do: Signing both copies of the lease is necessary.
Don’t:Combine the ingredients together.
Do: Combine the ingredients.

A requirement is by definition necessary, so only one of the words is

needed. And to combine means to bring together, so using both words is
redundant. Don’t confuse redundancy and repetition. Repetition – using

12
the same word more than once – is occasionally effective for emphasis (as
we will discuss in the next Chapter). Redundancy, however, serves no
purpose and should always be avoided.

Some redundancies are humorous, as in the classic Samuel Goldwyn

comment, “Anybody who goes to a psychiatrist ought to have his head
examined,” or the sign in a jewelry store window, “Ears pierced while you
wait”, or the statement in an automobile advertisement, “Open seven days a
week plus weekends”. Most redundancies, however, are simply verbiage –
and hence must be avoided.

Do not use the unnecessary word together after such words as assemble,
combine, cooperate, gather, join, merge, or mix. Do not use the
unnecessary word new before such words as beginner, discovery, fad,
innovation, or progress. And do not use the unnecessary word up after such
words as connect, divide, eat, lift, mix, and rest. Also avoid the following
common redundancies (use the words in parentheses instead):
advance planning (planning) over again (over)
any and all (any or all) past history (history)
basic fundamentals (basics or fundamentals) repeat again (repeat)
but nevertheless (but or nevertheless) sum total (sum or total)
each and every (each or every) true facts (facts)
free gift (gift) when and if (when or if)

Avoid Wordy Expressions: Although wordy expressions are not

necessarily writing errors (as redundancies are), they do slow the pace of
the communication and should be avoided. For example, try substituting
one word for a phrase whenever possible.

13
Don’t: In view of the fact that the model failed twice during the time that
we tested it, we are at this point of time searching for other options.
Do: Because the model failed twice when we tested it, we are now
searching for other options.

The original sentence contains 28 words; the revised sentence, 16 You’ve

“saved” 12 words. In his delightful book Revising Business Prose, Richard
Lanham speaks of the “lard factor”: the percentage of words saved by
“getting rid of the lard” in a sentence. In this case,
28 – 16 = 12; 12 ÷ 28 = 43%
Thus, 43% of the original sentence was “land”, which fattened the sentence
without providing any “nutrition”. Lanham suggests, “Think of a lard
factor (LF) of 1/3 to ½ as normal and don’t stop revising until you’ve
removed it. ”
Here are examples of other wordy phrases and their preferred one-word
substitutes in parentheses:
are of the opinion that (believe) in the event that (if)
due to the fact that (because) pertaining to (about)
for the purpose of (for or to) with regard to (about)
in order to (to)

Avoid Hidden Verbs: A hidden verb is a verb that has been changed into a
noun form, weakening the action. Verbs are action words and should
convey the main action in the sentence. They provide interest and forward
movement. Consider this example:
Don’t:Carl made an announcement that he will give consideration to our
request.
Do: Carl announced that he will consider our request.

14
What is the real action? It is not that Carl made something or that he will
give something. The real action is hiding in the nouns: Carl announced and
will consider. These two verb forms, then, should be the main verbs in the
sentence. Notice that the revised sentence is much more direct – and four
words shorter (LF = 33%). Here are some other actions that should be
conveyed by verbs instead of being hidden in nouns:
arrived at the conclusion (concluded) has a requirement for (requires)
came to an agreement (agreed) held a meeting (met)
gave a demonstration of (demonstrated) made a payment (paid)
gave an explanation (explained) Performed an analysis of
(analyzed)

Avoid Hidden Subjects: Like verbs, subjects play a prominent role in a

sentence and should stand out, rather then being obscured by an expletive
beginning. An expletive is an expletive ia an expression such as there is or
it is that begins a clause or sentence and for which pronoun has no
antecedent. Because the topic of a sentence that begins with an expletive is
not immediately clear, you should use such sentences sparingly in business
writing. Avoiding expletives also contributes to conciseness.
Don’t: There was no indication that it is necessary to include John in the
meeting.
Do: No one indicated that John should be included in the meeting.

Imply or Condense: Sometimes you do not need to explicitly state certain

information; you can imply it instead. In other situations, you can use
adjectives and adverbs instead of clauses to convey the needed information
in a more concise format.
Don’t:We have received your recent letter and are happy to provide the
date you requested.
Do: We are happy to provide the data you recently requested.

15
Don’t:This brochure, which is available free of charge, will answer your
questions.
Do: This free brochure will answer your questions.

5. Prefer Positive Language

Words that create a positive image are more likely to help you achieve your
objective than are negative words. For example, you are more likely to
persuade someone to do as you ask if you stress the advantages of doing so
rather than the disadvantages of not doing so. Positive language also builds
goodwill for you and your organization and often gives more information
than negative language. Note the differences in tone and amount of
information given in the following pairs of sentences:

Don’t: The briefcase is not made of cheap imitation leather.

Do: The briefcase is made of 100% belt leather for years of durable
service.
Don’t: We cannot ship your merchandise until we receive your check.
Do: As soon as we receive your check, we will ship your merchandise.
Don’t:I do not yet have any work experience.
Do: My two terms as secretary of the Management Club taught me the
importance of accurate record keeping and gave me experience in
working as part of a team.
Expressions like cannot and will not are not the only ones that convey
negative messages. Other words, like mistake, damage, failure, refuse, and
deny, also carry negative connotations and should be avoided when
possible.
Don’t: Failure to follow the directions may cause the blender to
malfunction.

16
Do: Following the directions will ensure many years of carefree service
from your blender.
Don’t: We apologize for this error.
Do: We appreciate your calling this matter to our attention.
Don’t: We close at 7 p.m. on Fridays.
Do: We’re open until 7 p.m. on Fridays to give you time to shop after
work.
Sometimes you can avoid negative language by switching to the
subjunctive mood, which uses words like wish, if, and would to refer to
conditions that are impossible or improbable. Such language, softens the
impact of the negative message, making it more palatable to the reader.
Here are two examples:
Don’t: I cannot speak at your November meeting.
Do: I wish it were possible for me to speak at your November meeting.
Don’t: I cannot release the names of our clients.
Do: Releasing the names of our clients would violate their right to
privacy.
In short, stress what is true and what can be done rather than what is not
true and what cannot be done. This is not to say that negative language has
no place in business writing. Negative language is strong and emphatic,
and sometimes you will want to use it. However, unless the situation clearly
calls for negative language, you are more likely to achieve your objective
and to build goodwill for yourself and your organization by stressing the
positive.
Because words are the building blocks for your message, choose them with
care. Using short simple words, writing with clarity, vigor, and conciseness;
and using positive language will help you construct effective sentences and
paragraphs. If you are one of the many students learning business

17
communication for whom English is a second language, see Spotlight 13,
“So You’re and ESTL Speaker,” on page 138.

Writing Effective Sentences :A sentence has a subject and predicate and

express at least one complete thought. Beyond these attributes, however,
sentences vary widely in style, length, and effect. They are also very
flexible; writers can move sentence parts around, add and delete
information, and substitute words to express different ideas and emphasize
different points. To build effective sentences, use a variety of sentence
types, and use active and passive voice appropriately.

6. Use A Variety of Sentence Types

There are four basic sentence types – simple, compounds, complex and
compound-complex – all of which are appropriate for business writing.
Simple Sentence A simple sentence: It contains one independent clause (a
clause that can stand alone as a complete though). Because it presents a
single idea and is usually (but not always) short, a simple sentence is often
used for emphasis. Although a simple sentence contains only one
independent clause, it may have a compound subject or compound verb (or
both). All of the following sentences are simple.
I quit.
Individual Retirement Accounts are a safe option.
Both individual Retirement Accounts and Simplified Employee Pension
Plans are safe and convenient options as retirement investments for the
entrepreneur.
Compound Sentence A Compound sentence: This contains two or more
independent clauses. Because each clause presents a complete idea, each
idea receives equal emphasis. (If the two ideas are not closely related, they

18
should be presented tin two separate sentences). Here are three compound
sentences:
Stacey listened, but I nodded.
Morris Technologies made a major acquisition last year, and it turned out to
be a disaster.
Westmoreland Mines moved its headquarters to Prescott in 1984; however,
it stayed there only five years and then moved back to Globe.
Complex Sentence A complex sentence: It contains one independent
clause and at least one dependent clause. For example, in the first sentence
below, “Two scanner will save valuable input time” is an independent
clause because it makes sense by itself. “Although it cost $235” is a
dependent clause because it does not make sense by itself.
Although it cost $235, the scanner will save valuable input time.
George Bosley, whi is the new CEO at Hubbell, made the decision.
I will be moving to Austin when I assume my new position.
The dependent clause provides additional, but subordinate, information
related to the independent clause.
Compound-Complex Sentence A compound-complex sentence: This
contains tow or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
I wanted to write the report myself, but I soon realized that I needed the
advice of our legal department. (two independent clauses and one
dependent clause).
If I can, I’ll do it; if I cannot, I’ll ask Shelia to do it. (two independent
clauses and two dependent clauses).
Sentence Variety: Using a variety of sentence patterns and sentence
lengths helps keep your writing interesting. Note how simplistic and
choppy too many short sentences can be and how boring and difficult too
many long sentence can be.

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The sentences in these paragraphs should be revised to show relationships
between ideas more clearly, to keep readers interested, and to improve
readability. Use simple sentences for emphasis and variety, compound
sentences for coordinate (equal) relationships, and complex sentences for
subordinate relationships.
The first two sentences in the revision are complex, the third sentence is
simple, and the last sentence is compound. The lengths of the four
sentences range from 12 to 27 words. To write effective sentences, use
different sentence patterns and lengths. Most sentences in good business
writing range from 16 to 22.

7. Use Active and Passive Voice Appropriately

Voice is the aspect of a very that shows whether the subject of the sentence
acts or is acted on. In the active voice, the subject performs the action
expressed by the very. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action
expressed by the verb.
Active: Inmac offers a full refund on all orders.
Passive: A full refund on all orders is offered by Inmac.
Active: Shoemacher & Doerr audited the books in 2002.
Passive: The books were audited in 2002 by Shoemacher & Doerr.
Passive sentences add some form of the verb to be to the main verb, so
passive sentences are always somewhat longer than active sentences. In the
first set of sentences just given, for example, compare offers in the active
sentence with is offered by in the passive sentence.
In active sentences, the subject is the doer of the action; in passive
sentences, the subject is the receiver of the action. And because the subject
gets more emphasis than other nouns in a sentence, active sentences
emphasize the doer, and passive sentences emphasize the receiver, of the
action. In the second set of sentences, either version could be considered

20
correct, depending on whether the writer wanted to emphasize Shoemacher
& Doerr or the books.
Use active sentences most of the time in business writing, just as you
naturally use active sentences in most of your conversations. Note that
verb voice (active or passive) has nothing to do with verb tense, which
shows the time of the action. As the following sentences show, the action
in both active and passive sentences can occur in the past, present, or
future.

Don’t: A very logical argument was presented by Hal. (passive voice, past
tense).
Do: Hal presented a very logical argument. (Active voice, past tense)
Don’t: An 18% increase will be reported by the eastern region. (Passive
voice, future tense0
Do: The eastern region will report on 18% increase. (Active voice, future
tense)
Passive sentences are most appropriate when you want to emphasize the
receiver of the action, when the person doing the action is either unknown
or unimportant, or when you want to be tactful in conveying negative
information. All the following sentences are appropriately stated in the
passive voice:
Protective legislation was blamed for the drop in imports. (Emphasizes the
receiver of the action).
Transportation to the construction site will be provided. (The doer of the
action not important).
Several complaints have been received regarding the new policy. (Tactfully
conveys negative news)
Words, sentences, and paragraphs are all building blocks of
communication. You have seen how using a variety of sentence types and

21
using active and passive voice appropriately can help make your sentences
more effective. Now you are ready to combine these sentences to form
logical paragraphs.
Developing Logical Paragraphs: A paragraph is a group of related
sentences that focus on one main idea. The main idea is often identified in
the first sentence of the paragraph, which is then known as a topic sentence.
The body of the paragraph supports this main idea by giving more
information, analysis, or examples. A paragraph is typically part of a
longer message, although one paragraph can contain the entire message,
especially in such informal communications as memorandums and email.
Paragraphs organize the topic into manageable units of information for the
reader. Readers need a cue to tell them when they have finished a topic, so
that they can pause and refocus their attention on the next topic. To serve
this purpose, paragraphs must be unified and coherent, be stated in parallel
structure, and be of an appropriate length.

8. Keep Paragraphs Unified and Coherent

Although closely related, unity and coherence are not the same. A
paragraph has unity when all its parts work together to develop a single
idea consistently and logically. A paragraph has coherence when each
sentence links smoothly to the sentences before and after it.
Unity A unified paragraph gives information that is directly related to the
topic, presents this information in a logical order, and –omits irrelevant
details. The following excerpt is a middle paragraph in a memorandum
arguing against the proposal that Collins, a baby-food manufacturer, should
expand into producing good for adults:

Don’t: [1] We cannot focus our attention on both ends of the age spectrum.
[2] In a recent survey, two-thirds of the under -35 age group named

22
Collins as the first company that came to mind for the category
“baby food products”. [[3] For more than 50 years we have spent
millions of dollars annually to identify our company as the baby-
food company, and market research shows that we have been
successful. [4] Last year, we introduced Peas ‘N Pears, our most
successful baby-food introduction ever. [[5]’ To now seek to
position ourselves as a producer of food for adults would simply be
incongruous. [6] Our well-defined image in the marketplace would
make producing food for adults risky.
The paragraph obviously lacks unity. You may decide that the overall topic
of the paragraph is Collins’s well-defined image as a baby-food producer.
So Sentence 6 would be the best topic sentence. You might also decide that
Sentence 4 brings in extra information that weakens paragraph unity and
would be left out. The most unified paragraph, then, would be Sentences 6,
3, 2, 5 and 1, as shown here:

Do: Our well-defined image in the marketplace would make producing

food for adults risky. For more than 50 years we have spent millions
of dollars annually to identify our company as the baby-food
company, and market research shows that we have been successful.
In a recent survey, two-thirds of the under 35 age group named
Collins as the first company that came to mind for the category
“baby-food products” . to now seek to position ourselves as a
producer of food for adults would simply be incongruous. We
cannot focus our attention on both ends of the age spectrum.
A topic sentence is especially helpful in a long paragraph. It usually
appears at the beginning of a paragraph. This position helps the writer
focus on the topic, so the paragraph will have unity. And it lets the reader
know immediately what the topic is.

23
Coherence: A coherent paragraph weaves sentences together so that the
discussion is integrated. The reader never needs to pause to puzzle out the
relationships or reread to get the intended meaning. The major ways to
achieve coherence are to use transitional words and pronouns, to repeat key
words and ideas, and to use parallel structure.
Transitional words help the reader see relationships between sentences.
Such words may be as simple as first and other indicators of sequence.
Ten years ago, Collins tried to overcome market resistance to its new line
of baby clothes. First, it mounted a multimillion-dollar ad campaign
featuring the Mason quintuplets. Next, it sponsored a Collins Baby look-
alike contest. Then it sponsored two network specials featuring Dr.
Benjamin Spock.
Finally, it brought in the Madison Avenue firm of Morgan & Modine to
broaden its image.
The words first, next, then, and finally clearly signal step-by-step
movement. Now note the following logical transitions, aided by connecting
words:
I recognize, however, that Collins cannot thrive on baby food alone. To
begin with, since we already control 73% of the market, further gains will
be difficult. What’s more, the current baby boom is slowing. Therefore,
we must expand our product line.
Transitional words act as road signs, indicating where the message is
headed and letting the reader know what to expect. Here are some
commonly used transitional expressions grouped by the relationships they
express:
Relationship Transitional Expressions
addition also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, too
cause and effect as a result, because, consequently, hence, so,
Therefore, thus

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comparison in the same way, likewise, similarly
contrast although, but, however, in contrast, nevertheless,
On the other hand, still, yet.
illustration for example, for instance, in other words, to illustrate
sequence first, second, third, then, next, finally
summery/conclusion at last, finally, in conclusion, to summarize, therefore
time meanwhile, next, since, soon, then

A second way to achieve coherence is to use pronouns. Because pronouns

stand for words already named, using pronouns binds sentences and ideas
together. The pronouns are underlined here:
If Collins branches out with additional food products, one possibility would
be a fruit snack for youngsters. Funny Fruits were tested in Columbus last
summer, and they were a big hit. Roger Johnson, national marketing
manager, says he hopes to build new food categories into a $200 million
business. He is also exploring the possibility of acquiring other established
name brands. These acquired brands would let Collins expand faster than if
it had to develop a new product of its own.
A third way to achieve coherence is to repeat key words. In a misguided
attempt to appear interesting, writers sometimes use different terms for the
same idea. For example, in discussing a proposed merger a writer may at
different points use merger, combination, union, association, and syndicate.
Or a writer may use the words administrator, manager, supervisor, and
executive all to refer to the same person. Such “elegant variation” only
confuses the reader, who has no way of knowing whether the writer is
referring to the same concept or to slightly different variations of the
concept. Avoid needless repetition, but use purposeful repetition to link
ideas and thus promote paragraph coherence. Here is a good example:
Collins has taken several steps recently to enhance profits and project a
stronger leadership position. One of these steps is streamlining operations.
Collins’s line of children’s clothes was unprofitable, so it discontinued the

25
line. Its four produce farms were likewise unprofitable, so it hired an
outside professional team to manage them. This team eventually
recommended selling the farms.
Ensure paragraph unity by developing only one topic per paragraph and by
presenting the information in logical order. Ensure paragraph coherence by
using transitional words and pronouns and by repeating key words.

9. Use Parallel Structure

The term parallelism means using similar grammatical structure for similar
ideas – that is, matching adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns,
infinities with infinities, and so on. Much widely quoted writing uses
parallelism: for example, Julius Caesar’s “I came, I saw, I conquered” and
Abraham Lincoln’s “government of the people, by the people, and for the
people”. Parallel structure smoothly links ideas and adds a pleasing rhythm
to sentences and paragraphs, thereby enhancing coherence.

Don’t: The new dispatcher is competent and a fast worker.

Do : The dispatcher is competent and fast.
Don’t: The new grade of paper is lightweight, nonporous, and it is
inexpensive.
Do: The new grade of paper is lightweight, nonporous, and inexpensive.
Don’t:The training program will cover.
1. Vacation and sick leaves
2. How to resolve grievances
3. Managing your workstation

Do: The training program will cover

1. Vacation and sick leaves
2. Grievance resolution

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3. Workstation management

Don’t: One management consultant recommended either selling the

children’s furniture division or its conversion into a children’s toy
division.
Do: One management consultant recommended either selling the
children’s furniture division or conversion it into a children’s toy
division.
Don’t: Gladys is not only proficient in word processing but also in desktop
publishing.
Do: Gladys is proficient not only in word processing but also in desktop
publishing.

In the last two sets of sentences above, note that correlative conjunctions
(such as both/and, either/or, and not only/but also) must be followed by
words in parallel form. Be especially careful to use parallel structure in
report headings that have equal weight and in numbered lists.

10. Control Paragraph Length

How long should a paragraph of business writing be? As with other
considerations, the needs of the reader, rather than the convenience of the
writer, should determine the answer. Paragraphs should help the reader by
signaling a new idea as well as by providing a physical break. Long blocks
of unbroken text look boring and needlessly complex. And they may
unintentionally obscure an important idea buried in the middle. On the
other hand, a series of extremely short paragraphs can weaken coherence by
obscuring underlying relationships.
Essentially, there are no fixed rules for paragraph length, and occasionally
one or ten-sentence paragraphs might be effective. However, most

27
paragraphs of good business writers fall into the 60 to 80 word range – long
enough for a topic sentence and three or four supporting sentences.
Although a single paragraph should never discuss more than one major
topic, complex topics may need to be divided into several paragraphs.
Your purpose and the needs of your reader should ultimately determine
paragraph length.

5.2.2 Communication in Interview

The heart of the interview is the question and answer session. If you are not
careful you can rapidly find yourself on the defensive, trying to justify
yourself in the face of tough questions rather than having the chance to 'sell'
your benefits.

A well-trained interviewer will throw all sorts of odd and challenging

questions at you in an attempt to assess your true suitability for the job.
They will often deliberately create stressful situations to see how you react.
In fact, the tougher the questions, the better you're doing. Knowing how to
answer them with the 'correct' type of answer is the key to success or
failure.

So remember, the good news is that all of their questions will be in one of
the 3 main categories.

Interview Questions – Can You do the Job?

The first type of question is seeking to determine whether or not you are
capable of doing the job. These questions will be about your skills,
attitudes, knowledge and experience in short your track record. Typically

28
about 60 per cent of a professional interviewers time will be spent assessing
your abilities against those required by the position on offer.

You should be looking for any opportunity to impart information about

your skills and abilities, backing them up with examples of what you have
already achieved.

Here are some common examples of this type of question:

What is your greatest strength?

If you've done your homework before the interview, you would have
several strengths to choose from. The obvious choice would be the strength
which best suits the demands of the job. This is one of the most common
questions and represents a good opportunity to assert your career statement.
How to answer this question is covered in detail elsewhere in the
multimedia training course – GetAhead in Winning at Interviews.

What skill have you acquired most recently?

Here the interviewer is seeking to establish that you are an interested, active
lifelong learner and not somebody who has just attained a variety of
disparate qualifications along the way. Try to avoid putting a timeframe on
your answer; unless you have attended a course very recently and try to add
details of how you have already applied the new skill in the workplace.

Can you work well under pressure?

This is a closed question and can be a sign of an untrained interviewer. Use
the opportunity to give a comprehensive but brief answer focusing on
several clear-cut examples showing your ability to cope under pressure.

29
Specific, job related questions
The interviewer may ask any number of questions that relate to your past
experience and how this might influence your suitability for the current
position. Here you will need to call on the work you did in analyzing your
own career achievements, as explained elsewhere in the multimedia
training course – GetAhead in Winning at Interviews. Using real examples
and framing these in terms of a problem or challenge that you successfully
addressed is the key to answering job related questions.

Interview Questions – Will You do the Job?

The second type of question is concerned with your personal disposition
and approach to work. These questions are seeking to determine whether
you are hard working, motivated and committed; in short are you the kind
of person who will do more than just what is in the job contract.

You should be looking for any opportunity to impart information that

demonstrates what a positive and committed employee you have been. In
preparing for the interview, decide which areas of your work to date can be
used to illustrate your commitment and motivation.

Here are some common examples of this type of question:

What was it like working for your previous employer?

Here, you could choose to answer the question in terms of their product
development, management style, use of new technology or any number of
other aspects.

However, by taking the initiative and answering it in terms of what the job
required of you and how you met these demands, emphasizing your

30
flexibility, long hours working when required, etc, you will begin to
address the real issue behind the question. Once again, stay alert and look
for opportunities to sell your benefits.

Have you done the best work you are capable of?
This is a deliberately tricky question. If you say yes, the interviewer may
determine that you have peaked, and that it is downhill from here.
However, saying no invites the question of why not? Perhaps you haven’t
been fully committed, or worse competent.

The best response is to recall some of the your top achievements to date, to
answer in a way that implies an increasing performance trend. Follow this
up by showing that you are looking forward to bigger challenges and even
better achievements in the future.

How long will it be before you make a net contribution to our

organization?
Unless the job is very mundane or routine, you cannot realistically make a
real contribution until you have been through a significant learning curve.
This learning curve is one that is recognized by employers and generally
the higher the level of the position the more tolerant the organization will
be about the time needed for this.

However, the upper limit for this is rarely more than 3 to 4 months and the
longer the learning curve the more is expected from the performance
following it. Think about the realistic bedding in time and what sort of
contributions you might make during this period.

If you got this job, how long would you stay with us?

31
The best way to answer this question is to tailor your reply to fit the culture
of the organization and your own career path. For example, if the
organization is highly entrepreneurial then replying that you are looking for
a retirement home will not play well.

However, if the culture is more paternal or family centered then indicating

that you are considering your final job move may be very well received.

Some people think that implying that you will be happy to stay as long as
you are developing new skills or facing new challenges is the best
approach. The down side of this can be that it implies the organization is
responsible for your nurturing, education and entertainment. Think
carefully about using these type of explanations as you may give the
impression that you may leave as soon as you are faced with a dull project.

Interview Questions – Will You Fit In?

In answering questions from the first two categories, you should be clearly
demonstrating your abilities and motivation.

The third basic question type is concerned with whether or not you will fit
into the organization. Most employers are looking for staff who are not
only capable of, and committed to, doing their job but who will fit the
prevailing corporate culture and image. Here, the more senior the role, the
more important fitting in becomes.

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You should be looking for any opportunity to impart information that
demonstrates how you would fit in. In particular areas to consider are:

• How the organization manages people

• How the organization devolves power
• How people interrelate
• How people are motivated
• How the organization competes in the marketplace

Interview Questions – Will You Fit In? - Examples

It is your research into the organization, as addressed elsewhere in the
multimedia training course – GetAhead in Winning at Interviews, that will
equip you to assess the organizational attitude to the fundamental issues that lie
behind this type of question.

An important point here is that if you find yourself at variance with your
potential employers value system then you would probably be advised to look
elsewhere. It is almost impossible to succeed in a culture that feels alien to you.
Here are some common examples of this type of question:

How do you see yourself fitting into a new project team?

Interviewers will often seek reassurance that you can demonstrate a track
record of fitting in when you have been repositioned in a working
environment. You will need to illustrate times where you were placed in a new
team or group. It doesn’t matter how long or short term these placements were,
rather that you can show how you did fit in; how the group was not disrupted
by your arrival and that a clear improvement in overall performance resulted.

33
How will you be able to cope with a change in environment?
This sort of question is usually posed if you've spent a long time in one
particular job. It sounds like a negative but can be turned into a positive
especially if you're looking for a change, or a chance to develop. Avoid
sounding negative about your current environment, whilst stressing the
excitement you feel in seeking a new one.

How do you go about getting to know and understand new work

colleagues?
Show that you understand the process of fitting in to a new working
environment and that you appreciate that the key to getting to know new
colleagues is to listen. Show that you appreciate this overhead on your normal
work duties and that you will invest your own time and efforts, for example in
coffee and lunch breaks and perhaps in extra curricular activities. By
demonstrating a knowledge of the processes involved and a willingness to
commit to it, based on your past experiences, you will be creating a positive
picture for the interviewer.

Where do you see yourself in five years time?

The obvious answer would be "part of the management team, or board of
directors within this organization". This may not necessarily be true, but the
interviewer needs to know that your intentions are to move up the career ladder
within their organization. Be careful not to sound overly ambitious, as the
interviewer may be your future boss. The safest option is to modestly express
your desire to grow and advance within the organization.

Remember, throughout the interview you should be looking for any

opportunity to impart information about your skills and abilities, backing them

34
up with examples of what you have already achieved. Most employers are
looking for staff who are not only capable of, and committed to, doing their job
but who will fit the prevailing corporate culture and image.

5.3 Key Words

1. Commercial Letter: Individual words are our basic units of

commercial letter writing, the bricks with which we build
meaningful messages.
2. Effective Letter Communication: Effective communication through
commercial letter requires the communicator to translate their
messages in a way that is specifically designed for their intended
audience.

5.4 Summary

Communication is a complex two-way process, involving the encoding,

translation and decoding of messages. Effective communication through
commercial letter requires the communicator to translate their messages in a way
that is specifically designed for their intended audience. Creating and drafting an
effective commercial letter requires a basic understanding of the communication
process. Most commercial letters require the clear and unambiguous
communication of a message in a way that can be clearly understood by the
recipient. It is human nature to assume that when we communicate we are doing
so effectively, and that if anything goes wrong consequently the responsibility for
that must rest with the recipient.
In a commercial letter, the writer of the letter should understand very clearly the
following steps:
Step 1: Organize your writing.
Step 2: Know what is and is not appropriate
Step 3: Write an informative beginning
Step 4: Write an revealing exchange of information
Step 5: Avoid clumsy phrases and complex vocabulary

35
Step 6: Apply the skills to good news and bad news messages
Step 7: Use short, clear sentences and simple punctuation
Step 8: Write a clear, meaningful subject line
Step 9: Convey your message in as few words as possible
Step 10: Use headings, generalizations, and paragraphs
Step 11: Write a cordial, informative conclusion
Step 12: Edit and proofread your writing.

Your intention and the needs of someone who reads your letter should at
the end of the day make a decision as to what a letter need to carry.

Generally speaking, interviewers tend to believe that people behave in

interviews the same way as they do at work. Whilst this is evidently not
true, because the interview is an unusual and highly charged environment,
it does confirm that you should never become confrontational with the
interviewer. The golden rule in an interview is to never argue, but to talk
them round.

If you disagree with something that your interviewer says, check your
understanding first. Ask a question or questions to clarify their meaning as
this demonstrates that you are keen to clarify the precise facts, ahead of
making your point.

Whilst the interviewer is in control during an interview, this does not mean
that you should agree with everything they say. Some questions may be
asked to see how you handle disagreement and you do not want to appear
weak or characterless.

5.5 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Define the concept ‘commercial letter’. Discuss the essentials of a

commercial letter. Also give a specimen of such letter.

36
2. "The single most significant characteristic of the commercial letter is
that it must have a human face." Discuss.
3. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he
wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge
of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of
telling, listening and understanding." Is it true in case of commercial
letter? Argue your viewpoint with suitable examples.
4. "The speaking and public presentation skills are primary
requirements for a successful manager." Discuss the statement.

5.6 Suggested Readings

1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition,

1998.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication: Theory
and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.
4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business Communication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi, 2001.

37
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson : 6

COMMUNICATION FOR MEETINGS AND OTHER CORRESPONDENCE

Objective: The primary objectives of this lesson are to develop and use an
agenda to lead discussion of the meeting’s key objectives; to
understand the politics of meeting with subordinates, peers or
superiors; to identify personality types and target your own message
for maximum impact; and to encourage participation, so that all of
the decisions made are owned by the group.

Lesson Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Presentation of Contents
6.2.1 Preparation & Follow Up for Meeting
6.2.2 The Meeting Agenda
6.2.3 Meeting Minutes – General Guidelines
6.2.4 Other Correspondence
6.3 Summary
6.4 Key Words
6.5 Self Assessment Questions
6.7 Suggested Readings.

6.1 Introduction
Most people must have heard the story of the American corporate president
who had the hourly salaries of his senior board members entered into an
electronic display, which updated the cost of each meeting as it progressed.
The president would periodically turn to the display and ask the meeting
participants if they had justified the accumulated cost. No doubt this was an
effective way of keeping minds focused, but even that approach seriously
underestimates the true cost of a meeting.

Simple salary based calculations take no account of the other costs

associated with a meeting. Every meeting has associated with it a time and
a cost – but how many half hour meetings actually last 30 minutes? Far
more overrun than finish early, so even quantifying the time of the meeting
isn't that easy.

6.2.1 Preparation & Follow Up

You would normally expect to spend some time ahead of a meeting -
preparing for it. You would also spend some time following the meeting in
pursuing tasks that have arisen from it. Typically, a meeting could occupy
three to five times the scheduled duration of the meeting.

Overhead and Administration costs: This category includes the fixed

costs of the meeting venue, whether it is in-house or external, as well as the
cost of hiring any presentation equipment that may be required. It will
include all of the communication and production costs associated with the
meeting - items such as stationery, printing, telecommunications and
postage. If the meeting uses videoconferencing, then this can be quite a
significant cost.

Travel costs : People often travel quite long distances in order to attend
meetings and not only must this cost be factored in, but also an appropriate
allowance for any non-productive time.

2
Opportunity costs: Whilst people are in meetings they are not able to carry
out their normal duties. For example, a sales meeting may take a number of
key sales staff off the road for a day. Sales opportunities will inevitably be
missed and this needs to be considered when estimating the true cost of the
meeting?

Reducing the Number of Meetings You Attend: Learning to say no to

unnecessary meetings will be an important part of your meetings strategy. It
is only by declining inappropriate, or poorly planned, meetings that you
will find the time to prepare for and attend those that are of real value.

How often have you agreed to attend a meeting, only to find out that there
was nothing to it that couldn't have been dealt with via email or the
telephone?
How many meetings have you attended where your presence was entirely
superfluous? What about those meetings where the other party's agenda
meant that you were put on the spot, and you wished you hadn't attended?

If you start to take responsibility for every meeting, whether you are
chairing it or just attending, you will soon find that you are going to fewer
and better meetings. You will become more specific about what it is that
you want to accomplish and you'll be more focused on achieving a positive
outcome.

If you decide that there are some meetings that you would either like to
avoid or would like to see restructured, then there are a variety of
approaches that you can adopt. Foe example:

3
Ask for clarification of the objective : If you ask the leader of a
forthcoming meeting to clarify the meeting objective, this will encourage
them to re-evaluate the best way that this might be achieved. You could
also ask about other aspects of the proposed meeting: are the planned
attendees the best group, is the timing right and is all relevant information
available?

Identify the deficiencies : If your main objection to a forthcoming meeting

is that one or more aspects of it are missing or poorly planned, you should
communicate this to the meeting leader. This is best done in a constructive
working environment, where these comments are unlikely to cause insult or
confusion. This strategy works well because it not only affects the meeting
in question, but should result in better planned meetings in the future.

Question the need for your attendance : This is easier to do if the

meeting leader is your subordinate or a peer, rather than your boss. Where
you wish to extricate yourself from a meeting called by your boss a good
approach can be to couch your request in terms of an opportunity cost. For
example, “Two other people from my section are already attending, so I
think it would be a better use of my time to complete the plan for the new
project, rather than attend this meeting”. This couches your request in terms
of an opportunity to complete another urgent task. Always make these
requests from the team player perspective and stress the benefits, which
should be in the best interests of your boss.

Try making your contribution on the telephone : Calling the meeting

leader to make your contribution ahead of the meeting may preclude the
need for you to attend it. You may wish to follow this up with a written
contribution that the leader can table on the day. This approach is can prove

4
very useful if your involvement is superficial, for example if you are
needed for your technical opinion in a fairly narrow area.

Simply be unavailable : In some cases you will have other commitments

that mean you cannot attend a meeting. You may choose to use this as a
valid excuse for skipping a meeting. You may even distance yourself from
the message by asking a secretary or colleague to communicate this on your
behalf.

Deciding which meetings to attend, or influence in some way, is best done

in a considered and direct way. It is in everyone's best interest to attend
effective and well-structured meetings. Remember, your time is your
responsibility, if you decide that you should not attend a meeting, then take
action to avoid it.

Clarify Your Objectives : How often do you enter a meeting with a clear
idea of what you hope to achieve, what decision should be made or what
problem will be solved?

This is not the same as a general perception of what the meeting is about. A
lot of meetings are called and run on the basis that everybody knows what
the goal of the meeting is. Don't assume that this is the case or that you all
share a common purpose. Without a clear consensus about the goal of a
meeting, the chance of success is minimal. Generally speaking, the fewer
tasks that are undertaken, the more successful the meeting is likely to be. It
is important to set measurable objectives prior to each meeting that you
attend, especially if your role is that of chairperson. This gives you
something to strive for during the meeting, and you will know when the

5
meeting ends whether or not it has been successful. Some meetings will
lend themselves to readily identifiable success criteria whereas others will
not. Here are some examples:

Sales Meeting : In a final sales meeting where success is measured by

getting the written order the criteria for success would be to secure an
order. Failure to do so would normally indicate a failed meeting.

Negotiation : You would usually enter a negotiation with a checklist of

things you would like to secure from the other side, together with a list of
points you would be willing to concede. These represent objective criteria
against which the meeting can be assessed.

Presentation Meeting : At a meeting designed to inform, the success

criteria could be the amount of information imparted. However, this takes
no account of the information that is actually received and understood by
the attendees. In reality, this makes objective success criteria very difficult
to establish.

If you are able to set measurable objectives, then share them with the
meeting group. Set out a route for the meeting with clear milestones and
then assess its success in achieving the objectives you set for it. Adopting
this approach may convince you that a meeting is not always the right
course of action, and you may find yourself calling fewer meetings.

Think Ahead for Effectiveness: Over the past decade meetings have
started to consume an increasing proportion of the working day. This trend
seems set to continue, with more and longer meetings occupying the time

6
of senior staff. Despite predictions that the impact of high technology in the
workplace would reduce the need for meetings, the reverse is proving to be
the case.

More than ever before, organizations need staff that posses total meetings
skills, including the ability to limit and shape the increasing demand for
meetings. Meetings that last too long or that are held too often will be seen
for what they are, an expensive liability, wasting the organizations
resources and money.

This course will help you to develop effective meeting skills, whether you
are attending as the chairperson or as a participant. All aspects of meetings
are covered in detail, including preparation, communicating effectively and
maintaining control throughout the meeting process.

Meetings often represent the most dramatic and powerful events in the
workplace. When a meeting works well the added value can be enormous.
However, meetings that give rise to poorly considered decisions and
inappropriate follow-up actions will leverage this failure throughout the
organization.

Each type of meeting should be carefully planned to achieve its specific

objective. For example: If the main objective of the meeting is to inform
people, then the meeting will usually involve some form of presentation
followed by a question and answer session. This type of meeting should
focus on the person presenting the information and the opportunity for
discussion will often be limited.

7
If the meeting is held to solve a problem or brainstorm new ideas then
everyone should be encouraged to participate from the outset. This kind of
meeting should be relatively unstructured, and free flowing discussion
should be encouraged. This will be helped by selecting the most appropriate
venue and seating arrangement.

When meetings are successful they achieve a dynamic interchange between

the participants in which they can achieve more than they could by working
alone - or by communicating by some other means. However, when the
outcome is evaluated objectively, many meetings are not successful and
often leave the participants feeling that the meeting was a waste of time.

Preparing Your Case: If you are presenting, or supporting, one case

against another then you must give careful consideration to the preparation
and management of your case. Carry out some background research before
a meeting, to help you to make an informed contribution. Sources of
information may well include: colleagues who have worked in similar
fields, research material and other relevant publications and notes or
minutes from previous group meetings. Your research should include
finding out whatever you can about the other attendees, for example their
views and interests in the areas being discussed.

If your views are likely to meet strong resistance, try to identify your
opponents and negotiate a compromise, or at least an understanding, in
advance. This way neither party will be undermined in public and the
atmosphere at the meeting can be kept far more positive and constructive.

Plan the content of any case you will present at a meeting around the
message or messages you want to convey, in order to achieve your

8
objective. It is important to keep the focus of your presentation on the
message and not on the information and facts that underpin that message.
This can be very difficult; especially when the message is supported by a
multitude of facts that you think the audience should know.

If your presentation does consist of a series of facts and supporting

evidence, then the audience is likely to assimilate these and draw their own
conclusions. If this happens you will lose the opportunity to influence and
shape the audiences’ interpretation. It is far more effective to communicate
your messages and then support them with an adequate level of facts and
information - so that your meeting partners can line them up behind the
message you wish to convey.

6.2.2 The Meeting Agenda

The best way to ensure that those attending a meeting are clear about its
purpose is to send them an agenda well in advance. The agenda should state
which issues will be discussed and in what order. It suggests the outline for
the meeting minutes and to some extent predicts the results of the meeting.
An agenda should be short, simple and clear.

The meeting agenda has three distinct purposes. Firstly, it acts as a

reference against which to prepare for a meeting. Secondly, it is a script for
the meeting itself a mechanism for control and order. Finally, it represents a
standard by which the meeting can be judged a success or failure.

It is often said that the person who controls the agenda controls the
meeting. The agenda is often treated with almost legal reverence by those

9
attending the meeting. When you are leading a meeting you owe it to
yourself and your meeting partners to have prepared and circulated an
agenda.

If you are asked to attend a meeting expect, or even request, an agenda.

Attending a meeting with an unseen agenda could leave you vulnerable to
an issue for which you are not prepared.

The Meeting Agenda Illustrated

The best way to ensure that those attending a meeting are clear about its
purpose is to send them an agenda well in advance. The agenda should state
which issues will be discussed and in what order. It suggests the outline for
the meeting minutes and to some extent predicts the results of the meeting.
An agenda should be short, simple and clear.

The agenda should be headed with the date, time and location of the
meeting. The overall time should be shown on the agenda. In this example,

10
the duration is indicated at the top; an alternative to this is to place a start
time against each item on the agenda. It is important that an agenda
displays the overall duration of the meeting as this enables participants to
plan their day in advance. Furthermore it enables the chairperson to keep
control of the meeting with reference to the published time-frame.

It is usual to number each item on the agenda and to formally introduce

each one. The apologies for absence, involves naming those who were
invited but unable to attend. Minutes of last meeting, this is a formal
process, normally involving agreement followed by the chairpersons’
signature. Specific headings are then given for each topic that needs to be
addressed.
Any other business: Many organizations prefer to drop this item from
agendas, restricting the meeting to specific items. The risk with including
this option is that it can invite almost any point of discussion and meetings
can drag on indefinitely.

Any relevant background information should be sent out with the agenda.
Aim to make the agenda as informative as practical, it should encourage
participants to turn up and play as full a role as possible. If the agenda is
dull then the attendees are less likely to prepare well, or they may even
decide not to turn up at all.

Remember, the key items discussed at the meeting are presented in the
same order within the meeting minutes as was shown on the meeting
Agenda.

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6.2.3 Meeting Minutes – General Guidelines

The following is a guide for how to record the minutes of a formal meeting:

• Make sure that all of the essential elements are noted, such as type of
meeting, name of the organization, date and time, name of the chair or
facilitator, main topics and the time of adjournment. For formal and
corporate meetings include approval of previous minutes, and any
relevant resolutions.
• Prepare an outline based on the meeting agenda (see the content of
Meeting Agenda on this website). Leave plenty of white space within
the minutes for your notes. By having the topics already written down,
you can jump right on to a new topic without pausing
• Prepare a list of expected attendees and check off the names as people
enter the room. Or, you can pass around an attendance sheet for
everyone to sign as the meeting starts. The degree of formality used here
will reflect the significance of the meeting and it’s future accountability.
• To be sure about who said what, make a map of the seating
arrangement, and make sure to ask for introductions of unfamiliar
people.
• Don't make the mistake of recording every single comment, but
concentrate on getting the general meaning of the discussion and taking
enough notes that you can summarize it later. Remember that minutes
are the official record of what happened, not exactly what was said, at a
meeting.
• Use whatever device is comfortable for you, a notepad, a laptop
computer, a tape recorder, a steno pad or even shorthand. Many people
routinely make an audio-recording of important meetings as a backup to
their notes.

12
• Be prepared! Study the issues to be discussed and ask a lot of questions
ahead of time. If you have to fumble for understanding while you are
making your notes, they may not make much sense to you later – when
you need to type the minutes up.
• Don't wait too long to type up the minutes, again recency is the key to
producing an accurate record of the events. Make sure that you have
them approved by the chair or facilitator before distributing them to the
meeting attendees.

Don't lose sight of the fact that this is an important task. You may be called
upon many times to write meeting minutes, and the ability to produce
concise, coherent minutes is widely admired and valued.

Meeting Minutes – Example Meeting Minutes

This screen illustrates the sort of detail that might appear in the minutes of a
routine sports club committee meeting. Therefore, here we are looking at

13
minutes at the entry level of what might be classed as a formal meeting.
Minutes should always reflect the agenda. Note that the date and venue are
listed. The names of the participants are recorded. Absentees are noted, and
the key items discussed are presented in the same order as shown on the
meeting Agenda.

The final copy of the minutes should follow the same format as the agenda,
even if items were discussed in a different order. There is often a set style
for a given organization, which enables the minutes of meetings to be filed
and compared more easily.

The name, or initials, placed in an action column on the right hand side of
the minutes can serve as a useful reminder to those who were allocated
specific follow-up tasks during the course of the meeting.

Example Meeting Minutes (Formal)

MEETING MINUTES - DRAFT

TOPIC: Intranet Working Group (IWG)

DATE: 15-10-2005

ATTENDEES:
Bell Jeremy Ironwork
Ian Fradgmousse
France Noveau
CCTA Sheila Legwell
Industry Rep Sarah Glass
Micro-est Larry Grayson
SRCI Gordon Gofer
Herbert Lecter Chair
Trevor Hearn Recorder
Fritz Burger
Pam King
Donna Spring

PURPOSE: 1) Review status reports from sub working group chairs.

Meeting Summary:Discussion / Topics

1. Minutes of meeting 15-102005 be accepted.

14
2. Each sub group chair provided a summary of progress since the last
CISC meeting; these verbal reports have been documented in the
attached progress report submitted by the chair at the CISC meeting on
January 05, 2002.
3. There was general discussion on two items which are contentious in the
planning group. These are also documented in the attached progress
report. JRS indicated he would raise the issues at the CISC meeting for
steering committee direction.
4. Confirmed next meeting is scheduled for February 11, 2005

6.2.4 Other Correspondence

The World is full of countries that prove the precept that those that live
closer to the principles of free trade do better than those who have
abandoned them. The famous economist Adam Smith spent 12 years, up
until 1776 writing his seminal piece 'An Inquiry into The Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations'. In it he remarked on the propensity to
truck, barter and exchange - which he found to be common to all people on
the planet and yet was not present in any other species. - Smith wrote.

“Nobody ever saw a dog make a fair and deliberate exchange of one bone
for another with another dog. Nobody ever saw one animal by its gestures
and natural cries signify to another, this is mine; that is yours: I am willing
to give this for that”.

Business Negotiations: If you want to trade you have to negotiate, the

alternative is to accept what you are offered. There are many opportunities
to negotiate better deals and terms, however these chances are often missed
because neither side makes it clear that negotiating is an option. Many
people wrongly assume that nothing is negotiable unless the other party

15
indicates that this is the case - a more realistic view is that everything is
negotiable.

The complexity of the negotiating process will vary according to the size
and complexity of the proposed deal as well as the attitudes adopted by the
parties involved. This course explains a comprehensive and detailed
approach, which should be tailored to suit the needs of each particular
negotiation. It is worth remembering that the time and effort that you invest
in any round of talks should reflect the potential benefit that can be gained
from them.
Phases of a Negotiation: Nearly all negotiations are characterized by four
phases - preparation, opening, bargaining and closing. In large scale
negotiations each of these phases are normally tackled sequentially.,
However, in smaller scale negotiations it is quite common for these phases
to merge - possibly into a single unstructured process. Where this is the
case, a good understanding of the logic that underpins the four-phase
approach can guide you, even when you are negotiating smaller deals.

Preparation involves information gathering - knowing the state of the

market, being aware of the supply and demand status, being aware of any
current or imminent discounts and special offers and so on.

The opening phase of a negotiation involves both sides presenting their

starting positions to one another. It usually represents the single most
important opportunity to influence the other side.

In the bargaining phase, your aim is to narrow the gap between the two
initial positions and to persuade the other side that your case is so strong

16
that they must accept less than they had planned. In order to do this you
should use clearly thought out, planned and logical debate.

The closing of a negotiation represents the opportunity to capitalize on all

of the work done in the earlier phases. The research that you’ve done in the
preparation phase, combined with all of the information that you’ve gained
since should guide you in the closing phase.

Legal Aspects of Communication: The legal writing skills trains anyone

working in legal profession to write effectively, especially lawyers,
attorneys, judges etc. Many a times, the business managers are also put in
such a situation where they are supposed to know the legal aspects of
business communications particularly while writing the letters and reports.
They convene the meetings and attend the same as representative of their
respective organizations. In such cases they are supposed to record the
minutes as per requirements of different laws like company law, consumers
protection law and income tax law, etc. Therefore, the business managers
need to improve their legal orientation as well as business communication
more particularly the written communication. The legal aspects of business
communication takes you through every step in the process of deciding
with your company what types of minutes to take, preparing for taking
minutes, recording your notes, translating the notes into clear minutes, and
distributing the minutes.

As a matter of legal requirement, a business manager needs to have a clear

objective of any such writing; should know the reader; should write with
clear openings for new information; Use explicit guideposts for readers;
Use strategies to have the impact you want; Quote and cite correctly; Use

17
key words, definitions, explanations, and examples; Write using clear,
simple words; Write clear, simple sentences; Write clear, simple paragraphs

Write concisely; Use an attractive, easy-to-follow format; and ultimately

should go for proofreading for legal correctness.

In order to make communication legally authentic, the manager needs to

avoid letting personal biased and unfounded opinions influence your
interpretation and presentation of the data. Sometimes you will be asked to
draw conclusions and to make recommendations, and such judgments
inherently involve a certain amount of subjectivity. You must make a
special effort to look at the data objectively and to base your conclusions,
solely on the data. Avoid letting your personal feelings influence the
outcomes. Something the use of a single word can unintentionally convey
bias.

Moreover, the business manager should give enough evidence to support

your conclusions. Make sure that your sources are accurate, reliable, and
objective and that is enough evidence to support your position. Sometimes
your evidence (the data you gather) may be so sparse or of such
questionable quality that you are unable to draw a valid conclusion. If so,
simply present the findings and don’t draw a conclusion. To give the
reader confidence in your statements, discuss your procedures thoroughly
and cite all your sources.

Management needs comprehensive, up-to-date, accurate, and

understandable information to achieve the organization’s goals. Much of
this information is communicated in the form of legal communications.
The most common types of business legal communications are periodic
legal communications, proposals, policies and procedures, and situational

18
legal communications. Each of these types is discussed and illustrated in
the following sections

Informational legal communications relate objectively the facts and events

surrounding a particular situation. No attempt is made to analyze and
interpret the data, draw conclusions, or recommend a course of action.
Most periodic legal communications, as well as policies and procedures, are
examples of informational legal communications. In most cases, these
types of legal communications are the easiest to complete. The writer’s
major interest is in presenting all of the relevant information objectively,
accurately, and clearly, while refraining from including unsolicited analysis
and recommendations.

Authorized legal communications are written at the specific request of

some higher authority. Thus, the reader has an inherent interest in the
report. Voluntary legal communications, on the other hand, are prepared on
the writer’s own initiative. Therefore, the reader needs more background
information and frequently more persuasive evidence than do readers of
authorized legal communications. Authorized legal communications may
be either periodic or situational. Periodic legal communications are
submitted on a recurring, systematic basis. Very often, they are form legal
communications, with space provided for specific items of information.
Readers of periodic legal communications need little introductory or
background information because of the report’s recurring nature. Readers
of situational, one-time legal communications, on the other hand, need
more explanatory material because of the uniqueness of the situation.

19
Some important factors naturally interfere with legal creativity and
concentration. In addition, they undermine the writer’s self-image and make
him or her even more reluctant to tackle the next writing task. The
treatment for writer’s block lies in the strategies, from legal point view,
discussed hereunder:

1. Choose the appropriate legal environment: The ability to

concentrate on the task is one of the most important components of
effective legal writing. The appropriate legal environment may not
be the same desk where you normally do your other work. Even if
you can turn off the phones and shut the door to visitors, silent
distractions can bother you – a notation on your calendar reminding
you of an important upcoming event, notes about a current project,
even a photograph of a loved one. Many people write best in a
library-type environment, with a low noise level, relative anonymity,
and the space to spread out notes and other resources on a large
table. Others find a computer room conducive to thinking and
writing, with its low level of constant background noise and the
presence of other people similarly engaged.
2. Schedule a reasonable block of time: If the legal writing task is
short, you can block out enough time to plan, draft, and revise the
entire message at one sitting. If the task is long or complex,
however, schedule blocks of no more than two hours or so. After all,
writing is hard work. When your time is up or your work completed,
give yourself a reward – take a break or get a snack.
3. State your purpose in legal writing: Having identified your
specific purpose during the planning phase, write it at the top of your
blank page or tack it on the bulletin board in front of you. Keep it

20
visible so that it will be uppermost in your consciousness as you
compose.
4. Engage in free writing: Review your purpose and your audience,
then, as a means of releasing your pent-up ideas and getting past the
block, begin free writing; that is, write continuously for five to then
minutes, literally without stopping. Although free writing is typically
considered a pre-drafting technique, it can also be quite useful for
helping writers “unblock” their ideas.

While free writing, do not look back and do not stop writing. If you
cannot think of anything to say, simply keep repeating the last word
or keep writing some sentence such as, “I’ll think of something
soon.” Resist the temptation to evaluate what you have written. (If
you are composing at a computer, you may want to darken your
screen so that you will not be tempted to review what you have
written thus far; this technique is called invisible writing.) At the end
of five or ten minutes, take a breather, stretch and relax, read what
you’ve written, and then start again, if necessary.
5. Avoid the perfectionism legal syndrome: Remember that the
product you are producing now is a draft – not a final document. Do
not worry about style, coherence, spelling or punctuation errors, and
the like. The artist in you must create something before the editor
can refine it.
6. Think aloud with legal aptitude: Some people are more skilled at
speaking their thoughts than at writing them. Picture you are self-
telling a colleague about what you are writing, and explain aloud the
ideas you are trying to get across. Hearing your ideas will help
sharpen and focus them.

21
7. Write the easiest parts first: The opening paragraph of a letter or
memo is often the most difficult one to compose. If that is the case,
ship it and begin in the middle. In a report, the procedures section
may be easier to write than the recommendations. Getting something
down on paper will give you a sense of accomplishment, and your
writing may generate ideas for other sections.

6.3 Summary
A lot of meetings are called and run on the basis that everybody knows
what the goal of the meeting is. Don't assume that this is the case or that
you all share a common purpose. Without a clear consensus about the goal
of a meeting, the chance of success is minimal. Generally speaking, the
fewer tasks that are undertaken, the more successful the meeting is likely to
be. It is important to set measurable objectives prior to each meeting that
you attend, especially if your role is that of chairperson. This gives you
something to strive for during the meeting, and you will know when the
meeting ends whether or not it has been successful.
This lesson educates you skills to successfully negotiate your way through
life. Even if you were to measure it in narrow monetary terms this course
would reward you enormously in all the big-ticket negotiations we do in
our lives. But, even more important it gives you valuable lessons about
setting goals; following a strategy and building a meaningful relationship
with the people you interact with. This course is not just about negotiations
- it is also an enlightening and entertaining educational experience about
living more effectively.
Managers at every level must balance various working styles, build
efficient management teams, and develop sharp negotiation skills to remain
competitive. Business Negotiations offers a selection of the best thinking

22
on negotiation practice and managing conflict in organizational settings –
an invaluable training resource.
Negotiation is a critical skill needed for effective management. This
multimedia course explores and explains the major concepts and theories of
the psychology of bargaining and negotiation, as well as the dynamics of
interpersonal and inter-group conflict and its resolution. It is relevant to a
broad spectrum of management students as well as all staff involved in
professional negotiations and bargaining.

Try each of the legal strategies for avoiding writer’s block at least once;

then build into your writing routine those strategies that work best for you.

Just as different athletes and artists use different legal strategies for

accomplishing their goals, so do different writers. There is no single best

way to make legal business communication, so choose what effective way

of business communication for you is.

6.4 Key Words

1. Sales Meeting : In a final sales meeting where success is measured by

getting the written order the criteria for success would be to secure an

order.

2. Negotiation: Negotiation is a critical skill needed for effective

management. This multimedia course explores and explains the major

concepts and theories of the psychology of bargaining and negotiation, as

23
well as the dynamics of interpersonal and inter-group conflict and its

resolution.

3. Legal Communication: In order to make communication legally authentic,

the manager needs to avoid letting personal biased and unfounded opinions

influence your interpretation and presentation of the data.

6.5 Self-Assessment Questions

1. "The single most significant characteristic of the business meetings

is the ability to present the agenda in effective format." Discuss.

2. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he

wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge

of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of

telling, listening and understanding." Discuss the statement in the

light of business corporate meetings.

3. Write a note on the need and importance of business meetings. What

are the ideal features of such meetings?

6.6 Suggested Readings

1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition,

1998.

2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.

24
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication: Theory

and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.

4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business Communication.

5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.

6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani Publishers,

New Delhi, 2001.

25
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)

Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106

Lesson : 7

CORRESPONDENCE RELATING TO INQUIRIES, INSTRUCTION,

COMPLAINTS AND ADJUSTMENTS

Objective: The primary objectives of this lesson are to develop the

communication skills relating to inquiries, instruction, complaints
and other associated aspects.

Lesson Structure
7.1 Introduction

7.2 Presentation of Contents

7.2.1 The Concept of Inquiry

7.2.2 The Concept of Instruction
7.2.3 Correspondence and Answers to Inquiries
7.2.4 Correspondence for Complaints and Adjustment
7.3 Summary
7.4 Key Words
7.5 Self Assessment Questions
7.6 Suggested Readings.

7.1 Introduction
Effective communication through special correspondence requires the
communicator to translate their messages in a way that is specifically designed for
their intended audience. Creating and drafting an effective letter requires a basic
understanding of the communication process. Most business letters require the
clear and unambiguous communication of a message in a way that can be clearly
understood by the recipient. It is human nature to assume that when we
communicate we are doing so effectively, and that if anything goes wrong
consequently the responsibility for that must rest with the recipient. Here in the
lesson we discuss the special correspondence relating to enquiry, instruction,
complaints and adjustment letters.

7.2.1 THE CONCEPT OF INQUIRY

The inquiry is useful when you need information, advice, names, or

directions. Be careful, however, not to ask for too much information or for
information that you could easily obtain in some other way, for example, by
a quick trip to the library.
There are two types of inquiry: solicited and unsolicited. You have solicited
inquiry when a business or agency advertises its products or services. For
example, if a software manufacturer advertises some new package it has
developed and you can't inspect it locally, write a solicited letter to that
manufacturer asking specific questions. If you cannot find any information
on a technical subject, an inquiry letter to a company involved in that
subject may put you on the right track. In fact, that company may supply
much more help than you had expected, provided of course, that you write
a good inquiry letter.

You are unsolicited if the recipient has done nothing to prompt your
inquiry. For example, if you read an article by an expert, you may have
further questions or want more information. You seek help from these
people in a slightly different form of inquiry letter. As the steps and
guidelines for both types of inquiry letters show, you must construct the
unsolicited type more carefully, because recipients of unsolicited letters of
inquiry are not ordinarily prepared to handle such inquiries.

2
Inquiry Letters: Contents and Organization

1. Early in the letter, identify the purpose — to obtain help or information

(if it's a solicited letter, information about an advertised product,
service, or program).
2. In an unsolicited letter, identify who you are, what you are working on,
and why you need the requested information, and how you found out
about the individual. In an unsolicited letter, also identify the source that
prompted your inquiry, for example, a magazine advertisement.
3. In the letter, list questions or information needed in a clear, specific, and
easy-to-read format. If you have quite a number of questions, consider
making a questionnaire and including a stamped, self-addressed
envelope.
4. In an unsolicited letter, try to find some way to compensate the recipient
for the trouble, for example, by offering to pay copying and mailing
costs, to accept a collect call, to acknowledge the recipient in your
report, or to send him or her a copy of your report. In a solicited letter,
suggest that the recipient send brochures or catalogs.
5. In closing an unsolicited letter, express gratitude for any help that the
recipient can provide you, acknowledge the inconvenience of your
request, but do not thank the recipient "in advance." In an unsolicited
letter, tactfully suggest to the recipient will benefit by helping you (for
example, through future purchases from the recipient's company).

The example of an inquiry letter is given hereunder:

1102 West 30th

Lawrence, KS 66321
August 4, 19XX

3
Dr. Maria Gomez-Salinas
Director of the Diabetes Clinic
St. David's Hospital
1000 Greenberg Lane
Wichita, KS 66780

Dear Dr. Gomez-Salinas:

I am writing you in hopes of finding out more about how the new
Glucoscan II blood glucose monitoring system, which a representative at
Lifescan informed me that your clinic is currently using.
Originally, I saw Lifescan's advertisement of this new device in the
January 19XX issue of Diabetes Forecast and became very interested in it.
I wrote the company and got much useful information, but was
recommended to write several current users of the system as well.
For a technical report that I am writing for a technical writing class at
Johnson County Junior College, I need some help with the following
questions:

• How often does the Glucoscan II need to be calibrated in practical,

everyday use conditions?
• How accurate is the Glucoscan II compared to other similar systems that
your patients have used?
• What problems do your patients experience with this new device?

The Lifescan representative indicated that your clinic is one the leaders in
implementing new technology for diabetics, and therefore I am eager to

4
hear from you. In the report I will acknowledge your contributions, and I
will send you a copy of the completed report if you wish.

Thank you for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon.

Sincerely,

Anita Teller
Student, Medical Technology
Johnson County Junior College

7.2.2 THE CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

As you know, instructions are those step-by-step explanations of how to do

something: how to build, operate, repair, or maintain things. This focuses
on description, definition, or one of the other information structures. These
are common elements in technical writing. Rather than documents type of
their own, they more commonly appear as elements or parts of other
documents, such as instructions in this case. However, you can imagine
description, for example, being used heavily in reports on accidents,
property appraisals, and product specifications. The content, organization,
and format suggestions discussed in the information-structures section will
give you a good foundation to write these other kinds of documents. In this,
you actually write two assignments in one: a set of instructions and an
information structure (such as description, definition, or other) integrated
within those instructions. This scenario gives you experience with two key
types of technical writing but in a way that saves two to three weeks in the

5
semester. This enables you to have more time toward the end of the
semester to work full time on your technical-report project.
One of the most common and one of the most important uses of technical
writing is instructions--those step-by-step explanations of how to do things:
assemble something, operate something, repair something, or do routine
maintenance on something. But for something seemingly so easy and
intuitive, instructions are some of the worst-written documents you can
find. Like me, you've probably had many infuriating experiences with badly
written instructions. What follows in this chapter may not be a fool-proof,
goof-proof guide to writing instructions, but it will show you what
professionals consider the best techniques.

Ultimately, however, good instruction writing not only requires these

techniques but also:

• Clear, simple writing

• A thorough understanding the procedure in all its technical detail
• Your ability to put yourself in the place of the reader, the person trying
to use your instructions
• Your ability to visualize the procedure in great detail and to capture that
awareness on paper
• Finally, your willingness to go that extra distance and test your
instructions on the kind of person you wrote them for.

By now, you've probably studied headings, lists, and special notices--

writing a set of instructions with these tools probably seems obvious. Just
break the discussion out into numbered vertical lists and throw in some
special notices at the obvious points and you're done! Well, not quite, but
that's a great start. This unit explores some of the features of instructions

6
that can make them more complex. You can in turn use these
considerations to plan your own instructions.

At the beginning of a project to write instructions, it's important to

determine the structure or characteristics of the particular procedure you are
going to write about.

Audience and situation: Early in the process, define the audience and
situation of your instructions. Remember that defining an audience means
defining its level of familiarity with the topic as well as other such details.

Most importantly, you'll need to describe your audience on a separate sheet

of paper and hand that in with your instructions. This will enable your
instructor to assess your instructions in terms of their rightness for the
intended audience. And remember too that in this technical-writing course
it is preferable to write for nonspecialist audiences--this is much more of a
challenge to you as a writer.

Number of tasks: An important consideration is how many tasks there are

in the procedure you are writing instructions for. Let's use the term
procedure to refer to the whole set of activities your instructions are
intended to discuss. A task is a semi-independent group of actions within
the procedure: for example, setting the clock on a microwave oven is one
task in the big overall procedure of operating a microwave oven.

A simple procedure like changing the oil in a car contains only one task;
there are no semi-independent groupings of activities. A more complex
procedure like using a microwave oven contains plenty of such semi-
independent tasks: setting the clock; setting the power level; using the
timer; cleaning and maintaining the microwave, among others.

7
Some instructions have only a single task, but have many steps within that
single task. For example, imagine a set of instructions for assembling a
kids' swing set. In my own experience, there were more than a 130 steps!
That can be a bit daunting. A good approach is to group similar and related
steps into phases, and start renumbering the steps at each new phase. A
phase then is a group of similar steps within a single-task procedure. In the
swing-set example, setting up the frame would be a phase; anchoring the
thing in the ground would be another; assembling the box swing would be
still another. (The instructions on installing a wall cabinet, starting on page,
are organized by phases.)

Best approach to the step-by-step discussion: Another consideration,

which maybe you can't determine early on, is how to focus your
instructions. For most instructions, you can focus on tasks, or you can focus
on tools (or features of tools).

In a task approach to instructions on using a phone-answering machine,

you'd have sections on recording your greeting, playing back your
messages, saving your messages, forwarding your messages, deleting your
messages. These are tasks--the typical things we'd want to do with the
machine.

On the other hand, in a tools approach to instructions on using a

photocopier, there would be sections on the copy button, the cancel button,
the enlarge/reduce button, the collate/staple button, the paper tray, the copy-
size button, and so on. If you designed a set of instructions on this plan,
you'd write steps for using each button or feature of the photocopier.
Instructions using this tools approach are hard to make work. Sometimes,
the name of the button doesn't quite match the task it is associated with;
sometimes you have to use more than just the one button to accomplish the

8
task. Still, there can be times when the tools/feature approach may be
preferable.

Groupings of tasks: Listing tasks may not be all that you need to do. There
may be so many tasks that you must group them so that readers can find
individual ones more easily. For example, the following are common task
groupings in instructions: unpacking and setup tasks; installing and
customizing tasks; basic operating tasks; routine maintenance tasks;
troubleshooting tasks; and so on. (For the purposes of this technical writing
course, you won't need to cover all of these possibilities--but in a real-world
set of instructions, you would.)

Structure and Format of Instructions

Normally, we imagine a set of instructions as being formatted as vertical

numbered lists. And most are in fact. Normally, you format your actual
step-by-step instructions this way. There are some variations, however, as
well as some other considerations:

• Fixed-order steps are steps that must be performed in the order

presented. For example, if you are changing the oil in a car, draining the
oil is a step that must come before putting the new oil. These are
numbered lists (usually, vertical numbered lists).
• Variable-order steps are steps that can be performed in practically any
order. Good examples are those troubleshooting guides that tell you to
check this, check that where you are trying to fix something. You can do
these kinds of steps in practically any order. With this type, the bulleted
list is the appropriate format.
• Alternate steps are those in which two or more ways to accomplish the
same thing are presented. Alternate steps are also used when various

9
conditions might exist. Use bulleted lists with this type, with OR
inserted between the alternatives, or the lead-in indicating that
alternatives are about to be presented.
• Nested steps. In some cases, individual steps within a procedure can be
rather complex in their own right and need to be broken down into
substeps. In this case, you indent further and sequence the substeps as a,
b, c, and so on.
• "Stepless" instructions. And finally there exist instructions that really
cannot use numbered vertical list and that do little if any straightforward
instructional-style directing of the reader. Some situations must be so
generalized or so variable that steps cannot be stated. (Let's ignore this
possibility for this assignment, however.)

Supplementary discussion: Often, it is not enough simply to tell readers to

do this or to do that. They need additional explanatory information such as
how the thing should look before and after the step; why they should care
about doing this step; what mechanical principle is behind what they are
doing; even more micro-level explanation of the step--discussion of the
specific actions that make up the step.

The problem with supplementary discussion, however, is that it can hide

the actual step. You want the actual step--the specific actions the reader is
to take--to stand out. You don't want it all buried in a heap of words. There
are at least techniques to avoid this problem: you can split the instruction
from the supplement into separate paragraphs; or you can bold the
instruction.

10
Writing style: The way you actually write instructions, sentence by
sentence, may seem contradictory to what previous writing classes have
taught you. However, notice how "real-world" instructions are written--they
use a lot of imperative (command, or direct-address) kinds of writing; they
use a lot of "you." That's entirely appropriate. You want to get in your
reader's face, get her or his full attention. For that reason, instruction-style
sentences sound like these: "Now, press the Pause button on the front panel
to stop the display temporarily" and "You should be careful not to ..."

A particular problem involves use of the passive voice in instructions. For

some weird reason, some instructions sound like this: "The Pause button
should be depressed in order to stop the display temporarily." Not only are
we worried about the Pause button's mental health, but we wonder who's
supposed to depress the thing (are you talking' to me?). Or consider this
example: "The Timer button is then set to 3:00." Again, as the person
following these instructions, you might miss this; you might think it is
simply a reference to some existing state, or you might wonder, "Are they
talking to me?" Almost as bad is using the third person: "The user should
then press the Pause button." Again, it's the old double-take: you look
around the room and wonder, "Who me?"

Another of the typical problems with writing style in instructions is that

people seem to want to leave out articles: "Press Pause button on front
panel to stop display of information temporarily" or "Earth person, please
provide address of nearest pizza restaurant." Why do we do this? Do we all
secretly want to be robots? Anyway, be sure to include all articles (a, an,
the) and other such words that we'd normally use in instructions.

As you reread and revise your instructions, watch out for problems such as
the following:

11
• Make sure you provide real instructions--explanations of how to build,
operate, or repair something.
• Write a good introduction--in it, indicate the exact procedure to be
explained and provide an overview of contents.
• Make sure that you use the various types of lists wherever appropriate.
In particular, use numbered vertical lists for sequential steps.
• Use headings to mark off all the main sections and subheadings for
subsections. (Remember that no heading "Introduction" is needed
between the title and the first paragraph. Remember not to use first-level
headings in this assignment; start with the second level.)
• Use special notices as appropriate.
• Make sure you use the class style and format for all headings, lists,
special notices, and graphics. If that's a problem, get in touch with your
instructor.
• Use graphics to illustrate any key actions or objects.
• Provide additional supplementary explanation of the steps as necessary.
• Remember to create a section listing equipment and supplies, if
necessary.
• Follow the guidelines in Appendix for the information structure
(description or definition, for example) that you incorporate with these
instructions.

As you reread and revise your description, watch out for problems such as
the following:

• Make sure you write a real description--discussion of the physical

characteristics of a thing.
• Make sure you divide the thing you describe into parts, characteristics,
or both.

12
• Make sure to use as many of the sources of description as is appropriate
for the situation.
• Handle abbreviations, symbols, and numbers appropriately.
• Use headings to mark off the discussion of the individual parts or
characteristics.
• Use an illustration to show the thing you are describing.

7.2.3 CORRESPONDENCE AND ANSWERS TO INQUIRIES

Sep 2nd 2005

From The Economist print edition

We regret that the great pressure of matter in this number has rendered it
necessary to leave out several articles prepared for it, especially on
Economical Science and Agriculture.

We have received a number of applications respecting Agents for THE

ECONOMIST in the various towns of the country. We have no present
intention of appointing Agents, as our friends can be regularly and
promptly supplied through any metropolitan or provincial Bookseller or
Newsvender with who they are in the habit of dealing. Or orders may be
sent direct to the Office of THE ECONOMIST, addressed to the Publisher,
who will hand them to respectable Newsvenders, through whom they will
be regularly supplied.

Many letters have poured in upon us since the “Preliminary Number” of

THE ECONOMIST, some of which have been from agricultural friends,
kindly and encouraging in their tone, and, to us, strikingly indicative of the
great change going on amongst the agricultural constituencies. The

13
following letter is from a plain, honest, intelligent Northumberland
farmer:—

“Northumberland, 29th of August, 2005

“Sir,—A friend having put the specimen number of THE ECONOMIST

into my hands, I cannot refrain from offering my hearty approval of design
which will, nay, must, prove of so much benefit to the community at large.
Although only a humble and obscure farmer, I was, like my brethren, alive
to those attempts of the Legislature to bolster up the agricultural interest,
which have given rise to so much discussion and dissatisfaction. I
attempted to form an opinion for myself, and found that to do so required
not a slight smattering of political economy, and by making myself
acquainted with a few of the leading truths of the science of wealth, I soon
saw not only the impolicy of restrictive Corn Laws, but also the reason of
their utter inefficiency, and can now lament the ignorant prejudices of the
men who allow themselves to believe in our grandmother’s errors. I am,
therefore, convinced, that if any person will but make himself acquainted
with the doctrines of Adam Smith, the scales must fall from his eyes, and
that he will at once perceive the absurdity and folly of protection to any
class as being in reality nothing but making an article scarce and hard
earned—in fact, acting contrary to common sense, when thousands are
every day, by inventions and discoveries, making commodities of every
description cheaper and more easily accessible to every person, and thus
increase the wealth, comfort, and happiness of every nation which fully
adopts the Free Trade system; in fact, I look upon the opposite theory, if
carried fully out, as most assuredly ruining every community who are so
foolish as to legislate upon such palpable errors,—would it not warrant us
in breaking up all machinery and employing manual labour in the

14
production of those articles which now do not require one-tenth of the
work, as the only way to set industry to work?—would it not warrant the
statesman in shutting our ports to every article of foreign produce, and even
attempting to grow in England our cotton, coffee, tea, and sugar, though at
a hundred times the cost?—nay, would it not induce our farmers to neglect
the best soils and resort to the worst, as yielding less for labour and making
corn dearer, and thus increasing the wealth of the community?

“I find that one great cause of its little progress amongst men of business is
the contradiction these seem to imply when understood in the sense
generally attached to them instead of that restricted or adopted meaning of
the school;—take , for instance, the word wealth, how many still attach the
meaning of the commercial theory of money alone, and many of my brother
farmers are still harping upon the effects of a free trade in corn as allowing
the foreigners to take the gold out of the country and leave us poor and
miserable. Their objection appears to be based upon the commercial and
agricultural theories so ably exposed by Dr Adam Smith.

“I hope to see your project succeed, as I am convinced nothing but a

general acknowledgment of the truth can restore our country to prosperity
and happiness, and should I find leisure this winter, I shall gladly assist in
dispelling the errors respecting the corn trade, which have done so much
harm for twenty years.”

Having had many inquiries as to our opinions respecting the policy of an

immediate or graduate adoption of the principles of Free Trade, we have no
hesitation in stating that we have the strongest conviction that commercial
changes are always attended with the least inconvenience to all parties,
when made decidedly and at once, and that gradual or delayed changes only
tend to prolong the inconvenience and frequently to realise, by anticipation,

15
difficulties which exist only in the imagination, and which, in the reality,
would never be experienced. We shall take an early opportunity of
explaining our views on this point at the greater length which it deserves.

In reply to N.O., Liverpool, the following are the quantities of wheat

imported and delivered for consumption in the United Kingdom, in the first
seven months of the year:

In reply to E. & Co., of Leeds, the entire import of flax this year up to the
5th of August, has been 774,659 cwts. Against 608,111 cwts. for the same
period of last year. The exports of linen manufactures, for the first seven
months of this year, have increased to 1,645,970l., against 1,463,484l. in
1842.

J.S. & Co., Glasgow.—Article six, of the last Treaty of Commerce with
Austria, provides, in distinct terms, that all articles which can be legally
imported into each country, shall be subject to the same rates of duty,
whether such goods be imported in the ships of one or the other country:
and Article seven provides, that goods so imported into either country can
be bonded; and if re-exported and not taken for consumption, the re-
exportation can take place in the ships of either country, on the same terms
in every respect, and subject only to the same charge.

16
P. & Co., Bristol.—The difference to which they allude in the rate of duty
charged on a cargo of sugar at Antwerp, varying from the duty in the tariff,
arises from the facts that in Belgium, in addition to the rate of fixed duty;
there are added 16 centimes per franc, called general additional duty, and 6
centimes per franc, called special general duty—thus:

Or about 1s. 5d. sterling.—A scheffle of wheat in Wurtemberg is equal to

four-fifths of a Winchester bushel.

7.2.4 CORRESPONDENCE FOR COMPLAINTS AND ADJUSTMENTS

Complaint Letters: A complaint letter requests some sort of compensation

for defective or damaged merchandise or for inadequate or delayed
services. While many complaints can be made in person, some
circumstances require formal business letters. The complaint may be so
complex that a phone call may not effectively resolve the problem; or the
writer may prefer the permanence, formality, and seriousness of a business
letter. The essential rule in writing a complaint letter is to maintain your
poise and diplomacy, no matter how justified your gripe is. Avoid making
the recipient an adversary.

1. In the letter, identify early the reason you are writing--to register a
complaint and to ask for some kind of compensation. Avoid leaping into
the details of the problem in the first sentence.
2. State exactly what compensation you desire, either before or after the
discussion of the problem or the reasons for granting the compensation.

17
(It may be more tactful and less antagonizing to delay this statement in
some cases).
3. Provide a fully detailed narrative or description of the problem. This is
the "evidence."
4. Explain why your request should be granted. Presenting the evidence is
not enough: state the reasons why this evidence indicates your requested
should be granted.
5. Suggest why it is in the recipient's best interest to grant your request:
appeal to the recipient's sense of fairness, desire for continued business,
but don't threaten. Find some way to view the problem as an honest
mistake. Don't imply that the recipient deliberately committed the error
or that the company has no concern for the customer. Toward the end of
the letter, express confidence that the recipient will grant your request.

Adjustment Letters: Replies to complaint letters, often called letters

of "adjustment," must be handled carefully when the requested
compensation cannot be granted. Refusal of compensation tests your
diplomacy and tact as a writer. Here are some suggestions that may help
you write either type of adjustment letter:

1. Begin with a reference to the date of the original letter of complaint and
to the purpose of your letter. If you deny the request, don't state the
refusal right away unless you can do so tactfully.
2. Express your concern over the writer's troubles and your appreciation
that he has written you.
3. If you deny the request, explain the reasons why the request cannot be
granted in as cordial and noncombative manner as possible. If you grant
the request, don't sound as if you are doing so in a begrudging way.

18
4. If you deny the request, try to offer some partial or substitute
compensation or offer some friendly advice (to take the sting out of the
denial).
5. Conclude the letter cordially, perhaps expressing confidence that you
and the writer will continue doing business.

SOME SAMPLE LETTERS: Some agency- related letters are given below.

1. Offer of Agency by the Principal

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road, Bangalore.
Phone:

October 11, 2005

Messrs, K K Jain & Sons

167, Sector 17
Chandigarh-160017

Dear Sirs

Mr. S Sharma, the Sales manager of Padam Textiles (P) Ltd., was kind enough to
recommend you as a firm of highly reliable, reputed and progressive agents in the
states of Punjab and Haryana. In view of his recommendation we wish to offer you
the Agency for our products in the state of Punjab and Haryana.
Mysore Silks have always been trend setters and fashion creators. Our innovative
designs have been catching the imagination of all kinds of customers. Besides, our
products are priced to suit all budgets. Priced at Rs. 225 to Rs. 2000 and above,

19
our sarees are within the reach of most people and satisfy even the most critical
buyer in respect of quality, designs, color combinations, variety and durability.
In view of the immense popularity our silk sarees, blouse pieces and other
varieties of cloth enjoy in southern states, we are sure that our products will find a
responsive market in Punjab and Haryana as well. You only have to organize an
impressive launching of our silks.
We wish you to work for us as a Sole Agent for the whole of Punjab and Haryana.
You will be supplied with adequate stock periodically and your requirements
between two regular supplies will be met with promptly. We appreciate the
difficulties you may have to face in the initial stages of introduction and offer you
the highest rate of 17% commission on net sales. Our interior decorators will be at
your disposal to complete your window dressing jobs at places of your choice. We
will also be taking up show- windows in important cities and your suggestions in
selecting appropriate places will greatly facilitate our work.
We are sure our business relations will be mutually beneficial and we hope you
will be happy to represent our company in your areas.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]

20
2. Agent’s Reply to the Offer of Agency by the Principal

Messrs, K K Jain & Sons

167, Sector 17
Chandigarh-160017

October 14, 2005

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road,
Bangalore.

Dear Sirs

Re: Sole agency for Punjab and Haryana

We thank you for your offer of sole agency for the states of Punjab and Haryana.
It is really nice of Mr. Sharma to have recommended our name and we are
thankful to him for the confidence he and his company have reposed in us.
We are aware of the popularity enjoyed by your silk products in southern states
and are rather surprised your have overlooked the potential of our states so long.
Though rather late, your decision to tape this market is a sound one and we
visualize a long, mutually beneficial relationship with you.
Notwithstanding the superior quality and popularity of your products, you will
concede that overcoming inherent customer resistance is initially difficult. Two
major factors may be mentioned here. People are universally skeptical about the
genuineness of silk. Secondly, there appears to be some preference for polyester-
blended fabrics. However, we are confident that it will not take us very long to
please the elite customers in the cities and towns of Punjab and Haryana.

21
Your terms of agency are acceptable to us, and we await your instructions to
complete other formalities.
Meanwhile, please send us samples of the full range of your products. We would
also like to suggest that you launch a special advertising campaign immediately to
run through the entire Diwali festival when people have a natural desire to buy
something new to wear.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]

3. Application for an Agency

Messrs, K K Jain & Sons

167, Sector 17
Chandigarh-160017

October 17, 2005

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road,
Bangalore.

Dear Sirs

Re: Sole agency for Punjab and Haryana

Mr. S Sharma, Sales Manager, Padam Textiles (P) Ltd. has informed us that you
are looking for sole agents for your silk products for Punjab and Haryana. We
would be pleased to represent you as your sole agents in these two states.

22
We have been in the field of wholesale distribution for the last fifteen years and
have earned a name for satisfactorily representing manufacturers and promoting
the sale of their goods in our territory. Our specialization is sarees, and we can
give you an impressive launching. You can consider these markets, wherein we
wish to represent you, as a gateway for your entry into the northern regions. With
our rich experience in the textile line and our business contacts throughout these
two states, your products will have no difficulty in being successfully introduced
to our customers. A special advertising campaign by you would help us to
overcome whatever problems may have to be faced in the initial stages.
On our part, we will exhibit your products in all our showrooms and show
windows which are situated at strategic places in the important cities of Punjab
and Haryana. Our traveling salesmen have a wide knowledge of the customers and
the market in the line of textiles of all types and varieties. We would, therefore
assure your confidently of large sales of your products throughout the year.
We propose the following terms:
a. Goods will be supplied to us F.O.R. Chandigarh.
b. You will draw on us for each consignment a bill for 3 months.
c. Our commission – 7.5% on invoice price, del credere, if you approve 3%.
d. Every new design developed by you will be supplied to us immediately.
e. Expenses on any special advertising campaign for your goods shall be
shared by us equally.
f. Since it is a sole Agency, we would insist that you do not entertain any
direct orders.
For our standing and credit, you may refer to:
1. Mr. S Sharma, Sales Manager, Padam Textiles (P) Ltd., Mohali,
2. The Krishna Mills Ltd., Ludhiana and
3. Bank of India, Main Branch, Chandigarh.

23
We feel we are the right people to represent you in our territory. An effective
distribution system is the life breath of a manufacturing unit, and that is precisely
what we are offering you.
We await your decision in this matter.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]

4. Reply to the Application for an Agency – Granting the Agency

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road, Bangalore.
Phone:

October 21, 2005

Messrs, K K Jain & Sons

167, Sector 17
Chandigarh-160017

Dear Sirs

Many thanks for your letter of 17th October. We appreciate your interest in
developing a market for our goods. We have also received reports from your
references and are now pleased to grant you the sole agency for our products in the
states or Punjab and Haryana.

24
Your terms of agency are acceptable to us except that the del cruder commission
would be 2.5% and not 3% since it is at 2.5% that we pay to our other agents.
Further we shall not turn down direct orders from the customers but we shall
execute them only after referring them to you and obtaining your approval.
The agency will be for a period of three years to start with and can be renewed
thereafter.
Kindly complete the enclosed agreement bond and return it promptly along with a
cheque/draft for Rs. 50,000 as security deposit which will earn you interest at 11%
p.a.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]
Encls. : Agreement bond in duplicate

5. Reply to the Application for an Agency – Refusing to Grant the Agency

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road, Bangalore.
Phone:

October 21, 2005

Messrs, K K Jain & Sons

167, Sector 17
Chandigarh-160017

25
Dear Sirs

While thanking you for your letter of October 21, 2005, offering your agency services
for the Punjab and Haryana area, we regret to state that we are not in a position to
accept your offer at present, as we have already given Agency to two firms at
Ludhiana and Panipat, which cover the Punjab and Haryana areas respectively.

However, as we have plan to re-allocate the areas in the near future, we shall be
glad to correspond with you the moment a final decision is taken in this regard.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]

6. A Letter Announcing the Cancellation of an Agency

Mysore Silks (P) Ltd.

125, M. G .Road, Bangalore.
Phone:

May 9, 2011

Messrs, Chabbildas & Sons

107, Palika Bazar,
Chandigarh-160017

Dear Sirs

We regret to inform you that due to unavoidable circumstances it has become

necessary for us to withdraw our agency arrangements with Messrs, K K Jain & Sons,

26
of Chandigarh for the North region. We request you, therefore, not to deal with them
in any manner in connection with booking orders, or obtaining any receipts from them
for your recent remittances, if any.
We shall soon be writing to you about fresh arrangements. Meanwhile send your
orders direct to us. We will execute your orders and attend to your other
communication so promptly that your will not feel the absence of a regular agency
system.
We earnestly seek your cooperation in this matter.
Sincerely yours,

[Click here and type your name]

[Click here and type job title]

7.3 Summary
Most special letters require the clear and unambiguous communication of a
message in a way that can be clearly understood by the recipient. It is human
nature to assume that when we communicate we are doing so effectively, and that
if anything goes wrong consequently the responsibility for that must rest with the
recipient. In a special correspondence letter, the writer of the letter should
understand very clearly the following steps:
Step 1: Organize your writing.
Step 2: Know what is and is not appropriate
Step 3: Write an informative beginning
Step 4: Write an revealing exchange of information
Step 5: Avoid clumsy phrases and complex vocabulary
Step 6: Apply the skills to good news and bad news messages
Step 7: Use short, clear sentences and simple punctuation
Step 8: Write a clear, meaningful subject line
Step 9: Convey your message in as few words as possible
Step 10: Use headings, generalizations, and paragraphs
Step 11: Write a cordial, informative conclusion
Step 12: Edit and proofread your writing.

27
Your intention and the needs of someone who reads your letter should at the
end of the day make a decision as to what a letter need to carry.

A complaint letter requests some sort of compensation for defective or damaged

merchandise or for inadequate or delayed services. While many complaints can be
made in person, some circumstances require formal business letters. Replies to
complaint letters, often called letters of "adjustment," must be handled carefully
when the requested compensation cannot be granted. Refusal of compensation
tests your diplomacy and tact as a writer.

7.4 Key Words

1. Special Correspondence: It is a kind of correspondence that is done for
a particular purpose. For example, letter relating to complaint and
adjustment.
2. Instruction Letter: A letter in which some instructions are
communicated from one person to another.

7.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. "The single most significant characteristic of the business inquiry is
the ability to present the complaint in effective format." Discuss.
2. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he
wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge
of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of
telling, listening and understanding." Discuss the statement in the
light of business corporate inquiry and instructions.
3. Write a note on the need and importance of business inquiry. What
are the ideal features of such inquiry? How it is different from
business instruction?

28
7.6 Suggested Readings
1. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition,
1998.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business Communication: Theory
and application, 6th edition, Richard D Irwin publication.
4. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business Communication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi, 2001.

29
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson: 8

SPEAKING AND PRESENTATION SKILLS

Objective: The primary objective of this lesson is to make the students learn
about the basics of public speaking aspects in business
communication and to enable them to avoid the occurrence of such
events in public speaking that do not add to the value of the speaker.

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Presentation of Contents
8.2.1 Encoding and Translating
8.2.2 Understanding Your Audience
8.2.3 Targeting Your Audience
8.2.4 Designing a Presentation
8.2.5 Preparing the Venue and Seating Arrangement
8.2.6 Final Point and Getting Start
8.2.7 What Style is Best
8.3 Summary
8.4 Key Words
8.5 Self Assessment Questions
8.6 Suggested Readings.

8.1 Introduction

Public speaking is a common source of stress for everyone. Many of us

would like to avoid this problem entirely, but this is hard to do. Whether we
work alone or with large numbers of people, eventually we will need to
speak in public to get certain tasks accomplished. And if we want to be
leaders or achieve anything meaningful in our lives, we will often need to
speak to groups, large and small, to be successful.

Many of us have observed public speakers and thought to ourselves "Wow,

I could never be that smart, calm, witty, entertaining, polished . . . or
whatever." Well, you do not have to be brilliant, witty, or perfect to
succeed. That is not what public speaking is all about. I know it may look
that way, but it is not. You can be average. You can be below average. You
can make mistakes, get tongue-tied, or forget whole segments of your talk.
You can even tell no jokes at all and still be successful.

It is human nature to assume that when we communicate we are doing so

effectively, and that if anything goes wrong consequently the responsibility
for that must rest with the recipient. Here, we draw attention to six steps
that constitute a typical two-way communication, and when the
opportunities for mis-communication are considered you may view it as
surprising how often communication works without a problem.
When, a speaker speaks to a recipient, we have the following possible
processes:
• What the speaker thinks to say
• What he actually says
• What the recipient hears
None of these are necessarily the same and three chances already exist for a
breakdown in communication. As a result of what a recipient hears, he may
make a reply, giving:
• What he thinks to say
• What he actually says
• What the speaker thinks to hear.

2
Now, multiply that by the number of recipients that may be listening to the
speaker and you begin to understand the opportunities for
misinterpretations that may arise.
As you can see, communication is a complex two-way process this is why it
so often breaks down and is ineffective. With the complexity apparent even
in a simple communication, like the one illustrated, it should be apparent
that there is a need for clarity and simplicity – as this will minimize the
chance of misunderstandings.
Communication is a skill and like any skill, it requires practice. The skill
enhancement is a gradual process through practice that differentiates a skill
from one form to other forms of knowledge. Understanding the theory of
communication and effective public speaking will not in itself make you a
brilliant communicator or speaker but should make you aware of how to
maximize the impact of your presentations.
The most important thing to remember is that the message that you intend
to communicate is likely to be misunderstood. Therefore, in addition to
carefully preparing and presenting your message, stay alert for any signs
that your audience are mis-interpreting it. It is up to you, the speaker or
presenter, to continually check that your message has been received,
understood, correctly interpreted and filed in the receivers mind.
We will now examine each of the six steps of the communication model in
slightly more detail - with a view to introducing some guidelines that
should help to promote more effective two-way communication.

Step1 - Ensure that your audience are tuned in and paying full
attention to what you are about to say. Once you have the
attention of the audience the communication of the message
can begin.

3
Step2 - Each recipient listens to the message.
Step3 - Each recipient will have some feeling about the message and
will interpret its meaning. This is often done in the light of
individual attitudes and prejudices or alternatively with
reference to previous experience or associations. Your
problem is that the audience may not feel and interpret in the
way that you intended. The result may range from a simple
failure for the message to hit home, through to a serious
misunderstanding.
Step4 - Each recipient may respond to the original message.
Step5 - You have now become the receiver, and should listen
carefully to the message.
Step6 - You will feel and interpret something about this message.
This may range from satisfaction that the communication is
proceeding as you intended, to bewilderment at how your
original message was mis-interpreted.

8.2.1 Encoding and Translating

The majority of people communicate in a way that is fundamentally flawed

- in that they adopt the egocentric communication model. This involves the
presenter deciding what they want to say and how they want to say it, with
little or no regard for the characteristics or needs of their audience. This
model is termed egocentric because of the significance that the presenter
attaches to his or her own role in the communication process. The presenter
is essentially adopting the following attitude: “I have decided what to say
and the way I’m going to say it. I will then say it and assume that the
audience agrees, more or less, with my interpretation”. This process, of

4
packaging a message, is called encoding and it determines which human
senses (hearing, vision, touch etc.) will be used to transmit the message.

The next step in a communication is to send the encoded message to the

receiver. The receiver then has the difficult job of decoding the message in
terms that they can relate to. It is at this point that they may misinterpret,
change, filter or edit the message to fit into their own preconceived
framework. In this way, egocentric communication often fails to convey the
intended message.

To minimize the chance of your message being misinterpreted another step

should be added to the communication model. This new step is called
translating and involves you encoding the message as before, but then
translating the message, to take into account a variety of issues from the
audience’s point of view. By translating the encoded message for its
intended audience, the chance of misinterpretation is greatly reduced.

When done properly the result of this translation step is to frame the
message in terms that are better suited to the audience - in other words a far
more relevant and focused message for the audience to decode. This
process will produce a message that has more impact.
Think about how many times you and your colleagues have attended the
same meeting or presentation and yet have come away with different
interpretations about what was meant. When preparing your messages, try
to think of the different ways that it could be interpreted by your audience
and try to translate it in a way that will minimize inaccurate interpretations.

8.2.2 Understanding Your Audience

5
You should be clear on the aim of your presentation, identify the
personality types in your audience and adjust your presentation accordingly.
You must be clear on the aim of your presentation at the outset in order that
you can stay focused when preparing it. Think of your aim as the final
destination, and your presentation as the journey.
Your objective is to ensure that the presentation delivers you, and your
audience, to the correct and clearly defined destination. It is only if you are
clear about your aim that you will carry conviction in your forthcoming
presentation. The purpose of nearly all business presentations is either to
inform or to persuade. You should decide which applies and then prefix
your presentation with an aim statement that is worded accordingly.
Once you have decided on your aim and written this down you can begin to
consider the content of your presentation. However before you can plan the
content in detail you will need to know how to analyze the audience that
you will be presenting to - in order to help you to translate the message in
an appropriate way.
Audience Classification: There are three questions that you need to ask
concerning the characteristics and composition of the audience; Firstly,
what personality types are likely to be in your audience? Secondly, how can
we recognize them in advance? Finally, what happens if you are presenting
to a mixed audience? Analysis of audience characteristics can be
undertaken based on a simple but effective model that classifies people as
being one of four types. Each candidate should be classified as one of the
four personality types shown:

1. Emotive people are people-oriented and they tend to be; sociable,

animated, spontaneous, unstructured and welcome change. They prefer
the broad picture but cant be bothered with the details. Emotive people
often have a short attention span, so keep the presentation short and

6
focused and keep it at the overview level, avoiding discussion of any
details.

2. Directive people are high in dominance but low in sociability. They tend
to be; aggressive, intense, pushy, determined and opinionated. Their
goal driven nature can be misinterpreted as unfriendly, especially if they
encounter resistance to their aims at work. When presenting to these
people stick to the facts, cover each point clinically and proceed to the
next.

3. Reflective people are low in both dominance and sociability. They tend
to be; precise, questioning, aloof, serious, scientific and stuffy. They
often occupy product related jobs - such as scientists and engineers, and
they pay attention to detail. When presenting to these people supply lots
of detail and have plenty of support information at hand in order to
address the detailed questions that are likely to be raised.

4. Supportive people are high in sociability and low in dominance. Their

traits make them easy to recognize, being; loyal, steady, solid and
reliable good workers. The majority of people are from this group, but
you should bear in mind that they tend to fear change and will worry if
given cause. You should therefore avoid risking being seen as uncaring
or aggressive and should take time to pre-empt any contentious issues.

8.2.3 Targeting Your Audience

It is important to target your message to the correct audience, if you prepare

for reflective candidates and your audience is predominantly directive then

7
they are likely to become bored - and being directives, they will probably
make their feelings known.

Of course, this profiling depends, to some extent, on a familiarity with the

audience. This will be easier with work colleagues than, for example, when
creating a sales presentation for an external audience.

You will often have to piece together the audience profile from a variety of
snippets of information - such as their job titles and ages. Other information
that may prove useful includes any previous correspondence or
conversations and anecdotal stories passed on by colleagues.

Audience profiling is an important precursor to preparing the content of

your presentation and you may need to use all of your investigative
instincts to get the most advantage from this process.

Targeting a Mixed Audience: Unfortunately presentations are normally

targeted at an audience that is a mixture of personality types. So the
question is who should you aim your presentation at? The answer will
depend on the size and composition of the audience. Whilst there are an
infinite number, of audience scenarios we will consider one example – to
illustrate the kind of issues you should consider when deciding where to
pitch your presentation.

In this scenario, you are presenting to a small mixed audience, but there
isn’t an identifiable key decision maker. Presenting to this kind of group
will be your biggest challenge, and if you are unable to gain any further
information about the group then your best strategy is likely to be to
prepare a DIRECTIVE presentation.

8
This will keep any directives in the audience happy - and they are often
influential. The emotive will be satisfied because your delivery will be fact
based and punchy. To keep the reflective happy prepare a handout that will
supply further details. The supportive will be influenced by the others
during the presentation but may also warrant a pep-talk before or afterwards
to address the specific concerns they may have.

Further Audience Analysis: As well as understanding the personality types

that you will be presenting to there are some other key questions that you
should ask about your audience.

• How many people will attend

• Why are they attending
• What do they want from the presentation
• How are they likely to react to the presentation
• What level of knowledge do they have already

Each of these questions should provide you with information that should
help you to fine-tune the content of your presentation as well as making
you better prepared when you come to deliver it. For example, audience
members who have chosen to attend are likely to be more receptive than
those who are there by obligation. In addition, an understanding of their
existing knowledge will enable you to adjust the level at which you pitch
your presentation.

The most important thing to remember is more you know about your
audience the more you will be able to translate your presentation for them
and therefore the clearer your message will be to them.

9
8.2.4 Designing a Presentation
Think of a presentation in terms of a journey; designed to take an audience
to a pre-planned destination. Use this analogy to identify the key points of
your message, prioritize them and allocate each one an appropriate time
slot. Nearly all presentations should fit into a simple structure. This
comprises three clearly identifiable parts - an introduction, followed by a
main body and finally a conclusion. This is often expressed as:
• Tell them what you're going to tell them,
• Tell them,
• Tell them what you have told them.

A good guide for the breakdown of a presentation is the 10/80/10 rule -

whereby the introduction and conclusion are each allotted 10% of the
presentation time, with the main body comprising 80%. For example, a 30-
minute presentation would have a 3-minute introduction and conclusion and
main body lasting 24 minutes. This formula can be applied to any length of
presentation - as it reflects a good breakdown from the audience’s
perspective.
In researching and collating the material that you need and devising your
key points you will have been concentrating on the main content of your
presentation. This is fine, as the most effective and efficient way to prepare
your presentation is to construct it in the order of: Introduction, Main Body,
and then the Conclusion.
It is usually best to plan your presentation to have a question and answer
session at the end. This will enable you to deliver your message and then
end strongly with a clear and concise conclusion, before entering the
relatively unpredictable area of tackling questions from the floor.

10
Identifying Key Points: In structuring your presentation, you may find it
useful to divide your journey into a series of stages. You are then faced
with the challenge of deciding how many stages there should be and what
should constitute a stage.

It was also recommended that you should look at your aim statement and
try to develop between three and five key points that you would like to
drive home. This represents as much information as most people are able to
take away from a presentation.

These key point messages can be considered as the intended destination for
each stage of your journey. In other words key points are synonymous with
stages in the same way that the aim statement is synonymous with the
destination. If you are working in a familiar subject domain the key points
may well be apparent; but what if the subject isn’t familiar and the key
points are not self-evident?

When you are preparing a presentation in an unfamiliar domain the most

effective way to identify the key points is to ask other people. The people
you should ask should be from a similar group as your intended audience. If
they are predominantly directives, as is likely in the scenario of a sales
manager making a case for equipping her field sales force with laptop
computers then she should ask relatively senior people within the
organization.

If she asked a colleague in the training department their comments would

probably be heavily biased towards the training implications, whereas
technical staff would be preoccupied with the specification and interfacing

11
of IT systems. Neither group is likely to ask the sort of questions that are
likely to be of most interest to senior management.

By asking a representative group, you should ensure that the key points are
properly targeted and that the audience remains focused. You should ask
them a question framed around your aim statement. ‘What would you need
to know which would’ . . . followed by your aim statement. In the current
example what would you need to know which would . . . demonstrate the
competitive advantage of equipping the field sales force with laptop
computers? Ask as many people, from a representative group as you can,
and record their comments as potential key points.

The biggest advantage of this approach is its speed. It is quite common for
people to spend hours sifting through information, collating it and then
editing down into digestible chunks - whilst still struggling to devise a
suitable presentation structure for it. Asking other people is a fast and
effective way of devising potential key points and has the added advantage
that the key points will be non-egocentric that is they will reflect what your
audience wants to hear and not just what you want to tell them.

Key Points Example: This screen illustrates the sort of responses that you
might expect when asking the question: ‘What would you need to know
which would . . . demonstrate the competitive advantage of equipping the
field sales force with laptop computers?’

Here are some examples of what colleagues might ask when asked what the
potential key point might be:

1. How will giving them laptops improve their sales volumes?

12
2. How much will all this cost and how long is the return on
investment, in other words a detailed cost benefit analysis?

3. Would we be able to cut the sales force because of their increased

productivity?

4. How long will it take to procure this equipment and software, and
then how long will it take to carry out the training required?

5. What are the main business benefits, apart from cost-related issues -
you know will the organization appear to be more professional, that
kind of thing?

Prioritizing Key Points: Starting with the main body of your presentation,
your first task is to decide on what your key points will be and order them
in a way that will address the needs of your audience. Once again, you
should be prioritizing what it is that the audiences want from the
presentation. The key points should be presented in the order that reflects
their importance to the audience - with the most important first. If you do
not do this you will find it difficult to hold their attention.
It may prove useful to write each key point on a piece of card and shuffle
them in a variety of different presentation sequences and consider the effect
of each on your audience. Ask yourself, or others, which will have the most
impact?
Your next task is to divide the presentation up so that the correct amount of
time is allocated to each of your key points. This will ensure that the overall
time allotted to the main body of your presentation does not overrun. For
example if the main body is planned to last 10 minutes and their are three

13
key points, as in this presentation, then you might divide it into two minute
and one six minute segments. Alternatively, you might create three equal
segments. Once again let the requirements of the audience determine this
division.

Focus on the Message: The overall message of the presentation should be

embodied in the aim statement. It is important to keep the focus of your
presentation on the message and not on the information and facts that
underpin that message. This can be very difficult; especially when the
message is supported by a multitude of facts that you think the audience
should know.

If your presentation does consist of a series of facts and supporting

evidence, then the audiences are likely to assimilate these and draw their
own conclusions. If this happens you will lose the opportunity to influence
and shape the audiences interpretation. It is far more effective to
communicate your messages and then support them with an adequate level
of facts and information - so that the audience can line them up behind the
message you wish to convey.

As you develop the content of the presentation you should devise a

message, or messages, to communicate each key point. However, you
should only include sufficient facts to support and validate these messages.

Depending on the size and scope of each stage, it may be necessary to

devise one or more sub-messages to communicate the key point. Each
message and sub-message should be supported by its own support facts and
information.

14
From your research, you should have a surplus of facts and information
available and the main challenge facing you should be the selection of an
appropriate sub-set to support each of your messages. One of the best rules
of thumb to adopt when screening your research information is to:
Stop adding facts when your point is clear and present them in order of
importance. Remember, whilst quoting authoritative sources may be useful
when presenting support facts and information, your audience are unlikely
to want a detailed explanation of all the processes and investigations that
you have carried out.

Your Presentation Style: Before creating a detailed presentation it is worth

considering the pros and cons of the three presentation styles normally
available to you. Firstly, you could memorize the presentation, secondly
you could write a full script and read from it and thirdly you could use free,
conversational speech aided by some form of notes or cue cards.

Committing a presentation to memory represents an enormous overhead in

terms of time and effort and is unnecessary except in some situations where
you may be need to present the same subject time and time again. Another
drawback with a memorized presentation is that you have to concentrate so
hard on remembering what to say that the style can become stilted.

Reading from a fully scripted presentation invariably leads to a dull and

boring monologue. It is also likely to reduce eye contact and general
spontaneity, with a resultant loss of impact. These problems can generally
only be overcome by employing a professional speechwriter to write a
presentation that will be delivered by a professional actor.

15
The use of natural conversational language assisted by pre-prepared cues is
usually the best style for a business presentation. Adopting this approach
will help you to sound normal, natural and spontaneous and it will also
create a less formal and more relaxed relationship between you and your
audience.

The use of this cue-assisted natural presentation style underpins the

remainder of this section. However in situations where you need to adopt an
alternative approach - be it a memorized or scripted presentation, then the
content planning can follow a similar approach - but with a greater level of
detail being added.

By placing each fact or piece of information on a separate card, you will

have the ability to move him or her around independently when devising
the optimum support information for each message and sub-message.
Placing all of the information relating to a given message on the same card
would impose an artificial restriction on your ability to do this.
Your Presentation Structure: Placing the facts and information that you
have collated into the correct position within your presentation structure is a
critical process. One of the best ways to put the facts into their optimum
sequence to support the messages is to write each fact and piece of
information on a separate planning card - these are typically the size of a
small postcard. Then by shuffling the order around you will be able to
experiment until you find a sequence that you feel delivers the best effect.

During this process, you may decide to alter your original structure,
changing the sequence and relationships between certain messages.
Remember, that it is the impact and clarity of the messages that is
important, and not sticking rigidly to a structure that can be improved. You

16
may also find that certain facts and pieces of information are more effective
in supporting an alternative message to the one that you had originally
envisaged - if that is the case, move the facts.

Remember that the best rule of thumb to adopt when screening your
research information is to: stop adding facts when your point is clear and
present them in order of importance.

When you are happy that you have taken this level of planning as far as you
can you should apply a simple but unambiguous numbering convention to
all of your planning cards.

It is also useful to annotate each card with the approximate time that you
think each fact or piece of information will take to present effectively. As
each stage of the presentation has a pre-defined time, you will then become
aware as you approach its time limit. This is one of the most effective ways
of avoiding the common problem - of preparing a presentation that is too
long. This may only become apparent when you rehearse the presentation -
and then realize, at the eleventh hour, that a serious redesign is required.

Designing Cue Cards: At this time, you should have a clear picture of your
presentation; you will know the overall message - that is encapsulated in the
aim statement. You will have devised a series of key points and the
messages and sub-messages that you need to present in a way that is clear
and convincing. Furthermore, you will have organized, in order of
importance, the facts and information that you are going to use - and these
will be clearly numbered.

17
The amount of detail you require will depend upon the nature and
complexity of the material you are presenting, your level of familiarity with
it, and your experience and confidence as a presenter.

The planning cards that you have may represent a sufficient level of detail
from which to deliver a spontaneous presentation. However, it is more
likely that you will want to convert your planning cards to cue cards. These
are a common presentation aid and their role is precisely as their name
suggests - cuing the presenter.

Cue cards should hold the level of information necessary to enable you to
present in a natural and seemingly spontaneous way. They are so widely
used that it is usually acceptable for the presenter to hold them in one hand
and refer to them openly, as required. The cards recommended for the
planning phase are also ideally suited for use as cue cards.

The first principle is to ensure that a clear and unambiguous numbering

convention is applied to all of the cards - so that if you drop during your
presentation you can quickly re-arrange them into the correct sequence.

Only write on one side of each cue card - this avoids the distracting
behavior of flipping and manipulating cards and confusion as to whether or
not you have addressed both sides of each spent card. Only communicate
one theme or idea on each card - this way when you have covered the point
you will be confident that you can move onto the next card. Once again this
avoids distracting behavior - of re-scanning cards that you have already
dealt with.

8.2.5 Preparing the Venue and Seating Arrangement

18
It is important to arrive early in order to familiarize yourself with the venue
and any audio-visual equipment that you will be using. If you are
presenting in a familiar setting, for example within your own organization
the room and its layout will be familiar. However, you may be presenting at
a location that you have never seen before - the boardroom of a host
organization, a hotel suite or an exhibition. Where this is the case it is
important to plan your arrival at the venue well ahead of time.

There are logistics involved when traveling to a remote location; organizing

any travel tickets and accommodation, any specialist equipment and props,
and packing the clothing and other belongings that you require, will need
careful thought and planning. The best advice is to build in a significant
safety factor - to allow for any unforeseen travel or accommodation
problems.

When you are presenting at an external location you should try to pre-
arrange access to the room that you will be presenting in. Even if it is being
used immediately before your slot you could try and gain access to this
event - as it is important to familiarize yourself with the surroundings. If
you are unable to get there sufficiently early, then you should contact the
venue in advance and request a copy of the floor plan and any seating
arrangement options they offer.

The venue will set the mood for your presentation; an informal gathering in
a small cheerful office will create a very different mood to a large
conference room in a hotel. Where possible try to assess as many aspects of
the room as you can - it’s size, coloring, layout, lighting, position of power
points, doorways, work surfaces and any refreshment facilities. Pay

19
particular attention to the position that you, the presenter, will occupy and
the location of any support equipment.

Stand in the position that you will occupy when presenting and check the
line of sight to your audience. Are there any barriers to them seeing you
clearly, such as columns or projection equipment? If so, can you alter the
position of these obstacles or the seating arrangement? Practice speaking
from the podium or stage to familiarize yourself with the surroundings and
see how your voice carries. If you can, ask someone to stand at the back
and confirm how you sound from there; but remember that your voice will
carry less well when the room is full.

If you are able to adjust the temperature set it to just below what is
comfortable as when the room fills up the temperature will rise. You don’t
want to be hot and flustered and neither do you want your audience dozing
in excessive heat. If there is any chance of getting fresh air into the room
this can help to keep your audience alert.
Make sure that any equipment you requested is present and working
properly. It is very disconcerting to have to learn how to use unfamiliar
equipment halfway through a presentation. Remember, even equipment that
looks familiar may actually be a model you haven’t used before. A single
unfamiliar function or strangely placed button has the potential to stop you
when you are in full flow.

Where your presentation will be dependent on a consumable item - such as

an overhead projector bulb, check that you know how to replace it and
ensure that a spare is handy. When you are presenting at an external
location, make a note of the technical support extension number so that any
equipment failure can be remedied as soon as possible.

20
Make sure that your audio-visual aids are installed in the correct position
and sequence. If these include a slide show, it is worth checking through
them - to confirm they are all present, sequenced and the right way up. This
will also enable you to check that your images are in focus, and familiarize
yourself with adjusting this setting.

If you will be using a PA system then perform a sound check. Pay

particular attention to avoiding acoustic feedback, which is affected by both
the volume and the position of the microphone in relation to the speakers.
Also, check that your microphone will not be rubbing against your clothing
as you gesture and move around.

Place any pointers, pens, remote control units and other hand held devices
where they are easily accessible. Having water or another drink handy is
important, if you do dry-up, it is much easier to take a quick sip than to
hack your way through the remainder of your presentation.
Seating Arrangement: In small and medium size venues you will probably
have considerable discretion over the seating layout. It is important to get
the right balance when seating your audience; comfort is an issue but try
not to make them so comfortable that they fall asleep.

Spacing chairs out so that everybody has sufficient room to store their bags
and briefcases will also create a less claustrophobic feeling. If your
audience are likely to make notes during your presentation you might want
to provide chairs with armrests or supply complimentary clipboards - which
may carry your organizations logo.

21
Whilst the seating layout is often fixed in large venues, you can experiment
with the seating plan at smaller venues. A series of straight and narrow
rows stretching back from you may permit easy eye contact but may restrict
the ability of people at the back to see and hear clearly.

If this plan is switched to wide rows in front of you, then the majority of the
audience will be able to see and hear clearly but it will be difficult for you
to make eye contact with those people sitting at the periphery.

A semi-circular, or n arrangement provides an effective format as both the

acoustics and visibility work well for the audience. You will also find it
easy to engage all members of the audience with eye contact. This
arrangement takes up slightly more space than the other options but is well
worth the effort where there is sufficient room.
If your presentation involves a lot of note taking, or includes workgroup-
based interaction, you might want to include tables in the seating plan. The
plan shown is the classic schoolroom type layout and this can be
significantly improved simply by turning the end of the tables towards the
presenter.

By doing this the members of the audience will have a better view of your
visual aids and each table will be able to accommodate twice the number of
people - which is ideal for any group based working. If you want to use
group interaction during your presentation then arrange the audience so that
they are sitting in groups of between five and eight.

Research shows that people are most likely to contribute to group sessions
when there are enough people to create some energy within the group but

22
not so many that they feel excluded. Groups of between five and eight
people have been shown to optimize this.

8.2.6 Final Point and Getting Start

A final point regarding floor plans where your audience is an unknown

quantity is that you may find it helpful to remove the back row of seats.
This avoids the common problem where the audience filters in and head for
the seats furthest from the presenter. By placing potentially surplus seats at
the sides of the room, latecomers can help themselves to a seat and join at
the back.

When planning any pre-presentation food and drink think carefully; you
don’t want to spend a lot of money on lavish food and drinks just to put
your audience to sleep. As with your own personal preparation, light snacks
and sandwiches are best and it is advisable to avoid alcohol where possible.
If possible, hold over part of the catering - such as desserts and any
alcoholic drinks until a post presentation gathering.

Depending on the size and level of formality of your presentation, it may be

a good idea to welcome members of your audience as they arrive. If you are
present but wait impassively, or are preoccupied, as the audience filters in
this can create a cold and unwelcoming atmosphere that can be difficult to
overcome - regardless of how good your presentation is.

Getting Started: There are two key points about any presentation. Firstly, it
is important to start well and inform your audience of the presentations
overall structure and the style of interaction you would prefer. Secondly,

23
you should then Focus on delivering your message and avoiding self-
analysis during your presentation.

When your presentation actually begins, if you find that you are suffering
from last minute nerves, you can calm yourself by not speaking
immediately. Consciously deepen your breathing as you take in your
audience, holding eye contact with two or three of them for 3-4 seconds.
Then when you feel ready, start speaking as you maintain eye contact with
one individual before moving on to another.

This is the time to switch your focus firmly onto the message. This does not
mean that body language, eye contact and interaction with your audience
are not important - they are. These vital presentation skills are dealt with in
the next section.

Any presenter who asks he or she ‘how am I doing?’ is liable to deal his or
her own presentation a critical blow. You cannot perform real-time self-
assessments in mid-presentation. The human mind can only cope with one
major task at a time and delivering your message should become that all
encompassing task once your presentation has started.

8.3 Summary
A good introduction will help to establish your credibility and will give the
audience a clear expectation of what you are about to tell them. If you are
being introduced, it may be worth clarifying your personal details, such as
any relevant qualifications or experience that you possess, with the person
who will introduce you.

24
Ideally, your introduction will inform your audience how long you will be
speaking for, so that they can adjust their anticipated concentration span
accordingly. It is also a good time to outline the overall structure of your
presentation, and to mention the style of audience interaction you would
prefer. For example you might welcome any question from the floor, as and
when they arise, or you might prefer to proceed uninterrupted until a formal
question and answer session at end of your presentation.

Make sure that you start by speaking confidently and at a natural pace. Try
not to refer to your notes more than once or twice in your opening segment.
A confident opening style should establish you as a credible and
authoritative speaker who is open and friendly. One very useful tip for
generating a relaxed and friendly presentation style is to speak to your
audience, regardless of its size, as though you were chatting to a friend in a
far less formal environment.

Try to look at all of the members of your audience - so that they feel
included, and hold brief eye contact with a handful of them. It can be worth
seeking eye contact in a methodical way - by switching from the rear right
corner of your audience to the center to front left, then back to rear left and
so on. Adopting this approach should ensure you cover all areas of your
audience. One final point regarding your opening is that you should make it
crisp and telling - giving your audience something to think about right at
the start. This will have the effect of gaining their attention; it is then your
job to make sure that you keep it.

Presentation Styles: The presentation style that you adopt should be

influenced by the size of your audience together with the level of formality

25
that is appropriate. The following classification divides presentations into
one of four broad categories:

Type 1
Examples of this type of presentation would be: a committee
meeting, a sales pitch or an interdepartmental presentation. Here you
should establish eye contact with each member of the audience early
on and remain facing them at all times, in order to hold their
attention.

Type 2
Examples of this type of presentation would be: the introduction of
new products to established suppliers or the briefing of work
colleagues. Here it is often best to interact with the audience by
soliciting questions and letting individuals make meaningful, but
brief, contributions.

Type 3
When presenting at large formal events such as a conference or a
corporate AGM, check early on that all sections of the audience can
hear you clearly. Punctuate your presentation with links, clear
summing-ups and by repeating your main points.

Type 4
An informal presentation to a large audience is relatively rare, but
might for example occur if you were asked, at very short notice, to
contribute from the floor when attending a conference or similar
event. In this case, make sure that you keep your message simple

26
and speak slowly with clear enunciation. Only expand on your
general point if requested to do so.

8.4 Key Words

1. Communication and Knowledge: Communication is a skill
and like any skill, it requires practice. The skill enhancement
is a gradual process through practice that differentiates a skill
from one form to other forms of knowledge.
2. Presentation Structure: Placing the facts and information
that you have collated into the correct position within your
presentation structure is a critical process. One of the best
ways to put the facts into their optimum sequence to support
the messages is to write each fact and piece of information on
a separate planning card - these are typically the size of a
small postcard.

8.5 Self Assessment Exercise

1. "The speaking and public presentation skills are primary requirements

for a successful manager." Discuss the statement.
2. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he wants
to create understanding in the mind of another through public
presentation." Discuss and elaborate the statement.
3. Write a note on the need and importance of public speaking in business
communication.
4. What are the precautions a presenter should keep in mind while going
for non-verbal communication with three different groups of audiences?

27
8.6 Suggested Readings
1. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business
Communication.
2. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
3. Lesikar, R. V. and Pettite J. D., Business Communication.
4. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
5. Shinha, P., Business Communication.

28
Subject: COMMUNICATION & PRESENTATION SKILLS
(The Lesson is Up-dated and Converted into SIM Format By: Dr. Karam Pal)
Course: MCA Course Code: MCA- 106
Lesson: 9

LEGAL AND TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CORRESPONDENCE

Objective: The primary objective of this lesson is to make the students learn
about the Legal Aspects of Business Communication

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Presentation of Contents
9.2.1 Legal Aspects of Correspondence
9.2.2 Technical Aspects of Correspondence
9.3 Summary
9.4 Key Words
9.5 Self-Assessment Questions
9.6 Suggested Readings.

9.1 Introduction

Every business correspondence must conform to certain widely accepted

principles of effective writing. In order to make a correspondence an
effective medium of communication, it must be equipped with certain basic
requirements. It must have a good command over the language and be
capable of having appropriate words and phrases. Your correspondence
should be familiar with the technical terms and phraseology that are
generally used in business communication and presentation skills. You
must also posses all facts and details of the subject matter of
correspondence. You should be methodical in your approach to the task of
writing such correspondence.

It is utterly foolish to believe that "Commercial Correspondence English"

has a style of its own. Strictly speaking, it is only in the nature of contents
and construction that 'Commercial Correspondence' differs from 'Ordinary
correspondence'. However, a suitable style plays a predominant part in all
correspondence including commercial correspondence. Every business
letter should conform to the important essentials of effective business
correspondence viz., completeness, correctness, conciseness,
comprehensiveness, courtesy, consideration, concreteness and clearness.

The legal writing skills trains anyone working in legal profession to write
effectively, especially lawyers, attorneys, judges etc. Many a times, the
business managers are also put in such a situation where they are supposed
to know the legal aspects of business communications particularly while
writing the letters and reports. They convene the meetings and attend the
same as representative of their respective organizations. In such cases they
are supposed to record the minutes as per requirements of different laws
like company law, consumers protection law and income tax law, etc.
Therefore, the business managers need to improve their legal orientation as
well as business communication more particularly the written
communication. The legal aspects of business communication takes you
through every step in the process of deciding with your company what
types of minutes to take, preparing for taking minutes, recording your
notes, translating the notes into clear minutes, and distributing the minutes.

2
As a matter of legal requirement, a business manager needs to have a clear
objective of any such writing; should know the reader; should write with
clear openings for new information; Use explicit guideposts for readers;
Use strategies to have the impact you want; Quote and cite correctly; Use
key words, definitions, explanations, and examples; Write using clear,
simple words; Write clear, simple sentences; Write clear, simple paragraphs
Write concisely; Use an attractive, easy-to-follow format; and ultimately
should go for proofreading for legal correctness.

In order to make communication legally authentic, the manager needs to

avoid letting personal biased and unfounded opinions influence your
interpretation and presentation of the data. Sometimes you will be asked to
draw conclusions and to make recommendations, and such judgments
inherently involve a certain amount of subjectivity. You must make a
special effort to look at the data objectively and to base your conclusions,
solely on the data. Avoid letting your personal feelings influence the
outcomes. Something the use of a single word can unintentionally convey
bias.
Moreover, the business manager should give enough evidence to support
your conclusions. Make sure that your sources are accurate, reliable, and
objective and that is enough evidence to support your position. Sometimes
your evidence (the data you gather) may be so sparse or of such
questionable quality that you are unable to draw a valid conclusion. If so,
simply present the findings and don’t draw a conclusion. To give the
reader confidence in your statements, discuss your procedures thoroughly
and cite all your sources.
Management needs comprehensive, up-to-date, accurate, and
understandable information to achieve the organization’s goals. Much of
this information is communicated in the form of legal communications.

3
The most common types of business legal communications are periodic
legal communications, proposals, policies and procedures, and situational
legal communications. Each of these types is discussed and illustrated in
the following sections

Informational legal communications relate objectively the facts and events

surrounding a particular situation. No attempt is made to analyze and
interpret the data, draw conclusions, or recommend a course of action.
Most periodic legal communications, as well as policies and procedures, are
examples of informational legal communications. In most cases, these
types of legal communications are the easiest to complete. The writer’s
major interest is in presenting all of the relevant information objectively,
accurately, and clearly, while refraining from including unsolicited analysis
and recommendations.

Authorized legal communications are written at the specific request of

some higher authority. Thus, the reader has an inherent interest in the
report. Voluntary legal communications, on the other hand, are prepared on
the writer’s own initiative. Therefore, the reader needs more background
information and frequently more persuasive evidence than do readers of
authorized legal communications. Authorized legal communications may
be either periodic or situational. Periodic legal communications are
submitted on a recurring, systematic basis. Very often, they are form legal
communications, with space provided for specific items of information.
Readers of periodic legal communications need little introductory or
background information because of the report’s recurring nature. Readers
of situational, one-time legal communications, on the other hand, need
more explanatory material because of the uniqueness of the situation.

4
9.2.1 Legal Aspects of Business Correspondence
When faced with a writing task, some people just think and start legal
business writing. They try to do everything at once, figuring out what to say
and how to say it, visualizing an audience and a goal, keeping watch on
spelling and grammar, and choosing their words and building sentences –
all at the same time. It’s not easy to keep switching back and forth from one
of these distinct writing tasks to another and still make headway. In fact,
unless you are an expert writer, it is harder and slower than breaking the job
up into steps and completing each step in turn.

The idea of writing step by step may at first sound as if it will prolong the
job, but it will not. The step of planning, for example, gives you a sense of
where you want to go and that, in turn, makes getting there faster and
easier. The clearer you are about your goals, the more likely your writing
will accomplish those goals. In addition, if you save a separate step for
proofreading, that job will go more smoothly and efficiently. After all, it is
difficult to spot a typo while you are still trying to think up the “big ending”
for your report.

There is single “best” writing process. In fact, all good writers develop their
own process that suits their own ways of tackling a problem. However, one
way or another, competent communicators typically perform the following
five steps when faced with a business situation that calls for a written
response.
1. Planning: Determining what the purpose of the message is, who the
reader will be, what information you need to give the reader to
achieve your purpose, and in what order to present the information.
2. Drafting: Composing a first draft of the message.
3. Revising: Revising for content, style, and correctness.

5
4. Formatting: Arranging the document in an appropriate format.
5. Legal vetting: Vetting in the light of legal requirements.
6. Proofreading: Reviewing the document to check for content,
typographical, and format errors.
The amount of time you will devote to each step depends on the
complexity, length, and importance of the document. Not all steps may be
needed for all writing tasks. For example, you may go through all the steps
if you are writing a business plan to get funding for a small business from a
bank but not if you are answering an email message inviting you to a
meeting. Nevertheless, these steps are a good starting point for completing
a writing assignment – either in class or on the job.

Any legal business communication – no matter how routine – involves

more than just information dumping. You must select and organize the
information with a specific audience and purpose in mind. In a real sense,
persuasion is a major purpose of any communication. Whether your goal is
to sell, to motivate, to convey bad news, or simply to inform, your ability to
persuade ultimately determines the degree of success or failure that you will
achieve. Your motivations may vary from greed to altruism, and your
methods may vary from overt to subtle, but in the end, you seek to direct
others’ behavior toward a desirable course of action or point of view.

Persuasion, of course, is not coercion – far from it. In some cases, people
may be forced to do something, but they cannot be forced to believe
something. They must be persuaded in ways that are agreeable to them. The
word, persuade, in fact, stems from a Latin root that means agreeable with
common and legal sense.

6
In his work Rhetoric, Aristotle identified three methods by which people
can be persuaded: Ethos, an appeal based on credibility; Pathos, an appeal
based on emotion; and Logos, and appeal based on logic. These methods
remain as relevant today as they were when Aristotle wrote about them
more than two thousand years ago.

Ethos: Ethos is an ethical appeal based on who you are and how your
audience perceives you. Advertisers use this type of appeal frequently – for
example, in celebrity endorsements. Your audience must believe that you
know what you are talking about. Sometimes your credibility comes from
your audience’s prior knowledge and experience in dealing with you; at
other times, you must first establish your credibility with your audience
before they will buy your message. To grasp the importance of credibility,
assume that you just heard that a giant meteor would crash into Earth in 24
hours. How would your reaction differ if this announcement came from the
Psychic Hot Line versus Stephen Hawking?
Legally competent communicators know their audience – and ensure that
their audience knows them.

Pathos: Pathos appeals to an audience’s emotions. You might, for example,

use examples or what if situations to make an audience happy, sad, or
scared. You are probably familiar, for example, with the American Express
commercials highlighting the problems faced by customers who lost their
credit cards while vacationing abroad. The message: “To avoid this type of
stress and fraud, always carry American Express.”
Legally competent communicators are careful in their use of emotional
appeals, however, recognizing that such appeals can be overused and those
audiences may assume that you are appealing to emotions because you are
short on objective, logical reasons.

7
Logos: For most business communication situations, logic is the most
effective form of persuasion – presenting facts, inferences, and opinion.
Aristotle defined a fact as that which is indisputably true, an inference as
that which is probably true, and an opinion as that which is possibly true.
The more factual data you can bring to bear on your position, the more
likely you are to persuade. Nevertheless, inferences that can be drawn based
on available data and opinion (especially expert opinion) are also
persuasive.
Legally competent communicators tend to rely on logical appeals and
ensure that the facts, inferences, and expert opinion they use have relevance
– both to their position and to their audience.

Once you have determined the purpose of your message and identified the
needs and interests of your audience, the next step is to decide what
information to include. For some letters and simple memos, this step
presents few problems. However, many legal communication tasks require
numerous decisions about what to include. How much background
information is needed? What statistical data best support the conclusions?
Is expert opinion needed? Would examples, anecdotes, or graphics aid
comprehension? Will research be necessary, or do you have what you need
at hand?

The trick is to include enough information that you do not lose or confuse
the reader, yet avoid including irrelevant material that wastes the reader’s
time and obscures the important data. Different writers use different
methods for identifying what information is needed. Some simply jot down
notes on the points they plan to cover. For all but the simplest
communications, the one thing you should not do is to start drafting

8
immediately, deciding as you write what information to include. Instead,
start with at least a rudimentary outline of your message – whether it is in
your head, in a well-developed typed outline, or in the form of notes on a
piece of scratch paper.

One useful strategy is legal brainstorming – jotting down ideas, facts,

possible leads, and anything else you think might be helpful in constructing
your message. Aim for quantity, not quality. Do not evaluate your output
until you have run out ideas. Then begin to refine, delete, combine, and
otherwise revise your ideas to form the basis for your message.

Another possible strategy is legal mind mapping (also called clustering), a

process that avoids the step-by-step limitations of lists. Instead, you write
the purpose of your message in the middle of a page and circle it. Then, as
you think of possible points to add, write them down and link them by a
line either to the main purpose or to another point. As you think of other
details, add them where you think they might fit. This visual outline offers
flexibility and encourages freethinking. Figure 6.3 shows an example of
mind mapping for our frequent-stay memo.

Having now finished planning, you are finally ready to being legal drafting
– that is, composing a preliminary version of a message. The success of this
second stage of the process depends on the attention you gave to the first
stage. The warning given earlier bears repeating: Do not begin writing too
soon. Some people believe they have weak writing skills; when faced with
a writing task, their first impulse is therefore to jump in and get it over with
as quickly as possible. Avoid the rush. Follow each of the five steps of the
writing process to ease the journey and improve the product.

9
Probably the most important thing to remember about drafting is to just let
go – let your ideas flow as quickly as possible onto paper or computer
screen, without worrying about style, correctness, or format. Separate the
drafting stage from the revising stage. Although some people revise as they
create, most find it easier to first get their ideas down on paper in rough-
draft form, and then revise. It is much easier to polish a page full of writing
than a page full of nothing. As one writing authority has noted,

So, avoid moving from author to editor too quickly. Your first legal draft is
just that – a draft. Do not expect perfection, and do not strive for it.
Concentrate, instead, on recording in narrative form all the points you
identified in the planning stage. When you have finished and then begin to
revise, you will likely discover that a surprising amount of your first draft is
usable and will be included in your final legal draft.

Legal writing is an art. Business writing is craft. Mix the two at your
caution. If you let your inner editor (who, according to popular theory, lives
in the left side of your brain) into the process too early, it is liable to
overpower your artist, blocking your creative flow.

Some important factors naturally interfere with legal creativity and

concentration. In addition, they undermine the writer’s self-image and make
him or her even more reluctant to tackle the next writing task. The
treatment for writer’s block lies in the strategies, from legal point view,
discussed hereunder:
1. Choose the appropriate legal environment: The ability to
concentrate on the task is one of the most important components of
effective legal writing. The appropriate legal environment may not
be the same desk where you normally do your other work. Even if

10
you can turn off the phones and shut the door to visitors, silent
distractions can bother you – a notation on your calendar reminding
you of an important upcoming event, notes about a current project,
even a photograph of a loved one. Many people write best in a
library-type environment, with a low noise level, relative anonymity,
and the space to spread out notes and other resources on a large
table. Others find a computer room conducive to thinking and
writing, with its low level of constant background noise and the
presence of other people similarly engaged.
2. Schedule a reasonable block of time: If the legal writing task is
short, you can block out enough time to plan, draft, and revise the
entire message at one sitting. If the task is long or complex,
however, schedule blocks of no more than two hours or so. After all,
writing is hard work. When your time is up or your work completed,
give yourself a reward – take a break or get a snack.
3. State your purpose in legal writing: Having identified your
specific purpose during the planning phase, write it at the top of your
blank page or tack it on the bulletin board in front of you. Keep it
visible so that it will be uppermost in your consciousness as you
compose.
4. Engage in free writing: Review your purpose and your audience,
then, as a means of releasing your pent-up ideas and getting past the
block, begin free writing; that is, write continuously for five to then
minutes, literally without stopping. Although free writing is typically
considered a pre-drafting technique, it can also be quite useful for
helping writers “unblock” their ideas.

While free writing, do not look back and do not stop writing. If you
cannot think of anything to say, simply keep repeating the last word

11
or keep writing some sentence such as, “I’ll think of something
soon.” Resist the temptation to evaluate what you have written. (If
you are composing at a computer, you may want to darken your
screen so that you will not be tempted to review what you have
written thus far; this technique is called invisible writing.) At the end
of five or ten minutes, take a breather, stretch and relax, read what
you’ve written, and then start again, if necessary.
5. Avoid the perfectionism legal syndrome: Remember that the
product you are producing now is a draft – not a final document. Do
not worry about style, coherence, spelling or punctuation errors, and
the like. The artist in you must create something before the editor
can refine it.
6. Think aloud with legal aptitude: Some people are more skilled at
speaking their thoughts than at writing them. Picture you are self-
telling a colleague about what you are writing, and explain aloud the
ideas you are trying to get across. Hearing your ideas will help
sharpen and focus them.
7. Write the easiest parts first: The opening paragraph of a letter or
memo is often the most difficult one to compose. If that is the case,
ship it and begin in the middle. In a report, the procedures section
may be easier to write than the recommendations. Getting something
down on paper will give you a sense of accomplishment, and your
writing may generate ideas for other sections.

Try each of these legal strategies for avoiding writer’s block at least once;
then build into your writing routine those strategies that work best for you.
Just as different athletes and artists use different legal strategies for
accomplishing their goals, so do different writers. There is no single best

12
way to make legal business communication, so choose what is effective
way of business communication for you.

9.2.2 Technical Aspects of Business Correspondence

While business correspondence must conform to the essential qualities of

effective business letter writing, you cannot disregard the elementary rules
of grammar and composition. The interests of your business will be
certainly prejudiced by a business letter in slipshod English. Even though
other rules of grammar are occasionally broken, more than 90 per cent of
ungramatical expressions in ordinary composition can be prevented by a
thorough knowledge of the following rules :
(i) A relative pronoun must have an antecendent.
(ii) A relative pronoun must agree with its antecendent in person and
number.
(iii) Double negatives destroy each other.
(iv) The infinitive must not be "split".
(v) 'Like' is an adjective, not a conjunction.
(vi) 'Then' used as a conjunction takes the same case after it as before it.
(vii) A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.
(viii) Transitive verbs and propositions govern nouns in the objective case.
(ix) The parts of the verb "to be" are followed by the nominative case.
(x) The distributives each, every, either neither are singular.
(xi) The demonstratives this and that are singular; these and those are
plural.
(xii) A particle must not be detached or unrelated.

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Instead of giving commentary on the various types of incorrect sentences a
list of "Common Mistakes with correction" and the table that follows are
prepared to suggest the correct sentences or substitutes as follows :

COMMON MISTAKES WITH CORRECTIONS

Observe the following common mistakes, italicised with the corrections

(correct words) in brackets.
1. The letter with enclosures were (was) received.
2. The large warehouse with the whole of its contents were (was)
destroyed.
3. It is me (I).
4. The committee were (was) unanimous in its decision.
5. Eighty rupees a month are (is) sufficient pay for him.
6. More than one workmen were (was) killed.
7. There should be no secrets between you and I (me).
8. If I was him (were he) I should act differently.
9. Every member of the house have their (has his/her) own views.
10. We cannot accept these (this) kind of goods.
11. I have never seen nothing (anything) so good as this.
12. She has been more successful than me (I).
13. I never go to businessmen whom (who) I knew are dishonest.
14. Every order are (is) carefully handled.
15. If you allow me discount like (as) you did last time, I may place an
order.
16. We have received your order of 10th July, 20.... and the same (it) is
receiving attention.
Managers have to write letters for many purposes such as commercial,
administrative, legal and personal. When they have to write to their

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employees, such letters are known as employment letters. Since employees
are guided by the service rules and also enjoy a lot of legal protection, the
employment letters written to them must be carefully drafted and laid out to
avoid any problems at a later stage. Also, in case the managers are not very
careful while drafting letters, they might not be able to convey their
message across to the employees. Their message might be misinterpreted
and they might enter into an avoidable conflict with their employees. In
addition to the content, the employment letters must also have the
components of a standard letter, as listed below:

(i) Letterhead
(ii) Reference Number
(iii) Date
(iv) Special Markings
(v) Inside address
(vi) Attention Line
(vii) Salutation
(viii) Subject Heading
(ix) Main Body
(x) Complementary close
(xi) Signatory
(xii) Enclosures/copies circulated/ Annexures

Generally, it is printed stationery, carrying essential information about a

company/ organization. It carries the logo of the company, name and the postal
address of the company along with the contact numbers.

This list is not complete as there are hundreds of purposes for which managers in
an organization write letters to their subordinate employees. It must be noticed

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that the employers do not restrict their mode of communication with their
employees to letters only. Some of the other modes of communication between
the employees and the employers are:
(i) Inter-office communication
(ii) Office Orders
(iii) Memoranda
(iv) Circulars
(v) Notices/Notification
(vi) Enquiries
(vii) Telegrams
(viii) E-mail
(ix) Telephone
(x) Representation

The choice of the mode of communication would depend on many factors such
as the type of information to be communicated, level of formality, position of the
employee, speed of action desired, medium of communication available and the
capabilities of both the employers and employees.

9.3 Summary

In general business correspondence, we should avoid jargon. The 'Jargon'

refers to the special language of a trade, profession, or field of study. It may
refer to words as well as to the style of writing. In the medical field, jargon
will be mostly confined to the choice of words. Legal jargon is primarily
stylistic. Jargon creates difficulties of understanding, and it makes the style
formal and stiff, so better avoid jargon. In the business field jargon consists
in the use of words like instant, ultimo, proximo, as per, we beg to, and

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oblige, same, etc. It is better to give the date instead of using words like
instant and ultimo. 'We beg to' and 'and oblige' can be easily omitted.

Now we have a reasonably good understanding of the process of

communication and its problems, barriers and breakdowns it should not be
difficult to make our communication effective. It must, however, be made
clear that ideal communication is rarely achieved. Perhaps it does not exist.
But we can, and should, strive to acquire all those skills and take care of all
those aspects that make communication effective. As somebody has very
well said, "Ideals are like stars. We may never reach them, but they keep
guiding our path". So is the case with communication.

9.4 Key Words

1. Jargon: The 'Jargon' refers to the special language of a trade, profession,

or field of study. It may refer to words as well as to the style of writing. In
the medical field, jargon will be mostly confined to the choice of words.
2. Letter Head: Generally, it is printed stationery, carrying essential
information about a company/ organization.
3. Employment Letter: Managers have to write letters for many purposes
such as commercial, administrative, legal and personal. When they have to
write to their employees, such letters are known as employment letters.

9.5 Self-Assessment Questions

1. "The single most significant element of legal communication is its

direction of the message.” Discuss the statement.

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2. "Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he wants

to create the legal understanding in the mind of another through written

communication.” Discuss and elaborate the statement.

3. Write a note on the need and importance of legal letters in business

communication.

9.6 Suggested Readings

1. Pal, Rajendra and Korlahalli, J. S., Essentials of Business

Communication.

2. Fred Luthans, Organizational Behaviour, Boston, McGraw-Hill,

8th edition, 1998.
3. Kaul, Asha, Effective Business Communication.
4. Lesikar, Raymond V. and Pettit John D, Business
Communication: Theory and application, 6th edition, Richard D
Irwin publication.
5. Sharma, R. C. , Business Communication and Report Writing.
6. Varinder Kumar, Raj Bodh, Business Communication, Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi, 2001.

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