CRIMINALISTICS

This is the application of various sciences in solving problems in connection with the
administration of justice
Also referred to as Forensic Science or Police Science
The word FORENSIC was derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means
“market place”, a place where people gathered for “public discussion”. When it is used in
conjunction with other sciences it simply connotes the idea of application to law or for
administration of justice. Sometimes it is referred to as “legal”
Note: when the word forensic was used in conjunction with other science it connotes a
relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
legal.

FORENSIC SCIENCE
It refers to the application of principles of various sciences to law. It is a course or a
group of subjects which uses principles of various studies that would give light to certain legal
issues.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Application of the principles of photography to law or administration of justice

PHOTOGRAPHY
Is defined as an art or science of reproducing images of objects by the action of light on
sensitive surface with the aid of image forming device known as camera with its accessories and
the chemical process involved therein.
Photography is derived from the Greek words “Photo” or “Phos” which means light and
“Graphia” which means to write or to draw. Literally speaking photography can be defined as to
“write or draw” with the aid of light.

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Camera Obscura
The Chinese were the first people that we know to write about the basic idea of the
pinhole “camera obscura” (Latin words meaning. (Moto) “dark room”)

Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) (956-1038)

An Arabian Scholar who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or
shuttered window of a darkened room cast an upside-down picture of the scene outside onto the
opposite wall. He is considered as the FATHER OF OPTICS

Daniel Barbaro
The first to make use of a lens in the camera
Johann Heinrich Schulze
Observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to light.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1816)

He was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver chloride solution.
Fixation was partial. The first exposure with the Niepce camera took eight hours. He called his
image “Heliograph” or “sun drawing”.
He developed heliography, a technique used to create the “world’s oldest” surviving
product of a photographic process. (create the world’s first photograph)

Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1839)

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He produced the first practical photography, which was clear and required a much shorter
exposure time. He named it after himself, calling it the “daguerreotype” he used “hypo” or
“sodium thiosulfate” (fixer), to dissolve unexposed areas and to make the image permanent.

William Henry Fox Talbot (1839)

He introduces an important concept to the future of photography: The Negative. Talbot
called his image as the “calotype” or “beautiful impression”. The chemical used were potassium
iodide and silver nitrate coated to paper. Transfer of images were done through contact printing

James Clerk Maxwell (1861)

Made a research on colors of light. He also produced the first color Photographs in the
process
U.S Eastman Kodak (1888)
George Eastman’s company adds innumerable developments to the technology of
photography, but none was more significant than the introduction of the kodak box camera and
the roll film. Thus, making photography available even for amateurs.

Edwin H. Land
Introduced “Polaroid”, the One step Photography

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

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The personal identification is considered to be the first application (first use) of
photography in police work.

Alphonse Bertillion
Was the first to utilize photography in police work as supplementary identification in his
anthropometry system.

FOR COMMUNICATION
Photography is considered to be the one of the most universal methods of communication
considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.

FOR RECORD PURPOSES

Considered to be the most utmost use of photography in police work
Photograph
Is the mechanical (positive) result of the photography. Picture and Photograph are not the
same for a picture is a generic term which refers to all kind of formed image while a photograph
is an image that can only be a product of Photography

Police Photography
Is the application of the principles of photography in relation to the police work and in
the administration of justice.

Police Photographer
refers to the person who is tasked to take photographs of crime scene, suspects, witnesses
or any physical evidence founds at the crime scene, bring then to the laboratory for processing,
recording and filling.

Forensic Photography
Is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purpose of court trials

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1839 – Considered as the birthyear of Photography

REQUISITES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. LIGHT/ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
An electro-magnetic energy that can be seen by naked eye, that travels 186,000 miles per
second
Scientifically, it can be defined as an aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer
is aware through the visual sensations which arise from the stimulation of the retina of the eye
2. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
Composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being
transformed into an image through the action of light and with chemical processes.

3. CAMERA
A light tight box designed to block unwanted light reaching the sensitized material

4. CHEMICAL PROCESS
Is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as to form a latent
image and positive image.

Nature of Light
Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either reflected,
absorbed or transmitted (RAT). It is reflected when it hits a reflective surface, e.g. a mirror, and
bounces back. It is absorbed when it hits a dark colored object and is prevented from bouncing or
passing through. Lastly, it is transmitted when it hits a transparent object which would allow
light to pass through,
THEORIES OF LIGHT

Sources of Light
Natural light – light which comes to existence without the intervention of man i.e.
sunlight, moonlight and starlight

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Bright Light - object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy
Hazy Sunlight – object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow due to thin
clouds that cover the sun. in hazy sunlight the sun partially covers the sun.
Dull Sunlight – object in an open space casts no shadow due to thick clouds covering the
sun
Cloudy Bright – objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are
clearly visibly
Cloudy Dull – objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are
already limited.

Artificial Light – light sources of this category are manmade. Incandescent are the type of
artificial light that are mostly preferred for photography. These are light produce by means of
heat. It is usually called as tungsten light in photography.

The following are the common types of artificial light:

Photo flood lamp – also known as “reflectorized” light or spot light. For the reason that it
uses reflector to focus the light to the object being photograph.
Flash Bulb – are chemical lamps as it generates light by the rapid combination of metal in
oxygen. The bulb can used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically.
Fluorescent Light – These are Tube lamps wherein the walls are coated with materials
that are capable of fluorescence. These are commonly used by everybody but not merely in
photography, for the light it produces is not incandescent
Infra-Red Lamp – a special type of lamp capable of producing infra-red radiation. Useful
in Photographing objects at dark places.
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Electronic Flash – Produces light by instantaneous electrical discharge between two
electrodes in a glass filled glass bulb. This can be fired by attaching it to the camera by means of
camera “hot shoe contact” or “sync cord”

Ultra Violet Lamp – its bulb is made up of a glass transparent to ultraviolet light, and
such bulb is common to all people as “black light”

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Incandescent Bulb – are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the
electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is
more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
An artificial light source which produces a yellow light and is good outdoor for
immediately illuminate.

Phosphorescence - Emission of light from a substance exposed to radiation and persisting as an

afterglow after exciting radiation has been removed
Luminescence – emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool

Type of Weather Aperture Shutter Speed ISO

Bright Sun
f/16 1/100 100
Light/Sunny Day
Hazy/Partly Clouds f/11 1/200 200

Dull/Cloudy f/8 1/400 400

Cloudy
f/5.6 1/800 800
Bright/Overcast
Cloudy Dull/Dark
f/4 1/1600 1600
Skies
Low Light f/2.8 1/3200 3200

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BENDING OF LIGHT
Light travels in straight line in an open space. However, when lights come in contact with
an object it may be bended in the following manner:
Reflected – it is the delection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface
Absorbed – light that is block by the surface where it falls such as black cloth.
Refraction – characterize as the bending of lights.
Diffraction – bending of light (falls) around the object.
Dispersion – is the spread of light into various and different wavelength after it has refracted

Reflection
Regular Reflection
Happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface
Irregular reflection / Diffused
Happens when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy objects

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DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

1. X-RAY
 Wavelength of 01 to 30 millimicrons
 Hollow solid objects can be penetrated by this radiation
 Use in producing shadow photographs of internal structures of solid object

2. Ultra Violet Rays

 Wavelength of 30 to 400 millimicrons
 This ray gives up energy in the form of visible light that gives “florescent effect” to
the object
 Use in photographing fingerprints in multi-colored background and documents that
are altered chemically as well as detection of secret writing
 Also known as “black light”

3. Visible Light Rays

 Wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons
 Only within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of perceiving. This
produces white light
 White light is actually a mixture of seven colors, namely: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. These came from three primary colors; the blue, green and
red.

Visible Light Primary Color

Blue 400 – 500 millimicron (shortest wavelength)
Green 500 – 600 millimicron (medium wavelength)
Red 600 – 700 millimicron (longest wavelength)

4. Infra-Red
 Wavelength of 700 to 1000 millimicron

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 Beyond the red
 Useful in taking photograph of obliterated writing, burnt, dirty documents or
blackout photography
 Aka heat light

Presence of all colors and Presence of all secondary

Absence of all colors of light
primary color colors

WHITE BLACK BLACK

Additive color Subtractive color

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THEORIES OF LIGHT

1. The Wave Theory (Christian Huygens)

It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we
observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would
naturally will make the log move up and down
2. Corpuscular Theory (Newton)
This later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of
very small particles such as electrons.

3. Modified Wave Theory (Maxwell and Hertz)

Based on electromagnetics that light is form or electromagnetic energy

THE CAMERA
Camera is a light tight box with a pinhole or lens to form an image, with a shutter and
diaphragm to control the time and amount of light passing through it and a means of holding
sensitized material to record photographic images.

Note: Pinhole is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but
image is so dim that it is impractically long to be recorded even if the fastest film is used,

The Eye and the Camera

The human Eye is a highly develop organ and like the camera its purpose is to protect an
inverted image upon a light sensitive surface. The anatomy of the eye reveals that it has a
resemblance with the mechanism of the camera. Like the camera the eye has a lens, a shutter
represented by its eyelids, a variable aperture which is the pupil, a diaphragm which is the iris
and a light sensitive surface that refers to its retina.

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HUMAN EYE CAMERA
Lens Lens
Eyelids Shutter
Pupil Aperture
Iris Diaphragm
Retina Sensitive Surface

PARTS OF CAMERA

LIGHT TIGHT BOX

Is an enclosed devoid of light. Its function is to exclude all unwanted light that might
expose the sensitized material or film (unwanted exposure)

THE LENS
A transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing through it to
form an image
 Focus
 Allow
 Control

General Types of Lenses

a. Convergent / Positive / Convex Lens
Characterized by a lens thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. When light rays pass
through it, they converge and meet at certain point behind the lens. It has a positive focal
length

b. Divergent / Negative / Concave Lens

This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are
bended away from each other as if coming from a point.

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Classification of Lenses according to Focal Length
FOCAL LENGTH
is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the
lens is set to focus at infinity position. It is expressed in millimeter (indicated in the lens barrel of
the camera) and tells some important thing about how lens will act when installed on the camera.
This also determines the size of the image at a given distance, and the area coverage of the angle
of view of the lens

Wide Angle Lens / Short Focal Length (less than 35mm)

A lens with a focal length less than the diagonal of its negative material. It produces a
wide angle of view but the image decreases in size which sometimes causes distortion. Usually
used on non-spacious or narrow places or areas mostly on small rooms. Also utilized outdoor
when panoramic view is desired (Increase the area coverage but reduce the size of the object)

Normal Lens / Standard Focal Length (35 -70mm)

A lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material. This provides realistic view of the scene to be photograph.
(based on human vision)

Telephoto Lens / Long Focal Length

A lens with a focal length of more than twice of its diagonal material. This kind of lens
has a narrow angle of view. This offer great magnification and mostly use for surveillance
purposes for its capability to take pictures even at great distance. (Reduced the area coverage but
enlarged the size of the object)

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Zoom Lens
A lens with variable focal length. This enables the photographer to adjust focal length
and magnification of the lens without the need of replacement.

DEPTH OF FIELD (DOF) / FOCUS CONUNDRUM / PLANE SHAPNESS

is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp
focus in an image.

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE
Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm
opening will give the maximum depth of field
the distance at which a lens can focus to achieve the maximum depth of field. It's a useful
technique for photographers who want to capture a sharp image with a wide depth of field

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Maximum Depth of Field - Is the Depth of Field required for the crime scene photograph

DIAPHRAGM
is a camera component within a lens comprised of overlapping metal blades (the iris) that
open and close to change the size of the opening (they allow different levels of light to pass
through to the sensor - thus controlling the aperture (or f-number) and depth of field of an image

F – NUMBER

 The higher the F-Number the higher the opening

 Smaller diaphragm – wider Depth of Field
 Larger diaphragm – Shorter or Shallow Depth of Field

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THE FILM
Is a sheet of celluloid or glass or glass coated with an emulsion of silver halides
suspended in gelatin which retains on visible image when exposed to light (NEGATIVE).

Basic Parts of the film

1. Emulsion – (Coated w/ Gelatin or rosin)
- part of sensitized which is sensitive to light
- it is where silver halides rest to its surface

2. Base – plastic material support the emulsion layer. Consists of flexible transparent base with a
thin layer sensitive emulsion

3. Gray / Anti-halation – Backing is the layer placed between the emulsion and the plastic base
of the film to prevent whatever light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base
back to the emulsion (designed to prevent further reflexes by absorbing excess light)

THE BLACK AND WHITE FILM

 Consist of one sensitive layer of emulsion
 Results of the negative is in black and white (light parts of the original scene appear dark
and vice versa)
 The spectral Sensitivity – This refers to the characteristics of the film to response into
the different wavelength of light source.

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TYPES OF FILMS

(According to Spectral Sensitivity)

Blue Sensitive Film
Sensitive to UV light up to blue color
Orthochromatic Film
Sensitive to UV light up to green color
Panchromatic Film
Sensitive to UV light up to red color
Infra-red Film
Sensitive to all colors and infra-red light

(According to Use)
Black and White Film
Usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “pan” or “ortho” and generally used in black
and white photography
Colored Film
Negative Type
Reversal type
 Used in colored photography

Fine Grain – permits short exposure under average lighting condition and has the advantage of
fine grain structure
Process – low in a speed and high in contrast
High Speed – use under adverse lighting condition

THE FILM SPEED

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 The film speed is the measure of the film sensitivity to light. The higher the
sensitivity of the film the higher the film speed rating number.
 Fast speed film contains numerous numbers of large grains of silver halides that
usually develop into groups. It is advisable in photographing places with poor lighting
condition
(Types of Speed rating / Film Speed / Emulsion Speed)

ASA Rating
(American Standard Association)
Their speed rating is expressed in Arithmetical Value like; ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200,
400, 800, 1600. Each speed rating doubles the sensitivity of the next preceding number.

DIN Rating
(Deutcheln Industri Normen)
This is expressed in Logarithmic Value. In DIN each increase of tree times towards the
higher speed rating, doubles the sensitivity of the film. Common DIN ratings are 12, 15, 18, 21,
24, 27, 30, 33 degrees. It is the European member of ISO

ISO Rating
(International Standard Organization)
This is a group of standard setting bodies from many countries. Both ASA and DIN are
members of the ISO. Thus, ISO are expressed in combination of Arithmetical and Logarithmic
value, among the ISO rating are 100/21 degree or 400/27 degree.

GRAININESS / IMAGE NOISE

Refers to the amount of grain found in a
photograph
(the lower the number of emulsion speed the
finer the grains)

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THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
Sensitized paper serves as the permanent place of the photographic image after chemical
development.
It has the same layers (one emulsion for black and film except that its (photographic
paper) base is an opaque material such as paper
Sensitized that will record the visible images in the final development and become the
photograph (POSITIVE).

CHARACTERISTIC OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

(According to Types of Emulsion or Chemical Content)

Silver Bromide Emulsion

Has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging (commonly
used in forensic photography)
Silver Chloride Emulsion
Its sensitivity to light is low and commonly used in contact printing
Silver Chloro Bromide
Sensitivity to light could either be slow or fast. Therefore, could be used both for contact
printing and projection process. (most ideal paper used in police photography).

Variable Contact Printing

Combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special chlorobromide emulsion that
produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of light

(According to Contrast)
Note: Contrast of the Photographic paper depend upon its “grade”

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Velox No. 0
Used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film
Velox No. 1
Used for high contrast film (over exposed film)

Velox No. 2
Used for normal Exposed Film
Velox No. 3
Used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed film)
Velox No. 4
Used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives
Velox No. 5
used for flat negatives or unprintable

(According to Physical Characteristics)

Light Weight
Designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration
Intended for purposes which involve folding
Single Weight
Paper used for small prints or which need to be mounted on solid ad fine details
necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.
Medium Weight
Double Weight
Generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough treatment

SURFACE TEXTURE
1. Glossy paper – designed for fine details
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2. Semi-mate – obscure the fine details
3. Rough paper – used for large prints where breadth rather than detail necessary.
COLOR
White – better used in police photography
Cream – preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired
Buff paper – prepared for tone prints.

INHERENT LENS DEFECT OR ABERRATION

SPHERICAL ABERRATION
These are found on lenses with spherical surface. The rays of light passing through it
(spherical lens) are bended more sharply than those passing through the central part of the lens.
Thus, it brings the rays of light into a shorter focus than the light entering at the center. (sharp
center, blurred side)
Aberration – failure of the rays to converge at one focus because of limitation of defects in lens
or mirror
Spherical – shaped like shere

COMA / LATERAL ABERRATION

Another form of spherical aberration but more concerned with light rays entering the lens
obliquely. Also known as “Lateral Spherical Aberration”. The defect is noticeable only on the
outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduce
at the corners of the negatives are comet like form. (straight line becomes blurred) (inability to
focus straight light)
Positive coma – comet style tail scattering radially towards its optical axis.
Negative – radially away from its optical axis

CHROMATIC ABERRATION
It is the inability of the lens to focus all the colors of the light at the same point.

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Lens suffering from this defect bends light with shorter wavelength more sharply than
those with longer ones. Thus, bring blue colors of light into shorter focus than that of the red.
Caused when by lens dispersion, with different colors of light that travels at various
speed while passing through the lens

CURVATURE OF FIELD
A kind of defect where the image formed by the lens comes to a sharper focus in a curved
surface than a flat surface
Also known as circular “dome like” image

ASTIGMATISM
Inability of the lens to focus in different direction like for example a cross. This
observation occurs when the lens surface are not balance in shape or position with respect to the
principal axis of the lens.

DISTORTION
A lens with distortion is capable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or
vertical lines in an object. This is caused by the placement of diaphragm.
If the diaphragm is placed in front of the Barrel lens, straight lines near the edges of the
objects tend to bulge outside distortion.
If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens, straight lines near the edges tend to bend
inward Pincushion Distortion

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TYPE OF LENS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF CORRECTION

Achromatic Lens – a lens corrected for Chromatic Aberration

Aspherical Lens – a lens corrected for Aspherical Aberration. This lens elements has no
spherical shape design to bring all the light rays to focus at the film plane for sharp image.
Rapid Rectilinear lens – A lens corrected for Distortion
Anastigmatic Lens – A lens corrected for Astigmatism
Apochromat lens – also corrected for Astigmatism and Chromatic Aberration

SHUTTER
Controls amount of light reaching sensitized material.

SHUTTER SPEED
The speed at which the shutter of the camera closes. It refers to the effective length of
time the camera shutter is open.

Fast Shutter – freeze a moving object

Slow Shutter – Emphasize motion

KIND OF SHUTTER

Central Shutter or Between the Lens Shutter

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a shutter that is located between the lens components. It is made up of metal leaves and
its action starts from the center towards the side, then close back to the center.

Focal Plane Shutter

a shutter located near the focal plane of the film. It is usually made up of cloth curtain
opens vertically, white other camera models use horizontally moving shutter. This type of shutter
can give a faster shutter speeds than the between the lens shutter

B setting – in the shutter speed will make the shutter remain open until the shutter released
button is pressed, it will again close the moment the finger is lifted and lost its pressure to the
button.
T – Setting – has the same effect with B – setting, the only difference is that is order to make the
shutter close, the button must be pressed for the second time

X – Setting – on the other hand is use when a flash unit is desired

F - NUMBER SIZE OF APERTURE DEPTH OF FIELD AMOUNT OF LIGHT

Small F no. Bigger Aperture Shallow DOF More light

Bigger F no. Smaller Aperture Wider DOF Less light

FOCUSING
Is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image to the sensitized
material inside the camera. When the light passes through a converging lens it (light) it bends
and meet at a certain point of focus. A camera except, those fixed focused requires focusing . a
lens in focused in any of the following

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LENS Focus light

DIAPHRAGM Control amount of light

SHUTTER Allows light to pass

EXPOSURE
In the photography its all about light, and the process of controlling how much light hits
the digital sensor in your camera to produce an image.
You could say exposure is kind of an umbrella term for controlling the lightness or
darkness of a photo
In the exposure, there are 3 main ingredients or elements that work together : Aperture,
Shutter Speed, and ISO
 Illumination
 Time

SYNCHRONIZATION
 Timing between the shutter and the flash
 The problem that usually encountered by a photographer

PENTAPRISIM
Is a five-sided reflecting prism used to deviate a beam of light by a constant 90degree ,
even if the entry beam is not 90degree to prism
Lens system of the camera reflects the light passing the lens and mirror, making the
image possible to be viewed from the viewfinder

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ESSENTIAL PARTS OF CAMERA

LIGHT TIGHT BOX / BODY

The main frame or housing of the camera
LENS
The image forming device. It is used to collect, transmit, focus the light coming from the
subject

SHUTTER
Controls the light reaching the sensitized material. It is used to allow the light at a
predetermined time interval
Fast shutter – speed means that the shutter is only open for a short period of time (to
freeze)
Slow shutter – speed means the shutter is open for longer (to emphasize motion)

FILM HOLDER

VIEW FINDER / VIEWING SYSTEM

It provides means for the photographer to view the area coverage or perspective of the
camera
The view finder of the camera determines the entire scene coverage that will be recorded
on the film inside the camera. In SLR types of camera, the viewfinder shows exactly what the
lens sees

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OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA

FILM ADVANCER
The mechanism transfer the exposed film on the take up spool while at the same time
advancing the next remaining unexposed film behind the lens for new exposed.

FOCUSING MECHANISM
The focusing system of the camera provides sharpness and clearness to the object being
photograph. The mechanism will determine the distance of the object from the camera, where the
image will appear sharp and focused.

CAMERA ACCESSORIES

TRIPAD
are the most popular useful camera support for general photography. These three-legged
camera serves two useful functions;
 Virtually eliminate camera shake that induce image blur
 A tripod locks in your composition so you can carefully examine it and won’t have to
worry about accidentally changing it as you make the exposure.

PHOTO - FILTER
Photo filter is a transparent homogenous medium, which absorbs and transmit different
light rays passing through it. It usually made up of small disk of colored glass or sometimes from
gelatin cemented between glass plates. The filter itself is screwed in front of the lens barrel or
sometimes came up with its own holder.

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A filter works as it transmit light of its own color and absorbs light of its complementary
colors.

TYPES OF FILTER
Correction Filter / Light Balancing Filter
Is used to change the response of the film so that all colors are recorded at approximately
relative brightness value as seen by the eyes. Correction filter allows the user to use indoor film
in daylight films in indoor photography. (indoor film is often known as Tungsten Film)

Contrast Filter
This filter is used to change the relative brightness value in the photograph, so the two
colors which would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same, might exhibit different brightness
and great tonal difference in final print.

Haze Filter
This filter is used to reduce or eliminate the effect of serial haze, which makes distant
objects, appeared blurred and fuzzy in the photograph. A practically clear haze filter, for color
film reduced some of this atmospheric haze.

Neutral Density Filter

A grayish colored filter used for reducing amount of light transmitted without changing
the color value

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Polarizing Filter
These are filter capable of reducing or eliminating reflections on highly reflective
surfaces, therefore allowing you to photograph objects enclosed in transparent glass, or subjects
with a highly reflective background.

CABLE RELEASE
These come in different length and allowed the operator to fire the camera from a
distance. This is attached to the shutter release of the camera and use in releasing the shutter to
prevent unnecessary movement caused be pressing the shutter release button to permit longer
exposure.

FLASH UNIT
This could be either be a flash bulb or electronic flash, which is synchronized to the
action of the shutter. This is very effective especially when there’s no enough light for the object
being photograph. This accessory could enable the operator to stop or arrest the movement of the
subject.

LIGHT METER
A device used in determining the intensity of light that strike the subject and affect the
film. It is used in order to determine the possible correct amount of exposure.

MAJOR TYPE OF CAMERA

VIEW FINDER TYPE
 The smallest and simplest type of camera to operate.
 Eye level camera equipped with a simple lens system
 Inexpensive and allow the operator to focus even in low light level
 Suffers from “Parallax error”

Parallax is the change in appearance and orientation of objective when sees from two
viewpoints. It also used to refer to the distance between the viewpoint themselves
Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye sees object from two viewpoints.
The left and righteye images on the retina have parallax – that is they are not identical.

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Parallax in viewfinder cameras shows difference on what the viewfinder sees as
compared to what the capturing lens sees. The result, some parts of the subject were missing in
the final print.

SINGLE LENS REFLEX TYPE (SLR)

 Allows the operator to view and focus through the same lens that captured image on the
film
 This type of camera automatically eliminates “Parallax Error”
 Heavier and more complex than the viewfinder type
 Create a loud click during exposure that makes it ineffective for self-conscious subject
 Not advisable to be used in poor lighting condition.
 Ideal in police photography

TWIN LENS REFLEX

 A camera with two lenses
 The upper lens is the focusing lens and the lower lens is the taking lens
 Best used in ground subject
 Suffers from “Parallax Error”


VIEW / PRESS CAMERA

 Considered as the most sophisticated and biggest among the different types of camera.
 Provides through the lens viewing and large photograph
 Focusing is achieved by moving the lens forward or backward until a sharp image is seen
in the viewing screen
 Parallax Error is eliminated
 Due to its bulkiness, it requires tripod to operate smoothly
 Useless for candid or action photography
 It creates discomfort for the operator for the image in the viewing screen appears inverted

CALCULATING FILM EXPOSURE

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There is no such thing as correct exposure but only ideal or proper exposure. Exposure is
therefore subject and errors in calculating could result in either “over exposed” or “under
exposed”. Error in exposure might affect the details, tone reproduction and contrast of the
photograph.
A universal exposure guide for color and black and white films are based on the
following factors:
a. Film Speed
b. Lighting Condition
c. Type of subject

EXPOSURE TRIANGLE

Image Noise
Motion Blur

Depth of Filed

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

Chemical Processing – refers to the process of making latent photographic image visible and
permanent. This involves the production of negatives from an exposed film and positive prints
from the negative.

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STAGES INVOLVED IN PROCESSING

1. Development
it is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver.
Converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic silver

Elon Hydroquenone – used as the main developing agent

CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF THE DEVELOPER

Elon / Hydroquinone (Reducer or Developing Agent) – reduced the exposed silver
halide to metallic silver.
Sodium Sulfite (Preservative) – prevents the formation of stains to the developer product
Sodium Carbonate (Accelerator) – accelerates the process of reduction
Potassium Bromide (Restrainer or Fog Preventer) – reduce fog on the latent image

(Temperature of the developing solution)

 The higher the temperature the less developing times the lower the temperature the lower
the developing time
(Agitation or stirring during development)
 The more the agitation the less developing time, the less the agitation the more the
developing time.

2. Stop bath
Is used to halt(stop) the developing process to prevent the picture from getting darker
An intermediate bath between the developer and fixer, it is usually a combination of
water plus acetic acid or just plain water. Primarily its function is to prevent the combination
of the chemical solution.
This is done up to 30 seconds

3. Fixation

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Makes the image permanent and light resistant by dissolving any remaining silver halide
salts.
The process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the first stage
of development of the latent image. This is done from 20 – 30 minutes

CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF FIXATION

Sodium Thiosulfate / Hypo (Dissolving agent) – main fixing that dissolves unexposed
silver halides. Responsible for dissolving unexposed silver halide. This is done to eliminate the
light sensitive characteristics of the sensitized material.
Sodium Sulfate (Preservative) – prevents the precipitation of sulfur. It also prevents the
oxidation of the developing solution carried over in the fixing bath
Boric and Acetic Acid (Neutralizer) – is the anti-staining agent of the fixing solution.
They neutralize carried over chemicals from the developer. This will prevent the weakening of
the fixing solution and staining of the image produced on the surface of the sensitized material.
Hardening Agent – hardens the gelatin of the sensitized material, which was softened in
the developing solution. This makes the metallic silver permanent

DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

The laboratory for developing photographic paper is divided into dry and wet area.
Development process involves enlarging process. This involves the use of projection or
enlarger.

FOUR ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN ENLARGER

1. Base
2. Lamp house
3. Condenser or Diffuser
4. Lens

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ACCESSORIES OF THE ENLARGER
1. Negative holder
2. Easel – for photographic paper

STEPS IN ENLARGING
Dry Area:
1. Preparation of the dark room, chemical and enlarger
2. Put off white light, switch on red light
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with the dull side of the negative facing down
4. Insert the negative holder to enlarger
5. Switch on the enlargers light
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel with the shiny side
10. Make the exposure
Wet Area:
1. Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the developer. The usual developing time for
normally exposed paper is about 60 and 90 seconds
2. Transfer the develop print in the stop bath for 30 seconds.
3. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing time is about 20-30 minutes
4. Drying
5. Mounting

REMEDYING CHEMICAL DEFECTS IN NEGATIVES

1. Underdevelopment (intensifier)
2. Overdevelopment (reducer)
3. Stains (stain remover)

Cropping – is the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final prints,

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Burning-in – is the adding of exposure time on the specific area to bring out details, while
Dodging is the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in density.
Dye toning – is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph
Vignitting – is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through the skillful adjustment
on the dodging board

PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Function of Photography in police investigative Work Application to investigative Work

a. Identification
b. Recording and Preserving
c. Discovering and Proving
 Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different film and papers
 Magnification of minute objects through Photomicrography and Macrophotography

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

Crime Scene photography - is the taking of photographs of the scene of the crime, rather
than the criminal.

GENERAL VIEW - Location of the crime scene

(4 angles)
-Their purpose is to show exactly where the scene was and to show all boundaries of the
scene

MEDIUM VIEW
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This
view will best view the nature of the crime. (8-10 ft.)

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CLOSE-UP VIEW
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is design
to show the best feature the physical evidence existing at the crime scene

EXTREME CLOSE-UP VIEW

= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as
Photomacrography and photomicrography. Details of evidence

THE USE OF MAGNIFICATION

Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a

camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a

Photomacrography = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by

attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrography.

Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a scenario. It is

first used in filmmaking.

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Photomacrography /
Photomicrography Microphotography
Macrophotography
The science of obtaining Is a process of obtaining Is the taking of a photograph of
photographic magnification of magnified photograph of a an object in a very reduced
minute objects by using a small objects w/o the use of a sized, or providing tiny images
camera attached to a compound macroscope by using a short of large object
 microscope focus lens and a long bellow
extension

 using Macro Lens

is a lens that specifically
allows you to focus extremely
close to a subject so that is
appears large in the view finder
(and final image)
The process of providing an enlarge photographic image of minute objects

Recording action of offenders

 Surveillance
 Entrapment
 Extra Judicial Confession
 Re Enactment of a crime
Court Exhibits
 Individual Photograph
 Slide Projections
 Comparison charts
Crime Prevention
 Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education and MO’s
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 Public Information and Relation
 Posters of Wanted Criminals
 Crime Alerts
 Photographs of Humanitarian services
 Police Training
 Prepared Training Films (investigation techniques)
 Traffic Studies
 Documentaries

Crime Scene Photography (General Consideration)

1. Provides photographic image that will give information to assist the investigation and
subsequent prosecution of criminal cases
2. Serves s visual permanent record of location and condition of different aspect of the
scene and the vital evidences of proof
3. it must be done completely and accurately before touching anything from the crime
scene.

Crime Scene Photograph

1. to photographs must show WHERE and HOW the crime was committed
2. Photographs should not be only limited to the immediate vicinity where the crime took
place (crime Scene), but as well as to those adjacent areas where important acts took
place before or after the commission of the crime
3. Photographs taken must establish the elements of the offense. (This can be done by
consulting the investigator on the case)

 It is wise to take more pictures than few

 The photographic process must be from General to Specific (which consists of a General
View, Medium View, Close-up and Extreme Close-up

The photographic range or views includes the:

1. Location – photographs should include various places which are part of the crime scene
2. Nature – Photographs must clearly show the type of crime committed
3. Result – it must be taken in sequential fashion to establish relevance of evidence to the
other to establish their connection to the accused.
4. Follow-up – photographs represents the outgrowth of the investigation. (Autopsy, Bruises
and wounds on live victims or suspects)

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Perspective / Camera Position
1. Crime scene photographs must meet the eye of an average observer. In order to do this,
photographs should be taken in Straight Forward
2. The size and distance of objects in the photographs must convey a normal impression to
the average viewer.
3. Photographs should be taken at an “Eye Level Position”

Lenses
 Wide angle lens and Normal lens are best suited for crime scene photography
 Wide angle lens are used to photograph the location of the crime scene especially its
Narrow areas. While normal lens are used for taking medium shots.

Lighting
 Illumination form slave or flash units are often utilized

Markers in the Field of View

 Ruler or measuring device
 Identification data
 Location Markers

Photographs log
It is a record of data regarding the circumstances surrounding or related to the picture
taking of the crime scene must be noted for instant recollection

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Basic Rule on Admissibility
The photograph should be the True and Faithful representation of the scene or subject
matter as seen by the naked eye. (does not mislead in any aspect)
The court have taken judicial notice that “the process to which the lens of a camera forms
an image are dependent upon or governed by the same natural law as an image is formed by the
“Human eye” (justice Sison of the Supreme Court)

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It must undergo verification as to its exactness and accuracy either by the photographer
himself, or any other person who has personal knowledge and have seen the subject

Degree of Enlargement or Size of Photographic Exhibits

 A large display print should have a print size of 11” x 14” or even 16” x 24”
 A hand-held print must have a size of 4” x 5” or 5” x 7”

Qualification
 In testifying, his purpose should be to explain not defend his photographs
 He should be presented as an experienced photographer proficient in the technique that
was used in producing the evidence photograph
 To be considered as an “expert” must be leave to the discretion of the Honorable Court
 Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer maybe asked certain
questions to establish his competence on the basis of his experience and training. He must
be prepared to prove the satisfaction of the court that training and experience have
qualified him for the work related to physical evidence.

LEGAL IMPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

In court proceedings, judges, fiscals, and defense lawyers have generally never visited the
scene of the crime. Photographs greatly facilitate them in interpreting the scene.
A permanent record of the crime scene is considered indispensable to a successful
presentation of the case in court. A crime that is altered through carelessness and haste can never
be restored to its exact original condition.
The cases enumerated below demonstrate the usefulness of photographic evidence in
court.
People vs. Sacab, 57 SCRA 707 and People vs. Ison, 173 SCRA 118 Physical evidence
is evidence of the highest order. It speaks more eloquently than a hundred witnesses.
People vs. Uycoque, 246 SCRA 769 and People vs. Nepomuceno, Jr., 298 SCRA 450
Physical evidence is mute but an eloquent manifestation of truth and they rate high in our
hierarchy of trustworthy evidence.
Sison vs. People, 250 SCRA 58 - Photographs can be identified by the photographer or
by any other competent witness who can testify to its exactness and accuracy.

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CALDE vs. CA, 52 SCAD 453, 233 SCRA 382 - Autopsic preference is the acquisition
of knowledge from direct self- perception or autopsy. It is one of three accepted sources from
which a tribunal may properly acquire knowledge for making its decisions (the other two being
circumstantial evidence and testimonial evidence).

FINGERPRINT PHOTOGRAPHY
Fingerprint is one of the most convincing means of establishing the fact that the suspect
was present at the crime scene. Without photography, such evidence would lose some of its
effectiveness. Since fingerprints are found on fixed objects and cannot be brought to the
laboratory or later, in court, while others are barely visible to the naked eye. These and other
difficulties are readily overcome by photography. Fingerprints are easily destroyed by careless
handling or exposure to weather so it must be recorded and preserved photographically.
Fingerprint is a record of the pattern of friction ridges of the skin of the fingers.
Fingerprints left accidentally at the scene of a crime or those impressed on a fingerprint card of
an individual are photographed to serve the following purpose:
1. Makes permanent records of fingerprints
2. Will bring out faint fingerprints which cannot be studied by the naked eye but often are of
great value for identification purposes.
3. It can magnify a fingerprint to almost any extent desired.
4. Will make possible the side-by-side comparisons of magnified fingerprints for the courts to
see whether or not two or more fingerprints are identical in detail

Whether chance impression is latent or visible, their photographing is a task calling for technical
skill and knowledge. An accidental impression is rarely as perfect as a prepared impression with
ink by a skilled fingerprint technician. Very often there are some parts fragmentary or some parts
smudge.

Types of Fingerprints
Since the photographing of fingerprints is to help the fingerprint expert to be able to study,
analyze, and compare fingerprints, in any type of fingerprint it must be taken at one is to one
(actual) size and to obtain good definition and proper contrast.
1. Plain or black fingerprints on black or dark background.
2. White fingerprints on black or dark background.
When a fingerprint impression is developed with white or metallic powder on a black or dark
background, it is considered as a reversed print because the fingerprint ridges which are
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supposed to be rendered black appears white instead a corrective measure is to take photograph
or make a contact print on another film the negative of the fingerprint. This transparency is the
one that is printed or enlarged for examination and comparison.
3. Black fingerprint on colored background. This may need the use of a filter. To obtain
maximum contrast use a color filter with the same color of the background to lighten it
4. Black fingerprint on multi-colored background. This should be photographed with ultra-violet
radiation.
5. Fingerprints on glass, plastic materials or on polished metal. The problem encountered in these
types of materials is the reflections that they create when lighted. The solution is in using a
polarizing filter or the application of tent lighting technique or both.

6. Fingerprints on paper. Fingerprints on papers are not developed with powders but with iodine
fuming or the application or Ninhydrine solution. However, the fingerprints will fade after a few
minutes so if this procedure is undertaken, the camera and other equipment must be made ready
so when the fingerprints appear, they are immediately. photographed

7. Fingerprints on mirror.
The problem is that the image of the camera lens can interfere with the fingerprint pattern. To
resolve the problem, soak a piece of chalk on water then carefully encircle the fingerprint with it
before photographing. Another method is to scrape or remove the coating of the mirror at its
back to make it transparent. Discretion and caution is however adviced on this procedure because
it might be subject to objection from the opposing lawyer in court.
In photographing the different types of fingerprints, the choice of film to be used is sometimes
also critical. There are instances that an orthochromatic film may yield better result than a
panchromatic film. Since most subjects are for enlargements to size 8" x 10" or bigger, the use of
film rated ISO 100/21° or lower is adviced.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PHOTOGRAPHY

In no other type of forensic examination is photography used so extensively in explaining
points of proof to the court than in questioned documents examination. In this photographic
work, the photographer should be under the guidance and supervision of the document examiner
so the photographic objective is clearly defined. The contrast balance and tonal reproduction that
is required to clearly show and record the paper and the writings to line quality, pen pressure,
and their darkened edges is so critical and demanding every knowledge and technical skill of the
photographer. Some documents require exceedingly high or abnormal contrast to bring out what
does not respond to ordinary processes so again, the photographer must be innovative.

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GENERAL USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION
1. Documents submitted for examination should be photographed immediately for record
purposes, a good photographic copy of the document can be used for case study thereby freeing
the possible soiling or mutilation of the original document. Moreover, when two or more
examiners have to examine the same document for a collegial expert opinion, it can easily be
replicated so every examiner can examine the document at the same time without bothering one
another.
2. Magnification. Handwritings and typewriting’s are both too small in their original sizes to
study and determine whether it is genuine or forgery so they have to be enlarged.
3. Side by side comparison. Many people cannot see points of identity or difference until objects
that are compared are placed side-by-side. Photographs can be cut apart so the portions to be
compared are placed side by side.

Areas of photographic concern:

1. Handwritings
a. form of the handwriting
b. line quality
c. patching
d. sequence of crossed lines
e. writing over fold
f. differentiation of inks or pencils

2. Typewritings

a. type design.
b. alignment
c. slant
d. evenness of impression
e. defective characters

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f. substitution
g. identity of the operator

3. Papers
a. erasures
1. mechanical - sidelight photography
2. chemical ultraviolet or infra-red photography
b. Paper identification (watermarks) - transmitted light photography
c. Eliminations of paper background - use of filters.

Basic Requirement for the Admissibility of Photographs as Evidence in Court.

No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are at the crime scene, photographs
must stand the test of legal admissibility. The general standards used to review the credibility of
the photographs include:

1. Faithful representation or accurate representation of the original object or subject.

The photograph must be free from distortion and must not misrepresent the scene or object.
Faithful representation means the same likeness as the original or as seen by the naked eye. What
is required by law is the likeness of the original. A mere shadow of an object is not a faithful and
accurate representation of that object.
In the case of the City of Manila vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil. 151, it was held that photographs are
admissible as evidence when shown to be a true and faithful representation of the object as seen
by the naked eye (upon proof of their exactness and accuracy).
Photographs that have been identified and found relevant must be shown to be the accurate
reproduction of the matter they depict. This essential element in qualifying photographs for
admission is usually supplied by a witness who testifies that the photograph is a fair and accurate
representation of the scene as he observed it firsthand.

Proof of accuracy is the preliminary evidence that it is a correct representation or reproduction of

what is required before admission as evidence (Cabangis vs. City of Manila)
It is an error to admit a photograph as evidence when there is no evidence identifying it or
proving its accuracy (Hammond Packing Co. vs. Dickey 106, California Court of Appeals, 317)

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It is a constant practice of courts to receive evidence pictures, drawings, and photographs of
objects that cannot be brought inside the courtroom, upon proof of their exactness and accuracy
as representation of the original subject or object (Jones on Evidence, Vol. 2, Sec. 597, cited in
city of Manila vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil. 155)
Photographs are, therefore, relevant materials qualified for admission by the supportive
testimony of a witness, usually persons who witness the matter being photographed. The
verifying witness is often the photographer who took the photograph, but it may be anyone who
can identify the subject matter and state that the reproduction is accurate. A photograph standing
alone, without authentication or verifying testimony cannot become part of the evidence.

2. Relevant/material and competent

Rule 128, Sec. 3 of the Rules of Evidence states that evidence is admissible when it is relevant to
the issue and is not excluded by the law or rules of court. Material refers to the probative value of
the evidence; relevant relates to the case under investigation; and competent means sanctioned
by the rules of court.
Photographs are relevant if they either assist witnesses in presenting and explaining their
testimony or aid the court in understanding the issues in the suit. All photographs must relate to
the matter at hand. They must be appropriate and must not show anything that has nothing to do
with the case. One of the most frequent faults in crime scene photographs is the presence of
many police officers in the photograph. These men are not relevant. The crime scene should be
photographed empty of everything that was not used there when the police arrived.

3. No inflammatory content/unbiased
Another issue to avoid in police photography is the inclusion of emotional matters that might be
classed by the court as inflammatory, or tending to affect the emotions of the viewer. An
example of this would be photograph of a murder scene with hysterical female relatives of the
victim crying in the background, or a photograph of the wounds on the corpse including the
exposed sexual organ of the victim. If these private parts are not relevant, they should be
decently covered.

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