PREFACE

Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances being

made continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important advances are inc-
luded here.

The results of a recent survey on the attitudes towards existing literature avai-
lable to high school students showed that many were unhappy with the material used
in teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the following: ac-
companying supplementary material to main text books, current information on new
developments, clear figures and diagrams.

This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology by

inclusion of the following: main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive questions,
articles and experiments. It is the intention and hope of the authors that the contents
of this book will help to bridge the current gap in the field of biology at this level.

This book has been carefully reviewed and the language is considered suitable
for students for whom English is a second language.

To the students

Being curious students, you may have wondered why you resemble your pa-
rents or why you need to breathe. In this book, I try to summarize some major subjects
of biology. These are the most promising and perhaps the most complicated subjects
of modern biology.

Group work will greatly enhance your learning abilities as well as give you an
opportunity to share your knowledge and experience with your friends. I hope that,
being assiduous students, you will work hard throughout this academic year and do
your best to satisfy your scientific curiosity and, of course, to pass all of your exams
successfully.

The author
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS 5

CHAPTER 2 - ECOLOGY 9

CHAPTER 3 - FOOD CHAIN AND ELEMENTS CYCLES 15

CHAPTER 4 - COMMUNITY AND ECOSYSTEM 33

CHAPTER 5 - ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 43

CHAPTER 6 - ANIMAL ADAPTATION 53

CHAPTER 7 - PLANT ADAPTATION 65

CHAPTER 8 - HUMAN AND BIOSPHERE 79

4
Chapter 1

Initially, organisms were classified as plants (motionless organisms)

or animals.
With the discovery of microorganisms in the 16th century, classification
problems became more complex.

Organisms like bacteria, blue-green algae and euglena became proble-

matic for botanists and zoologists.

Use of analogous organs in classification was replaced with use of

homologous organs.

Analogous Organs

These are organs generally similar in shape and function. For instance, wings
in butterflies or birds provide flight, whereas legs in flies and cats function in
[Link] these organs are embryologically different. Therefore we say
that butterflies and birds aren’t related.

Homologous Organs

Some similarities may be seen in structures seemingly unrelated in appea-

rence. For instance, a human’s arm seems quite different from a bat’s [Link]
these are seen to be similar both anatomically and embryologically. Organs
sharing the same origin and similar embryological stages are called homolo-
gous organs. Functions of homologous organs may be the same or different.

Homologous organs are the basis of modern [Link]

modern classification was developed in the 18th century, several methods
had been used. John Ray (1626-1705) tried to unify classification systems and
was the first to use the term “species”. The founder of modern systematics was
Carolus Linnaeus. He applied his binominal nomenclature method to plants
(in 1753) and to animals (1758) in his book Systema Naturae.

System of Classification

Phylogenetic systematics used today depends on Linnaeus systema-

tics and homology. Homology is used in determining the level of relatedness;
e.g. bats and humans are in the group Mammalia.

The basis of modern systematics is the grouping of organisms accor-

ding to similarities. In the classification of organisms, the following critera
are used: origins, relatedness, developmental stages.

In the binomial system created by Linnaeus, species is the basic

unit of nomenclature. A species is a group of organisms from the same popu-
lation sharing the same embryological, morphological, and physiological
features, and are capable of giving birth to fertile offspring when mated under
natural [Link] are two points in Linnaeus’ hypothesis:

6
Classification of living organisms

- There is an ideal type for each species. This ideal type represents the stan-
dard features of every single individual of the species.

The number of species and their types is constant and unchangeable.

According to Linnaeus systematics, a species is named with two

names. First is the genus name with the first letter capitalized. Second is the
specific epithet (species name) and the first letter is not capitalized. Both
are written in italics and in Latin. The reason for this is to have a single name
in the scientific world, thus simplifying the study of species. For example,
Canis familiaris is the name for dogs, whereas Canis lupus is the wolf. The first
name (Canis) shows that these two species are in the same genus.

A group of species similar in some characteristics forms a genus, si-

milar genera form a family, similar families form an order, similar orders
form a class and similar classes form a phylum. Similar phyla form a
kingdom.

In this system, species level has the largest number of common featu-
res and the least number of individuals compared to the higher levels. As you
go up, common features decrease while the number of individuals increases.
So the fewest common characteristics and the highest number of individuals
are found in the kingdoms.

Homologous organs in different organisms

7
Chapter 1
SELF CHECK
CLASSIFICATION

A. Key Terms B. Review Questions

Homologous organ Kingdom 1. Explain the classification of Aristotle.

Species Genus
2. Explain analogous organ with an example.
Family Class
3. What are the two points in Linnaeus hypothesis?
Analogous organ Order
4. Explain homologous organ with an example.
5. Explain how Linnaeus named organisms with an example.
C. Fill in the blanks D. True or False

[Link] organisms are classified as ........... and .................... 1. Aristotle was the first scientist to name organisms
2. According to ................ a species is named with two with binomial nomenclature.
names. 2. Plants are photosynthetic, multicellular organisms.
3. The basis of modern systematics is the grouping of organ- 3. Similar genera form family .
isms according to ............................ 4. Animals are non-motile eukaryotic organisms.

8
Ecology

ECOLOGY

The Scope of Ecology

Ecology is a branch of science that studies the interactions of living things with each other and with the environ-
ment. Today there are over a billion organisms on earth. The complex relations of organisms with each other and with the
environment is discussed and explained by ecology.

Today environmental problems have increased due to development in technology and industry, and because of
the unwitting actions of people. For example, the overuse of chemical substances contaminates the water and causes
slow-progressing diseases in humans; the inefficient use of soil depletes water sources and makes the soil arid. Such
environmental problems increase the importance of ecology. For this reason ecology is taught as a science in schools,
and private institutions keep people informed so that they will be more consciously aware of the environment.

For a thorough understanding of ecology, the relationships between organisms and the environment must be
surveyed. Accordingly, the levels of organization are as follows: protoplasm - cells - tissues - organs - organ systems
- organisms - population - community - ecosystem - biosphere. Only the levels between organisms and biosphere are
included in ecology.

9
Chapter 2

Ecology is the scientific

study of the interactions
between organisms and
their environments eco-
logy (from the Greek oikos,
“home,” and logos, “to
study”). As an area of scien-
tific study, many ecologists
devise mathematical mo-
dels by using sophisticated
computer programs to de-
velop models that predict
the effects human activities
will have on climate, and
how climatic changes will
affect ecosystems.

10
Ecology

Terms used in Ecology

1-Ecosystem: A community together with the abiotic environment forms an
ecosystem. Environment is the place where an organism lives. The environ-
For a thorough understanding of
ment is made up of abiotic and biotic factors. e.g., air, light, water, humans,
ecology, the relationships betwe-
other organisms and all non living things form the environment. en organisms and the environ-
ment must be surveyed. Accor
Organismal (Individual) Ecology: A branch of ecology that studies the dingly, the levels of organization
relationship of an individual or individuals of a species to the environment. are as follows: protoplasm - cells
- tissues - organs - organ systems
- organisms -population - com-
Population ecology: The next level of organization in ecology is the popula-
munity -ecosystem - biosphere -
tion, a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic Earth -planets - solar system - ga-
area. laxies -cosmos. Only the levels
between organisms and biosphe-
2-Population: The word “population” initially was used only for humans, but re are included in ecology.
later was used for other organisms as well. Population is a group of individuals
of the same species living in the same area. Population is the smallest unit of
ecology. A population exists as long as it lives together with other populations
and maintains its relations. In other words, one population is not self-sufficient.

3-Community: A group of populations living together in the same area. With

abiotic factors included, communities are self-sufficient.

4-Biosphere:All of the places where organisms can live, from the bottom of
the ocean to an altitude of 10,000 m.

5-Habitat: The natural environment or place where an organism, population,

or species lives. It is shortly address of the organism. For example habitat of
paramecium is fresh water and habitat of certain kind of ants is trees in the
forest.

6-Biome: The geographical area of the environment that an organism needs to Interaction is a key idea in eco-
live. Biome can be thought of as the place where the community lives. logy. No organism is completely
self-sufficient. Organisms depend
7-Biomass: The dry weight of organic matter comprising a group of orga- upon other organisms and upon
the environment for survival.
nisms
For example autotrophs produce
in a particular habitat. food and oxygen and heterotrop-
hs produce carbon dioxide, whi-
Flora: The plant or bacterial populations living in a particular environment. ch is needed for autotrophs to
produce food.
Fauna: The animal populations living in a particular environment.

11
Chapter 2

Ecosystem componants
Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and
their environment. An ecosystem (environment) is all the living and nonliving
Environment is the all living factors that surround an organism. The ecosystem includes the biotic (living)
and non living factors that community, together with the associated abiotic (nonliving) components. The
surround an organism. The abiotic components of an ecosystem include soil, water, light, inorganic nutri-
environment includes abi- ents, and weather. The biotic components include producers, autotrophic
otic components (nonliving organisms which can produce their own food (and indirectly for other orga-
chemical and physical factors nisms as well).
and physical factors) such as A- Biotic componants
temperature, light, water, and In terrestrial ecosystems, the dominant producers are green plants,
nutrients and biotic compo- while in fresh water and saltwater ecosystems, the dominant producers are al-
nents (living) such as plants, gae (a kind of protist). Consumers are heterotrophic organisms that can not
animals, fungi-all the other or- produce their own food. Four types of consumer can be identified according to
ganisms. their food source.

1-Herbivores (also called primary consumers), such as sheep, eat plants dire-
ctly.
2-Carnivores (secondary or tertiary consumers), such as lions, feed on other
animals.
3- Omnivores, such as humans, feed on both plants and animals.
4- Decomposers are organisms of decay. They break down detritus (nonliving
organic matter) to inorganic matter which can be used again by producers.
In this way materials are constantly recycled in an ecosystem. Interaction is a
key idea in ecology. No organism is completely self-sufficient. Organisms de-
pend upon other organisms and upon the environment for survival.

Branches of Ecology

12
Ecology

B- A biotic Components:
1- Minerals:
can be solid that form the soil, contains all elements & chemical compounds
which are necessary for life maintenance, organic and non organic materials
are main components of soil.

2- water:
forms the biggest part in the ecosystem, such as : rivers, lakes and oceans.
Water is the habitat for many solvent minerals and chemicals.
Water basically is the most important life source, due to its percentage in living
cell (more than 90% in some cells kinds).

3- Gases:
take an important role in ecosystem, represented by a mixture of different
If you must drink bottled water,
gasses that forms biosphere.
recycle the bottle.
Mainly this mixture is formed by Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2, water vapor and
other gasses.
Although all of these gasses are important but, oxygen is the most important
base that forms any ecosystem.

4- Solar energy:
clearly affect the ecosystem; this effect appears in different forms due to al-
ternation of earth position around the sun and four seasons sequence.
That affects the density of living organisms numbers from one habitat to ano-
ther.

Underinflated tires decrease your

fuel economy and lead to increa-
Sun is a clean source of energy sed pollution.

13
Chapter 2

SELF CHECK
ECOLOGY

A. Key Terms E. Multiple Choises

Ecology Population
1. ........................group of individuals of same species.
Biosphere Ecosystem
Biome Flora A) Biosphere
Community Fauna B) Flora
C) population
D) Habitat
B. Review Questions

[Link] is the difference between population and com-

2. Which one of the following biggest than others?
munity?
2. What is the importanse of gasses in ecosystem?
A) Population
3. What are the biotic components of an ecosystem?
B) Community
C) Ecosystem
D) biosphere

3. Which of the followings is the most important in

C. Fill in the blanks ecosystem?
A) Magnesium
1.................................is a key idea in ecology.
B) Oxygen
[Link] fresh water and saltwater ecosystems, the dominant
producers are ..................... C)Water vapour
3. ....................... is the plant populations living in a D) Algae.
particular environment.
4. Lions are ................ and feed on ..................

D. True or False

1. Herbivores eat plants directly

2. Decomposers are organisms of decay.
3. Soil contains organic materials only.
4. Herbivores are tertiary consumers.

14
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

Food chains and elements cycles in nature

The Interactions of Life

One of the properties that distinguishes living things from non living things is their nutrition. Organisms feed
and acquire materials necessary for energy production, regulation and assembly. Organisms are classified according
to their feeding styles to:-

1- Autotrophic organisms

Autotrophs produce their own food from inorganic substances. Autotrophs are either photosynthetic or chemos-
ynthetic according to the energy used.

Photosynthetic autotrophs:These organisms produce organic molecules from inorganic molecules using sunlight
energy (photosynthesis). Green plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs. Some bacteria use
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or hydrogen (H) instead of water. The bacteria using these don’t release O2.

Chemosynthetic autotrophs: Some bacteria oxidize inorganic substances and release energy. From this energy ATP
is synthesized. ATP is used in the production of organic substances from inorganic ones. Since chemicals are used in
place of light, this food synthesis is called chemosynthesis. Examples of chemosynthetic bacteria are nitrite and
nitrate bacteria.

15
Chapter 3

Carnivorous plants are

meat eaters or morecorrectly
insect eaters hence their true
title. Insectivorous plants (Car-
nivorous sounds far more in-
teresting). These plants lives
in areas where there is a lack of
nutrients in the soil or very poor
conditions where roots do not
survive well. The plants have
adapted their leaves into insect
catchers that can hold down an
insect and digest the internal
juices. Insect eaters are therefo-
re highly advances plants quite
different from other plant types.

Auto-heterotrophic organisms

Some unicellulars (e.g. Euglena) carry chloroplast and practice pho-

tosynthesis. These organisms carry out photosynthesis in the presence of light
(autotrophs), while at night they obtain food from their surroundings (heterot-
rophs). Insectivorous plants have chloroplasts like green plants and carry out
photosynthesis. At the same time, since these plants live in nitrogen-deficient
soil, they obtain nitrogen by eating insects. They secrete enzymes to digest
insect proteins. The amino acids released are absorbed into the cells and used
in metabolism. Examples include dionea, drosera and nepentes plants.

Heterotrophic organisms

Animals, fungi, some bacteria and protists can’t synthesise their own
food and get it from other organisms or decaying matter. Heterotrophs have
different types of nutrition according to their habitat and food type used.

Figure: Some plants living in Holozoic nutrition (Heterotrophic)

nitrogen-deficient soils obtain
nitrogen by ingesting insects. This is the form of nutrition used by most animals and involves the in-
These plants are called insecti- gestion of complex food, which is broken down into simpler molecules before
vorous plants. Some examples being absorbed.
are dionea, drosera and nepentes
that attract insects with their co- Carnivores (meat eaters):They eat only meat. Examples are lion, tiger, wolf
lor and aroma. The trapped in- and etc.
sects are digested with enzymes
secreted by the plant and then
Herbivores (plant eaters):They eat only plant. Examples are sheep, gazelle,
metabolized.
cows and etc.

Omnivores (plant and meat eaters): They eat both plant and meat. Examp-
les, monkeys, birds and etc.

16
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

Food relationships
The digestive systems of these organisms vary according to the type of All organisms need ener-
food. For example, herbivores have well-developed molar teeth, 4-chambe- gy to live and complete their life
red stomachs, and long intestines, because the digestion of grass is difficult. cycle. The main source of energy
Carnivores have well-developed incisor and canine teeth, single-lobed stoma- is the radiant energy from the sun
chs, and shorter intestines. but it is unusable by all organisms.
Omnivores have the properties of both moderately.

Biotic (plants, animals,

and decomposers) and abiotic fa-
ctors (soil, light, water and nonli-
ving matter) interact continuous-
ly in the balance of nature.

Symbiotic Nutrition (living together)

Some organisms live in close relationship. There are types of this rela-
tionship.

1-Commensalism Figure: Commensalism in the sea.

Clownfishes often form symbio-
If one organism benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped, tic association with sea anemones,
the relationship is called commensalism. The helping organism is called com- gaining protection by remaining
mensal. For instance, small fish (Echeneis) attach to sharks and live with them. among their tentacles and gleaning
These small fish feed on the residue of the shark’s prey. Here, while the small scraps from their food.
fish benefit, the shark (commensal) is not affected.

2-Mutualism (Mutual Benefit)

In this type of relationship both organisms benefit. Lichens are a ty-

pical example. Lichens are composed of fungi and green algae. Fungi protect
the algae and provide them with water and CO2. Green algae supply the fungi
with food and O2. Another example is the relationship between the rhizobium
Figure: Rhizobium bacteria living
bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarum) and legume plants. These bacteria live
in root nodules of legume plants
in the root nodules of legume plants. Saprophytic rhizobium bacteria live in
are a good example of mutualism.
the soil and when they encounter the roots of legume plants, they enter the
The bacteria supply the plant with
root hairs and pass to the cortex cells, where they reproduce using the food and
nitrogen, and the plant supplies the
enzymes of the plant.
bacteria with the products of pho-
tosynthesis.

17
Chapter 3

Host cells activated by the bacteria multiply quickly and form pocket-like ba-
cteria containing nodules. Here the plant gets the advantage of atmospheric
nitrogen, which is fixed by the bacteria. The plant provides the bacteria with
shelter and the products of photosynthesis.

3-Parasitism

Parasitism is the symbiotic relationship in which one member (parasi-

te) benefits and the other (host) is adversely affected.

Parasites have well-developed sense and grasping organs and reprodu-

ce quickly. On the contrary, their enzyme and digestive systems are not well-
developed. Parasites live in or on the host. They suck liquid nutrients from the
Figure: Flea and tick, external para- host.
sites, are very dangerous to humans.
These organisms don’t have a well- Parasitic animals may be internal or external. Both groups contain
developed digestive system and different organisms. Internal parasites don’t have digestive systems and
suck blood for nutrition. live in places where digested food is available. External parasites can parti-
ally digest food. Examples of external parasites are lice, fleas and bedbugs.
Examples of internal parasites are plasmodium, tapeworm, roundworms and
flukes.

Parasitic plants: Some plant species live on other plants and obtain organic
or inorganic substances from them. Such plants are of two types: half-parasi-
tic and full-parasitic.

Full-Parasitic plants: The organs of these plants have certain peculiari-

ties. Leaves are small, with little or no chlorophyll, weakened xylems and, in
some cases, roots disappear.

The absence of photosynthesis is compensated for by the development

of sucking organs called haustorium.
Figure: Broom-rapes, a full pa-
rasitic plant, does not carry out Parasitic plants anchor their haustoria to the vascular tissue of the host
photosynthesis but obtains nutri- plant and absorb and use the food produced by the host. In the same way they
ents through haustoria from the host obtain the water necessary for transpiration.
plant.
Parasitic plants cause enormous harm to cultivated plant. Examples
include Broom-rapes and Cuscutaceae.

Half-Parasitic plants: These plants anchor their haustoria into the xylem of
the host plant, absorbing water and minerals which they use to produce organic
substances.

They have chlorophyll and also carry out photosynthesis. Mistletoe, a

half parasite, lives on trees such as apple and pear.

[Link] worm as example for in- Pathogens: Many bacteria and fungi live parasitically on higher plants and
ternal parasites. animals and cause disease. In other words such parasites are at the same time
pathogens.

18
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

Parasites that can’t survive unless they are on a host

organism are called obligatory parasites. The bacte-
ria that causes diphteria is such an organism, unable to
survive outside the human body.

The bacteria that cause cholera and tetanus can

live in soil or water in a dormant condition. When they
find suitable conditions they become parasitic and patho-
For a good understanding of the problems these pa-
genic. Viruses are also obligatory parasites.
rasitic plants can cause, it is necessary to give some back-
4-Saprophytic nutrition (decomposers) ground information about the biology of parasitic plants in
general and, more specific, about the various stages of the
Saprophytic nutrition is a type of heterotrophy. life cycle and the interaction with the host plant during
Some bacteria and fungi feed on and digest organic su- these stages. Interactions between organisms in nature oc-
bstances in decaying animal and plant remains. These cur frequently. These interactions can be symbiotic. This term
organisms, also called decomposers, have a well-develo- includes both mutualistic symbiosis (all the organisms invol-
ped digestive system.
ved benefit from the association) and parasitic symbiosis
They practice extracellular digestion and con- (only one of the organisms involved benefits to the
vert organic substances into inorganic ones. In this way detriment of the other organism of the interaction). Associa-
they clean the environment and contribute to the nitro- tions involving higher plants can be found on two levels. The
gen cycle. majority comprises the interaction between higher plants and
mycorrhizas or nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These associations
Bacteria and fungi that get food from the nitro- are mutualistic symbiotic in nature. On the contrary, interac-
genous organic compounds of dead plants and animals
tions between higher plants are usually parasitic, involving a
cause decomposition and putrefaction, and enable mat-
ter to cycle in nature. non-parasitic host and a hemi- or holoparasitic plant.

Proteus vulgaris one of the saprophytic bacteria It has been estimated that about 1% of all flowe-
that causes putrefaction. ring plants, roughly 3000 species, is parasitic. They form a
close connection with the vascular system of the host through
a so-called haustorium and are at least partially dependent on
the host for their supply of water, nutrients and organic solu-
tes. For a good understanding it is necessary to define specific
terminology. Parasitic angiosperms may be classified as eit-
her root parasites (60%) or stem parasites (40%), depending
on whether the haustorium is below or above soil surface.

They also may be divided into groups with regard to

the presence (hemi-parasites) or absence (holo-parasites) of
chlorophyll. Approximately 20% of all parasites is holo-pa-
rasitic, the remainder being hemi-parasitic. All chlorophyll-
lacking species are obligate parasites, meaning they cannot
Figure:Some bacteria and fungi, living as saprophytes, establish and develop independently. Other parasitic plants
decompose dead plants and animals, making their nutri- are facultative parasites; they can establish and grow inde-
ents available and participating in the cycling of matter. pendently but in field situations always meet a wide variety
of hosts and behave heterotrophic.

19
Chapter 3
Food chain
A food chain consists of producers, consumers and decomposers. All
organisms need energy to live and complete their life cycle. The main source
of energy is the radiant energy from the sun but it is unusable by all organisms.

All organisms need energy to So that, it has to be converted into a usable form by photosynthetic rea-
live and complete their life cyc- ctions, and then transferred from one organism to another in the form of organic
le. The main source of energy compounds. The series of steps through which energy is transferred from the
is the radiant energy from the sun to organisms (producers, consumers, decomposers) in an ecosystem called
sun but it is unusable by all orga- food cahin. In a living region, there are producers, consumers and decompo-
nisms. So that, it has to be con- sers. These are like links of a chain.
verted into a usable form by
The absence of a link breaks the association.
photosynthetic reactions, and
then transferred from one orga- 1-Producers
nism to another in the form of The bacteria, protists and plants that can convert light energy into
organic compounds. The series chemical energy are called producers. These organisms form the first link of the
of steps through which energy food chain. For this reason, on land, the food chain gener ally starts with flowe-
is transferred from the sun to or- ring plants, in aquatic places it starts with microscopic algae.
ganisms (producers, consumers, 2-Consumers;
decomposers) in an ecosystem a-Primary consumers
called is food chain. These are the animals that feed on plants, the herbivores. Examples
are insects, gnawing mammals and ruminants. Mollusks and crustaceans that
feed on phytoplankton in marine and freshwater are also herbivores.

b-Secondary and tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers are organisms that feed on herbivores, tertiary
consumers are organisms that feed on secondary consumers. Animals of both
groups catch their prey and have features for killing and tearing it before eating.
3-Decomposers
Decomposers are mainly bacteria and fungi. These organisms have
a very important role in ecosystems. For example, in forests tons of leaves are
shed by trees every year. If decomposers didn’t decay this layer of leaves every
year it would accumulate, cover the trees and kill them. These organisms decom-
pose dead animals. Nutrition starts with plants and passes to different animals.
Most of the animals in a food chain feed on more than one type of food.

20
Food chains and elements cycles in nature
Food webs
Food relations in a community or an ecosystem are not formed from
a regular chain. Sometimes they contain complex interconnections of many
food chains called a food web. Food webs may have short and long chains.
Carnivores have a variety of food sources which causes the chain to have a Each ecosystem has a
complex structure and form a web. For example, falcons and eagles eat trophic structure of feeding re-
different bird species, snakes and small mammals. lationships.
The consumers located at the higher levels of food chains are not Each level in food web
always carnivores, but sometimes parasites or organisms feeding on organic is called a trophic level. The
wastes. The most important feature of parasitic food chains is that the or- first trophic level is formed by
ganisms at the higher levels are smaller than the organisms at the lower producers, the second trophic
levels. In other words, it goes from bigger organisms to smaller organisms, level by primary consumers
like dog to flea. (herbivores), the third trophic
level by secondary consumers
(carnivores).

Figure: The food web in an aqu-

atic ecosystem. A food web, not as
regular as a food chain, starts with
phytoplankton and continues with
various animals, sometimes inter-
connected with different chains,
and ends in decomposers.

Ecological Pyramids
The values of some ecological factors can be shown in a pyramid for a
concretely explanation. Examples are energy pyramids and biomass pyramids.
Ecological pyramids are prepared on the basis of biomass, which includes the
number of individuals of the community and ecosystem, and energy. Biomass
of terrestrial animals is 1% of the biomass of terrestrial plants. More than 90%
of this animal mass is invertebrates.

21
Chapter 3

Biomass decreases from producers

to consumers. The organisms in the Pyramids of biomass
chain convert only 10% of the energy
in food into biomass. Biomass dec- Biomass means “living weight”. Biomass is a quantitative es-
reases up to the end of the chain or timate of the total mass or amount of living material in a particular
pyramid. ecosystem. For example, the total weight of the roots, stems and
spikes of wheat in a one hectare wheat field is called biomass.
Organisms may be either plant biomass or animal biomass.

Pyramid of numbers

It shows the total number of organism at each trophic level

in a given ecosystem. Let’s explain this with an example. Plant-
Grasshopper-Frog-Trout-Human. When you look at the food chain
above carefully you will see that a human is at the end.

According to this food chain, if we conclude that a human

needs 300 trout per year as a food source, the trout must consume
90,000 frogs, the frogs 27,000,000 grasshoppers, and the grasshop-
pers 1000 tons of plants yearly. Using these values, let’s form a
food pyramid. If the food chain above is shortened eliminating
the trout, then 90,000 frogs would feed 30 people yearly. If frogs
and grasshoppers were eliminated too, then 1000 tons of plants
would feed 2000 people yearly.

Figure: As seen in the figure, the number of individuals is highest at the bottom
of the pyramid and lowest at the top.

22
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

The shorter the food chain the less energy lost. As can be
understood from this data, the lowest layer of the pyramid has the
greatest number of individuals. Photosynthetic organisms use only
1% of light energy in photosynthesis. Grasshoppers convert only
10% of the ingested food into biomass. Most of it is excreted undi-
gested or used for energy. Likewise, other organisms and humans
convert 10% of the ingested food into biomass. This feature is true
of all layers of all food chains. As we mentioned before, as the
number of individuals in the food pyramid decreases, food and
energy flow decrease accordingly. Some poisonous substances like
DDT, cyanide and other chemicals cannot be excreted from the
body, and their concentration increases at every level of the pyra-
mid.

There is an inverse relationship between body size (bio-

mass) and numbers of organisms. In other words, in a food chain, Figure: At every step in the food py-
the number of large organisms is small, and the number of small ramid, the accumulation of chemicals
increases. The organisms at the top of
organisms is large.
the pyramid are the most vulnerable to
Pyramid of energy: poisonous chemicals, like DDT.

It indicates the energy content in the biomass of each trophic level. An

energy pyramid is the best way to explain the flow of nutrients in an ecosys-
tem. These pyramids demonstrate how energy is lost between layers. The
total amount of energy is the greatest in the lowest layer. As you go up, energy
decreases. Energy pyramids are shown as triangles because energy is lost at
every level. Energy pyramids illustrate how much energy is transported to the
ultimate consumers in ecosystems.

Figure: Food chain and energy

flow. Only 10% of the energy is
captured at each step from produ-
cers to consumers. Therefore, the
amount of energy at the end of the
chain is the lowest.

23
Chapter 3

Energy flow
The main energy source that powers natural systems is the sun. While
Energy flow in [Link] plants utilize solar energy directly through photosynthesis, animals make use
main source of energy for all of it indirectly. Energy is present in various forms in nature, such as mechani-
organisms is solar [Link] cal, chemical, electric, nuclear, heat and light energy. Living things need
photosynthesis, solar energy all of these except nuclear energy. Energy must be converted from one form
is to another for the continuity of life. For instance, a person walks because the
converted to chemical ener- chemical energy of food is converted to mechanical energy. After energy is
gy that can be used by used to perform body functions, the remaining energy is heat energy.
[Link] of this energy
is used in As can be seen in figure, the organic substances produced by green
the metabolism of the orga- plants are called primary products. Herbivores that feed on the primary pro-
nism and the rest is dissi- ducts form organic substances called secondary products. Carnivores that
pated into the environment feed on secondary products form organic substances called tertiary products.
as heat. The level of energy Generally 90% of the energy is lost from one layer to the next, in accordance
is the highest in plants, produ- with the second law of thermodynamics. Only 10% of the energy is transferred
cers, and the lowes tin tertiary to the next layer. This energy is called usable energy, and biologists refer to
consumers. the “10% law”. Consequently, energy flow is the greatest at the beginning of
the food chain, and smallest at the end. The remaining energy is lost as heat.

24
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

Our sun is an ordinary star, average in size and brightness, compared to the millions of others in the universe.
But when energy from the sun travels through 93 million miles of space in only eight minutes to reach us here
on Earth, extraordinary things can and do
happen. How does the sun make energy?
The sun is a huge ballshaped cloud of hot
gases held together by gravity. It is made
up mostly of hydrogen and helium. Inside the
sun, hydrogen atoms moving very quickly
collide with one another. Sometimes they
combine to make helium atoms in a nuc-
lear process
called fusion.

During fusion, a tiny amount of mass

is lost. One helium atom weighs just a little
bit less than two hydrogen atoms. That little
bit of mass is transformed into an enormous
amount of energy, mainly infrared and visible
light, which radiates in all directions throu-
gh space. The sun has been emitting energy
constantly for about five billion years. Astro-
nomers estimate it will continue for another
five billion. Only a small fraction of solar ra-
diation (one part in two billion) reaches the
earth. Even so, the sun is the source of almost
all the energy on earth, including our food
and our fuel.

Every day, Earth is bombarded by

about 1022 joules (j) of solar radiation (1j = 0.239 calories). This is the energy equivalent of 100 million atomic bom-
bs the size of the one dropped on Hiroshima. The amount of solar radiation reaching the globe ultimately limits the
photosynthetic output of ecosystems, although photosynthetic productivity is also limited by water, temperature, and
nutrient availability.

Much of the solar radiation that reaches the biosphere lands on bare ground and bodies of water that either
absorb or reflect the incoming energy. Only a small fraction actually strikes algae, photosynthetic bacteria, and plant
leaves, and only some of this is of wavelengths suitable for photosynthesis.

Of the visible light that does reach photosynthetic organisms, only about 1% to 2% is converted to chemical
energy by photosynthesis, and this efficiency varies with the type of organism, light level, and .other factors. Although
the fraction of the total incoming solar radiation that is ultimately trapped by photosynthesis is very small, primary
producers on Earth collectively manufacture about 170-200 billion tons of organic material per year-an impressive
quantity.

25
Chapter 3

Elements Cycles

Elements cycles
Elements cycles are the cycling of matter from the environment to living things and back to the environment.
They are also called nutrient cycles that involve both biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.

The earth is essentially a closed system (a system from which matter can not escape). The materials are used by
organisms can not be lost and it can change its location so materials are re-used and are often re-cycled in the ecosystem.
Four eiements cycles ar e impor tant for living things.

- Water cycle
- Carbon cycle
- Nitrogen cycle
- Phosphorus cycle

Carbon, Nitrogen and Water have gaseous forms and they involve atmosphere so they cycle over large distan-
ces. Phosphorus is an element that is completely nongaseous form and as a result Phosphorus cycle does not involve the
atmosphere, just a local cycling.

26
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

1- Water cycle
The cycling of water
The water or hydrologic cycle, which continually renews the supply occurs regularly under the influ-
of water that is so essential to life. Water cycle involves an exchange of water ence of sun energy and gravity.
between the land, the atmosphere, and living things. The water cycle is a conti-
nuous process by which water
It is assumed that there is nearly 1.4 billion km3 of water in the world. moves from the earth's surface
Though distributed throughout the natural world, most of this water (97%) is in (lithosphere and hydrosphere)
the oceans. Of the Earth’s total precipitation (rainfall), 465,000 km3 falls to the atmosphere and back. It
in the sea and 100,000 km3 falls on land. is also called the hydrologic
cycle. Atmospheric movements
There is a strong relationship between the location, duration, and and marine currents are im-
amount of precipitation, and living things. Organisms cannot always use the portant components of the wa-
available water directly, as many factors limit this use. For example, the sali- ter cycle. The processes of
nity of seawater and the frozen state of polar water restrict their use by terrestri- evaporation, condensation and
al organisms. Consequently, living organisms use only 2.6% of the total water precipitation make up the water
mass. At present, rapid population increase and high technology increase the cycle.
need for water.

The water cycle operates on two physical principles, namely evapora-

tion and condensation. Water absorbs energy and evaporates, and stays in the
atmosphere as vapor. As the water vapor rises it collides with cold air currents.
The cooled vapor drops back to the earth as rain and snow. Some water falls
into the sea, and the cycle begins again.

Underground and surface water collects in lakes and seas. From there,
as the water warms, it evaporates and enters the air as vapor, and then precipi-
tates again.

Figure. The Glo-

bal Water Cycle
- Pathways and
Fluxes. (Values
in 103 km3/yr).

RIVE
R OCEANS
LAKE
LAND

27
Chapter 3

2- Carbon cycle
The main source of carbon for organisms is CO2. Carbon dioxide is
found in the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Carbon is in
the atmosphere as CO2, in the hydrosphere as bicarbonate ion (HCO3), in the
lithosphere as coal, petroleum, limestone and natural gas, and in the biosphere
as the basic raw material of organic substances.

The product of organismal respiration and other sources like forest fi-
res, CO2 is used in photosynthesis. In respiration, the reverse of this process,
organic molecules and O2 are produced. In other words water and CO2 are
Carbon dioxide concentrations produced from the burning of organic molecules with O2. Therefore the carbon
in aquatic environments are qu- and oxygen cycles are closely related in nature. The amount of CO2 in the at-
ite different from those on land. mosphere varies from day to night and with the seasons. At night, when photos-
Carbon dioxide easily dissolves ynthesis stops and all organisms are respiring, the CO2 level in the atmosphere
in water and forms carbonic rises. Likewise, in the seasons when photosynthesis is fast, the CO2level in the
acid (H2CO3), which ionizes to atmosphere [Link] research has demonstrated that, because atmospheric
H+ and HCO3. These ions de- CO2 reduces the reflection of sunlight entering the atmosphere, an increase of
termine the pH of water. CO2 in the atmosphere results in climatic change, the greenhouse effect.

Saprophytic bacteria and fungi also play a role in returning carbon to

the atmosphere. These organisms are essential in the decomposition of dead
organisms into inorganic substances. Despite everything, decomposition does
not occur completely. Carbon in plant and animal structures is locked into
underground reserves through carbonization and petroleum formation. When
these formations are extracted and burned as gasoline, natural gas, and coal,
CO2 is released into the environment and used again in photosynthesis.

28
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

3- Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen molecule (N2), like carbon and oxygen, is an important
molecule for organisms. Nitrogen is also a component of molecules like Oxygen is essential for the
amino acids, nucleic acids, hormones and vitamins. The major sources of survival of living things. Oxy-
nitrogen are the atmosphere and living organisms. The most abundant gas in gen is necessary for respira-
the atmosphere (78%) is N2. This atmospheric nitrogen can be used directly by tion and the oxidation of or-
some microorganisms. Plants can use nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO3) and ganic substances, and is used
ammonium (NH4) salts. Animals obtain nitrogen from the proteins of the orga- in the burning (oxidation) of
nisms they eat. The cycle of nitrogen between organisms and the atmosphere is coal, wood and gas. The at-
a very long and complex process. Actually there are 5-major steps in nitrogen mosphere is 21% oxygen, and
cycle. 5 % is dissolved in the hydros-
phere. The oxygen in nature is
1-Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen fixing bacteria including cyanobacteria produced as a result of photos-
converts atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ynthesis. Oxygen also makes
(NH4+) up the ozone layer, ozone
(O3) being released as a result
2-Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrate (NO3–) by bacteria in the of the photolysis of water.
soil
known as nitrifying bacteria. Nitrate is the main form of nitrogen absorbed by
plants.

3-Assimilation: Plants use nitrate when they produce protein, nucleic

acid and other nitrogen containing compounds, then animals eat plants and
nitrogen can pass to animals.

4-Ammonification: When plants and animals die, the nitrogen compounds in

their body are broken down by ammonifying bacteria. And one of the products
of this process is ammonia (NH4+).

5-Denitrification: Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere by denitrifying ba-

cteria, which converts nitrate (NO3–) to nitrogen gas (N2).

29
Chapter 3

4-Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is another element that is very important for life. Phosphorus is required for the synthesis
of nucleic acids, phospholipids and ATP molecules. Moreover it is a component in the structure of the cell
membrane, skeleton and skin. The phosphorus cycle is quite different from the nitrogen cycle in that phospho-
rus does not exist in a gaseous state and therefore does not enter the atmosphere. Phosphorus cycles from land
to ocean sediments and back to the land. As water runs over rocks containing phosphorus, it gradually erodes
the surface and carriers off inorganic phosphate (PO4–3) molecules.

The erosion of phosphorus from rocks releases phosphate into the soil where it is absorbed by plant
roots. Once inside the plant cells it is converted to organic phosphates. Animals obtain most of their required
phosphorus from the food they eat and the water they drink. The remains of dead plants and animals are de-
composed to inorganic substances that can be reused by plants. Phosphorus is significant in the efficiency of
aquatic and terrestrial [Link] it is a factor that determines the efficiency of ecosystems.

Certain observations made in oceans show that there is a relationship between fish size, plankton and
phosphorus concentration in the water. Phosphate is also mined for agricultural use as phosphate fertilizers.
This affects the cycle rate because it speeds up the flow of phosphate from land to sea. Phosphate fertilizers
don’t remain long in the soil and are carried from the land by streams and rivers to the sea. Erosion caused by
human activities, household wastes, and phosphate containing detergents all increase the flow of phosphates to
the seas.

30
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

SELF CHECK
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

A. Key Terms 1. When you eat a banana, you are a _____.

[Link] producer
Autotrophs Chemosynthesis
B. tertiary consumer
Heterotrophs Commensalism [Link] consumer
Mutualism Parasitism [Link] consumer
Pathogens Decomposers

2. Which of the following are photosynthetic orga-

B. Review Questions nisms?

A. Consumers
1. Explain the energy pyramid.
B. Hetrotrophs
2. What is the importance of decomposers? C. Autotrophs
3. Explain mutualism with an example. D. Chemotrophs
4. Explain energy transferring from one level to another in
energy pyramid. 3. Which of the following organism are the main
decmposers in an ecosystem?

[Link] and animals

C. Fill in the blanks
B. plants and animals
[Link] and animals
1. Saprophytic nutrition is a type of ....................... [Link] and bacteria
2. A food chain consists of ..........., and...................
3. ........................ are decompose dead organisms.
4. Which of the following is a primary producer?
D. True or False A. Apple tree
B. Lion
1. The main energy source that powers natural systems is C. Poison frog
the sun. D. Eagle
2. The consumers located at the higher levels
of food chains are always carnivores. [Link] of the following is an example of mutu-
3. Viruses are also obligatory parasites. alism?
4. Herbivores have five chambered stomach.
A. Prey and predator
B. Host and parasite
C. Lichen
D. Cat and mouse

31
Chapter3

SELF CHECK
Food chains and elements cycles in nature

E. Define the followings.

1- Nitrification 3- Denitrification
2- Codensation 4- Precipitation

F. Answer the followings:

1. Draw the water cycle by a simple diagram.

2. What is the role of saprophytic bacteria and fungi in
carbon cycle?
3 What is the main source of carbon for organisms?

G. True or False

1. Carbondioxide is used in photosynthesis.

2. Nitrogen cycle is involved in recycling of biotic factors
only in nature.
3. All animals obtain phosphorus from air.
4. Animals obtain nitrogen from the proteins of organ-
isms they eat.

32
Nutrition
Biomes andandEcosystem
Digestion

Biomes and Ecosystem

Community
Community is the most important social unit of ecology. A community consists of all of the different species that
live and interact together within an area. A community may only consist of animal and plant populations or it may have
other groups of organisms. A community may contain other communities as well. For example, a forest community has
different species of organisms. The microorganisms inside the body of an organism constitute a community as well.

Communities may also be called life associations or a group of species. The type and size of the community de-
pend on the organisms in the community and the effects of environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, moisture
and food.

Populations under the effect of these factors live in harmony. For this reason, from the equator to the poles, from
the prairies to the hills and mountains there are different-sized communities.

Communities make up the living portion of the ecosystem. Therefore, the study of ecosystems begins with
communities. An ecotone is a zone where two ecosystems overlap. The type and width of this region are very variable.
In big communities it may extend for kilometers, in small communities it may be just a few meters. Because ecotones
contain individuals of both species, they have a higher variation of species than the neighboring communities. Lakes-
hores, stream banks, ocean beaches, the entrances of caves, and forest meadows are examples of some of ecotones.

33
Chapter 4

Generally, from an energy-flow perspective, big communities are self-

A biome is a large, relatively sufficient but small communities are dependent on other communities. Eco-
distinct ecosystem characteri- logical task distribution among the species in a community increases the dy-
zed by a similar climate, soil, namism of the community. These species generally are dominant species and
plants, and animals, regard- mostly are composed of plants. In aquatic communities the determination of
less of where it occurs. the dominant species is difficult.

Succession
Succession is community change over time. In other words, the pro-
cess of community development over time, which involves species in one stage
being replaced by different species is called succession. In succession every
species prepares the habitat for another species. Because changes are observed
clearly in vegetation, it is perceived as a process of plants. Ecologists recognize
two types of succession.

1- Primary succession

Which occurs in areas where no community existed before. For

instance, primary succession would take place on new volcanic islands,
deltas, dunes, bare rocks, and in lakes,.
In natural areas the order of formation in primary succession is:
lichens–mosses–grasses–shrubs–trees.

a- Lichen Phase

Places like sandy, bare rock and clay, where there is no other life, are
first inhabited by lichens. Lichens secrete acids that help to break the rock apart,
which is how soil starts to form. Lichens also add valuable organic matter to the
young soil. Lichens, though they are very resistant to extreme physical conditi-
ons, can't compete with other organisms and, once other organisms start
growing, their number decreases.

b- Moss Phase

The moss phase starts after the lichen phase. The most important ac-
tivity of these organisms is to add moisture to the soil, after which some in-
vertebrates move in, followed by insectivore mammals. In other words, fauna
forms parallel to flora. With the development of mosses and the addition of
dead organisms, soil formation speeds up and humus quality increases. In this
way mosses prepare the medium for another organism.

c- Grass Phase

Annual grasses begin to grow in competition with the mosses. In time

the number of insects increases both in quantity and variety. Reptiles, frogs,
birds and mammals settle and increase in number.

34
Biomes and Ecosystem

d- Shrub Phase

The conditions created by the grasses make way for the growth and de-
velopment of shrubs. These are generally small plants like berries and drupes.
Another important step in this phase is the transportation and deposition of tree
seeds by birds.

e- Tree Phase

Trees start to grow during the shrub phase. Over time, the trees grow
and form a forest canopy. Shrubs may continue to grow under the canopy, but
most diminish over time. In the open areas, mosses are still present. Ferns mul-
tiply in wetlands. Barring extraordinary occurrences, permanent communities
of fauna and flora form. This is called climax. The climax community continu-
es until there is some change in climate or environment, at which point it di-
sappears. Substantial changes in the climax community, as a result of volcanic
eruptions or floods are followed by secondary succession.

2- Secondary succession

Which occurs in disturbed habitats where some soil and, perhaps, some
organisms still remain after the disturbance. Secondary succession occurs af-
ter fires, floods, drought, and some human practices (slash and burn clearing
of forests, construction projects). It also occurs on abandoned farmlands, in
overgrazed areas, and in forests cleared for lumber.

Secondary succession occurs for the following reasons.

- Succession begins with changing environmental conditions, deteriorating li-

ving conditions, and weakening of the competitiveness of species.

- Existing species prevent the settlement of new species.

- It is observed that animal species are especially effective on some plant spe-
cies. The effect of rabbits on grass and the effect of insects on grassland
can be given as examples.

- Physically, freeze, fires, storms, drought, volcanic activities, earthquakes and

the effects of human can destroy communities.

35
Chapter 4

38
Biomes and Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystems (Biomes)

In aquatic ecosystems, There are important environmental factors

are salinity, dissolved oxygen and the availability of light.

The microscopic phytoplankton is photosynthetic and is the base of

food webs in most aquatic communities. In the sea there is a layering of
life zones according to changes in temperature with depth up to 100m below
the surface, after which temperature is stable. The zone above this is called
the pelagic zone. In every cubic meter of this zone there are millions of mic-
roscopic organisms. One of these is phytoplankton, the main source of oxygen.

Aquatic biomes are placed in two categories and based on salt concentration.

Freshwater ecosystems

Fresh-water ecosystems include rivers and streams (flowing wa-

ter ecosystems), lakes and ponds (standing water ecosystems), marshes and
swamps (freshwater wetlands). Each type of freshwater ecosystem is distin-
guished by its own specific environmental conditions and characteristic orga-
nisms.

River and Stream Ecosystem

The kinds of organisms found in flowing-water ecosystems vary great-

ly from one stream to another, depending primarily on the strength of currents.
Cold, clean rivers have trout, streams have carp. Because the water in a river
flows, it is difficult to classify the fishes. There is great ecological variation
between its source (where it begins) and its mouth (where it empties into anot-
her body of water). Rivers with cold-water plants are scarce but there are some
species of algae and flatworms, frogs and insect larvae.

Lakes and Ponds

Lakes and ponds are standing bodies of water that form in depressions
in the earth’s crust. They are grouped ecologically into two zones: limnetic
(pelagic) and benthic. The limnetic zone includes the column of water that fills Estuaries form where rivers
the depression and covers the benthic zone. The organisms found here inclu- and streams empty into oce-
de phytoplankton,blue-green algae, zooplankton, fishes, frogs and some insect ans, mixing freshwater with
species. The benthic zone starts at the shoreline and extends to the bottom of saltwater. The water in estuaries
the lake. The plants and animals that live in the benthic zone are called ben- varies considerably in terms of
thos. Benthos includes water plants, bottom-dwelling organisms like oysters salinity, temperature and nut-
and mussels, worms, and crayfish. The parts of the benthic zones near to the rient load. Many species are
shores (littoral zone) have a wide variety of vegetation. In this zone there are adapted to estuarine conditi-
plants that rise above the water (reed, cane); plants with leaves that float on the ons. Tides especially increase
water (lily); and plants that live submerged in the water (elodea). the oxygen and nutrients, and
organic substances increase the
biological diversity. Estuaries
are fish nurseries. Many species
reproduce there.

39
Chapter 4

There are lots of species of animals as well.

In addi-tion, in the sediment on the lake floor there
are many protozoa, rotifer and nematode species.
Many species of fish live and reproduce here.

Lake pollution disrupts the balance of nature.

Especially in recent years detergent remaining in
wastewater has polluted lakes and harmed the eco-
logical balance. The detergent enriches the water
with food substances like nitrogen and phospho-
rus. This process is called eutrophication. Aqua-
tic plants multiply rapidly and form a large amount
of biomass. The oxygen in the water becomes
insufficient to decompose the dead matter. This
decreases the water quality. Organisms can't meet
their oxygen needs and begin to die, and the lake
become useless. This is a kind of water pollution.
Another factor that damages the ecological balance
of lakes is acid rain. This increases the acidity of
the lakes in these regions.
Figure: Layering in lakes and ecologic
groupings of organisms living in the Saltwater (Marine) Ecosystem
lakes. Lakes have benthic and limnetic
(pelagic) zones according to the ecolo- Based on ecological features, marine waters are divided into two
gic features. main zones: benthic (ocean floor) and pelagic (ocean water). The benthic zone
extends from the shoreline through the ocean floor; pelagiczone contains the
water column above the benthic zone. Organisms that live in the pelagic zone
don’t have any interaction with the ocean floor.

Free-living organisms like phytoplankton,

zooplankton, cartilaginous and bony fishes, some
reptiles, mammals (seals and whales), squid and oc-
topus, shrimp and crab species are some organisms
that form the marine ecosystem.

There are some organisms that live in the

deep ocean where there is no light. These organisms
are adapted to such conditions with unique body
shapes and feeding styles.

Marine ecosystems are rich in biological

diversity. Types of organisms and population size
depend on the amount of light, water temperatu-
re, pressure, salinity, currents and tides, as well
as the concentration of dissolved minerals and
gases and the amount of food in the water.

Figure: Marine ecosystem. Seas are

ecologically divided into two zones:
benthic and pelagic.
40
Biomes and Ecosystem
Climate of Baghdad
- Baghdad, Iraq is at 33°13’N, 44°13’E, 34 m (112 ft).
- Baghdad has a subtropical desert / low-latitude arid climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: BWh) that is hot year
round.
- According to the Holdridge life zones system of bioclimatic classification Baghdad is situated in or near the su-
btropical desert biome.
- The average temperature is 22.8 degrees Celsius (73 degrees Fahrenheit). See the temperatures page for a monthly
breakdown and the fixed scale graph.
- Average monthly temperatures vary by 24.5 °C (44.1°F). This indicates that the continentality type is continental,
subtype subcontinental.
- Total annual Precipitation averages 156 mm (6.1 inches) which is equivalent to 156 Litres/m² (3.83 Gallons/ft²).
- On average there are 3244 hours of sunshine per year. Visit the sunshine and daylight section to check monthly
details including how high in the sky the sun reaches each month.
- If you were to burrow down through the Earth from Baghdad you would come out nearest to the climate station
at Adamstown, Pitcairn Islands where you would find a Tropical wet climate.

Baghdad, Irag climate gragh (Altitude:34m)

Temperatures/ Wet Days/Sunlight/Daylight/ Wind Speed/Frost

Relative Humidity/ Precipitation

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Precipitation (mm) Min Temp (OC)
Max Temp (OC) Average Temp(OC)
wet Days (>0.1mm) Average Sunight Hours/Day
Average Wind Speed (Beaufort) Daylength (Hours)
Relative Humidity (%)

Diagram: The climate table use scolour to represent the data so you can get a good idea about the climate at a
glance. The colour also helps when comparing two or more locations.

41
Chapter 4
SELF CHECK
Biomes and Ecosystem
A. Key Terms E. Multiple Choises

1. Which of these is a starting point for primary

Succession Benthos
succession?
Pelagic zone Lichen phase
Climax vegetation Eutrophication [Link] new volcanic island
Ecotone B. abandoned farmland
[Link] abandoned city
B. Review Questions D.a fired forest
E. all of the above
[Link] the two types of succession.
[Link] the order of phases forming primary succession. 2. All the organisms in a particular area make up
[Link] are the resons of formation for secondary succe- a________.
sion? A. niche
4. Comapare between the decidious and tropical forest? B. food chain
[Link] the marine ecosystem. C. population
D. community

C. Fill in the blanks

3. In an ecosystem, the roles of phytoplankton are
_____.
1. .................. make up the living portion of the ecosys-
tem. [Link]
2. The temperature is very high during the day and falls B. producers
suddenly at night in ............................ [Link] consumers
[Link] consumers
3. Marine waters are divided into two main zones;
................... and ............................. .
4. The microscobic ............................... is photosynthetic. 4. Praries are seen in:
5. The main factor that determines the kind of biome in a A. Deserts
certain area is ...................... . B. Tundra
C. Tiaga
6. The dominant type of plants are called ..................... .
D. Semi deserts

D. True or False 5. Which of the following describes the region where

fresh water and salt water mix?
1. Acid rain increases the acidity of the lakes.
A. Photic zone
2. The distribution of populations on earth is affected B. Estuary
mainly by climate. C. Intertidal zone
3. Average temperature decreases from the poles to the D. Aphotic zone
equator.

42
Environmental Factors

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Factors Affecting the Distribution of Living Things

Environment is the all living and non living factors that surround an [Link] environment includes
abiotic components (non living chemical and physical factors and physical factors) such as temperature, light, water,
and nutrients and biotic components (living) such as plants, animals, fungi-all the other organisms.

Abiotic factors of the biosphere

Abiotic factors are important determinants of the distribution of organisms in the biosphere.

Climatic Factors:

Light,
Temperature,
Water

Soil Factors:

Structure of soil Minerals and salts pH of soil.

43
Chapter 5

Climatic Factors

The variety of living things on earth is affected and determined by

sunlight, temperature, pressure, moisture, and air movements, which are called
climatic factors. When the weather of an area is mentioned, it means all the
above factors at that time or in that year.

The science of climate is meteorology. The climate of an area refers

to the annual average of light, temperature, rainfall, and air movements in the
area over many years.

A related science is climatology. Weather is studied by meteo-

rologists, who determine the average values of atmospheric characteristics for
an area. These values determine the living area of an organism. For example,
areas with heavy rainfall and temperate climate are suitable for a jungle ecosys-
tem and the dependent jungle animal populations. At the same time, climatic
conditions are the main factors that determine the distribution of living things
and habitat [Link] factors that cause the formation and change of cli-
mate are temperature, light and water.

Light

As explained before, the energy source for all organisms in nature is

light. The natural source of light is the sun. From an ecological point of view,
the intensity and duration of light is important. The amount of light energy at a
certain time and place is related to the angle of incidence of light rays.

As the angle of incidence increases, the incoming light rays are spread
over a greater surface and the amount of light per surface unit is proportionally
less. The reproduction, migration, and pigmentation of various organisms are
Figure: The source of energy in
all affected by light, as is respiration, especially of those organisms, living in
ecosystems is sunlight. Only a small
wet environments, resulting in decreased oxygen consumption. Light is essen-
amount of sunlight can penetrate the
tial for photosynthesis.
atmosphere and reach the earth.
Some of this light is absorbed by
plants. In the figure above, across-se-
ction of a leaf and the storing of
light enery in organic molecules in ch-
loroplasts are demonstrated.

Figure: Forests have four regions, na-

mely canopy, understory, shrubs and
grasses. The factor that determines the
formation of these regions is light.

44
Environmental Factors

Light intensity and photosynthetic rate are directly proportional. In

both shade and sun, light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis. If
the food produced at the maximum level of photosynthesis is higher than the Environmental temperature
amount consumed in low light, the plant will store the excess. The stored food is an important factor in the
is eaten by animals. distrbution of organisms be-
cause of its effect on biological
In tropical forests, long day plants form the canopy. (e.g., acacia, wil- processes and the inability of
low).These are broad-leaved, large-celled and large-stomated plants. Below most organisms to regulate
the canopy are understory plants. The plants of this layer include banana, dog- body temperature precisely.
rose, and ivy. Beneath there are herbaceous plants such as ferns, horsetail and
some grasses. Shade density increases with forest density. The development
of the canopy and forest regeneration are proportional to the shade tolerance
of the young trees. If the plants are resistant to shade, then forest regeneration
will be easy; if they are not, regeneration will be difficult and the forest may
undergo a new formation as dominant species are replaced.

Temperature All organisms must live within

a certain range of temperatu-
Sunlight transports energy from the sun to the earth. The light that res. In general, warm-blooded
passes through the ozone layer energizes molecules in the atmosphere and, animals are active in a wide
consequently, supplies heat energy (temperature) to the living and nonliving range of temperatures. Cold
things on earth. This process is very important for living things because all life looded animals are active in
on earth needs heat to survive. The source of this heat is sunlight. narrow range of temperatures.
Animals generally cannot su
vive in temperatures that exce-
Effect of Temperature on Plants ed 52°C. Some types of algae
survive in hot springs, where
The temperature of a plant is directly related to the temperature of the temperatures may be 73°C or
environment. Generally, the temperature of plant roots depends on soil tempe- even higher. Some types of al-
rature. The parts of the plant above ground, when they absorb sunlight, are a gae live in artic ecosystems.
few degrees higher than air temperature. During transpiration the temperature Extraordinary
of these parts is lower than the air. adaptations enable some orga-
nisms to live outside this tempe-
The effects of low temperatures on plants is not seen everywhere and rature range.
every time to the same degree. When the temperature declines slowly, plants
get rid of excess water and can accommodate to the low temperature to a certa-
in level.

In winter, especially at night, when air temperature declines substan-

tially, the temperature of the plant stem declines as well. As a result, some
shrinking or wrinkling may appear on the stem. Though at low temperatures
the bark of trees decreases due to heat loss, the inner structures of the stem
experience no shrinkage because they are warmer.

45
Chapter 5

Effect of temperature on animals

Animals are placed into two groups according to the relationship

between their body temperature and the air temperature: poikilothermal ani-
mals (without constant body temperature) and homoiothermal animals (with
constant body temperature).

Invertebrates, fish, frogs and reptiles are poikilothermal animals. The-

se animals have a body temperature close to the ambient temperature. Homoi-
othermal animals, though they have a constant body temperature independent
of the ambient temperature, may experience slight temperature changes due
to external conditions. Temperature affects the development, reproduction and
metabolism of organisms. Extreme temperature changes cause death.

Temperature range and survival

Some organisms that have a metabolism that normally functions

between (0°-°50 C) can live below 0 °C or above 50° C as well. Some bacteria
can survive temperatures of 90 C, some mollusks live in water at (46°-48° C),
and some fishes can live in water with a temperature above 40° C. Organisms
can decrease their metabolic rate to adjust their body temperature to the
ambient temperature. As in the examples given above, the tolerance of species
to temperature varies. For every species there is an upper and lower limit.

However there are minimum and maximum temperatures at which

organisms decrease or increase their activity to survive. Organisms normally
seek the optimum temperature.

Water

Water precipitates from the atmosphere in the form of rain, snow,

Figure: Aquatic plants like water lily, and hail. Annual rainfall varies in different parts of the world. Latitude, large
a hydrophate, have features adapted bodies of water, mountains and wind affect precipitation. Organisms can’t live
to their environment. Wide leaves without water and there is no substitute.
and the placement of stomata on the
upper surface of the leaves ease Water vapor enters the atmosphere through evaporation, where
the process of evaporation. it absorbs most of the light reflected from the earth’s surface, which in turn
prevents the excess warming and cooling of the earth. As humidity decreases,
evaporation and transpiration rates increase. Plants need water and exchan-
ge it with the atmosphere. Plants need at least 65% humidity to maintain this
balance.

Moisture is another factor that determines climate. Moisture inclu-

des both water that falls from clouds, or precipitation, and water vapor in the
air, or humidity.

46
Environmental Factors

Effect of water on plants

Plants are placed in three groups according to their water needs or stru-
ctural differences arising from the amount of water.

- Hydrophytes (grow where water is always available)

- Mesophytes (grow where water availability is intermittent)
- Xerophytes (grow where water is scarce most of the time)

Hydrophytes

Hydrophytes live in water and therefore have no problem with trans-

piration. Roots may be in or out of the water. Stomata are present on the upper
surface of the leaves and the leaves are covered with a thin layer of cuticle.
They don’t have any water related problems. Examples include water lily and
elodea. Figure: These plants have zigza-
gged leaves with a wide surface.
Mesophytes This feature enables greater light
absorption, a high rate of photosy-
These plants are adapted to live in places where water supply is in- nthesis, and faster transpiration.
termittent. Cuticles are of intermediate thickness; stomata are present on both
upper and lower surfaces of the leaves.

Xerophytes

Xerophytes are adapted to arid conditions like deserts and sand dunes.
They have a very extensive root system. Some xerophytes store water
inside their bodies after rainfall.

Their cylindrical and spherical shapes produce a small surface area, so

they lose less water through transpiration. They also have a thick cuticle, and
stomata that open at night instead of during the day.

Generally, xerophytes have properties that decrease transpiration. The-

ir leaves are thick, needle-like and small-celled. Stomata may be covered
with hair-like structures or protected folds of the leaf, or they may be embed-
ded beneath the leaf epidermis. Moreover, cells have high osmotic pressure.
Figure: Desert and a rid region
Plants living in salty environments also have the properties of xerop- plants. The leaves of these plants
hytes, but it can’t be said that these plants can live in arid places as well. are either spiny or needle like. This
makes for a smaller surface area
Effect of water on animals for transpiration, an adaptation for
life in arid regions.
Animals obtain water with active processes. Their means of water acquisition
are:
- Ingesting water directly through the digestive system.
- Wet-skinned animals (living in soil, mud, and sand) absorb water through
the skin.
- Water present in ingested foods.
- Water released from the food in metabolism.

47
Chapter 5

To save water, animals have mechanisms like those of plants. For example,
skin minimizes water loss. Most organisms lose water and salt from their sweat
glands to maintain body temperature. The body maintains water balance by
taking in enough water to compensate for the excreted water.

The animal respiratory system has an important role in conserving

body water. Since fish live in water, they don't have a problem. In terrestrial
organisms though, the respiratory system is inside the body (lung, trachea).
A small amount of water is lost by insects and terrestrial mollusks (snails).
Closing of respiratory holes in arid times minimizes water loss. Animal excre-
tory systems also play an important role. Aquatic organisms excrete ammonia,
a very toxic substance, with substantial water. Terrestrial organisms convert
ammonia into less toxic urea. Reptiles and insects living in arid areas convert
ammonia to uric acid and excrete it with little water. Animals’ metabolic
reactions provide some water. Termites eat dry wood continuously. When ter-
mites digest wood and metabolize it, water released as a result of metabolism
quenches their thirst. Desert camels can survive without drinking water for 11
days by using metabolic water produced in the catabolism of fat in the hump.
In the same way, hibernating animals, like bears, and migrating birds obta-
in water as a result of the metabolism of fats stored in the body. Antelope and
some rodents can survive on guttation water.

Bergman'sRule: Temperature is a factor that determines the size of animals. Homoiothermal (warm blo-
oded) animals living in northern latitudes tend to be bigger than their relatives in the hotter regions. Bergman's
rule states that populations in colder climates (higher latitudes) have larger bodies than populations in warmer
climates (lower latitudes). With a larger body, the surface/volume ratio decreases. Largebodied animals have
a relatively smaller surface area and preserve internal heat more efficiently. This is an important adaptation. For
example, the size of penguin species increases from South America to Antarctica. The size of bears and hares
increases from south to north in their ranges. But there are examples of the opposite as well. In the poikilothermal
(cold-blooded) animals like frogs and reptiles the reverse is seen. These animals have smaller bodies in cold regions
than in hot regions. In other words, in poikilotherms, as air temperature decreases body size decreases as well.

Allen'sRule: Allen's rule states that animals in colder climates generally have shorter extremities (beaks,
wings, ears, feet) than those populations in warmer climates. In hares and foxes, organs like the ears are smaller
from southern to northern regions. In hot regions, a large surface area is a means of transpiration and cooling for the
animal. Allen’s observations have been demonstrated experimentally. Laboratory mice grown at a temperature
of 31-33.5 C have longer tails than those grown at a temperature of 15.5-20 C.

Gloger`sRule: Gloger's Rule states that populations in warmer and more humid climates have darker colora-
tion than those in cooler or drier climates. In the northern hemisphere birds and mammals have lighter colors from
the Equator north; and have darker colors from north to south in the southern hemisphere. In the formation of colors
environmental and genetic factors interact.

48
Environmental Factors

Soil Factors

Soil is another factor with which living things are continuous interac-
ting, directly or indirectly. Soil structure, pH, mineral and salt content affect the
organism in different ways.

Soil structure

When you glance at the soil, it seems that it is non living, but actually
it is full of billions of organisms. Soil is very suitable to life for bacteria, fungi,
viruses, algae, and protozoans.

Microorganisms are especially abundant in soil rich in organic wastes.

The dominance of a microorganism in a certain area is determined by environ-
mental conditions. For example, in fall yeast cells are more abundant in soil
that is covered with ripe fruit.

After yeast cells, Acetobacteria are second in dominance. After rain,

low-lying areas become swampy, which prevents the diffusion of gases into the
soil. As a result, aerobic bacteria are replaced by anaerobic bacteria. For
instance, the process of nitrification carried out by aerobic bacteria like nitro-
somonas and nitrobacteria is replaced by a denitrification process carried out
by anaerobic bacteria.

The number and variety of soil bacteria are greater than all other soil
organisms. These bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic, aerobic or una-
erobic.

Soil, water, air, organic and inorganic molecules are very important
for plant growth. The ratios of these 4 groups in the soil are as follows:

- Minerals (Ca, Mg, P, N): 45%

- Organic molecules (plant and animal residues): 5%
- Air: 25%
- Water (soil water with dissolved salts): 25%

Minerals and Salts

Organisms contain very important and vital minerals. The most impor-
tant ones are (N, P, K, Ca, S, Fe and Mg). Deficiency of these causes serious
problems in living things. For example, Ca is an element used by all organisms.
Calcium is a constituent of animal endo- and exoskeletons, and is necessary for
muscle contraction and blood clotting. Moreover, it has a role in the adjustment
of soil pH and in the density of soil water. Magnesium is present in the chlorop-
hyll and also works as a cofactor of enzymes in DNA replication.

Some elements may be present in sufficient amounts for the sur-

vival of organisms. The measurement of the amounts of these elements is very
difficult, but can be determined by the isotope method. If one of these elements
is missing, pathological symptoms are seen in plants, animals and humans.

49
Chapter 5

The essential minerals and elements for living things are Fe, Mn, Zn,
B, Na, Mg, Cl, and Vanadium. Every organism needs these elements in diffe-
Soil is another abiotic factor rent quantities. Atpresent, certain important minerals, especially N, P and S
of ecosystems. Soil is impor- are mixed into the soil as inorganic fertilizers to meet the requirements
tant to plants as a source of of plants. If excess fertilizer (minerals) is applied to the soil, plants can’t
minerals and as a material absorb water because of the increased density of soil (physiological drought).
in which to anchor their ro- Consequently, plants get yellow and die.
ots. Many animals also de-
pend on soil for a place to Soil pH and plant relations
live and for food. The phy-
sical structure, pH and mine- Soil pH means its degree of acidity or alkalinity. This depends on the
ral composition of rocks and amounts of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions. Cultivated plants mostly
soil. They limit the distribu- need soil with pH (6.7-7.0).
tion of plants and animals
that feed upon them. The main reason an increase in soil acidity is a decreased level of Ca.
For this reason, highly acidic soils are treated with lime (CaO) to decrease aci-
dity.

Figure: The deficiency of the es-

sential minerals in the environ-
ment influences the metabolism of
plants. As seen in the figure, the
deficieny of a certain mineral affe-
cts plant growth differently

50
Environmental Factors

Heat and temperature describe

two physical features that are closely
related to each other. They are frequ-
ently confused. It is important to un-
derstand that heat and temperature
are quite different.

Heat is the potential energy present in the mass of an object. It is the energy that keeps the molecules
inside an object in motion. It is also called internal energy. Heat is measured in units called calories. One
calorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Centigrade (from 14.5 to
15.5 C). Another unit of heat measurement is the joule (J), where

1 calorie= 4.184 J

Temperature is a measurement of hotness or coldness. Heat is a form of energy, whereas temperature is

a measurement of the intensity of heat. Heat always flows without outside help from warm objects to cool
ones. For example, a cup of hot coffee cools because heat flows from the hotter coffee to the cooler surroun-
dings.

Temperature is measured with the Centigrade(C) or Fahrenheit (F)scale. The main source of heat is the
sun. The amount of heat energy coming from the sun in the form of light depends on various factors. The
amount of light reaching our planet is highest at the equator and between the tropics; it is lowest at the poles
(the effect of latitude).

Accordingly the temperature is higher near the equator and lower at the poles. In the same way, at higher
altitudes the weather is usually cold. The thawing of frozen soil causes the water below to rise, evaporate and
mix into the air. If the temperature falls below the freezing point, a thin layer of topsoil freezes. The bottom
surface of this frozen layer attracts water from the soil, forming a thin layer of ice. As the layer of ice incre-
ases, the frozen soil swells. This swelling is called frost heave. In this way, a cycle develops of swelling
at night and melting during the day. This in turn causes the roots of plants to be pulled up more every day.
If this cycle continues, the roots of young plants may be pulled up 8-10 cm, and the plants will die. Most of
the time when the plants are pulled up, their roots are torn, causing death.

51
Chapter 5

SELF CHECK
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

A. Key Terms E. Multiple Choises

Hydrophyte Mesophyte 1. Which one of the following is not a climatic factor?

Metorology Xerophyte
Homoiothermal Poikilothermal
A) Light
B) pH of soil
C) Water
B. Review Questions
D) Temperature

[Link] is the importance of light for plants?

[Link] water saving in animals by examples.
2. In tropical forests ....................... forms the canopy?
[Link] the factors affecting on distribution of living
things. A) Ferns
4. How do the xerophytes decrease the transpiration? B) Long day plants
C) short day plants
[Link] how animals get water to survive. D) Understory plants

C. Fill in the blanks

3. Which one of the following group of plants grow
where water always available?
1. Soil pH means is degree of ................... and ..............
2. ..................... animals have constant body temperature A) Mesophytes
while ........................................ animals dont have. B) Xerophytes
3. ....................................... is essential for photosynthesis. C) Pidophytes
D) Hydrophytes

D. True or False 4. How much is the pecentage of air in soil for plant
growth?
1. Soil pH means its degree of solidity.
A) 45 %
2. Microorganisms are especially abundant in soil rich in
B) 54 %
organic wastes. C) 25 %
3. Desert camels can survive without drinking D) 5 %
water for 11 days.
4. Light is used as an energy source by aquatic plants and
affects pigment production

52
Animal Adaptation with environment

Animal Adaptation With Environment

Adaptation In Water Environment

1- Bony Fishes
Of the 25,000 known species of fishes, about 95% are bony fishes, formerly grouped in the class Osteichthyes.
Bony fishes account for most of the vertebrates living in fresh water and in salt water. In this section, you will study
some of the adaptations of this group.

Charactheristics
The bony fishes are characterized by three key features:

• Bone —This material is typically harder and heavier than cartilage. The skeletons of most bony fishes contain
bone.

• Lungs or swim bladder - Only a few species of bony fishes have lungs . Most bony fishes have a swim bladder, a
gas-filled sac that is used to control buoyancy. The swim bladder is thought to have evolved from the lungs of the
early bony fishes.

• Scales —The body of a bony fish is usually covered with scales. Scales protect the fish and reduce friction
when swimming.

53
Chapter 6

External Anatomy
The yellow perch, like all bony fishes, has distinct head, trunk, and tail
regions. On each side of the head is the operculum, a hard plate that opens at
the rear and covers and protects the gills.

Fins

The fins of the yellow perch are adapted for swimming and navigating
through the water. The caudal fin extends from the tail. It moves from side
to side and amplifies the swimming motion of the body. Two dorsal fins, one
anterior and one posterior, and a ventral anal fin help keep the fish upright and
moving in a straight line. The fish uses paired pelvic fins and pectoral fins to
navigate, stop, move up and down, and even back up. The pelvic fins also
orient the body when the fish is at rest. The fins are supported by either rays or
spines. Rays are bony yet flexible, while spines are bony and rigid.

Figure: External anatomy of fish

Skin

The skin of the yellow perch is covered with scales. Scales are thin,
round disks of a bonelike material that grow from pockets in the skin. They all
point toward the tail to minimize friction as the fish swims. Scales grow throu-
ghout the life of the fish, adjusting their growth pattern to the food supply.
The scales grow quickly when food is abundant.
Figure: Lampreys

54
Animal Adaptation with environment

Internal Anatomy

The major parts of a fish’s skeleton are the skull, vertebral co-
lumn,
pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and ribs. The vertebral column is made up
of many bones, called vertebrae, with cartilage pads between each. The
vertebral column also partly encloses and protects the spinal cord. A fish’s
skull is composed of a large number of bones (far more than are in the
human skull) and is capable of a wide range of movements.

Figure: Internal anatomy of bonyfish

Digestive System

Bony fishes have diverse diets but commonly are carnivores. The jaws of
predatory fishes are lined with many sharp teeth that point inward to keep prey
from escaping. Strong muscles operate the jaws, which are hinged to allow the
mouth to open wide.

Food passes from the mouth into the pharynx, or throat cavity, and then
moves through the esophagus to the stomach. The stomach secretes acid and
digestive enzymes that begin to break down food. From the stomach, food pas-
ses into the intestine, where digestion is completed and nutrients are absorbed.

The liver, located near the stomach, secretes bile, which helps break
down fats. The gallbladder stores bile and releases it into the intestine.
The pancreas, also located near the stomach, releases digestive enzymes
into the intestine. The lining of the intestine is covered with fingerlike extensi-
ons called villi that increase the surface area for absorption of digested foods.
Undigested material then eliminated through the anus.

55
Chapter 6

Reproduction

Eggs are produced by ovaries in the female, and sperm are pro-
duced by the testes in the male. Eggs and sperms are released through
an opening behind the anus. Fertilization in most species takes place ex-
ternally. Mortality among the eggs and young fishes is often very high.
Many species of fishes lay large numbers of eggs, which ensures
that at least a few individuals survive to become adult fish.

Some bony female fishes carry the eggs in their body until the
young are born. The reproductive, or spawning, behavior of bony fis-
hes varies widely. Some species build crude nests from plants, sticks,
and shells. Many species migrate to warm, protected shallow water to
spawn.

Respiratory system
Oarfish are large, great-
ly elongated, pelagic Lampriform The large surface area of a fish’s gills allows for rapid gas exc-
fishes comprising the small family [Link] are supported by four sets of curved bones on each side of
Regalecidae. Found in all temperate the fish’s [Link] most bony fishes, water is taken into the mouth and
to tropical oceans yet rarely seen, pumped over the gills, where it flows across the gill filaments before
the oarfish family contains four exiting behind the operculum. Water flows across the gill filaments in
species in two genera. a direction opposite to blood flow. This arrangement is known as
counter-current flow. causes more oxgen to diffuse into the blood than
would be possible if blood and water flowed in the same direction.

Excretory System
Gill Filaments
Gill arch A fish’s kidneys filter dissolved chemical wastes from the blo-
od. The resulting solution, called urine, contains ammonia, ions such
water
as sodium and chloride, and water. Urine is carried from the kidneys
flow
through a system of ducts to the urinary bladder, where it is stored
and later expelled. By varying the amount of water and salts in the urine,
Oxygenated blood
the kidneys help regulate the water and ion balance in fresh and saltwa-
Gill ter fishes. As blood flows through the gill filaments, ammonia gene-
filament rated by metabolism diffuses from the blood into the water passing

Water
over the gills and is removed from the body. The gills also regulate the
flow concentration of ions in the body.
Blood
flow Swim Bladder
Deoxygenated blood
Most bony fishes have a swim bladder. This thin-walled sac
Figure: Fish respiratory system
in the abdominal cavity contains a mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and nitrogen obtained from the bloodstream. Fish adjust their ove-
rall density by regulating the amount of gas in the swim bladder, enab-
ling them to move up or down in the water. In some fishes, the swim
bladder is known to amplify sound by vibrating and transmitting sound
to the inner ear.

56
Animal Adaptation with environment

Nervous System

The nervous system of a bony fish includes the brain, spinal cord, ner-
ves, and various sensory organs. The fish brain is illustrated in figure. The
most anterior part of the brain, the forebrain, contains the olfactory bulbs,
which process information on smell. The forebrain also includes the cerebrum,
which has areas that integrate information from other parts of the brain.
Behind the forebrain lies the midbrain, which is dominated by the optic
tectum. The optic tectum receives and processes information from the fish’s
visual, auditory, and lateral-line systems.

The most posterior division of the brain is the hindbrain, which conta-
ins the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum helps coordinate
muscles, movement, and balance. The medulla oblongata helps control some
body functions and acts as a relay station for stimuli from sensory receptors th-
roughout the fish’s body. From the medulla oblongata, the spinal cord extends
the length of the body and carries nerve impulses to and from the brain.
Figure: Nervous system in fishes
Adaptation In Land Environment
Birds
There are over 8,000 species of birds which vary in sizes, shape and
colors. Because they can fly, distribution of birds is wider than other terrestrial
vertebrates. Birds show great diversity. The bill, foot, wing and tail are highly
variable and adaptable organs.

- The bird body is remarkably covered with feathers. Feathers provide insu-
lation and prevent water loss, and function in flight.
- Their tongues are hard and they have bills without teeth.
- Their anterior extremites are wings which function in flight. A rib cage prote-
cts internal organs.
- Birds are warm-blooded:they maintain a constant body temperature as result
of metabolic heat. Birds have no sweat glands and cannot cool the body by
perspiring. Barn owls live in trees and aban-
- Development and reproduction is similar to that of reptiles. doned buildings. They feed on small
rodents. Large flight feathers quiet
- Eyelids are movable. There are upper, lower and inner eyelids. The iris sh-
the flapping
rinks or enlarges to focus. sound of their wings, while short
head feathers help guide sound wa-
ves toward the owls’ ears (lower
Respiratory system left). The barn owl’s hooked beak
Birds need high amountsof energy to fly. Where do birds get this helps the bird tear meat (lower right).
energy? They have very complex systems to take in oxygen and transport it to
their cells. Birds have lungs and a series of air sacs throughout their body
for breathing. These sacs cause much of the body cavity to be filled with air.
Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils and flows into the lungs
and then to the air sacs. Air sacs increase the oxygen storage capacity of
birds.

57
Chapter 6

Birds have a four-chambered heart. The heart completely separates oxygenated

and deoxygenated blood. These two kinds of blood do not mix.

Figure: Respiratory system of bird.

Skeletal and Muscular System

The bones of birds have hollows in their structures. No other verteb-
rates have hollow bones. The hollow spaces are filled with air and make
the boneslight. Thus, thebones of birds are both strong and light.

Figure: Bird bone

Figure: Bird skeletal system

58
Animal Adaptation with environment

Birds fly by flapping their wings. Flap your arms as if you were a bird.
You might feel the muscles in your chest pull your arms toward your body.
Birds are able to flap their wings because they have large, powerful chests and Fastest Flying
wing muscles.

Falco peregrinus can reach spe-

Adaptations For Flight
eds of 200kmh/124mph in a ste-
ep dive. In level flight the record
Birds have some adaptations for flight.
goes to the wandering albatross
which was clocked maintaining
[Link] have wings.
56km/h for 800 km.
[Link] have light, hollow bones.
[Link] have air sacs in their lungs.
[Link] have large, powerful chests and wing muscles.

Feathers lung
Feathers are light weight and flexible. They provide a body covering
gizzard
that protects the skin, supportsthe bird in flight, and providesinsulation from
the weather. In many species, the male and female differ in coloring, with the
male generally brighter. kidney
crop
small
Feeding and Digestion intestine
pectorl
Birds need high amounts of food to satisfy their high energy needs. For muscle
large
example,a hummingbird may eat an amount equal to 100 percent of its body intestine
mass each day. Birds do not have teeth and can not chew their food. Instead,
they take in food using their beaks. cloaca
sternum
The beaks of birds may have different adaptations according to their (keel)
heart
liver
feeding strategy. Woodpeckers have long, thin, tweezer-like beaks to pull inse-
cts from cracks in the bark of trees. Ducks have wide, flat beaks to strain food Figure: Anatomy of a bird
from water. Hawks have sharp and hooked beaks to tear the flesh of their prey.
The pelican uses its long, sharp beak for catching fish.

Birds swallow their food whole and grind it down in a structure called
a gizzard. Birds feed their offspring by vomiting through their gizzard. Food
is digested very quickly. For example, a bird can eat berries and digest them,
nutrientspass to the blood and undigested materials go outthe cloaca in less
than half an hour.

Figure: Structure of feather

59
Chapter 6

Excretion

Bird kidneys are metanephric. There is no urinary bladder. Urine and

feces are expelled through the cloaca. Because the kidney glomeruli are very
small, only a small amount of fluid can pass from the blood to the kidneys.
Most is reabsorbed. In this way, water loss is kept in a minimum level.

Nervous system and sense organs

A bird’s nervous system includes a large, complex brain. The parts of

the brain that control flight are the most well developed because flight involves
taking off, landing and finding landmarks, as well as just staying in the air. A
bird’s brain is also adapted to behaviors like nest building and finding food.

In most birds, the senses of smell and taste are less complex, but the
senses of sight and hearing are more complex. For example, owls use sounds
to help find their prey in the dark. Songbirds use sounds to communicate with
each other.

Reproduction
In birds, fertilization is internal and embryos develop inside shelled
eggs. Birds lay eggs with a hard shell. Bird embryos need to be kept warm to
develop. Therefore, adult birds incubate their eggs or warm them with their
bodies.
The hard shell keeps the growing embryo from being crushed during
incubation. When you look at a fertilized bird egg, the yellow part is a source
of food for the growing embryo. Both the embryo and yolk are surrounded by
the egg white.
The egg white contains food and water and acts as a protective cushion
for the embryo. A membrane inside the egg shell controls gas exchange and
excretion.
When a chick is completely formed, it cracks through the shell with a
special egg tooth on its beak. This tooth falls off soon after the chick hatches.
When most birds hatch, they are covered only by down feathers and
are completely helpless. Their parents keep them warm and bring them food
until they are ready to leave the nest.

Figure: Bird egg

60
Animal Adaptation with environment

Migration

One of the most interesting behavior of birds is migration. Mig-

ration is the instinctive movement of animals, usually between their win-
tering grounds and their breeding seasons.

Most of the arcticbirds and some tropical birds migrate. However they
have regular seasonal movements away from and back to the breeding area.
The most famous is the arctic tern, which migrates from the northern latitudes
of Eurasia and North America to Antarctica.

Long distance migration raises the intriguing question of how birds

find their way. Some fly only at night, others over trackless seas. Scientists
know that no single navigation system exists. Some birds seem to steer by
star patterns and others by the angle of the sun. At least some birds can detect
ultraviolet radiationor the magnetic field of the earth, but the actual sensory
mechanism by which birds translate environmental signals into navigational
aids is still a puzzle.

Classification of Birds

There are almost 9000 different species of birds. The classification of

birds is disputed among experts. Decisions according to which species are re-
lated to one another are usually easy, but at higher levels relationships become
more and more uncertain. One way to study these many species is to divide
them into four groups:

1-Perching birds

Passerine is a common name for any of the perching birds belonging

to the largest avian order, which includes more than 5700 highly diverse spe-
cies and well over half of all living birds. Passerines are distinguished by
four-toed feet, with three toes pointing forward and one large toe pointing
backward. They are mostly songbirds. Robins, cardinals, blue jays, pigeons,
crows, finches, wrens, swallow, nightingales, warblers, vireos, tanagers, and Figure: Perching bird
flycatchers are only a few of the many birds of the passerine order.

Passerines are highly diverse in body size, ranging from kinglets, at

about 5 g,to ravens, at about 1400 gr.

2-Water birds

They live on or near water. Loons, ducks, seagulls, geese and herons
belong to this group. Some water birds, like herons, have long legs for wading
in shallow water. Others, like ducks, have webbed feet adapted for swimming.

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Chapter 6

3-Birds of prey

They also known as raptors, include a night-hunting order (owls) and

a day-hunting order that includes the hawks, eagles and falcons, as well as the
carrion-feeding vultures. They are all meat eaters(although the "meat" for the
smaller species is generally insects)and some feed on fish. All have powerful,
sharp beaks and all but the vultures have grasping toes tipped with curved,
sharp claws or talons.

Golden Eagle is distributed through most of the northern hemisphere.

Females attain a length of about 1 m from the tip of the beak to the tip of the tail
and have a wingspread of about 2 m. Most golden eagles' nests are placed on
cliff ledges, but in some areas large trees are preferred. The diet of this species
consists of mammals, ranging in size from mouse to deer.

4-Flightless birds

Figure: Hawk Penguins, ostriches and kiwi make up an unusual group of flightless
birds (though they still have wings). Penguins “fly” through ocean water with
their flipper-like wings. Ostriches and rheas run with their wings outstretched.
This position increases their speed and helps them to maintain balance. The
ostrich is the largest bird,standing nearly 2.5 m high and weighing as much as
136 kg.

Penguins have a white breast and a

black head. Most penguinsare found in
Antarctica. Others are native to the coasts of
Australia, South Africa and South America.
Penguins feed on fish, cuttlefish, crustaceans
and other small sea animals.

The largest species is the emperor

penguin, which may attain a height of more
than 120 cm. Unlike most species, the king,
emperor and little penguins have blue-gray
backs. The ostrich is found only in Africa.
They are the largest and the strongest of living
birds, about 2.4 m in length and weighing up
to 136 kg. They spread their small wings du-
ring running and have long, powerful legs
that are used for defense. Theirfeet have only
two toes.

Ostriches are rapid runners and can attain aspeed of about 65 km/h.
Their eggs weigh about 1.4 kg. The male sits on them at night and the fema-
le incubates them during the day. Kiwislive in New Zealand and on adjacent
small islands. They are about 50 cm long. The long slender bills of kiwishave
nostrils near the tip, unique among living birds. Kiwis are nocturnal. Their eyes
are tiny and their vision is poor. They search for their food by scent, a charac-
teristic unusual for birds. They don’t have tails and wings.

62
Animal Adaptation with environment

Migratory Patterns Northern Bobwhite

Migratory patterns vary by species and sometimes within the same Populations are typically se-
species. Almost any possible pattern is possible and can be seen in one or more dentary, year-round residents.
species. However, in the Smoky Mounta-
ins of the southeast United Sta-
tes seasonal movements betwe-
en low-elevation wintering and
Eastern Bluebird high-elevation breeding habitats
Eastern Bluebirds (and several other spe- have been observed
cies) have a flexible approach to migrati-
on. They may move only as far south as is
needed for food and shelter and may move
further south if local conditions become
less conducive to their survival.

This migration pattern is not consistent

with all Eastern Bluebird populations. In
the southern part of their range the Eastern
Bluebird is a permanent resident.

White-crowned Sparrow
Several subspecies of the White-crow- Before migrating, many birds
ned Sparrow have been studied. The enter a state of hyperphagia,
northernmost breeding population mig- where hormone levels compel
rates from Alaska and the Yukon to the them to drastically increase
southern plains of the United States and their body weight to store fat to
into northern Mexico. A different subs- use as energy while traveling.
pecies breeds farther south, ranging from Some bird species may as much
British Columbia to northern California. as double their body weight in
These white-crowns migrate a shorter the weeks leading up to migra-
distance to the lowlands of central and tion.
southern California. Finally, a third su-
bspecies is a permanent resident in parts
of coastal California.
Arctic Tern
The champion of long distance migration is the Arctic Tern. Arctic Terns
can travel as much as 24,000 miles (round trip) each year from their bree-
ding grounds in far northern Canada to their winter home in Antarctica. The
terns follow two major pathways on their trips back and forth to the poles.

Terns that breed near Alaska and Canada migrate down the western coast
of North, Central and South America. Birds from Greenland and Siberia
take a route along the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Some birds in
this group splinter off at the Horn of Africa and cross the Atlantic. They then
fly down the east coast of South America. After spending only about two
months in Antarctica they start their northward journey. The Arctic Tern can
live to be at least 34 years old, in which case it may have flown more than
800,000 miles in its lifetime!

63
Chapter 6

SELF CHECK
animal adaptations

A. Key Terms E. Multiple Choises

1. Which one of the following is not true for bony fishes?

Gill External fertilization
Migration Scale A) Only a few species have lungs
Swim bladder Feathers B) Their body covered with scales
Gizzard Incubation C) All of them have swim bladdee
D) The skeleton of most of them contain bones

B. Review Questions
2. What is the funcyion of the swim bladder in bony fishes?
[Link] are the distinctive featuresof bony fishes?
A) Control bouancy
[Link] reproduction in bony fishes? B) Help to find their way
[Link] are the distinctive features of birds? C) Used in reproduction
D) Provide movement
4. What are the adaptetions of birds for flight?
[Link] birds migrate?Discuss your answer with other stu-
dents 3. Bird swallow their food whole and grind it down in a
structure called as ..............................?

C. Fill in the blanks A) Swim bladder

B) Metanephrone
C) Gizzard
1. Birds have......... and ......... in their body for breathing.
D) Stomach
2. Urine and feces are expelled through the .............. in
birds.
[Link] beaks of birds have different kinds of beak according 4. Which one of the following is not an adaptation for flight
to their ...................... in birds?
4. stores the bile and release it into ................ in fishes.
A) Having wings
5. In birds fertilization is .......... and it takes place in
B) Having light and hollow bones
................. C) Having powerfull chest and wing muscles
D) Having strong beaks
D. True or False

1. A bird’s nervous system includes a large, complex brain.

2. Bony fishes have diverse diets but commonly are
carnivores.
3. Birds swallow their food whole.
4. Bony fishes use dissolved oxygen in water.

64
Plant Adaptation With Environment

Plant Adaptation With Environment

Plant Anatomy
The plant body is organized into a root system and shootsystem.
The root system is generally the below ground portion, the shoot system consist of a vertical stem which bears leaves,
flowers and fruits containing seeds.

Root
The root is a specialized structure peculiar to terrestrial plants. Ro-
ots exhibit positive geotropism. That is, they grow down into the soil.
The root serves several functions. It keeps plants anchored in the soil
and transports water and minerals dissolved in the water to the stems
and other parts of the plant. Additionally, some roots have the ability
to store materials for future use. Roots and stems are classified accor-
ding to their external appearance. Roots lack leaves, nodes, internodes
and chloroplasts, while stems include all of these structures. Highly
branched roots have a large surface area due to branches and root ha-
irs.

Plants have two types of roots: taproot and fibrous root.

65
Chapter 7

A tap root consists of one main root with many smaller lateral roots
coming out of it. It is characteristic of dicots and gymnosperms. The tap root
that develops in monocots often dies during the early growth of the plant and
a new root develops from the lower part of the stem. These roots are cal-
led adventitious roots. They develop from an above-ground structure. Often,
adventitious roots help anchor a plant, such as "prop" roots in corn. Certain
dicots, such as ivy plants, also develop adventitious roots that help them cling
to walls.

A fibrous root has several to many roots of the same size developing
from the end of the stem with smaller lateral roots branching off these roots.
Onion, crabgrass and other monocots have fibrous root.
Figure: Adventitious roots in some
plants. Tap roots and fibrous roots are adapted to obtain water in different
ways. Tap roots often extend down into the soil to obtain water located deep
underground, whereas fibrous roots, located close to the surface of the soil, are
adapted to obtain rainwater from a larger area as it drains into the soil.

1. Parts of a germinating root

A germinating root is comprised ofroot cap, zone of cell division, zone

of elongation and zone of maturation.

Root cap

The root cap or calyptra is a yellow or brown structure located at the

tip of the root. It protects the meristematic zone of the root where longitidunal
growth occurs.

Zone of cell division

The zone of cell division is the actively dividing meristematic region.

The meristematic region is involved extension of the root and in the renewal
of the root cap. The cells of the growth region divide to give the root its typical
appearance. Zone of elongation:In the zone of elongation, cells become longer
as they become specialized.

Zone of maturation

In the zone of maturation, the cells are mature and fully differentiated.
The young cells of the mature region divide to form projections from the main
roots. These projections are highly branched absorptive root hairs. They are
extremely vulnerable to abrasion and have a short life span as compared to nor-
mal epidermal cells. They increase the surface area of roots and absorb water
and minerals. The root hairs are found exclusively in the first 6 cm of the root
tip. The differentiating region of the root forms the phloem, xylem, and similar
structures.

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Plant Adaptation With Environment

2. Internal Structure of the Root

The following structures are observed when a lateral cross section of a

root is investigated under the light microscope.

Epidermis

Epidermis is the outermost layer of root which consists of single layer

cells. The root hairs are composed of epidermal tissue which projects out from
the main root.

Cortex

Large, thin-walled parenchyma cells make up the cortex of the root.

These parenchyma cells store excess starch and transmit water and minerals to
the interior structures.

Endodermis

The cortex and vascular bundles are separated by the endodermal

layer, composed of closely packed single-layered cells. In young plants, the
endodermis thickens to form a casparian strip which is impermeable to water
thus preventing diffusion of materials across it. A few cells bordering the xylem
vessels do not thicken and so form a passageway for materials. These cells, also
known as gate cells, promote material exchange between the cortex and the
core of the plant.

Vascular tissue

The pericycle, the first layer of cells which is directly beneath the en-
dodermis, forms lateral roots and root cambium through its meristematic acti-
vity. The core of the plant includes xylem and phloem vessels separated by a
layer of cambium.

Figure: Water molecules diffuse

from the outside of the root
to the inside through the cortex,
epidermis, pericycle and xylem
vessels

67
Chapter 7

Stem
The stem is a structure that connects the root and leaves andis usual-
ly branched. Stems have vascular tissue that may be regularly or irregularly
arranged. On stems, nodes are commonly found, especially lateral nodes. They
are separated by internodes, tiny gaps between each node. They are peculiar to
the stem and can not be observed in the roots. Stems can be classified as either
herbaceous or woody.

Mature nonwoody stems are called herbaceous stems. They are soft
and delicate and are kept erect by turgor pressure, which is a characteristic of
herbs. Herbaceous stems are covered by a cuticle layer which prevents water
loss. They exhibit only primary growth and contain chloroplasts. They are eit-
her annual (living for one growing season) or biennial (living for two growing
Figure: The leaves originate from seasons).
nodes on the stem of the plant.
Annual stems lack a cambium layer around their vascular bundles. Be-
cause of this there is no secondary growth in these plants.

Most monocot plants are annual and don’thave a cambium layer. Their
vascular bundles are scattered through the stem. Stems of monocot plants ge-
nerally don’t have a cortex layer.

In dicotyledons, the vascular bundles are located regularly at the core

of the stem, which is surrounded by the bark. The xylem and phloem vessels
are separated by a circular cambium layer. Xylem vessels are found near the
core of the stem while phloem vessels are located in the outer portion of the
cambium, between it and the bark.

The cambium functions as meristematic tissue, facilitating the division

of cells and replenishment of xylem and phloem. In addition, it provides lateral
growth. The annual rings are formed by the addition of new xylem vessels to
the stem. An annual ring has both summer and winter sections. The summer
ring is wider than that of the winter since growth occurs more rapidly during
the summer. Furthermore, any injury to the stem is repaired by the cambium.

Some cells in the bark of woody plants gain

meristematic tissue from a secondary cambium layer
known as the cork cambium. Cork cambium provides
protection for bundles and other tissues. Some cells of
the cork cambium are specialized and rupture the epi-
dermis to form a loosely arranged area called a lenticel
which facilitates gas exchange in the stem, like the stoma-
ta in leaves.

Figure: (A) Cross-section of mature woody stem.

(B)- Cross-section of young woody stem.

68
Plant Adaptation With Environment

Phloem vessels

Phloem vessels elongate from the roots to the leaves, very near to the
outer section of the stem. They consist of many cytoplasmic guard cells, non-
nucleated sieve plate elements, support and parenchyma cells. The sieve tube
elements are closely packed cells. There are some spaces, called sieve plate
tubes,which connect them to each [Link] organic molecules synthesized in-
the leaf of the plant by photosynthesis are carried downward and nitrogenous
compounds synthesized at the roots are transmitted by means of the phloem
vessels. The rate of transportation is slower than in the xylem vessels since the
phloem vessels are living.

Xylem vessels

The xylem vessels stretchfrom the roots to the leaves and are located
at the core of the plant. They are composed of tracheids, schlerenchyma and
parenchyma cells. The cells at the outer portion of the parenchyma cells are
nonliving. The xylem cells enlarge and bind to each other to form pipe-like
vessels. Water and minerals absorbed by the roots are transported via the xylem
vessels to the leaves. The rate of transportation is rapid since the xylem vessels
are nonliving. Transportation occurs against the force of gravity.
Figure: Transverse section of a
Modified stems dicotyledon stem.
Stems may have different characteristics according to their functions.
Some plants,such as the potato, have underground stems which develop into
tubers and function as a storage site. Ferns and grasses also have stems beneath
the surface of the soil, known as rhizomes.

Stolon

Stolons are slender stem-branches running horizontally away from the

main plant, either above or below ground. Stolon shave nodes, and these nodes
are capable of taking root and forming a new plant. Plants with stolons, such as
strawberrys clone during springtime by producing stolons around the mother
plant.

Rhizome

At first glance rhizomes are like underground stolons, but there’s an

important difference between them: Each stolon is just one of what may be
several stems radiating from the plant’s center. Rhizomes, in contrast, are the
main stem. If a tree grew with its trunk horizontal below the ground, with its
side branches emerging above ground, the buried trunk would be a rhizome.
The thick, fleshy “roots” of irises, cannas, and water lilies are actually rhizo-
mes. So are the whitish, thumb-thick items at the right.

69
Chapter 7

Tuber

Tubers, such as the ordinary potato, are often thought of as roots.

However, as we’ve just said, roots don’t have buds, and that’s exactly what
you see sprouting on the potato, arising from the potato’s “eyes.” Tubers are
actually swollen portions of underground stems. Stems have nodes and buds
arise at nodes. This type of plant stem is specialized for food storage.

Corm

Corms are unlike stolons and rhizomes because they usually grow
vertically, instead of lying horizontally. They are unlike tubers in that tubers
are typumbilical cord, while corms constitute the below-ground “heart” of the
plant, the part from which aboveground stems and leaves directly sprout. In the
corm, notice the horizontal bands running across it. These are stem nodes such
as those so conspicuous on the bamboo stem. Gladiolus, crocus, and tuberous
begonias all arise from corms.

Bulb

Bulbs can be considered to be very short stems encased in thickened,

fleshy bulb scales (which are modified leaves). The two basic bulb types are
layered and scaly. Layered bulbs are composed of a series of fleshy scales that
form concentric rings when the bulb in cut in cross-section. Onions and garlic
are layered bulbs. Scaly bulbs, such as the lily bulb, have fleshy bulb scales,
which are modified leaves, loosely clustered around the stem base. In contrast,
each section or “scale” of a scaly bulb is a modified thick and fleshy leaf. The
scales serve as sites of food accumulation. In the spring, when the lily stem
shoots up from the center of the scale cluster, it will draw its food from the
scales.

Water-storing stem

These stems are specializing in storing water for use between rains.
They become very fat because of water accumulation. They act as a reservoir
for the long dry periods they have to endure. The most famous such stems are
those of the cacti. Other common potted plants with water-storing stems are
the spurge, purslane and milkweed.

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Plant Adaptation With Environment

Leaf
Leaves are structures which develop from lateral buds on the stem of
a plant. The leaf of a dicotyledon consists of a leaf stalk and a leaf blade.
Thewide surface area of the leaf blade is important for the efficient absorption
of sunlight. In some plants,leaves are ribbon-like: straight-sided with parallel
veins. In contrast,some other plants have net-veined and rough-sided leaves.

The presence of a wide surface area enables a large quantity of light to

be absorbed. However, it also provides a large area from which water can be
lost. Plants have some adaptations to prevent water loss from leaves.

Desert plants combat water loss by reducing the surface area of their
leaves to a minimum. As a result, their leaves are needle-shaped and their sto-
mata are located on the stem which is also the site of photosynthesis. Pine trees
growing in arid climates also have similar needle-shaped leaves. Each leaf is
covered by a thick layer called the cuticle and has many hair-like structures.
The stomata are buried in the lower epidermis to prevent water loss. These
adaptations all help to prevent water loss in plants.

Unlike desert plants, those living in moist or wet habitats have frag-
mented leaves with a wide surface area and extensive veins. The leaves are
covered by a thin layer of cuticle and the stomata are distributed randomly
over the surface of the upper and lower epidermis. Hydrothodes, located at the
edge of the leaves, facilitate water loss by guttation (the extrusion of water as
drops). In humid environments, the air is too saturated with moisture for water
to be lost by transpiration. These plants additionally excrete excess salts and
water by means of guttation. Guttation is peculiar to humid environments since
plants excrete excess water in the form of water droplets if water uptake from
the roots exceeds the amount used.

All these adaptations indicate that provisions against water loss are not
necessarily due to the absence of water in their surroundings.

2. The Anatomical Structure of the Leaf

The following prominent layers are observed under a light microscope

when a leaf is cut in cross-section:

- Cuticle layer
- Epidermal layers
- Mesophyll layer

I. Palisade parenchyma
II. Spongy parenchyma

- Vascular bundles

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Chapter 7

a. The cuticle layer

The cuticle layer is a waxy material which covers the leaf surface and
prevents water loss. The cuticle layer is transparent, therefore sunlight can pass
through it but water loss is prevented. Its thickness is directly related to environ-
mental conditions. It is thick in hot, arid climates and thin in moist, aquatic habi-
tats.

b. The epidermal layers

Epidermal tissue forms the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf and com-
prises a single layer of epidermal cells. Epidermal cells lack chloroplasts and are
consequently non-photosynthetic. The upper epidermal cells secrete waxy subs-
tances to form a layer of cuticle. The holes in the epidermis or the stomata give it a
rough appearance. The stomata provide the pathways for gas exchange and water
regulation in the plant.

Figure: Transverse section throu-

gh the leaf of a dicotyledon. c. The mesophyll layer
The layer between the upper and lower epidermis, known as the
mesophyll layer, comprises palisade and spongy parenchyma cells. The cells of
this layer are photosynthetic.

1. The palisade parenchyma is comprised of long, cylindrical, closely packed cel-

ls, which are vertically ordered just below the upper epidermis layer. The rate of
photosynthesis is very rapid due to the high amount of chloroplasts in these cells.

2. The spongy parenchyma is located above the lower epidermis layer and is made
up of loosely packed cells with air spaces that give it a sponge-like appearance.
Furthermore, these air spaces are in close proximity to the stomata enabling gases
to diffuse easily in or out of the leaf. Additionally, these cells contain fewer chlo-
roplasts when compared to palisade parenchyma.

72
Plant Adaptation With Environment

d. The vascular bundles

The vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which

transport waterfrom root to leaf and organic materials from leaf to root.

Stomata

The cuticle layer forms an incomplete covering over the surface of

the leaf. If coverage were total, transpiration and gas exchange would be
prevented. Consequently, metabolic activities would be reduced to a minimum
and the plant would probably not survive. Since the stomata lack a cuticle they
can open and close to carry out gas exchange and transpiration. If there is suf-
ficient water within the leaf, CO2 molecules diffuse out through the stomatal
openings.

Each stoma structurally resembles a pair of bean-like cells which are

specialized don’t. The inner walls of guard cells are stronger than the outer
walls. The difference in thickness of these walls plays an important role in
opening the stoma.

a. Stomatal Distribution in Different Types of Leaves

- Stomata are equally distributed over the upper and lower epidermis in erect
leaves. Examples include the onion and the lily.

- Stomata are present in greater numbers on the lower surface in lateral leaves.
This property prevents accumulation of dust and rain water on stomatal ope-
nings. Some examples include the leaves of apricots, plums.

- In the case of aquatic plants that live on the surface of the water, the stomata
are located only on the upper epidermis; for example, the water lily

Plant Stomata Structure

73
Chapter 7

b. Adaptation of plant stomata to different climates

The stomata are located in different positions within the epidermal la-
yer for adaptation to different climates. Location of stomata affects the amount
of water lost by traspiration. They are classified as follows, according to their
location.

Lower case stoma

In arid climates, the stomata are found deep in the epidermal layer and
are covered by an air space and stomatal hairs at the level of the epidermis.
These features protect stomata from the effects of wind and temperature by
reducing the level of transpiration.

Normal stoma

At normal relative humidity and temperature, stomata are at the same

level as the epidermis.

Upper case stoma

In plants living in areas of high relative humidity and temperature,

stomata are found in an uppermost position and are therefore considerably
affected by wind and temperature. This results in a high transpiration rate.

74
Chapter 7

Petals

They are leaf-like in structure and are generally brightly colored. They
are collectively known as the corolla and protect the reproductive organs of a
mature flower. The petals of plants that are insect pollinated are brightly colo-
red and produce an attractive scent. A nectary at the base of each petal produces
a sugary solution known as nectar and it is during nectar collection that polli-
nation takes place.

b. Stamens

The stamens are the male reproductive organs of the flower and are
composed of filaments and anthers.

Anther

Each anther is composedof four pollen sacs containing pollen grains.

The grains are haploid and contain the meiotically produced male gametes. The
sacs then burst and release spherical yellow pollen grains.

Filament

Its function is to raise the anther into the air so that its pollen can be
dispersed by the wind or by an insect. It consists of a narrow stalk containing a
vascular bundle.

c. Pistils

The pistil is the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is generally

composed of three structures: a stigma, a style and an ovary.

Stigma

It is a specialized area located directly above the style and is the site of
pollen reception and germination. During pollination season, the stigma may
secrete sticky matter to trap pollen.

Style

It is a tube-like structure connecting the ovary and the stigma. Pollen

tubes pass down through the style to the ovary.

Ovary

The ovary is a spherical structure at the base of the pistil and is formed
by infolded leaves known as carpels. Usually at least several carpels join to-
gether to form a single ovary.

76
Plant Adaptation With Environment

Fruits
A fruit develops from the ovary wall after fertilization. Flowering
plants form fruits in order to protect the seed and to assist dispersal to colonize
new areas away from the parent plant. They are classified according to their
structure.

a. Simple Fruits

Simple fruits are formed from the wall of a single ovary, of a single
flower. There are two types of simple fruits, fleshy fruit and dry fruit. In fleshy
fruits the pericarp (tissues) are soft at maturity as their water percentage is high.
Dry fruits contain less water at maturity so their pericarp is not fleshy.

b. Aggregate Fruits

Aggregate fruits are formed from an individual flower containing

many separate carpels,eg. raspberry and blackberry.

c. Multiple Fruits

A multiple fruit (e.g., pineapple ) develops from the ovaries of many

flowers growing in a cluster.

d. Accessory Fruits

Accessory fruits contain tissue derived from plant parts other than the
ovary; the strawberry is actually a number of tiny achenes (miscalled seeds)
outside a central pulpy pith that is the enlarged receptacle or base of the flower.
The best-known accessory fruit is the pome (e.g., apple and pear), in which the
fleshy edible portion is swollen stem tissue and the true fruit is the central core.

77
Chapter 7

SELF CHECK
PLANT ANATOMY

A. Key Terms E. Multiple Choises

Root cap Epidermis
Rhizome Stolon 1. Which kind of modified stems specialized for food sto-
rage?
Stomata Petal
Sepal Simple fruit
A) Stolon
Cotyledon Testa B) Rhizome
Tap root C) Tuber
D) Corm
B. Review Questions

2. Which part of flower contain pollen grains?

[Link] the tuber briefly?
[Link] stomata distribution in different leaves? A) Pistil
[Link] the factors affect on transpiration? B) Anther
C) Receptacle
4. Draw a flower and name the parts of it? D) Ovary
[Link] an example for each type of fruits?

3. Which one of the following is an example for multiple

frits?
C. Fill in the blanks
A) Blackberry
1. A fruit develops from the .................... wall after .... B) Apple
C) Pineapple
2. The ....... are the male reproductive organs of the flower.
D) Egg plant
3. The rate of photosynthesis is very rapid due to the
.......................
4. Sepals are collectively called as ................ and petals 4. Herbs kept eract by ......................................?
are collectively called as ..............
A) Turgor pressure
5. Pollen grains are formed in ........................
B) Osmotic pressue
C) Xylem
D. True or False D) Phloem

1. The pistil is the female reproductive organ of a flower.

2. The stomata are located in different positions within the
epidermal layer.
3. Annual stems lack a cambium layer around their vascu-
lar bundles.
4. The stomata provide the pathways for gas exchange and
water regulation in the plant.

78
HUMAN AND BIOSPHERE

HUMAN AND BIOSPHERE

Environmental Problems
As mentioned previously, every organism is adapted to its living place (habitat).Humans are spread over large
areas. In day-to-day life, humans are always interacting with the other living things in their environment. For the conti-
nuity of this relationship the ecological balance of the environment must be preserved, but humans frequently use and
damage the environment to grow more food, make more shelter and to advance technology.

The environmental system is in balance which ensure the continuity of its living and non-living components,
until the second half of 20th century the situation continued in the balance between input matters and output matters, the
example of input and output matters are gases, water, salts, energy and different wastes.

But great increase in population, scientific and technological revolution are some modern features of our
living century that cause the increasing of natural and manufactured matters that pollute the environment which caused
by human activities, the modern economic development, however, sometimes disrupts nature’s delicate balance.

Pollution can be defined as the introduction of unwanted or harmful substances into the environment.
Pollution caused by human activity has resulted in the extinction of various species of organisms on earth, like the dodo
bird and the dusky seaside sparrow.

79
Chapter 8

Water pollution
Oxygen is essential for the
survival of living things. Oxy- Water is one of the most essential necessities of life. All organisms,
gen is necessary for respira- including humans, need water to live. The hygiene of drinking water is impor-
tion and the oxidation of or- tant for health. Factories constructed near rivers and lakes pollute the water.
ganic substances, and is used The ecological balance is disturbed. Some organisms die while others carry
in the burning (oxidation) of toxic chemicals in their bodies. Most of the countries are suffering from the
coal, wood and gas. The at- pollution of their seas, lakes, rivers, and the running water, which is suitable
mosphere is 21% oxygen, and for daily use.
5 % is dissolved in the hydros-
phere. The oxygen in nature is This problem is referred to many reasons:
produced as a result of photos-
ynthesis. Oxygen also makes - Contamination caused by living compounds that cause disease.
up the ozone layer, ozone
- Organic and inorganic compounds that are discharged by factories and
(O3) being released as a result
house sewerage cause contamination.
of the photolysis of water.
- Heat contamination produced by the nuclear- reactor cooling and discharged
the factory hot water into the rivers and lakes.
- Kinetic pollution is produced by the movement of boats and ships or from
damps.

All the mentioned above cause diminishing (to eliminate) the oxygen
rate in the water that effects the well being of all living things in water and en-
courage the microorganisms like in terrestrial organisms.
The hygiene of fresh water
is important for health. Only
half of the world’s populati-
on has access to clean wa-
ter. Especially in Third World
countries, people have to
drink water from the places
where sewage is dumped. Pe-
ople drinking water from the-
se sources are vulnerable to
contagious diseases like cho-
lera, diarrhea, and typhoid.

Soil pollution
Many chemical compounds pollute soil. These pollutants are trans-
form to the soil by irrigation, rain, and wind. Also pollution may occur as a
result of using pesticides or from factories waste (gases, radiant, and chemical
wastes plastic, metals, wood, paper, packages). They are dissolved in soil and
the plants absorb them and then they enters into their tissues.

80
Human and Biosphere

When the animals are fed with such plants, the pollutants will be mo-
ved to animal tissues as well. These can be transferred to people as a result of The transmission of a toxic
feeding from such plants and meet and dairy food from such animals. substance from one organism
to another in a lake ecosystem.
Pollution of soil with agricultural chemicals These chemicals (e.g. DDT),
tranmitted through the food
Most agricultural chemicals are water-soluble nitrates and phosphates chain but not used in meta-
that are applied to fields, lawns and gardens to stimulate the growth of crops, bolism, accumulate at the end
grass and flowers. The chemicals that are used as insecticides include arsenic, of the chain. Because
mercury and lead, which are highly toxic. Insecticides, since they remain in these chemicals are not me-
soil, enter the food chain and poison humans. DDT, which is not biodegradab- tabolized and removed from
le, and other similar insecticides, accumulates in the fatty tissues of organisms. the tissues, they accumulate in
DDT causes liver cancer, nerve damage, reproductive malfunctions, and death the body. Consequently, the
in birds. The effect of DDT is more significant in organisms higher in the food organisms most harmed are
chain. those at the end of the food
chain.
Herbicidal chemicals, used widely to kill weeds and clear land, also
have side effects. America poured 72 million tons of herbicide onto Vietnam
to open paths through the jungle during the war from 1961 to 1971. The herbi-
cides, dispersed from airplanes, contained dioxin, a general name for a family
of chlorinated hydrocarbons. In the years following the war, high rates of still-
birth and premature birth were observed among the Vietnamese. Since similar
effects were seen among the American soldiers, the herbicides were investiga-
ted. As a result, it was concluded that dioxin causes genetic changes–mutati-
ons. At present the use of chemicals containing dioxin is banned.

81
Chapter 8

Air pollution
The tiny layer surrounding the globe is the basic source of air that all
living things need and depend on it to carry out their life process. Air contains
different gases that they have stable ratios, such as

Oxygen is 21%,
Nitrogen is 78 %,
Carbon dioxide is 0.03%
Nobel gases is %1 such as (Argon, Helium…etc)

Vapor water that range between 1% in cold and dry air to 4% during
humid seasons in the tropical areas.

Any change in the rate of air contents with foreign particles that are
contained in air cause the contamination of air.

The Earth is continuously exposed to sunlight that heats the lower la-
yers of the atmosphere. The temperature of the upper atmosphere is lower than
the temperature of the lower atmosphere. Air in the lower atmosphere warms
and rises, and is replaced by cold air. Accordingly polluted air rises with air
currents and spreads all over the world. In this way air pollution from industri-
alized countries affects other countries, too. Low quality fossil fuels and exha-
ust released from vehicles are the main sources of air pollution. Though such
pollution is temporary, if it stays longer in the air, it may cause death.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Every year 350 million tons of CO is released into the environment.

The major source of atmospheric CO is exhaust gases. Carbon monoxide is a
toxic gas. It binds to hemoglobin strongly in the lungs and prevents the binding
of oxygen. The decrease of oxygen transport to the tissues results in headache,
lethargy and giddiness. If the concentration of CO exceeds 1% it is fatal.

Mercury (Hg)

Mercury vapor is released into the air from the burning of coal and
gasoline, mining and the smelting of mineral ores. Increased mercury level in
the air causes damage to and malfunctions of kidneys and nerves, and death.

Lead (Pb)

Lead vapor, as in the case of mercury, is released into the air by man’s
modern industrial activities. The main source of lead in the air is exhaust gas.
Lead is added to gasoline to increase engine efficiency. Lead builds up in plants
and causes the pollution of food. The symptoms of lead poisoning are giddi-
ness, extreme fatigue and depression.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons affect the earth’s ozone layer.

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Human and Biosphere

Acid Rain
Normal rainwater has very little acid. Acids in the air react with water
vapor and form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The pH of normal water is around 5.4.
Emissions of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen from power stations, fac-
tories, and motor vehicles cause the formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acids
in rain clouds. If rain falls through polluted air it picks up more of these gases
and increases its acidity. Acidic clouds may be carried away by air currents.
When rain falls from acid clouds, it causes a real environmental catastrophe.
For this reason every country must be sensitive to this issue and take preventive
measures. Acid rain is carried from soil to rivers, streams and [Link] effect
of acid rain is greater on the lakes than the rivers and streams. It increases the
acidity of the lake water and the ratio of metal salts. As a result, natural life is
threatened. Figure: Sulfuric acid and nitric
acid are produced from SO2 and-
NO2 gases that are released into
Noise pollution the air and mix with water vapor.
When this solution falls as acid
Sound is such a common part of everyday life that we often overlook rain, it causes damage to all orga-
all that it can do. It provides enjoyment, for example, through listening to mu- nisms and the environment.
sic or birdsong. It allows spoken communication. It can alert or warn us, say,
though a doorbell, or wailing siren. Sound is a part of life. In natural conditions,
bird, wind or water sound doesn’t disturb us. But the sounds that we call noise
disturb humans both physiologically and psychologically. Sound level is me-
asured in decibel (dB). The limits of noise are not certain. But sound between
35-65 dB is psychologically disturbing; between 65-90 dB is peace disturbing;
and higher than 90 dB is physiologically harmful noise.

According to its source, noise falls under one of three headings: trans-
port (traffic) noise, industrial noise and social noise. Transport noise comes
mainly from trains, planes, cars, buses, trucks, and motorbikes, and each of
these produces noise in a variety of different ways. All of these vehicles make
noise because of the friction force between their metal parts and with the air.
Social noise includes the noises made by people in parks and at sporting events,
as well as radio and TV sounds. Intense noise may rupture the eardrum and
cause hearing problems. People living in areas with high levels of noise may
experience hypertension, a fast breathing rate, and a high pulse. In addition,
noise causes stress, discomfort, anger, and behavioral problems. In noisy wor- Noise pollution, human - cre-
kplaces efficiency decreases and attention problems increase. We can control ated noise harmful to health or
noises by: welfare. Transportation vehicles
are the worst offenders, with
- Protecting the human ear by ear covers. aircraft, railroad stock, trucks,
- Using sound insulation protection. buses, automobiles, and motor-
- Eliminating the noises by oiling the machines and using the less noisy cycles all producing excessive
machines planning the residential areas away from airports, factories, and high noise. Construction equipment,
ways. e.g., jackhammers and bulldo-
zers, also produce substantial
noise pollution.

83
Chapter 8

Radiation
Radiation is the process in which energy is emitted as particles
or waves. The sun radiates energy continuously. Light coming to the earth is in
three groups: ultraviolet light (UV), white light and infrared light. Ultravi-
olet light has a very small wavelength and high energy level. Therefore,
it is dangerous to human health.

The ozone layer reflects most of the UV light before it reaches the at-
mosphere. Only 2% passes through. An increase in this amount causes certain
illnesses like skin cancer. Like solar radiation, underground and underwater
deposits of radioactive rock are a natural source of radiation. On the earth ura-
nium (U-235 and U-238), thorium (Th-232), potassium (K-40), strontium (Rb-
87) and other radioactive substances are found. When these molecules decay
radioactively, energy is emitted. These processes are all natural and have been
happening for thousands of years.

Radiation pollution exists because humans use radioactive substances.

Modern life, though offering many benefits to humanity, brings many prob-
lems. The energy produced from dams and thermal plants was insufficient and
people started using nuclear power, the fission of radioactive isotopes, to pro-
duce energy. After the discovery of nuclear energy, scientists looked for ways
to use it. Nuclear tests were conducted in the Nevada deserts of America, the
deserts of Kazakhstan and in the Pacific Ocean by France. In these tests, radia-
tion was released into the atmosphere. Especially in areas near these places the
air, water and soil is highly polluted. These radioactive substances are carried
away to the other places as well.

Also these countries made ships, submarines and aircraft carriers that
run on nuclear energy. They are very efficient economically, but in the event of
an accident, malfunction, or technical problem they are a potential threat to the
environment and humanity. Nuclear energy is also used to make bombs. Radi-
oactive isotopes are used in medicine and biological research. The substances
used in these fields must be handled and disposed of carefully.

Effects of Radiation
Figure: The consequences of the
Chernobyll accident have been Radiation affects the environment both physically and biological-
disastrous. A patient that con- ly. Nuclear trials and explosions spread dust and smoke which block sunlight.
tracted cancer as a result of the Moreover, the air temperature under the dust layer plunges because the
explosion is shown. There are dust blocks the sunlight. As a result there will be serious changes in the climate.
also chronic effects of radiation The biological effect of radiation is the damage to living things. The sensiti-
in addition to its acute effects. As vity of organisms varies from species to species. For example, insects are more
seen in the picture, the genetic resistant to radiation than birds and mammals. Grasses are more resistant than
structure and development of all broad- and needle-leaved plants.
organisms living and born in that
region are affected. Two signifi-
cant examples of this are the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki cases,
and the explosion at Chernobyl.

84
Human and Biosphere

Measures Against Environmental Pollution

Some measures that can be taken to reduce the dangers described are given
below.

- The waste from factories should be recyclable. In this way we can save the
raw materials and also prevent the pollution of the environment.

- Fossil fuels used in heating should be high in calor ies and low in toxic subs-
tances so that air pollution is reduced.

- Chimneys of factories and houses, and exhausts of cars should have filtering
devices to reduce toxic substances in the air.

- Tree planting should be encouraged so that the gas balance in the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide concentra-
is maintained and air pollution is reduced.
tions in aquatic environments
are quite different from those
- Recyclable materials should be collected and used again
on land. Carbon dioxide easily
dissolves in water and forms
- Recyclable materials should be used as much as possible.
carbonic acid (H2CO3), which
ionizes to H+ and HCO3–. These
- And, most importantly of all, everyone should be trained to be aware of envi-
ions determine the pH of water.
ronmental problems.

85
Chapter 8

Humans and environment

Improvements in the areas of Human, like other organisms, are participants in the food chain and
genetics, energy, and che-
part of the balance of nature. Like other heterotrophs they eat, excrete and
mical synthesis will provide
the needed steps for advance- need heat and shelter. All of these necessities are met by nature. However,
ments in agriculture and food. the technology developed by humans for a better and more comfortable life
Genetically engineered food can adversely affect the environment and may damage the ecological balance
(which is already on the mar- on earth. The advantaaages and disadvantages of agriculture will be discussed
ket) will only increase as sci- in the following articles. Humans also cut and process trees to make houses,
entists and engineers come furniture, paper nd decorative products. As a result of the timber industry and
to a better understanding of
fires, forests are destroyed, causing air pollution and erosion. The activities of
genetics. More efficient ener-
gy sources may allow for ea- humans sometimes damage the ecological balance of nature. Industrialization
sier food production locally produces benefits for people, and problems for the ecological balance.
as well as cheaper methods
of harvesting and allow for Agriculture
cheaper irrigation and water
[Link] synthesis The rapidly growing world population has brought food problems to
may allow for better pestici-
the agenda. New methods in agriculture and stock-breeding are developed and
des, fertilizers,
used to produce food more abundantly. In cereal-grain agriculture, artificial
and even soils for growing
crops. fertilizers are used to produce a larger harvest in a shorter time. Insecticides
are used against insects and herbicides against weeds to kill them and protect
the crop. The use of technology to increase productivity is called intensive
agriculture. Scientists and engineers have developed new systems to reduce
the costs of intensive agriculture. The side effects of these methods are not un-
derstood until later. In stockbreeding, animals are fed special foods in a closed
place. Since the animals move very little and gain weight, they are butchered
sooner. Fattening livestock for market increases the cost of their meat.

Irrigation

One of the most important requirements of agriculture is water. Espe-

cially in arid places, it rains at some times of the year and it is dry at others.
Dams are built to save water in arid places. Water collects behind the dams
and is used for irrigation. With the proper use of irrigation, a larger harvest is
possible. Despite the advantages of irrigation, excess irrigation brings some
dangers to the environment.

- Irrigation drains minerals away from the soil through leaching.

- Salt present deep in the soil dissolves in the water and rises up, causing the
Figure: Regular irrigation increases soil to become salty and dry.
the quality and efficiency of agricul- - Microorganisms carrying contagious diseases are spread through irrigation
ture, but irregular irrigation causes canals.
more problems than it solves, even ca-
- Fresh water fish and, in turn, the food chain are affected.
using aridity of the soil and reducing
efficiency

86
Human and Biosphere

The Effects of Mechanized Agriculture on Natural Life

The transition from simple agricultural tools to modern agricultural

methods started with the Industrial Revolution. The use of modern agricultural
machines has decreased the human effort required, while the quality and per-
formance of the product has increased. Though there are a lot of advantages
to using agricultural machines, there are some disadvantages as well.
Some of these are stated below.

- Since modern agricultural devices cannot be used in narrow fields, these fi-
elds were widened by cutting trees.
- Some species were destroyed or became extinct as a result.
- The weight of the machines compresses the soil and decreases its permeabi-
lity for water, causing the accumulation of water above the soil.
- The use of modern agricultural machines increased the costs and the sale
prices.
- With the removal of ecological boundaries, natural events like wind and flood
cause erosion and evaporation of excess water. Figure: Certainly agricultural tools
have reduced the work of peop-
le and increased their efficiency.
Monocultivation (Growth of the same product every year) When these tools are used accor-
ding to regulations, soil erosion
Since every agricultural product has a different price in the market, and excess evaporation can be
farmers tend to grow the crops that bring more money. Accordingly, farmers prevented. There are, however, di-
may grow the same crop every year. The advantage of growing the same crop sadvantages to using these tools.
every year is the ability to use the same machines. In this way the cost of mec-
hanization and labor falls.

The disadvantages of monocultivation are: Since the same species is

grown every year the same minerals are removed excessively, which causes
the soil to become arid. Though this condition is compensated for by the appli-
cation of artificial fertilizers to the soil, the cost increases. The repeated growth Humans, like other orga-
of the same species boosts the insect population. nisms, are participants in the
food chain and part of the ba-
Artificial fertilizers lance of nature. Like other he-
terotrophs they eat, excrete and
In this century, the use of artificial fertilizers started the green revoluti- need heat and shelter. All of
on. In most parts of the world arid areas are converted to agriculture fields. At these necessities are met by na-
the same time the productivity of the existing fields is increased. The elements ture. However, the technology
C, N, O, P, H and K are very essential in the structure of organic molecules. developed by humans for a bet-
Plants obtain C, H and O from air and N, P and K from the soil. The abundan- ter and more comfortable life
ce of these minerals in the soil increases the quality of the products. Most can adversely affect the envi-
of the fertilizers used in the world are of the N–P–K variety. In 1990, 20 mil- ronment and may damage the
lion tons of NPK fertilizer were used around the world. The use of fertilizers ecological balance on earth.
increases not only the quality but also the costs, so it must be used efficiently.

87
Chapter 8

The benefits of artificial fertilizers:

- The use and storage of artificial fertilizers is easier.

- The type and dose of the minerals can be adjusted according to the needs of
the soil.
- The soil can be planted and even provide more than one crop per year because
it does not need to be left fallow.

- The drawbacks of artificial fertilizers:

- Since artificial fertilizers do not contain humus, the quality of the soil decre-
ases gradually, becoming more susceptible to erosion.
- Excess use of fertilizers is a waste of money and energy.
- Rain leaches soluble substances from the soil. Excess fertilizer is carried away
to rivers and lakes. The transport of nitrate and phosphate fertilizers to lakes
and rivers causes the destruction of natural life. If the nitrate solution seeps into
drinking water, it may threaten human life. The cultivation of crops like wheat
and barley enables the efficient use of fertilizers without waste.
- Artificial fertilizers disrupt the structure and texture of the soil, gradually
making it more difficult to cultivate.
- Since the mineral concentration increases in the soil, plants can’t absorb water
through their roots. This condition may cause the death of the plant.

Fertilizers typically provi-

de, in varying proportions,
the threemajor plant nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium), the secondary
plant nutrients (calcium, sul-
fur, magnesium), and someti-
mes trace elements (or micro-
nutrients) with a role in plant
nutrition: boron, manganese,
iron, zinc, copper and molyb-
denum.

Use of Herbicides in Biological Struggle

Mineral-rich soil is a suitable place for weeds as well as crops. Weeds

compete with crop plants for light, water and minerals. The simplest met-
hod of fighting them is to dig them up. Since this takes too much time and
effort chemicals are used to kill them. The chemicals, called herbicides, kill
the weeds and save the crops. The herbicides target the broad-leaved plants
to kill. Small-leaved crops are not killed by the herbicides. Not all herbicides
are selective–some of them kill other organisms as well. The use of selective
herbicides is one of the inevitable methods of modern agriculture.

88
Human and Biosphere

Otherwise the amount and quality of the harvest will decrease. Insects,
weeds and disease destroy one-third of the world’s total agricultural producti-
on. Insects rank first among these. For example, weevils are a real nuisance
in wheat fields. Potato beetles attack tuberous plants like potatoes. Insects
are killed with certain chemicals called insecticides. There are also beneficial
insects that provide pollination. They must be saved while killing the others.

Erosion and forests

The richness of the composition of the soil is very important for the
growth of plants. Soil, a thin layer on the uppermost part of the earth’s surface,
is enriched by the activities of decomposers that break down the remains of
dead plants and animals. But rivers and floods wash away this productive layer.
Trees that block and lower the speed of the water, and hold the soil with roots
protect the soil layer. A feature of forests more important than soil conservation
is the maintenance of the oxygen balance of the earth. The thoughtless and
negligent cutting of forests, the oxygen tank of organisms, threatens the future
of all living things. A nuclear power plant (NPP)
is a thermal power station in
Energy which the heat source is one
or more nuclear reactors gene-
Energy is an inevitable part of our lives. Transportation, heating, illu- rating nuclear power. Nuclear
mination and other activites like the use of houshold electrical devices demand power plants are base load sta-
electricity. Excess dependence on electricity has forced scientists to look for tions, which work best when
alternative energy sources. Countries prepare and apply their energy policies the power output is constant
according to the needs of their economies and their reserves of natural resour- (although boiling water rea-
ces. Countries with many rivers produce hydro-electricity. Even though dams ctors can come down to half
cause the least damage to the environment, they alter the natural water cycle power at night). Their units
and flood plain which consequently results in climate change. As a result of range in power from about
climate change, some species decrease in number or disappear, while other 40 MWe to over 1000 MWe.
species reproduce more and increase in number. The reclamation of the area New units under construction
around the dam takes a long time. in 2005 are typically in the
range 600-1200 MWe.

89
Chapter 8

Some countries use coal, natural gas, oil and other fossil fuels to pro-
duce electricity. The smoke and gases that are released as by-products of the
burning of fossil fuels pollute the air. Consequently natural life is affected
Over-application of che- and ecosystems change.
mical fertilizers, or applicati-
on of chemical fertilizers at The most dangerous but the cheapest and most effective energy sour-
a time when the ground is ce is nuclear energy. Many countries use energy produced in nuclear power
waterlogged or the crop is not plants, especially countries without reserves of fossil fuels and water. When
able to use the chemicals, can they work without any problems, nuclear power plants are very economical,
lead to surface runoff (parti- but they are a big potential threat to the environmen.
cularly phosphorus) or leac-
hing into groundwater (par- For example, the Chernobyl nuclear plant was providing electricity to
ticularly nitrates). One of the a certain region of the Ukraine. An exercise conducted carelessly caused the
adverse effects of excess fer- reactor to explode. This disaster adversely affected the Ukraine and the effects
tilizer in lacustrine systems are still visible. The explosion and dispersion of radiation affected other coun-
are algal blooms, which can tries as well.
lead to excessive mortality ra-
tes for fish and other aquatic Industrialization
organisms.
Natural life was preserved and the products and activities of man did
not harm the environment until the end of the 1800s. The rapid development
of technology as a result of the industrial revolution, which made life easier
Nuclear power plants are
for humans in many respects, brought with it its own problems. The release of
classified according to the
CO2 from the chimneys of factories caused global warming. The nitrogen and
type of reactor used. Howe-
sulphur exhaust from some factories caused air pollution.
ver some installations have
several independent units,
Moreover, man-made substances remain in the environment for a long
and these may use different
time and don’t recycle for many years, if ever. The release of these products
classes of reactor. In additi-
into the environment brings water and soil pollution.
on, some of the plant types
below in the future may
The pollution that comes with industrialization doesn’t affect only the
have passively safe features.
industrialized countries but also affects other, under-developed countries as
well.
Fission reactors: Fission
power reactors generate heat
by nuclear fission of fissi-
le isotopes of uranium and
plutonium.

Fusion reactors: Nuclear

fusion offers the possibi-
lity of the release of very
large amounts of energy with
a minimal production of radi-
oactive waste and improved
safety. However, there remain
considerable scientific, tech-
nical, and economic obstacles
to the generation of commer-
cial electric power using nuc-
lear fusion.

90
Chapter 8
Global warming:

Global warming is related to the increasing of (CO2) percent in atmosphere, this increase affects heat se-
paration on earth surface eventually raising the earth’s heat way above normal rate , this is known as (Green
house effect).
The global warming caused by the impact of visible rays (one of sun wave lengths) with any septum, this
impact will transfer these rays in the form of heat.
So, when these rays reach earth surface will be transferred to heat and still captured in the atmosphere.
Whenever the percent of (CO2) gas increased in atmosphere , the amount of captured heat will increase too.
There are other gasses have the ability to increase the amount of heat such as : water vapor, CH4 , NO3 , and
others.
Global warming is the most significant signs of the climate change on earth in the current era.
The effects of global warming can be classified as following:
1- Eextreme weather changes such as extreme temperature of weather in summer in last decade.
2- Rising sea levels, will submerge some coastal cities.
3- Rising the percent of water acidity, will affect the bio diversity in aquatic biomes.
4- Desertification: means that most of dry lands will become deserts.
5- Increase of wildfires: due to extreme high temperature of weather.
6- Drought of land: due to the shortage of water supply, drought affect food security , many plants will dry and died.
7- Extinction: of some living species due to extreme environmental conditions.

Figure . The Green House Effect mechanism

92
Human and Biosphere

Ozone layer:

Ozone or (O3) is one of the natural components of atmosphere, it lays in

the stratosphere layer, the second layer of atmosphere.
Although the percent ozone is very small (about 0.3p.p.m), but it plays
tremendous role in preservation of earth natural balance.
Ozone is responsible of absorbing harmful ultraviolet rays (about 80%)
. without ozone these rays will reach earth causing great damage to life
and the existence of living organisms.
In late 1970s scientists declared that the ozone layer witnessed obvious
changes, the ozone is notably depleted because of chemical wastes (CO2
and other gasses of industrial wastes) .
Also they noticed that more percent of (U.V) radiation start to reach the
earth.
The ultraviolet rays cause dangerous diseases to human such as : skin
cancer and some genetic disorders.
Also cause skin dehydration to animals such as reptiles and mammals.

Figure Ozone layer

depletion through last
decades.

93
Chapter 8

Figure Ozone layer position in atmosphere.

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Human and Biosphere

SELF CHECK
HUMAN & BIOSPHERE

A. Key Terms

Pollution Radiation
Irrigation Erosion
DDT Intensive agriculture
B. Review Questions

1. How can we control noises to not harm our body?

2. Explain the effects of radiation on environment?
3. What are the dangers of irrigation to the environment?
4. What are the benefits of artificial fertilizer?
[Link] are the measures against environmental pollution?

C. Fill in the blanks

1. The ratio of oxygen in air is .................. while ratio of

carbondioxide is ........................
2. .................... is produced by the movement of boats and
ships or from damps.
3. ..................... binds to hemoglobin strongly in the lungs
and prevents the binding of oxygen.
4. The reason for the rise in the CO2 level in the atmo-
sphere is the ........................ and ..........................
5. The symptoms of lead poisoning are ..........................,
........................... and ........................

D. True or False

1. Mineral rich soil is not suitable for weed but suitable

only for crops.
2. The use of artficial fertilizers is easier than usage of
natural fertilizer.
3. Irrigation drains minerals away from the soil.
4. Monocultivation is very beneficial for soil.
5. The ozone layer reflects most of the UV light.

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