VOLUME 2

NOTES 1

Here’s a detailed research summary based on the provided file regarding the requested topics:

Expedition of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564-1568)

The expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in
the Philippines. Initially, the mission was thought to be aimed at colonizing New Guinea, as per
the orders of the viceroy of New Spain, Luis de Velasco. However, the instructions from the
Audiencia explicitly stated that the voyage was meant for the Philippines.

Legazpi’s fleet set sail from Puerto de Navidad on November 20, 1564. The fleet consisted of
four vessels: two galleons, the San Pedro and San Pablo, and two pataches, San Juan and San
Lucas. These ships carried a mix of soldiers, sailors, and Augustinian friars, including Fray
Andrés de Urdaneta, an experienced navigator.

●​ Upon arrival in Cebu in 1565, Legazpi faced resistance from local chieftains, who had
prior hostile encounters with the Portuguese.
●​ The Spanish forces captured Cebu on April 27, 1565, after intense fighting, forcing the
natives to retreat to the mountains.
●​ Inside Cebu, the Spanish found an image of the Santo Niño and some artillery pieces
believed to be from Magellan’s expedition.

The fleet established a permanent Spanish settlement in Cebu, which became the center of
Spanish rule in the Philippines. However, they faced ongoing challenges, including supply
shortages and conflicts with local inhabitants and Portuguese rivals.

Warrant of the Augustinian Authorities in Mexico Establishing the First

Branch of Their Brotherhood in the Philippines (1564)

The Augustinian Order played a crucial role in the spiritual and educational mission of Spanish
colonization. On February 5, 1564, in Culhuacan, Mexico, a decree was issued by the
Augustinian authorities, including Fray Pedro de Herrera, Fray Diego de Vertavillo, and Fray
Antonio de Aguilar, granting Fray Andrés de Urdaneta the full authority to lead the spiritual
mission in the expedition.

This warrant granted:

●​ The authority to establish Augustinian monasteries and missions in the Philippines.
●​ Permission for Augustinians to administer sacraments to Spaniards and indigenous
converts.
●​ The power to preach Christianity and establish religious governance over the newly
converted natives.

This was the first official establishment of a Catholic religious order in the Philippines, laying
the foundation for Spanish missionary work in the archipelago.

A Letter from the Royal Officials of the Filipinas Accompanied by a

Memorandum of the Necessary Things to Be Sent to the Colony

A letter from the royal officials Guido de Labecares, Andres Cauchela, and Andres de
Mirandaola, dated May 28, 1565, describes the difficulties of the Spanish settlement in Cebu.

Key points from the letter:

●​ The natives were hostile and unwilling to submit, primarily due to prior Portuguese
violence.
●​ The Spanish forces lacked supplies, including food, weapons, and reinforcements.
●​ A memorandum was included listing supplies needed from Mexico, including:
○​ 12 pieces of heavy artillery for fortifications.
○​ 300 arquebuses, gunpowder, and lead for military use.
○​ Cloth, metal tools, and building materials for sustaining the colony.

The letter also expresses the urgent need for more settlers, skilled laborers, and religious
figures, emphasizing that the success of the colony depended on continuous support from
Spain.

Negotiations Between Legazpi and Pereira Regarding the Spanish

Settlement at Cebu (1568-1569)

In 1568, a Portuguese armada under Gonzalo Pereira arrived at Cebu to challenge the
Spanish presence. Pereira claimed that the Philippines fell under Portuguese jurisdiction,
per the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529), and demanded Legazpi’s withdrawal.

The negotiations between Legazpi and Pereira involved:

1.​ Portuguese demands for Spain to vacate Cebu, which Legazpi refused.
2.​ Legazpi asserting Spain’s right to the territory as per King Philip II’s orders.
3.​ A blockade by the Portuguese, cutting off Spanish supplies.
4.​ Legazpi’s persistence, maintaining the settlement despite the siege and lack of
reinforcements.

Ultimately, the Portuguese failed to dislodge the Spanish, and Legazpi solidified Spain’s
claim over Cebu. This event was a key moment in Spanish-Portuguese rivalries in Asia and set
the stage for further Spanish expansion in the Philippines.

Conclusion

The Legazpi expedition was a turning point in Philippine history, leading to Spanish
colonization, the establishment of Catholic missions, and continued conflicts with the
Portuguese. The challenges faced by the first Spanish settlers highlight the difficulties of
colonization and the role of military force, religious influence, and strategic diplomacy in
securing Spain’s control over the islands.

Would you like me to refine or expand on any specific part?

NOTES 2

Here is a **more detailed** account of the requested topics, incorporating specific events and
characters, while maintaining the storyline.

---
1.​ The Expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi (1564-1568)**

### **Background and Preparation**

In **1559**, King **Philip II of Spain** ordered the **Viceroy of New Spain, Luis de Velasco**, to
prepare an expedition to the "Western Islands," primarily for trade and potential colonization.
The king was particularly interested in establishing a **return route across the Pacific** to
secure a trading link between the Philippines and Mexico.

The **Augustinian friar Andrés de Urdaneta**, a former explorer with knowledge of the Pacific,
was chosen as the expedition's **spiritual leader and navigator**. He was reluctant at first but
eventually agreed.

By **1564**, after several delays in shipbuilding and provisioning, the **fleet was ready at
Puerto de Navidad (modern-day Colima, Mexico)**. The fleet included:

- **Two large galleons**: *San Pedro* (flagship, commanded by Legazpi) and *San Pablo*
- **Two smaller ships (pataches)**: *San Juan* and *San Lucas*
- **A brigantine for shallow waters**

### **Departure and Early Difficulties**

On **November 20, 1564**, Legazpi set sail with **380 men**, including **priests, soldiers, and
sailors**. Initially, the **fleet followed a southwesterly course**, but after opening sealed royal
instructions mid-voyage, Legazpi altered the route toward the **Philippines instead of New
Guinea**.

- The **patach *San Lucas***, commanded by **Alonso de Arellano**, **separated from the
fleet** and independently reached the Philippines ahead of the others.
- The fleet **struggled with navigation**, as pilots gave different distance estimates.
**Urdaneta**’s calculations were more accurate, though he adjusted them to maintain unity.

### **First Landfall – The Marianas (January 1565)**

The fleet reached **Guam and other islands in the Marianas**, encountering **hostile
Chamorros**.

- The Chamorros **traded dishonestly**, giving **bundles of sand instead of rice** and stealing
Spanish items.
- A **conflict broke out** when natives attacked the *San Juan*, wounding Captain **Juan de la
Isla**. In retaliation, **100 Spanish soldiers raided the village**, burning houses and **hanging
several natives**.

### **Arrival in the Philippines – Cebu and the Santo Niño (April 1565)**
After brief stops in **Leyte, Bohol, and Samar**, Legazpi’s fleet arrived in **Cebu** on **April 27,
1565**. The **Cebuanos, led by Rajah Tupas**, were hostile, remembering the Portuguese and
Magellan’s earlier attack.

- **Spanish artillery bombardment** forced the Cebuanos to flee to the mountains.

- **Soldiers looted the abandoned town**, finding food, gold, and **a small wooden image of the
Santo Niño (Child Jesus)** inside a burnt house.
- Legazpi interpreted the **Santo Niño as a divine sign**, ordering a church to be built in its
honor—the start of Spanish Catholicism in the Philippines.

Despite their initial success, the Spanish struggled with **supply shortages, native resistance,
and Portuguese threats**, forcing them to establish **trade and alliances with other native
groups**.

---

## **2. Warrant of the Augustinian Authorities in Mexico Establishing the First Branch of
Their Brotherhood in the Philippines (1564)**

### **Authorization of the Augustinians**

On **February 5, 1564**, in **Culhuacan, Mexico**, the **Augustinian Provincial Council**,
under **Fray Pedro de Herrera**, issued a **warrant** authorizing their religious mission in the
Philippines.

### **Key Provisions of the Warrant:**

1. **Authority to establish missions and convert the natives**
- Augustinians were granted power to **baptize, teach doctrine, and establish churches**.
2. **Spiritual leadership under Fray Andrés de Urdaneta**
- As the **Superior of the mission**, Urdaneta was responsible for overseeing religious
activities.
3. **Jurisdiction over religious governance**
- The first **Augustinian monastery was to be built in Cebu**.

Upon arrival, **six Augustinian friars**, including **Fray Diego de Herrera and Fray Martín de
Rada**, started the **first Catholic missions** in the Philippines.

---
## **3. A Letter from the Royal Officials of the Filipinas Accompanied by a Memorandum
of the Necessary Things to Be Sent to the Colony (1565)**

### **Difficulties in the Cebu Settlement**

By **May 28, 1565**, **three royal officials in Cebu**—**Guido de Lavezaris (Treasurer),
Andres Cauchela (Accountant), and Andres de Mirandaola (Factor)**—sent a desperate **letter
to the king of Spain** requesting **supplies and reinforcements**.

### **Key Points of the Letter:**

1. **Lack of food and resources**
- Many soldiers suffered from **malnutrition and disease**.
- The **natives refused to trade food**, fearing Spanish dominance.
2. **Hostility of the natives**
- The Cebuanos **resisted Spanish rule**, forcing the Spaniards to live in a **fortified camp**.
3. **List of necessary supplies requested:**
- **Weapons and artillery** (12 cannons, 300 arquebuses, and gunpowder)
- **Medical supplies** for the sick
- **Construction materials** for building fortifications
- **Additional settlers** (including skilled craftsmen and farmers)

### **Memorandum on Supplies Sent to Cebu**

A separate memorandum listed goods **to be shipped from Mexico**, including:
- **Iron tools and nails** for ship repairs
- **European textiles and wine** for bartering with native elites
- **More Catholic priests** to convert the population

The letter **pleaded for urgent reinforcements**, warning that without aid, the settlement **could
fail**.

---

## **4. Negotiations Between Legazpi and Pereira Regarding the Spanish Settlement at
Cebu (1568-1569)**

### **Portuguese Blockade and Siege of Cebu (1568)**

In **1568**, **Portuguese Captain-General Gonzalo de Pereira** arrived in Cebu with a fleet of
**six warships**. He claimed that **the Philippines belonged to Portugal** under the **Treaty of
Zaragoza (1529)** and ordered Legazpi to **abandon Cebu**.

### **Legazpi’s Response**

- **He refused to leave**, asserting that the king of Spain had sanctioned their presence.
- He offered **diplomatic negotiations**, proposing a trade partnership.

### **Portuguese Hostilities**

Pereira **blockaded Cebu**, cutting off Spanish supplies. The Spaniards **faced starvation**,
with many **resorting to eating unripe fruits and herbs**.

- On **October 3, 1568**, **Portuguese warships bombarded Spanish positions**, attempting to

force a surrender.
- The Portuguese tried to **poison the Spanish water supply**.

### **Legazpi’s Strategy and Victory**

Despite these hardships, Legazpi’s forces:
1. **Held firm in Cebu**, relying on limited food supplies and reinforcements from local allies.
2. **Outlasted the Portuguese siege**, forcing Pereira to withdraw **in early 1569** due to
typhoons and Portuguese naval losses.
3. **Strengthened Spanish claims** over the Philippines by proving their resilience.

### **Aftermath**
After the **Portuguese withdrawal**, Legazpi moved his capital to **Panay** (1569) before
ultimately relocating to **Manila in 1571**, solidifying **Spanish rule over the islands**.

---

## **Conclusion**
The expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi **permanently established Spanish rule in the
Philippines**, despite **hostile natives, limited resources, and Portuguese aggression**. The
**Augustinians began their missionary work**, the **Spanish settlement faced major struggles**,
and **diplomatic and military confrontations with the Portuguese** marked the early years of
colonization.

Would you like **even more expansion** on any specific aspect?

WARRANT OF THE AUGUSTINIAN AUTHORITIES IN MEXICO

The "Warrant of the Augustinian Authorities in Mexico Establishing the First Branch of Their
Brotherhood in the Philippines—1564" is an official document granting authority and instructions
to the Augustinian missionaries as they embark on a religious mission to the Philippines. This
warrant highlights the religious, political, and social intentions behind the expedition,
demonstrating how religion was used as a tool for colonization.

Purpose of the Warrant

The primary purpose of the warrant was to establish the first branch of the Augustinian Order in
the Philippines. It authorizes the missionaries to spread Christianity and convert the native
population. It also provides the missionaries with the powers necessary to conduct religious
services, establish churches and monasteries, and administer sacraments.

Key Individuals Involved

1.​ Fray Pedro de Herrera - Vicar General of the Augustinian Order in the Indies.
2.​ Fray Diego de Vertavillo - Provincial of the same order in Nueva España (Mexico).
3.​ Fray Andrés de Urdaneta - Appointed as the Prior and Prelate for the expedition.
4.​ Fray Diego de Herrera, Andrés de Aguirre, Lorenzo de San Esteban, Martin de
Rada, and Fray Diego de Torres - The missionaries assigned to the Philippines.
5.​ Miguel López de Legazpi - Commander of the Spanish expedition, responsible for
overseeing the secular side of the colonization efforts.

Religious Objectives

●​ Evangelization: The missionaries were tasked with converting the indigenous people to
Christianity.
●​ Baptism and Instruction: They were authorized to baptize those who accepted the faith
and provide religious instruction following the Catholic doctrine.
●​ Combat Idolatry: The warrant emphasized the goal of eradicating local religious beliefs
and practices, which were viewed as forms of idolatry.

Papal and Ecclesiastical Authority

The document cites the approval and privileges granted by various Popes, including Julius II,
Leo X, Clement VII, and Paul III. These privileges extended to the missionaries the authority to
act as preachers, confessors, and administer sacraments in regions without established church
leadership.
Political and Colonial Context

While the warrant primarily serves religious purposes, it indirectly supports Spain’s colonial
ambitions. The establishment of a Christian presence in the Philippines aligned with Spain's
policy of expanding its territories and converting indigenous populations. The missionaries were
also encouraged to promote loyalty to the Spanish crown and the Catholic Church, ensuring the
spread of Spanish influence.

Missionary Conduct and Expectations

The warrant sets clear expectations for the missionaries' conduct, emphasizing:

●​ Humility and Discipline: They were instructed to act as role models in virtue and
maintain the principles of their religious order.
●​ Unity and Charity: Emphasis was placed on maintaining brotherly love and unity,
reflecting Christian values.
●​ Respect for Indigenous People: While the document's tone reflects the colonial
mindset of the time, it also encouraged peaceful interactions and the demonstration of
Christian kindness.

Authority of Fray Andrés de Urdaneta

As the appointed Prior, Urdaneta was granted complete spiritual and administrative authority
over the missionaries. This included the power to establish monasteries, receive new members
into the order, and make decisions on behalf of the brotherhood. Urdaneta's authority would only
end upon the election of a new Prior.

Conclusion

The warrant reflects the intertwined nature of religion and colonialism during the Spanish
expansion. It served as both a spiritual mandate and a political tool, ensuring that the spread of
Christianity went hand in hand with the establishment of Spanish control. Through their mission,
the Augustinians played a significant role in shaping the cultural and religious landscape of the
Philippines.
LETTER FROM THE ROYAL OFFICIALS OF THE FILIPINAS

Detailed Analysis of the Letter from the Royal Officials of the Filipinas
(1565)

Context and Background

●​ The letter was written by Spanish royal officials stationed in the Philippines on May 28,
1565.​

●​ It was addressed to the Spanish crown, detailing the current status of the Spanish
expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.​

●​ The letter served as both a report and a plea for immediate support to sustain the colony
and expand Spanish influence in the region.​

Summary of the Letter

1.​ Introduction and Purpose​

○​ The officials mentioned their arrival in the Philippines on February 13, 1565, after
setting sail on November 20, 1564.​

○​ They emphasized their commitment to serving both God and His Majesty by
ensuring the colony's success.​

2.​ Portuguese Interference​

○​ The letter highlighted the detrimental actions of the Portuguese at Bohol.​

○​ Portuguese forces betrayed the natives by first pretending to trade and then
massacring 500 people and enslaving 600 others.​

○​ This caused immense fear and distrust among the indigenous population, making
it difficult for the Spaniards to establish friendly relations.​

3.​ Encounters with the Locals​

○​ Upon reaching Cebu (referred to as Cubu), they found resistance from the native
people, citing previous Portuguese atrocities.​

○​ Despite efforts to negotiate, the locals refused to trade or offer provisions.​

○​ In one notable instance, the Spaniards seized control of a town, discovering an

image of the Child Jesus (believed to be a remnant from Magellan's expedition)
and two old culverins (small cannons).​

4.​ Military and Supply Challenges​

○​ The officials expressed severe concerns about the lack of men, arms, and
resources.​

○​ They warned that the colony was vulnerable without reinforcements and
necessary supplies.​

○​ The letter requested urgent support to defend against both indigenous hostilities
and Portuguese threats.​

5.​ Economic Prospects and Trade​

○​ Officials reported initial trade interactions at Butuan in Mindanao.​

○​ The Moros (Muslim traders) acted as intermediaries and manipulated the trade
terms.​

○​ Despite this, the Spaniards acquired gold, wax, and cinnamon, which were sent
to the Spanish crown as samples.​

6.​ Religious and Cultural Agenda​

○​ The officials urged the crown to address the influence of Islamic traders.​

○​ They proposed enslaving the Moros and seizing their property to prevent the
spread of Islamic beliefs and encourage the propagation of Christianity.​

7.​ Gold and Fifths​

○​ The letter noted the absence of official royal brands to mark gold for taxation
(royal fifths).​
○​ Unmarked gold was temporarily held, awaiting the crown’s directive on proper
taxation procedures.​

Memorandum of Requested Supplies

The memorandum attached to the letter listed detailed items needed for military, construction,
and trade purposes. The requests were categorized into several sections:

1.​ Military Supplies:​

○​ Heavy artillery including culverins, falcons (small cannons), and swivel guns.​

○​ Gunpowder (200 quintals) and ammunition.​

○​ Arquebuses (early firearms), corselets, helmets, and shields.​

○​ Scaling ladders and siege equipment.​

2.​ Personnel:​

○​ 12 cannoniers and 300 soldiers, half of whom should be sailors.​

○​ Carpenters, smiths, and sawyers for building ships.​

○​ A surgeon, a physician, and two barbers for medical needs.​

3.​ Construction Materials:​

○​ Lead, saltpeter, and sulfur for gunpowder production.​

○​ Steel and iron plates for constructing fortifications.​

○​ Hawsers, anchors, and sails for shipbuilding.​

4.​ Trade Goods:​

○​ Luxury items for barter, including scarlet cloth, glass beads, and coral jewelry.​

○​ Coins and small silver bars for trade in China and neighboring regions.​

5.​ Food and Provisions:​

○​ Salt, wine, vinegar, oil, sugar, raisins, and almonds to sustain the colonists.​

6.​ Miscellaneous Items:​

○​ Lanterns, paper, sailcloths, needles, and axes for daily operations.​

○​ Additional livestock, especially sheep for their wool.​

Conclusion

The letter from the royal officials in the Philippines was a desperate appeal for reinforcement
and support. It highlighted the challenges posed by hostile natives, the destructive actions of the
Portuguese, and the strategic importance of fortifying the colony. The officials believed that with
the right support, the Spanish Crown could establish dominance over the region, secure
valuable trade routes, and spread Christianity.

The accompanying memorandum further underscored the critical need for resources,
emphasizing that failure to send timely reinforcements would jeopardize the entire expedition
and Spanish presence in the Philippines.
Negotiations Between Legazpi and Pereira Regarding the Spanish
Settlement at Cebu (1568-69)

The negotiations between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and Gonzalo Pereira in Cebu from 1568 to
1569 were a result of the territorial conflict between Spain and Portugal over the Philippine
islands. This dispute stemmed from the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which divided the newly
discovered lands between the two Iberian powers. While Legazpi represented the Spanish
Crown, Pereira acted as the commander-in-chief of the Portuguese fleet.

Background of the Conflict

●​ In 1565, Legazpi established a Spanish settlement in Cebu, claiming the islands under
the authority of King Philip II of Spain.​

●​ The Portuguese, who controlled the Moluccas and surrounding areas, saw the Spanish
presence as a violation of their territorial rights.​

●​ Pereira arrived in Cebu in 1568 with a fleet to challenge Legazpi’s authority and assert
Portuguese sovereignty.​

Key Events During the Negotiations

1.​ Initial Contact and Demands:​

○​ Pereira formally demanded Legazpi's withdrawal, asserting Portuguese control

based on the Treaty of Tordesillas.​

○​ Pereira also claimed that Legazpi’s actions were unauthorized and harmful to
Portugal’s territorial interests.​

2.​ Legazpi’s Response:​

○​ Legazpi countered that his expedition was sanctioned by King Philip II and that
the Spanish occupation was justified.​

○​ He emphasized that Spain’s mission was to spread Christianity and provide aid
to the local population.​
○​ Additionally, Legazpi argued that the indigenous people of Cebu were not under
Portuguese rule, thus refuting Pereira’s territorial claim.​

3.​ Accusations and Defense:​

○​ Pereira accused Legazpi of fortifying the settlement and coercing the natives into
paying tribute to Spain.​

○​ Legazpi defended his actions by asserting that the construction of fortifications

was for the protection of Spanish forces and the local population.​

○​ He also denied any form of coercion, claiming that the tributes were voluntary
and in exchange for protection and trade.​

4.​ Offers of Assistance and Allegations:​

○​ Pereira claimed to have offered aid to Legazpi’s fleet during previous encounters,
which Legazpi declined.​

○​ Legazpi responded that he was self-sufficient and did not require Portuguese
assistance.​

○​ Legazpi further accused Pereira of planning to capture the Spanish forces and
incite conflict using non-Christian allies.​

Outcome of the Negotiations

●​ Despite the heated exchanges, no military engagement occurred at the time.​

●​ Legazpi maintained the Spanish settlement in Cebu, reinforcing Spain’s presence in the
region.​

●​ The negotiations ultimately reflected the unresolved territorial tensions between Spain
and Portugal in the East Indies.​

●​ Legazpi’s persistence eventually led to the establishment of Spanish authority in the

Philippines, while Portugal maintained control over the Moluccas.​

These negotiations marked a significant moment in the Spanish-Portuguese rivalry in Southeast

Asia, influencing the geopolitical landscape of the region for years to come.

The continuation of the exchanges between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and Gonçalo Pereira
highlights the escalating tensions and disagreements between the Spanish and Portuguese
over territorial claims and sovereignty in the Philippines. In his second summons, Pereira
strongly asserts that Legazpi's actions are in violation of the Treaty of Zaragoza, which defined
the spheres of influence between Spain and Portugal. Pereira accuses Legazpi of knowingly
entering Portuguese territory and disregarding the established boundaries.

Pereira criticizes Legazpi's justification for his presence in Cebu, particularly his claims of
needing shelter from storms and a lack of provisions. He points out that Legazpi’s fleet was
well-supplied, contradicting his statements of necessity. Pereira also highlights the availability of
food and supplies from the Ladrones Islands and other regions, asserting that Legazpi's claim of
scarcity was exaggerated.

Moreover, Pereira condemns Legazpi’s military fortifications and alliances with local indigenous
groups, interpreting these actions as preparations for an offensive against Portuguese
territories. He views Legazpi’s presence as a deliberate attempt to challenge Portuguese
sovereignty and accuses him of seeking reinforcements to expand Spanish control further into
Portuguese domains, including Maluco, China, and Japan.

Pereira further dismisses Legazpi's claim that he was searching for survivors from the
expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos. He argues that this reasoning does not justify breaching
Portuguese territory and violating the treaty. The Portuguese commander asserts that any
remaining Spaniards were well-treated and repatriated without conflict, making Legazpi's
presence unnecessary.

Despite the hostility, Pereira offers Legazpi the opportunity to leave peacefully. He proposes
providing necessary provisions and ships for Legazpi and his fleet to return to New Spain.
However, he warns that if Legazpi refuses, he will be considered a rebel acting against the
mandates of the Spanish king, further straining relations between the two Iberian powers.

The document concludes with official notarial confirmations from both parties. Notaries Pero
Bernaldez and Baltesar de Freitas record the events, verifying the authenticity of the exchanges
and ensuring a legal record of the proceedings. This meticulous documentation underscores the
gravity of the conflict and the importance of maintaining legal formalities amid rising tensions.

In summary, the continuation of the negotiations reflects the complexities of colonial expansion,
territorial disputes, and the fragile diplomatic relations between Spain and Portugal in the 16th
century. Legazpi’s insistence on his presence and Pereira’s unwavering defense of Portuguese
claims exemplify the broader geopolitical struggle for dominance in the region.

The continuation of the exchanges between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and Gonçalo Pereira
highlights the deepening conflict between the Spanish and Portuguese authorities over territorial
claims and maritime rights in the East Indies. The documents provide official copies of
testimonies, contracts, and legal assertions from both sides, reflecting the broader geopolitical
tension between Spain and Portugal.
The Portuguese side, represented by Pereira, referenced the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529), where
Emperor Charles V of Spain had relinquished Spanish claims to the Moluccas in exchange for
350,000 ducats. This treaty was used as a legal basis to assert Portuguese sovereignty over the
region. Pereira's letters and petitions to King Sebastian of Portugal emphasized the need to
enforce these agreements, accusing Legazpi of violating the treaty's terms by remaining in
Cebu.

Legazpi, on the other hand, justified his presence by citing unavoidable circumstances such as
shipwrecks, lack of provisions, and the need to ensure the welfare of his men. He maintained
that his actions were not in defiance of the Portuguese authority but driven by necessity.
Furthermore, Legazpi rejected the accusations of aggressive intent, asserting that he remained
in Cebu for survival rather than conquest. He also pointed out that his actions were aligned with
the king's directives, which permitted Spanish navigation within certain boundaries for
exploration and trade.

The legal discourse in the documents reflects a strategic use of diplomatic language, with each
party attempting to establish the legitimacy of their claims. The Portuguese officials' reliance on
notarized copies of treaties and legal documents underscores their insistence on adhering to
formal agreements. Conversely, Legazpi's responses leaned on the moral and practical
justification of his actions, emphasizing the challenges faced by his expedition.

Ultimately, the exchanges capture the complexities of European colonial ambitions and the
fragile diplomacy that governed their overseas ventures. The reliance on legal documentation,
the invocation of royal authority, and the intricate arguments presented by both sides illustrate
the legalistic nature of colonial conflicts during the Age of Exploration. These documents remain
a testament to the legal, political, and diplomatic strategies employed by European powers in
asserting their claims over newly discovered territories.

Third Summons: Gonzalo Pereira's Declaration

In the third summons, Gonzalo Pereira, the captain-general of the Portuguese fleet, escalates
his demands towards Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. He issues a stern and accusatory statement,
claiming Legazpi violated the treaties between Spain and Portugal. Pereira asserts that his
intentions upon arriving in Cebu were peaceful and in service of his king, providing aid to
Legazpi's fleet. However, Legazpi’s refusal to accept Portuguese assistance and the act of
preparing artillery against the Portuguese fleet were viewed as aggressive and in breach of
established treaties.

Pereira's demands include:

1.​ Departure to India: Legazpi and his fleet are ordered to immediately board the
Portuguese fleet and depart for India. Pereira guarantees safety and proper treatment
upon arrival.​
2.​ Evacuation of Cebu: If Legazpi refuses the first demand, he must evacuate Cebu and
abandon all claims to the island and its surrounding territories, which Pereira claims are
within the Portuguese demarcation under the Treaty of Tordesillas.​

3.​ Assurance for Portuguese Nationals: Pereira assures the safety and fair treatment of
any Portuguese nationals within Legazpi's fleet, granting them amnesty.​

4.​ Legal Consequences: Failure to comply within three days would lead to severe
consequences. Pereira threatens to declare Legazpi and his men as rebels against King
Felipe II and the King of Portugal. Further, they would face execution and the
confiscation of all their possessions under Portuguese jurisdiction.​

Legazpi's Response

Miguel Lopez de Legazpi's response, while assertive, is measured and diplomatic. He defends
his actions and firmly refuses Pereira’s demands, maintaining his position on several grounds:

1.​ Defense of Spanish Sovereignty: Legazpi argues that his actions are in accordance
with the explicit instructions from King Felipe II, which prohibit him from surrendering his
fleet or following orders from Portuguese authorities.​

2.​ Commitment to Peace: Legazpi maintains that his construction of fortifications was
purely defensive, done to protect his people rather than to threaten the Portuguese.
Upon receiving Pereira’s concerns, Legazpi promptly halted the fortifications,
demonstrating his commitment to peace.​

3.​ Compliance with Treaties: He reiterates his commitment to upholding the peace
agreements between Spain and Portugal. He refutes Pereira’s claims of non-compliance
and offers transparency by providing copies of his royal instructions.​

4.​ Logistical Impossibilities: Legazpi states that it is impossible for him to comply with the
demand to sail to India without proper ships and resources. He expresses willingness to
depart as soon as the means are available.​

5.​ Responsibility and Protest: While rejecting Pereira’s accusations, Legazpi places the
responsibility for any resulting conflict squarely on Pereira and the Portuguese. He
stresses his desire to avoid violence and offers to compensate for any damages caused
by his stay in Cebu.​

Conclusion
This exchange highlights the growing tension between the Spanish and Portuguese over
territorial claims in the East Indies. While Pereira invokes the authority of the Treaty of
Tordesillas, Legazpi counters with his duty to King Felipe II. Both sides assert their claims to
legitimate authority and attempt to justify their actions. Ultimately, the letters reflect the complex
political landscape of 16th-century colonial expansion, where treaties were often subject to
interpretation and military confrontation loomed as a possible outcome.

The fourth summons in the ongoing diplomatic exchange between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and
Goncalo Pereira further intensifies the conflict, revealing the deepening hostility and diverging
interpretations of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Pereira's arguments reflect a firm belief that
Legazpi's actions constitute a breach of the treaty, while Legazpi maintains his position that his
presence in the Philippines is justified and sanctioned by the Spanish Crown.

Key Points from Pereira’s Fourth Summons:

1.​ Allegations of Treaty Violations:​

○​ Pereira accuses Legazpi of engaging in trade and resource extraction (gold and
drugs) within Portuguese demarcation, violating the treaty.​

○​ He emphasizes that Legazpi’s activities contradict his own instructions and the
intentions of King Philip II of Spain.​

2.​ Offer of Safe Passage:​

○​ Despite the accusations, Pereira extends an offer for Legazpi and his men to
board Portuguese ships and safely return to New Spain, claiming this as a
peaceful resolution.​

○​ He frames this as a cooperative effort to prevent further conflict and uphold

Christian unity.​

3.​ Religious and Historical Appeals:​

○​ Pereira invokes historical instances of Portuguese support for Spanish

campaigns against the Moors, appealing to a shared Christian cause.​

○​ He suggests that joint efforts between the two nations could focus on spreading
Christianity in regions like Maluco, Java, and Acheen, rather than engaging in
mutual hostilities.​

4.​ Accusations of Aggression:​

○​ Pereira condemns Legazpi for fortifying positions, firing upon Portuguese ships,
and laying ambushes, framing these actions as hostile and unjustifiable.​

○​ He asserts that his own restraint in avoiding further violence demonstrates a

commitment to peace.​

5.​ Contradictions in Legazpi’s Defense:​

○​ Pereira points out perceived inconsistencies in Legazpi’s defense, particularly

regarding his claims of necessity and lack of resources.​

○​ He questions why Legazpi, if truly in distress, did not accept the previous offers
of assistance and passage.​

Legazpi’s Response:

●​ Legazpi’s reaction to Pereira’s fourth summons maintains a tone of defiance and

justification.​

●​ He reiterates that his expedition was sanctioned by lawful authority and that he remains
within the bounds of the Spanish demarcation.​

●​ The assertion that his actions were defensive in nature, responding to Portuguese
aggression, further underlines his stance.​

Conclusion:

The continued exchange of summons and replies exemplifies the complex interplay of
diplomatic rhetoric, legal justifications, and political maneuvering. Pereira’s appeals to shared
Christian heritage and historic alliances contrast sharply with his accusations of treaty violations.
Meanwhile, Legazpi’s unwavering defense highlights the resolve of the Spanish Crown to assert
its claims in the Philippines.

This conflict ultimately reflects the broader geopolitical struggle between Spain and Portugal
during the Age of Exploration, as both powers sought to expand their empires and control
valuable territories in the East Indies. The escalating tensions foreshadow further confrontations
and negotiations that would shape the colonial landscape of Southeast Asia.

The fourth summons in the ongoing diplomatic exchange between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and
Goncalo Pereira further intensifies the conflict, revealing the deepening hostility and diverging
interpretations of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Pereira's arguments reflect a firm belief that
Legazpi's actions constitute a breach of the treaty, while Legazpi maintains his position that his
presence in the Philippines is justified and sanctioned by the Spanish Crown.

Key Points from Pereira’s Fourth Summons:

1.​ Allegations of Treaty Violations:​

○​ Pereira accuses Legazpi of engaging in trade and resource extraction (gold and
drugs) within Portuguese demarcation, violating the treaty.​

○​ He emphasizes that Legazpi’s activities contradict his own instructions and the
intentions of King Philip II of Spain.​

2.​ Offer of Safe Passage:​

○​ Despite the accusations, Pereira extends an offer for Legazpi and his men to
board Portuguese ships and safely return to New Spain, claiming this as a
peaceful resolution.​

○​ He frames this as a cooperative effort to prevent further conflict and uphold

Christian unity.​

3.​ Religious and Historical Appeals:​

○​ Pereira invokes historical instances of Portuguese support for Spanish

campaigns against the Moors, appealing to a shared Christian cause.​

○​ He suggests that joint efforts between the two nations could focus on spreading
Christianity in regions like Maluco, Java, and Acheen, rather than engaging in
mutual hostilities.​

4.​ Accusations of Aggression:​

○​ Pereira condemns Legazpi for fortifying positions, firing upon Portuguese ships,
and laying ambushes, framing these actions as hostile and unjustifiable.​

○​ He asserts that his own restraint in avoiding further violence demonstrates a

commitment to peace.​

5.​ Contradictions in Legazpi’s Defense:​

○​ Pereira points out perceived inconsistencies in Legazpi’s defense, particularly

regarding his claims of necessity and lack of resources.​
○​ He questions why Legazpi, if truly in distress, did not accept the previous offers
of assistance and passage.​

Legazpi’s Response:

●​ Legazpi’s reaction to Pereira’s fourth summons maintains a tone of defiance and

justification.​

●​ He reiterates that his expedition was sanctioned by lawful authority and that he remains
within the bounds of the Spanish demarcation.​

●​ The assertion that his actions were defensive in nature, responding to Portuguese
aggression, further underlines his stance.​

Conclusion:

The continued exchange of summons and replies exemplifies the complex interplay of
diplomatic rhetoric, legal justifications, and political maneuvering. Pereira’s appeals to shared
Christian heritage and historic alliances contrast sharply with his accusations of treaty violations.
Meanwhile, Legazpi’s unwavering defense highlights the resolve of the Spanish Crown to assert
its claims in the Philippines.

This conflict ultimately reflects the broader geopolitical struggle between Spain and Portugal
during the Age of Exploration, as both powers sought to expand their empires and control
valuable territories in the East Indies. The escalating tensions foreshadow further confrontations
and negotiations that would shape the colonial landscape of Southeast Asia.
VOLUME 3
NOTES 1

Here is a detailed research summary from The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 — Volume 03
regarding the documents you specified:

1. Letter from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II

Lavezaris provides an update on the Spanish expedition in the Philippines, describing the arrival
of a Portuguese fleet under Captain-General Gonzalo Pereira. The Portuguese initially claimed
they wanted peaceful negotiations but later blockaded the Spanish settlement. Lavezaris
narrates the confrontations between the Spanish and the Portuguese, including the burning of
the San Pablo and the loss of another vessel in the Ladrones (Marianas) Islands. He details the
Spanish strategy for defending their settlement and appeals to King Felipe II for reinforcements
and supplies.

2. Letter from Andres de Mirandaola to Felipe II

Mirandaola writes about the loss of a Spanish ship in the Ladrones Islands and the difficulties
faced by Spanish soldiers in the Philippines. He emphasizes the great hardship endured due to
the shipwreck, lack of supplies, and conflicts with native tribes. He also mentions the arrival of
Portuguese forces under Gonzalo Pereira and the resulting confrontations.

3. Letter from Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to the Marques de Falces

Legazpi informs the Marques de Falces about the expedition’s progress, detailing the loss of a
ship in the Ladrones Islands and the arrival of a Portuguese fleet that attempted to expel the
Spanish from the region. He describes the Portuguese demands and the Spanish resistance,
requesting additional resources and reinforcements from Spain.

4. Relation of the Filipinas Islands and of the Character and Conditions of

their Inhabitants

This document provides an ethnographic account of the native Filipinos. It describes the lack of
centralized authority among the indigenous groups, their customs, and their economic activities.
It notes that some indigenous peoples, particularly the Moros of Borneo and Luzon, had
converted to Islam, while others remained animist. The report discusses native marriage
practices, trade, and their interactions with both Spanish colonizers and Chinese traders.
5. Confirmation of Legazpi's Title as Governor and Captain-General

King Felipe II confirms Miguel Lopez de Legazpi’s appointment as Governor and

Captain-General of the Philippines in recognition of his successful efforts in colonizing Cebu and
defending Spanish interests against the Portuguese. This decree grants Legazpi the authority to
govern, enforce justice, and appoint officials, ensuring Spanish control over the islands.

6. Encomiendas Forbidden to Royal Officials

A decree issued in Manila on May 26, 1576, prohibits royal officials from holding encomiendas
(land grants with the right to collect tribute from indigenous people). Governor Francisco de
Sande enforces this rule, citing laws and a letter from King Felipe II dated April 25, 1574, which
explicitly denies officials the right to own encomiendas due to conflicts of interest and the
potential for abuse of power.

Let me know if you need further details on any of these topics!

NOTES 2

Here is a more detailed research summary from *The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 — Volume
03*, following the storyline of the events in the letters:

---

## **1. Letter from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II (June 5, 1569)**

Guido de Lavezaris, writing from Cebu, provides King Felipe II with an extensive account of
Spanish activities and challenges in the Philippines. He references an earlier letter sent via the
*San Pablo* on July 1, 1568, detailing past events and progress. However, the *San Pablo*,
carrying over 400 quintals of cinnamon and other valuable specimens, was lost in a storm near
the Ladrones (Marianas) Islands. While all passengers survived, the loss was a significant
setback for Spanish trade efforts.

The letter also describes the arrival of a small Portuguese vessel commanded by Antonio
Rrumbo de Acosta, who had previously visited in 1567 with letters from Portuguese
Captain-General Gonzalo Pereira. Acosta claimed to be seeking shelter but later returned with
letters from Pereira, who demanded that the Spanish vacate the islands, asserting they
belonged to Portugal under the Treaty of Tordesillas.

On September 30, 1568, Pereira entered the Cebu port with a heavily armed fleet of nine ships,
including four large vessels and five smaller ones. Initially, the Portuguese attempted diplomacy,
but when their demands were refused, they issued a series of summons before launching an
attack on October 14. They blockaded the port for several months, cutting off Spanish supplies.

During this time, Spanish forces suffered great hardship. Their flagship was deliberately burned
to salvage nails for constructing another vessel. Eventually, the Portuguese lifted the blockade
on January 1, 1569, leaving with a different perspective from when they arrived—realizing that
the Spanish would not abandon the islands so easily. Lavezaris requests reinforcements and
supplies from the king, as the colony’s survival was under threat.

---

## **2. Letter from Andres de Mirandaola to Felipe II (June 8, 1569)**

Mirandaola begins by referencing his previous letter from July 1, 1568, and confirms that the
*San Pablo* was lost while returning to Nueva España. He highlights the devastating impact of
the shipwreck, which resulted in the loss of 150 quintals of cinnamon registered to the crown
and an additional 250 quintals belonging to private merchants. Other valuable goods, including
gold, porcelain, and spices, were also lost, dashing hopes of economic gain for the Spanish
settlers.

The survivors of the shipwreck faced extreme hardship, stranded on the Ladrones Islands
without provisions and encountering hostile indigenous people, whom he describes as the "most
brutish and least civilized" they had met. Despite their difficulties, the Spanish managed to build
a makeshift boat and return to the Philippines.

Mirandaola also provides further details on the Portuguese blockade, which lasted three
months. The Portuguese did not treat the Spanish as fellow Christians but rather as enemies,
destroying native villages allied with the Spanish and burning local settlements. He notes that
the Portuguese strategy was to avoid direct battle and instead starve the Spanish out by cutting
off their supply routes.

Eventually, the blockade ended due to Portuguese losses from disease and hunger. However,
Pereira warned that he would return with a larger force to expel the Spanish completely. In
response, the Spanish decided to relocate their camp to Panay, a more resource-rich province,
in the hope of holding out until reinforcements arrived.

Mirandaola warns the king that many Spanish officials in the Philippines are inexperienced and
prone to fear, leading to poor decision-making. He argues for a structured reinforcement plan,
proposing that future Spanish expeditions should arrive with a designated commander but
transfer control to Legazpi upon arrival. This, he believes, would ensure discipline and proper
governance.

He concludes by emphasizing the strategic importance of the Philippines and China trade,
urging the king to act swiftly in securing Spanish control over the region.

---

## **3. Letter from Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to the Marques de Falces (July 7, 1569)**

Legazpi’s letter provides a firsthand account of the challenges faced by Spanish forces in the
Philippines. He recounts how the *San Pablo*, under Captain Felipe de Salcedo, was lost in the
Ladrones Islands, but Salcedo managed to salvage important letters for the Spanish crown.

Soon after the shipwreck, a Portuguese fleet of seven ships, led by Gonzalo Pereira, arrived at
Cebu. Pereira initially presented himself as a friendly visitor offering supplies, but his true
intention was to pressure the Spanish to abandon the islands. He argued that the Philippines
belonged to Portugal and accused the Spanish of attempting to infringe upon Portuguese
territory.

Legazpi responded diplomatically, stating that he was merely following his orders and awaiting
further instructions from the Spanish king. However, Pereira was not satisfied and proceeded to
blockade the port, destroying coastal defenses and preventing supplies from reaching the
Spanish settlement. He further waged psychological warfare by threatening native allies of the
Spanish, warning them that Spain had no legitimate claim to the land.

For nearly three months, the Spanish endured the blockade. Many native villages that had
aligned with the Spanish were burned, and Portuguese forces captured and enslaved people
along the Mindanao coast. However, due to shortages of their own, the Portuguese were forced
to lift the blockade on New Year's Day, 1569.

With the Spanish settlement in dire conditions, Legazpi and his officers decided to relocate to
Panay, a location with more abundant food supplies and better defensibility. He warns the
Marques de Falces that unless reinforcements arrive, Spanish control in the region is at risk.

Legazpi also calls for additional religious missionaries to be sent to the islands, emphasizing
their role in converting the indigenous population and securing Spanish rule through faith. He
pleads to be allowed to retire, citing the immense burdens of his role.

---

## **4. Relation of the Filipinas Islands and of the Character and Conditions of their
Inhabitants**

This document provides an ethnographic and economic overview of the Philippines. It describes
the archipelago as rich in resources but inhabited by independent communities with no central
authority. The report highlights:

- The natives’ lack of political unity, making them easier to conquer.

- The existence of gold in rivers and mines, though the natives are too lazy to extract it in large
quantities.
- The presence of cinnamon, pepper, and other valuable spices.
- The role of trade with Chinese merchants, who bring silks, porcelain, and other luxury goods.
- Native customs, such as marriage arrangements based on dowries and the practice of slavery.

The report concludes that Spanish colonization would be successful through peaceful means
rather than outright warfare.

---

## **5. Confirmation of Legazpi's Title as Governor and Captain-General (August 14,

1569)**

King Felipe II formally recognizes Miguel Lopez de Legazpi as the Governor and
Captain-General of Cebu and any future Spanish settlements in the Philippines. This decree
grants him the authority to:
- Establish settlements and administer justice.
- Appoint and remove officials as needed.
- Enforce Spanish rule and collect taxes.

Legazpi is awarded an annual salary of 2,000 ducats for his service, but only if enough revenue
is generated from the islands.

---

## **6. Encomiendas Forbidden to Royal Officials (May 26, 1576)**

Governor Francisco de Sande issues a decree in Manila banning royal officials from holding
encomiendas (tribute-paying native communities). This follows a royal order from King Felipe II
in 1574, which rejected requests from Spanish officials to own encomiendas. The decree
reassigns existing encomiendas to the Spanish crown and ensures that taxes are collected for
the royal treasury instead.

---

This summary provides a clear picture of early Spanish colonial struggles in the Philippines. Let
me know if you need further elaboration on any section!

Letter from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II

In his letter dated June 5, 1569, from Cebu, Guido de Lavezaris, a royal official in the
Philippines, reported to King Felipe II about recent events and developments in the Spanish
colony. He started by referencing a previous letter sent via the ship "San Pablo" on July 1, 1568,
which contained a comprehensive report on the state of the islands.

Arrival of the Portuguese Captain

Lavezaris detailed the arrival of a Portuguese vessel led by Captain Antonio Rrumbo de Acosta
in September 1568. Acosta claimed to have been separated from the fleet of the Portuguese
Captain-General Gonzalo Pereira and sought refuge in Cebu. After being well-received by
Governor Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the Spanish settlers, Acosta returned to find his fleet.
Shortly after, he returned with letters from Pereira, indicating the fleet's proximity.

Conflict with the Portuguese

On September 30, Captain-General Pereira arrived in Cebu with a fleet consisting of nine ships,
including four large vessels and five galleys. Although initially peaceful, tensions escalated
when Pereira issued a series of summonses, demanding the Spanish vacate the islands,
asserting that they were within the Portuguese demarcation under the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Legazpi formally responded to these demands, maintaining Spanish sovereignty.

The conflict intensified on October 14, when the Portuguese initiated a blockade of Cebu's two
ports. Despite their efforts, the Portuguese were unable to capture any Spanish soldiers, though
some defectors sought refuge with the Portuguese. In response, the Spanish burned the
flagship to salvage its nails and reuse them for constructing another vessel. The standoff
continued until January 1, 1569, when the Portuguese fleet finally withdrew.

Loss of the "San Pablo"

Lavezaris also reported the unfortunate loss of the Spanish ship "San Pablo" in a storm near the
Ladrones Islands (now the Marianas). Remarkably, all 132 crew members managed to survive
by constructing a small bark from a lifeboat and eventually made their way back to the
Philippines. Lavezaris lamented the loss, attributing it to malicious actions that caused severe
damage.

Plea for Assistance

Recognizing the colony's dire situation, Lavezaris emphasized the urgent need for
reinforcements and supplies. He requested King Felipe II to send aid, as the settlement faced
significant challenges, including threats from the Portuguese and a lack of resources. He also
announced the dispatch of the ship "San Lucas" to deliver these messages and further advocate
for assistance.

Agricultural Contributions

In addition to his military and administrative reports, Lavezaris noted his efforts to contribute to
agricultural development in New Spain (Mexico). He had previously sent tamarind trees and
ginger roots for cultivation and now included sprouted pepper plants in the current dispatch,
aiming to enhance the agricultural economy of the Spanish colonies.

Conclusion

Lavezaris concluded his letter by expressing his unwavering loyalty and dedication to King
Felipe II. He requested royal permission to personally report to the king in the future, ensuring a
more detailed and firsthand account of the colony's affairs. He closed with blessings for the
king's continued prosperity and success in expanding his dominions.
Letter from Andres de Mirandaola to Felipe II

Context

The letter from Andres de Mirandaola, dated June 8, 1569, provides a firsthand account of the
Spanish expedition in the Philippines. Written to King Felipe II of Spain, it serves as a report on
the challenges faced by the expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. It also describes
conflicts with the Portuguese, the loss of ships and resources, and the efforts to establish
Spanish control in the region.

Key Points of the Letter

1.​ Loss of the Capitana Ship:​

○​ The Capitana, returning from Nueva España, was wrecked on the island of Guan
in the Ladrones (Marianas Islands).​

○​ The ship carried valuable cargo, including 150 quintals of cinnamon for the
Spanish Crown and 250 quintals for private traders.​

○​ The loss was devastating, not only in terms of goods but also for the morale of
the expedition.​

2.​ Portuguese Hostilities:​

○​ Gonzalo Pereira, leading a fleet of four galleons and six galleys, blockaded the
Spanish settlement in Cebu for three months.​

○​ The Portuguese treated the Spaniards with hostility, burning villages and
destroying resources.​

○​ Despite the blockade, Legazpi maintained the settlement's resilience, but the
Spanish endured severe hardship.​

3.​ Strategic Relocation to Panay:​

○​ Due to the Portuguese threat, Legazpi moved the Spanish camp to Panay, a
safer location without Portuguese presence.​

○​ Mirandaola emphasized the strategic importance of this move to sustain the

Spanish foothold in the region.​

4.​ Appeal for Reinforcements and Support:​

○​ Mirandaola requested King Felipe II to send reinforcements and supplies to
strengthen the expedition.​

○​ He suggested appointing experienced officials from Nueva España to replace

ineffective leaders who were unfamiliar with the region's challenges.​

5.​ Economic and Religious Justifications:​

○​ The letter highlighted the potential for expanding Spanish influence and
Christianity in the region.​

○​ Mirandaola believed that maintaining the Spanish presence would result in the
conversion of local populations and economic prosperity through trade.​

6.​ Portuguese Trade in China and Japan:​

○​ Mirandaola reported that the Portuguese were profiting from trade with China and
Japan, with particular emphasis on the wealth and sophistication of China.​

○​ He hinted at the possibility of Spanish involvement in East Asian trade,

suggesting that Spanish dominance could extend to China.​

7.​ Personal Appeals and Grievances:​

○​ Mirandaola requested an increase in his salary to 3,000 ducats due to the high
cost of living in the Philippines.​

○​ He described his personal financial sacrifices for the expedition and expressed
his dedication to the Spanish Crown.​

Themes and Significance

●​ Colonial Competition: The letter reveals the intense rivalry between Spain and
Portugal over control of the Spice Trade and territorial dominance in Southeast Asia.​

●​ Religious Justification: The spread of Christianity was a major justification for Spanish
expansion, with the Spanish Crown framing its conquest as a divine mission.​

●​ Economic Ambitions: The desire to access lucrative trade routes and resources like
cinnamon and porcelain drove Spanish expeditions.​

●​ Challenges of Colonization: Mirandaola's account underscores the hardships of

maintaining a distant colonial outpost, from shipwrecks to hostile encounters.​
Conclusion

Andres de Mirandaola's letter is a vital historical document offering insights into the early years
of Spanish colonization in the Philippines. It reflects the complexities of maintaining colonial
authority, the strain of rivalry with Portugal, and the determination of Spanish officials to expand
their empire. The letter also serves as a testament to the resilience of Legazpi's expedition
despite overwhelming challenges. King Felipe II's response and subsequent actions would
significantly influence the future of Spanish influence in the region.

Letter from Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to the Marques de Falces

1. Background Context

●​ The letter was written by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi on July 7, 1569, from the island of
Cebu.​

●​ Legazpi was the leader of the Spanish expedition that established a foothold in the
Philippines. His letter provides a first-hand account of the challenges faced during the
Spanish occupation, particularly the conflicts with the Portuguese.​

●​ The letter is addressed to Gaston de Peralta, Marques de Falces, the Viceroy of New
Spain (present-day Mexico), who was responsible for overseeing the Philippine
expedition.​

2. Key Events in the Letter

●​ Shipwreck Incident:​

○​ Legazpi reports that the flagship carrying Captain Felipe de Salcedo was
wrecked at the Ladrones Islands (now the Marianas Islands). Although the ship
was destroyed, the crew survived and managed to return to Cebu using a
makeshift repair of a small boat.​

○​ Despite the wreck, Salcedo successfully saved the letters and documents meant
for the Viceroy.​

●​ Portuguese Conflict:​

○​ Shortly after the shipwreck, a Portuguese fleet of seven vessels, commanded by

Captain-General Goncalo Pereira, arrived at Cebu.​
○​ Pereira initially presented himself as an ally, offering supplies and assistance.
However, his true intentions were soon revealed when he accused the Spaniards
of violating the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529) and claimed the Philippine islands as
Portuguese territory.​

○​ Legazpi diplomatically responded that he had no authority to contest territorial

claims and was merely following the King of Spain’s orders.​

●​ Blockade and Siege:​

○​ Pereira imposed a naval blockade, cutting off vital supplies and aiming to starve
the Spanish forces into surrender.​

○​ During the three-month siege, the Portuguese forces destroyed several local
villages and discouraged native allies from supporting the Spaniards.​

○​ Despite these hardships, Legazpi maintained his resolve, resisting the

Portuguese attempts to force the Spaniards to leave.​

3. Defensive Measures and Strategic Relocation

●​ Recognizing the vulnerability of Cebu, Legazpi and his commanders decided to relocate
to the river Panae (Panay Island), which offered better resources and a more defensible
position.​

●​ The new location was chosen due to its abundant rice supply and inland access,
reducing the risk of another blockade.​

●​ Limited artillery and dwindling supplies further heightened the need for a more
sustainable settlement.​

4. Challenges Faced

●​ Lack of Supplies and Weapons:​

○​ Legazpi highlighted the scarcity of powder, ammunition, and weaponry, noting

that many of his men were unarmed.​

●​ Portuguese Defectors:​

○​ Some Spanish soldiers defected to the Portuguese, weakening morale and

adding to Legazpi’s challenges.​
●​ Uncertain Support:​

○​ Legazpi lamented the lack of communication with the Spanish crown, as no

reinforcements or official orders had arrived since the expedition began.​

5. Appeals for Assistance

●​ Legazpi urged the Viceroy to send urgent aid in the form of supplies, weapons, and
reinforcements.​

●​ He also requested that any returning vessels carry news of Spanish support to boost the
morale of his remaining troops.​

●​ Additionally, Legazpi sought permission to retire, expressing fatigue and frustration over
the ongoing conflict.​

6. Commentary on the Portuguese and Indigenous Relations

●​ Legazpi warned against the involvement of Portuguese soldiers, suspecting their loyalty
and their potential to undermine the Spanish presence.​

●​ The Portuguese actively spread misinformation among the native populations,

convincing them that the Spanish were illegitimate occupiers.​

●​ Despite these setbacks, Legazpi emphasized the strategic value of the islands and
urged further investment to secure Spanish control.​

7. Conclusion and Historical Significance

●​ Legazpi's letter provides a vivid account of the geopolitical tensions between Spain and
Portugal during the Age of Exploration.​

●​ It highlights the hardships of early colonial expeditions, from shipwrecks and blockades
to diplomacy and warfare.​

●​ Ultimately, the letter underscored the determination of the Spanish forces to establish a
lasting presence in the Philippines despite the challenges faced.​

This detailed correspondence is a crucial historical document that reflects the complexities of
European imperial competition and the resilience of early Spanish colonizers.
Relation of the Filipinas Islands and of the Character and Conditions of
their Inhabitants

Geographic Composition and Population

●​ The Philippine archipelago consists of numerous islands, with larger islands being
densely populated, particularly along the seacoasts and rivers.​

●​ Mountain regions are also inhabited, though coastal and riverine areas have more
substantial settlements.​

Social Structure and Governance

●​ The inhabitants had no unified government or ruling authority. Each individual acted
independently, caring only for themselves and their slaves.​

●​ Those with the most slaves and strength wielded influence, often obtaining whatever
they desired without formal leadership.​

●​ Relationships were transactional, with favors repaid double, even among relatives. This
lack of unity resulted in frequent conflicts and power struggles.​

Warfare and Conflict

●​ Tribal conflicts were common, with minor provocations leading to wars.​

●​ Privateering and robbery were culturally ingrained, as people frequently attacked and
looted neighboring communities.​

●​ Ambushes and surprise attacks were preferred tactics, reflecting the absence of
organized military strategy.​

Economic Conditions and Trade

●​ Agriculture was underdeveloped due to the inhabitants' laziness and tendency to

abandon towns during wars.​
●​ Although the land was fertile and capable of supporting large populations, the natives
preferred raiding over farming.​

●​ Gold was present, especially in rivers and mines, but mining was done sporadically out
of necessity rather than economic ambition.​

●​ Ships from Borneo and Luzon regularly traded Chinese goods for gold, indicating a
functioning trade network despite local disorder.​

Natural Resources and Economic Potential

●​ Besides gold, the islands produced cinnamon, particularly in Mindanao, as well as pearls
and other valuable resources.​

●​ Native knowledge of these resources was limited, and they did not exploit them to their
full potential.​

●​ Legazpi noted the possibility of significant economic gains through Spanish colonization
and organized resource extraction.​

Colonial Perspective and Recommendations

●​ Legazpi recommended establishing permanent Spanish settlements to harness the

islands' resources.​

●​ He argued that colonization through peaceful means would be more effective than
warfare.​

●​ Conversion to Christianity was seen as achievable due to the lack of established

religious beliefs among the natives, except for a few converted Moros from Borneo and
Luzon.​

Religious and Cultural Practices

●​ Most inhabitants were heathens with no formal religion, temples, or sacrifices. Some
practiced superstitions, including divination and lot-casting.​

●​ The converted Moros followed basic Islamic practices like circumcision and abstaining
from pork, but their understanding of Islam was superficial.​
Slavery and Marriage Customs

●​ Slavery was common, with slaves often captured during raids and conflicts.​

●​ Marriage was transactional, with men paying a dowry to the bride's family. Men could
divorce by repaying the dowry, while women were required to return double the amount.​

●​ Polygamy was practiced, contingent on a man's wealth and ability to support multiple
wives.​

Conclusion

●​ Legazpi advocated for the peaceful subjugation of the inhabitants through displays of
kindness and fair treatment, believing this would encourage voluntary submission.​

●​ He emphasized the necessity of establishing Spanish settlements, exploiting natural

resources, and fostering trade to ensure the success of Spanish colonization in the
Philippines.​

Confirmation of Legazpi's Title as Governor and Captain-General

The document titled "Confirmation of Legazpi's Title as Governor and Captain-General" is a

royal decree issued by King Philip II of Spain on August 14, 1569, formalizing Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi's position as the Governor and Captain-General of the island of Cebu and other
territories to be settled in the Philippines. This decree highlights Legazpi's achievements,
responsibilities, and the legal authority bestowed upon him.

Background and Justification for the Appointment

●​ Expedition Authorization: Don Luis de Velasco, the former viceroy of New Spain
(Mexico), had equipped an expedition for the discovery of the Western Islands, under the
King's orders.​

●​ Selection of Legazpi: Due to Legazpi's competence, experience, and prior service,

Velasco appointed him as Captain-General of the fleet.​

●​ Settlement and Military Action: Legazpi successfully led the expedition, settled in
Cebu, fought against opposing native communities, and established a fortress to protect
the settlement.​
●​ Personal Investment: The decree acknowledges Legazpi's contributions, including
private expenses he incurred in the expedition, which further justified his formal
appointment.​

Legazpi's Responsibilities and Authority

●​ Governance: Legazpi was appointed as Governor and Captain-General of Cebu and

any future settlements. His responsibilities included administering both civil and criminal
justice.​

●​ Legal Authority: The document granted him the right to act as the King's representative
in legal matters. He was empowered to enforce justice, appoint subordinate officials, and
make administrative decisions.​

●​ Appointments and Dismissals: Legazpi had the authority to appoint and remove
officials, including governors, constables, and other officers necessary for the
administration.​

●​ Judicial Oversight: He was authorized to resolve civil and criminal cases, enforce fines,
and ensure the collection of revenues for the royal treasury.​

Obligations and Expectations

●​ Recognition and Support: All municipal bodies, magistrates, and officials in the
settlements were required to recognize and obey Legazpi as Governor and
Captain-General.​

●​ Banishment Authority: In cases deemed necessary for maintaining order, Legazpi had
the authority to banish individuals, with the obligation to justify such actions to the King.​

●​ Tribute and Revenue Management: He was responsible for ensuring that fines and
revenues collected in the region were delivered to the royal treasurer.​

●​ Annual Salary: As Governor and Captain-General, Legazpi was entitled to a salary of

2,000 ducats (equivalent to 750,000 maravedis) per year, payable from the revenues of
Cebu.​

Significance of the Decree

●​ Colonial Expansion: This confirmation solidified Spain’s authority in the region,
reinforcing Legazpi’s role in establishing Spanish rule and expanding Spanish influence.​

●​ Legal Foundation: The decree provided a legal basis for Legazpi’s governance,
ensuring stability and continuity in the administration of Cebu and other settlements.​

●​ Economic and Administrative Control: By assigning financial responsibilities and

empowering Legazpi to manage local resources, the King ensured effective colonial
management.​

Conclusion

The confirmation of Legazpi's title as Governor and Captain-General reflects the Spanish
Crown’s strategy to assert control over its newly acquired territories in the Philippines. It formally
recognized Legazpi’s achievements and delegated significant authority to him, with the
expectation of fostering stability, promoting economic growth, and expanding Spanish influence
in the region.

Encomiendas Forbidden to Royal Officials (1576)

Detailed Analysis of the Document: Encomiendas Forbidden to Royal

Officials (1576)

Context and Background

The document is a declaration by Francisco de Sande, the governor and captain-general of the
Spanish colonies in the Philippines in 1576. It addresses the practice of Spanish officials holding
encomiendas, which had been explicitly forbidden by King Philip II.

An encomienda was a system established by the Spanish Crown, granting colonists the right to
collect tribute and labor from the indigenous people in exchange for providing protection and
religious instruction. While it was intended as a means of governance, it often led to exploitation
and abuse.

Main Provisions and Declarations

1.​ Prohibition of Encomiendas for Royal Officials​

○​ The document reaffirms the king's decree that royal officials cannot hold
encomiendas due to the inherent conflict of interest.​
○​ King Philip II had explicitly rejected the officials' request to hold encomiendas,
arguing that their roles were to serve the crown without pursuing personal wealth.​

○​ Governor de Sande reiterates this prohibition, citing the need to maintain the
integrity of governance.​

2.​ Confiscation and Reallocation of Encomiendas​

○​ The encomiendas held by officials like Andres Cauchela (accountant), Andres de

Mirandaola (factor), and Salvador de Aldave (treasurer) were confiscated and
returned to the Crown.​

○​ Specific villages and regions such as Balayan, the Aguan River, and various
mining areas were listed as previously under the control of these officials.​

○​ These encomiendas were to be administered directly by the royal treasury to

ensure fair management and tax collection.​

3.​ Accountability and Oath of Declaration​

○​ Each official was required to provide a sworn declaration of the tributes collected,
including detailed accounts of commodities such as cotton, silver, gold, and
livestock.​

○​ Failure to comply would result in severe penalties, including fines of 500 pesos
for each violation.​

4.​ Financial Reconciliation​

○​ The governor ordered that all collected tributes be counted towards the officials’
salaries, effectively treating it as part of their payment rather than personal gain.​

○​ Officials were instructed to report and reconcile their earnings every quarter.​

5.​ Legal Formalities​

○​ Notary-public Diego Aleman authenticated the document, ensuring its legal

validity.​

○​ Witnesses such as Alonso Ligero, Balthasar de Bustamante, and others were

present during the formal reading of the declarations.​

Significance and Impact

●​ Colonial Governance: This act represents a significant effort by the Spanish Crown to
prevent the abuse of power by colonial officials. By centralizing control over
encomiendas, the Crown aimed to reduce corruption and ensure greater accountability.​

●​ Economic Impact: By transferring encomiendas to the Crown, the revenue generated

would now directly benefit the royal treasury rather than individual officials.​

●​ Social and Cultural Implications: The enforcement of this decree may have reduced
the level of exploitation of indigenous communities, though abuses persisted under other
forms of Spanish colonial rule.​

●​ Legal Precedent: This document also set a legal precedent for the Crown's authority to
revoke privileges and enforce royal decrees, strengthening centralized governance.​

Conclusion

Francisco de Sande's declaration against the holding of encomiendas by royal officials was a
clear assertion of the Crown's authority over its colonies. While the practical enforcement of this
decree would face challenges, it reflected the Spanish Crown's attempts to regulate the
economic and administrative practices in its overseas territories. This measure was part of the
broader effort to balance colonial control with the protection of indigenous populations, at least
in theory.
VOLUME 5
NOTES 1

Here's a more detailed analysis of Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca in
Volume 5 of The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. This account, written in 1582, is one of the
earliest Spanish descriptions of the Philippines, focusing on geography, governance, indigenous
customs, and the colonial system.

Detailed Analysis of Relacion de las Yslas

Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (1582)
1. Purpose and Background of the Document
Miguel de Loarca, a Spanish encomendero residing in the Villa de Arevalo (in present-day
Iloilo), wrote this report in response to a royal decree from the Spanish crown. His objective
was to provide a thorough description of the Philippine Islands under Spanish rule, detailing:

●​ The extent of Spanish control over the islands.

●​ The geography and resources of each region.
●​ The political structure and social organization of indigenous communities.
●​ The economic activities and cultural practices of the natives.
●​ The encomienda system and the influence of Spanish governance.

This account is one of the earliest Spanish ethnographic records on the Philippines and
provides valuable insight into the lives of the early Filipinos under Spanish rule.

2. Geographic and Political Overview

Loarca organizes his description by region, beginning with Cebu and extending to other islands
in the Visayas, Luzon, and Mindanao. Below is a breakdown of his geographic and political
analysis.

A. Cebu – The First Spanish Settlement

Loarca begins with Cebu because it was the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines,
established by Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565. According to Loarca:

●​ Cebu is a small island, approximately 100 leagues in circumference and 50 leagues

in length.
●​ It was divided into small native settlements (barangays) governed by datus.
●​ The Spanish settlement was named Villa del Santísimo Nombre de Jesús in honor of
the image of the Child Jesus (Santo Niño) found in Cebu, which was venerated by the
natives since the time of Magellan (1521).
●​ Cebu had around 3,500 native inhabitants, distributed in small villages, each
consisting of 8–10 houses.
●​ The island had no encomiendas held directly by the king, but Spanish settlers in
Cebu City were granted small encomiendas for their sustenance.

B. Other Islands Under Cebu’s Jurisdiction

Loarca describes other Visayan islands controlled by Spanish authorities based in Cebu.

1. Bohol

●​ Located 8 leagues south of Cebu.

●​ The island was home to around 2,000 natives.
●​ Before Spanish arrival, Moro raiders from Mindanao and the Moluccas attacked
Bohol and reduced its population.
●​ Boholanos were known for being excellent sailors and traders, often engaging in
piracy before Spanish rule.

2. Leyte (Baybay)

●​ Leyte was one of the most populated islands, with around 14,000–15,000 natives.
●​ The island was fertile and abundant in food, producing rice, pigs, and cloth made
from banana fiber (medriñaque).
●​ The natives were difficult to pacify due to their warrior culture.

3. Negros

●​ Negros was named by the Spaniards due to the presence of Aeta or Negrito
inhabitants in the mountains.
●​ The island had around 6,000–7,000 native inhabitants, most of whom were settled in
the south near Spanish-controlled towns.
●​ Negros had gold mines, but they were not well-exploited by the natives.

4. Panay
●​ One of the richest and most prosperous islands.
●​ Panay was highly fertile, producing large amounts of rice, livestock, cotton, honey,
and beeswax.
●​ The capital of Spanish operations in Panay was Villa de Arevalo, founded by
Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa.
●​ The island had around 20,000 natives, most of whom were already subjugated and
paying tribute.
●​ Panay became a major center for shipbuilding because of its abundant timber
resources.

5. Mindoro

●​ Largely unsettled, but known for its good port (Puerto Galera) and wild Moros
(Muslim inhabitants).
●​ The southern part of the island was mostly inhabited by Muslims and Negritos.
●​ Mindoro had gold deposits, but the natives did not mine them extensively.

6. The Smaller Islands

●​ Bantayan: Near Cebu, known for its large fisheries and pearl diving.
●​ Capul: Controlled the main trade route for ships arriving from Spain.
●​ Cuyo: A small but wealthy island, famous for its large rice production and trading
connections with Brunei.
●​ Camotes Islands: Poor and sparsely populated, but an important fishing center.

C. Luzon – The Wealthiest Island

Loarca describes Luzon as the richest and most important island in the Philippines. Key
regions he describes include:

1. Manila and Central Luzon

●​ Manila was the center of Spanish administration and trade with China.
●​ The city had a Spanish governor, a bishop, and a fortress.
●​ Nearby areas, such as Pampanga and Bulacan, were major producers of rice and
gold.

2. Ilocos

●​ The Ilocos region was fertile and abundant in gold.

●​ The natives were peaceful and cooperative, unlike the warrior tribes in the Visayas
and Mindanao.
●​ Ilocanos practiced slash-and-burn agriculture and gold panning.
3. Cagayan Valley

●​ Cagayan was isolated and largely unexplored.

●​ It had large populations of natives who lived along rivers and practiced gold mining.
●​ Many groups were still hostile to Spanish rule.

3. Indigenous Social Structure

Loarca details the social organization of the native Filipinos, which had three primary
classes:

1.​ Datus (Noble Class)​

○​ Rulers of small barangays.

○​ Held political and economic power.
○​ Their wealth came from land, slaves, and war loot.
2.​ Timawas (Freemen)​

○​ Equivalent to commoners.
○​ Served as warriors, fishermen, or farmers.
○​ They paid tributes but were not bound to forced labor.
3.​ Oripun (Slaves)​

○​ Divided into:
■​ Ayuey: Full-time slaves who lived in their master’s house.
■​ Tumaranpoc: Semi-free workers who only worked part-time.
■​ Tomatabanes: The highest class of slaves, only called for work during
important events.

4. Religion and Beliefs

●​ The natives practiced animism and believed in a supreme god (Bathala).
●​ They worshiped ancestral spirits and performed ritual sacrifices.
●​ Many believed in omens and supernatural beings such as aswang (witches),
diwatas (nature spirits), and anitos (household gods).

5. Economic Activities
●​ Agriculture: Rice, corn, and root crops were staples.
●​ Trade: The natives traded with China, Japan, and the Moluccas.
●​ Mining: Gold was present but underexploited.
●​ Fishing and Pearl Diving: Prominent in Bantayan and Mindoro.

Conclusion
Miguel de Loarca’s Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas is one of the most valuable early Spanish
accounts of the Philippines. It provides in-depth details on geography, indigenous societies,
and Spanish colonial policies. His observations continue to be crucial primary sources for
understanding pre-colonial and early colonial Philippine history.

Relation of the Filipinas Islands by Miguel de Loarca

Miguel de Loarca's "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas" (Relation of the Filipinas Islands) is a
detailed account of the Philippines, written in 1582. It provides a comprehensive description of
the islands under Spanish rule, focusing on the geographical, political, social, and cultural
aspects of the different regions and their inhabitants. Here’s a detailed explanation of its
content:

Purpose and Scope

●​ The main purpose of Loarca’s work was to provide King Philip II of Spain with an official
report on the Philippines, specifically on the territories and people that had been
subjected to Spanish authority.​

●​ It covered the Spanish settlements, the forms of governance, and the customs and
traditions of the indigenous populations, both Christianized natives and the Muslim Moro
communities.​

●​ Loarca's narrative also aimed to highlight the progress made under Spanish rule,
emphasizing the shift from indigenous customs to the “civilized” practices introduced by
the Spanish.​

Structure and Approach

●​ Loarca chose to start his account with Cebu (Çubu) and the surrounding islands,
collectively known as the Pintados. Cebu was the first Spanish settlement in the
Philippines and served as a strategic base for the further conquest of other islands.​

●​ He postponed discussing Luzon and Manila—despite Manila’s importance as the

principal Spanish settlement—since Cebu was the initial point of colonization and was
more familiar to him.​

●​ The distinction between regions was highlighted, as Cebu and the Visayas were
dominated by the Pintados, while Luzon was home to the Moros. The Moros had distinct
cultural practices and were influenced by Islamic traditions, differentiating them from the
Christianized natives of Cebu.​

Historical and Cultural Context

●​ Loarca acknowledged the lack of historical documentation by both religious and secular
Spaniards. Despite the presence of ecclesiastics like Fray Alonso de Buyça, no
comprehensive accounts had been written about the region’s conquest.​

●​ He expressed skepticism over previous reports and emphasized the need for accurate,
firsthand accounts. His work was therefore intended to fill this gap by providing a more
reliable narrative.​

●​ Additionally, Loarca underscored the barbaric customs of the indigenous people before
Spanish intervention, contrasting them with the “civilized” life they adopted under
Spanish rule. This narrative served to justify Spanish colonization by portraying it as a
civilizing mission.​

Importance of the Document

●​ The "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas" remains a significant historical source, offering
insights into the early colonial experience in the Philippines.​

●​ It provides valuable descriptions of native governance systems, societal norms,

economic activities, and religious beliefs during the late 16th century.​

●​ Moreover, it reflects the colonial mindset and the Spaniards’ justification of their rule,
portraying their governance as a benevolent force that uplifted the natives from a
supposedly “barbaric” existence.​

If you’d like a more detailed breakdown of specific customs or governance structures discussed
by Loarca, I can elaborate further.
Chapter First

The detailed information from "Relation of the Filipinas Islands" by Miguel de Loarca provides an
in-depth description of the various islands in the Visayas and Mindanao regions during the early
Spanish colonization. Here’s a comprehensive breakdown of the key points:

1. Island of Çubu (Cebu)

●​ First Spanish Settlement: Miguel López de Legazpi established the first permanent
Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565, using it as a base for further conquests.​

●​ Geography: Cebu is narrow, approximately 50 leagues long and 20 leagues wide, with a
circumference of around 100 leagues.​

●​ Population: About 3,500 natives lived in small villages, with the main ones being Jaro,
Daraguete, Peñol, Temanduque, and Barile.​

●​ Encomiendas: Spanish encomenderos controlled most of the villages, collecting tribute

and imposing labor demands on the locals.​

●​ Spanish Presence: The city of Santisimo Nombre de Jesus was the main Spanish
settlement, named after an image of the child Jesus found from the Magellan expedition.
Around 30 to 60 Spaniards lived there.​

●​ Alcalde-Mayor: Cebu was governed by an alcalde-mayor who earned a salary from

fines. The city also had regidors, alcaldes-in-ordinary, and an alguacil-mayor, who were
usually encomenderos themselves.​

2. Island of Matan (Mactan)

●​ Location: Just a short distance from Cebu, Mactan was notable as the place where
Ferdinand Magellan was killed in 1521.​

●​ Size and Population: The island had a small circumference of about four leagues and
around 300 native inhabitants in small villages.​

●​ Significance: Served as part of Cebu’s port and played a key historical role in Spanish
colonization.​

3. Island of Vohol (Bohol)

●​ Location and Population: Located eight leagues from Cebu, Bohol had around 2,000
natives, mainly fishermen and traders.​

●​ Plundering History: A large town in Bohol was previously destroyed by raiders from
Maluku, dispersing its inhabitants to other islands.​

●​ Trade and Lifestyle: Many locals were skilled oarsmen and navigators, engaging in
both trade and raids.​

4. Island of Negros

●​ Geography: It was named "Negros" by the Spaniards due to the presence of

dark-skinned indigenous people. The island had a circumference of about 90 leagues.​

●​ Population: Around 6,000 to 7,000 Indians lived there, with additional populations of
Negritos in the mountainous regions.​

●​ Agriculture and Trade: The southern part of Negros, near Panay, was fertile and
well-settled, producing rice, swine, and fowls. However, the northern areas were
sparsely populated.​

5. Island of Leyte (Baybay)

●​ Significance: One of the largest and most densely populated islands, with
approximately 14,000 to 15,000 inhabitants.​

●​ Resources: The island produced medriñaque (a banana-based fabric) and agricultural

products like rice.​

●​ Tribute and Control: Ten thousand natives paid tribute, despite resistance in the past.​

6. Island of Bantayan

●​ Geography and Economy: Located two leagues from Cebu, Bantayan had around
1,000 inhabitants. It was known for its fisheries and small-scale pearl fishing.​

●​ Agriculture: Limited farming took place due to poor soil quality, and millet and borona (a
type of grain) were grown.​

7. Island of Mindanao
●​ Size and Geography: Mindanao was one of the largest islands, yet largely unexplored
by the Spaniards. Only around 150 leagues of its coast had been surveyed.​

●​ Hostility and Resistance: Most of the inhabitants were unfriendly toward the Spanish,
living along the coast and engaging in maritime trade or fishing.​

●​ Gold and Cinnamon: Despite the presence of gold mines and cinnamon, the locals
mined gold in small quantities and resisted Spanish control.​

8. Other Notable Islands

●​ Siargao: Rich in gold but unexploited due to fears of pirate raids.​

●​ Masbate: Known for its gold mines, which were abandoned after Spanish colonization.​

●​ Capul: Located along the strait near Luzon, it served as a passage for ships from Spain
and had about 500 inhabitants.​

●​ Taguima (Basilan): Populated by around 500 natives and exploited for civet-cat
products, mainly for perfumes.​

Observations and Social Context

●​ Encomiendas: The majority of the islands and villages were assigned to encomenderos,
who collected tribute and gained labor from the natives. Most Spaniards living in Cebu
relied on these encomiendas for sustenance.​

●​ Native Culture and Economy: The indigenous people practiced subsistence

agriculture, raised livestock, and engaged in fishing. Medriñaque cloth, fish, rice, and
borona were the most common resources.​

●​ Trade: Despite the lack of extensive commerce, there was some trade with Nueva
España (Mexico) and other Southeast Asian regions.​

Overall, Loarca's account provides valuable insight into the geographic, economic, and social
structure of the islands under Spanish control, emphasizing the exploitation of native labor and
resources through the encomienda system.

Chapter Second
Detailed Overview of Panay and its Jurisdiction
1. The Island of Panay

●​ Geography: Panay lies 12 leagues from Cebu and 2.5 leagues from Negros. It is the
most fertile and well-provisioned island next to Luzon.​

●​ Resources and Economy: The island produces rice, swine, fowls, honey, wax, cotton,
and medriñaque (a textile material).​

●​ Health and Climate: Unlike Cebu, Panay has a healthier climate. It became a refuge for
Spaniards recovering from illnesses.​

●​ Disease Introduction: Buboes (a disease similar to the plague) were introduced by

settlers from Bohol who fled from Maluku raiders.​

●​ Spanish Settlement: Governor Don Gonzalo Ronquillo established the town of Arevalo
on the south side of Panay due to its fertility and proximity to Negros.​

2. Governance and Administration

●​ Encomiendas: Fifteen encomenderos governed around 20,000 pacified and

tribute-paying natives.​

●​ Alcalde-Mayor: The town had one alcalde-mayor with a salary of 300 pesos, funded
through fines and tributes. The position was appointed by the governor.​

●​ Government Structure: Arevalo had four regidors, two alcaldes-in-ordinary, one

alguazil-mayor, and a notary.​

●​ Jurisdiction: Arevalo governed rivers like Ylo, Ynabagan, Bago, Carobcop, and
Tecgaguan in Negros.​

3. Key Communities in Panay

●​ Notable villages include Oton, Ticbaguan, Jaro, Yvahay, Ajuy, Harahut, Panay, Aclan,
Antique, and Bugason.​

●​ The rivers provided irrigation and facilitated agriculture.​

4. Shipbuilding in Panay
●​ Due to its rich timber resources, Panay housed shipyards. The ship “Visaya” was
launched from here.​

●​ Galleys and fragatas were built for the Spanish navy.​

5. Neighboring Islands Under Panay's Jurisdiction

A. Island of Ymaraes

●​ Located two arquebus shots from Panay, with a population of 500 Indians under a Panay
encomendero.​

●​ Known for rice, cotton, honey, wax, and timber.​

B. Island of Cuyo

●​ Sixteen leagues west of Antique with 800 inhabitants.​

●​ Produced rice with reddish kernels and raised goats.​

●​ Historically traded bruscays (sea shells) used as currency in Sian.​

C. Islets of Lutaya

●​ Comprising seven small islets with over 100 impoverished inhabitants enslaved by Cuyo
chiefs.​

●​ Main activities included salt-making and mat-weaving.​

D. Island of Osigan (Tablas)

●​ Northeast of Panay with a population of 250 Indians.​

●​ Abundant in wax but mountainous and underdeveloped.​

E. Island of Çibuyan

●​ Six leagues from Osigan, with gold mines poorly exploited by the 300 slothful Pintado
natives.​
F. Other Small Islands

●​ Buracay: Three leagues in circumference, producing rice and raising goats.​

●​ Anbil: Specialized in shipbuilding, with a population of 50.​

●​ Simara (Cabras): Known for goat farming and trade.​

●​ Sivaay, Similara, and Bacbatan: Poorly populated, relying on salt-making and

small-scale agriculture.​

6. Outlying Islands

●​ Banton: Eight leagues in circumference with 200 Indian traders.​

●​ Donblon: Seven leagues wide, abundant in wax with 250 inhabitants.​

●​ Cagaian Islands: Inhabited by 400 shipbuilders who supported Spanish naval

operations.​

●​ The islands were under Panay's jurisdiction but retained their autonomy.​

Conclusion

Panay and its surrounding islands formed a vital economic and administrative hub in the
Spanish colony. With its fertile lands, abundant resources, and strategic shipbuilding facilities, it
played a key role in sustaining the colonial government in the Philippines. The Spanish
encomienda system controlled the local population, extracting resources for tribute while
imposing European governance structures.

Chapter Third

Here's a detailed explanation of Chapter Third: Of the Island of Luçon:

1. Importance and Geography

●​ Luçon (Luzon) is described as the most significant and densely populated island in the
archipelago.​
●​ It has rich agricultural lands and productive gold mines, particularly in the province
of Ylocos.​

●​ The island is divided into three main provinces, with Manila serving as the capital and
the seat of the governor.​

●​ Cavite, situated 1.5 leagues from Manila, serves as the main port where ships from
Nueva España (Mexico) and China dock for trade.​

2. Governance and Administration

●​ Manila has a well-established administrative system with:​

○​ A fortress governed by a royal appointee.​

○​ Three royal officers, a major, and a royal standard-bearer.​

○​ Two alguacils-mayor (chief constables).​

○​ Several other officials, including a government secretary, a notary for the

cabildo (city council), and four notaries-public.​

●​ The city also serves as the seat of the bishop and contains a cathedral church.​

●​ There are religious institutions, including:​

○​ A convent of Augustinian monks.​

○​ A convent for the Descalced Friars (Barefoot Friars).​

○​ A Jesuit house.​

3. Economy and Trade

●​ Manila Bay is approximately 20 leagues in circumference, surrounded by fertile lands.​

●​ The region around the bay has numerous Moros (Muslim inhabitants) converted to Islam
by the people of Burney (Brunei).​

●​ Trade is robust, with gold trinkets being common, although no gold mines are directly
around Manila. The gold from Ylocos sustains the economy.​
4. Cultural and Societal Differences

●​ The people of Luzon are distinct in appearance and customs compared to the Pintados
of the Visayas:​

○​ The Pintados are known for their elaborate tattoos, while the Moros do not
practice tattooing.​

○​ The Moros wear short hair, unlike the long-haired Pintados.​

○​ Women among the Moros bore their ears in a different and less aesthetic
manner compared to Visayan women.​

5. Notable Encomiendas

●​ Various encomiendas (land grants) are listed, representing settlements where tribute
was collected from indigenous populations.​

●​ Some significant encomiendas include:​

○​ Vatan (800 men)​

○​ Vitis (7,000 men)​

○​ Macabebe (2,600 men)​

○​ Calumpit (3,000 men)​

○​ Candava (2,000 men)​

●​ Candava also has a village named Little Castilla, under royal ownership, with a small
population of 70 inhabitants.​

6. Administrative Divisions and Salaries

●​ Various alcaldes-mayor (mayors) and corregidores (magistrates) were appointed to

oversee these territories.​

●​ Salaries ranged from 150 pesos to 300 pesos, paid from tributes or fines.​

7. Regional Descriptions
●​ Tondo, located across the river from Manila, is a significant village under royal
jurisdiction, with 1,350 inhabitants.​

●​ Along the river of Manila, villages such as Pasic, Tagui, and Taytay were under
encomenderos, with populations ranging from 500 to 2,000 men.​

8. Lake and Coastal Settlements

●​ The freshwater lake above Manila, known today as Laguna de Bay, is surrounded by
numerous encomiendas, including:​

○​ Maribago (300 men)​

○​ Pila (1,600 men)​

○​ Lumban (1,500 men)​

●​ On the coast, villages like Laguo, Malahat, and Cavite are directly under the king’s
jurisdiction.​

9. Provincial Management

●​ Further away from Manila, territories like:​

○​ Balayan (600 men)​

○​ Bombon (3,400 men)​

○​ Batangas (1,000 men)​

●​ These areas were managed by alcaldes-mayor and corregidores, ensuring tribute

collection and administrative duties.​

10. Gold Mines

●​ Maribago and Lobo in the Batangas region were noted for their gold mines.​

●​ Despite the existence of these mines, they were not fully exploited due to limited labor
and indigenous resistance.​
Conclusion

The chapter portrays Luzon as a vibrant, resource-rich island under Spanish colonial rule. It
highlights Manila’s pivotal role as the administrative and economic hub, controlling nearby
provinces and encomiendas. The governance structure established Spanish dominance while
maintaining the tribute system. Despite the presence of gold, exploitation was often limited by
indigenous resistance and inefficient mining practices.

Chapter Fourth

Detailed Explanation of Chapter Fourth: The Camarines Provinces

1. Overview of Camarines and Vicor

●​ The provinces of Camarines and Vicor are located on the eastern side of the Philippine
archipelago.​

●​ The primary point of entry is the Pasacao River, approximately 70 leagues from Manila
by sea.​

●​ After disembarking, travelers can take a three-league journey by land to reach the
Vicor River, which flows northward from the island's opposite coast.​

2. Town of Caçeres

●​ Caçeres serves as the central administrative town, situated along the Vicor River.​

●​ It is governed by an alcalde-mayor with a salary of 300 pesos.​

●​ Additionally, two alcaldes-in-ordinary and six regidors (councilors) are appointed by

the governor for indefinite terms.​

●​ The town contains 24 encomenderos, including:​

○​ 14 encomenderos with 700 Indians each​

○​ 1 encomendero with 2,000 Indians​

○​ 1 encomendero managing the Libon Lake district with 1,500 Indians​

○​ Remaining encomenderos overseeing around 300 Indians each​

●​ The region is particularly rich in gold and rice.​

●​ Significant gold mines are located in Paracale (16 leagues from Caçeres) and
Catanduanes (30 leagues from Caçeres).​

3. Other Notable Areas in Camarines

●​ Libon: This is a sparsely populated region with a lake, governed by one encomendero
managing 1,500 Indians.​

●​ Paracale and Mahuban: Known for gold production, with a combined population of
2,000 Indians under three encomenderos. The king also owns a share of this province.​

●​ Yvalon Bay: Inhabited by 1,500 Indians, divided between two encomenderos.​

●​ Island of Catanduanes: Home to around 4,000 inhabitants under four encomenderos.​

4. Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

●​ The alcalde-mayor manages regional governance and earns a salary of 300 pesos,
derived from fines or the royal treasury.​

●​ A treasurer is appointed to collect tributes and report to Manila, earning 200 pesos
annually.​

●​ The local notary handles both administrative and judicial duties, adding to his annual
earnings, which total around 400 pesos.​

5. Economy and Lifestyle

●​ The region is fertile and produces an abundance of rice and palm wine, used for
making brandy.​

●​ Indigenous people, resembling the Pintados, are noted for their leisurely lifestyle,
often engaging in drinking while women perform agricultural labor.​

●​ They follow animist beliefs, worshiping idols and consulting shamans.​

6. Mines and Natural Resources

●​ The gold mines of Paracale and Catanduanes are significant sources of wealth.​
●​ The Bay of Caporaguay is also noted for gold extraction.​

7. Geography and Distances

●​ The route from Pasacao to Bucaygan covers 20 leagues along the coast, with an
additional 60 leagues northwest to the Vicor River.​

●​ The total distance from Vicor River to the cape of Babuyanes is 120 leagues.​

8. Cagayan River and Coastal Settlements

●​ The Cagayan River is a major waterway, supporting over 30,000 inhabitants who trade
rice and swine with the Ylocos people.​

●​ The river has a shallow bar, with water depths varying from one to two brazas
depending on the tide.​

●​ Nearby settlements include Valete (800 Indians), Casiguran (500 Indians), and the
gold-rich Alanao River province.​

9. Islands and Additional Territories

●​ Mandato and Buyon: These small islands near Luzon are inhabited by Moros.​

●​ Marinduque: Located between Banton and Luzon, it has around 1,000 inhabitants
and is under a single encomendero.​

●​ Capul and Marinduque are not governed by Cebu, Arevalo, or Camarines, indicating
limited Spanish administrative presence.​

This detailed account of the Camarines provinces highlights the administrative structures,
economic activities, social customs, and geographic context during the Spanish colonial period
in the Philippines.

Chapter Fifth

Detailed Overview of Chapter Five: The Province of Ylocos

1. Province of Çambales
●​ Located north of Manila, this province is home to around 1,000 inhabitants, often
compared to the Chichimecos of Nueva España.​

●​ The people resemble the Moros in their customs but wear distinct clothing, including
short trousers and jackets called "saltambarca," often marked with colorful crosses on
their chest and shoulders.​

●​ Villages include Marayomo, Pinahuyu, Mahaban, Buanguin, Tuguy, Polo, Bongalon,

Dalayap, Cabatogan, and Bacol.​

●​ Murderers in this region faced a gruesome punishment where a hole was bored through
their head to remove the brain.​

2. Province of Bulinao

●​ Inhabited by both peaceful and warlike Çambales, Bulinao belongs to the Spanish crown
and has around 400 pacified natives.​

●​ Many inhabitants live in the mountains, engaging in headhunting. Respect is often

earned by the number of heads displayed in homes.​

●​ Agricultural activities are minimal, and like the Visayans, they invoke ancestors in times
of need.​

3. Bay of Pangasinan

●​ Pangasinan has a population of around 4,000 people, divided into six encomiendas, one
of which belongs to the King.​

●​ It is a thriving trade hub dealing with Chinese, Japanese, and Bornean merchants.​

●​ Known for its agricultural productivity, it produces rice, swine, goats, and buffaloes.​

●​ Punishment for adultery is severe, with husbands often killing unfaithful wives without
repercussions.​

●​ The area has been administered by an alcalde-mayor with a salary of 100 pesos.​

4. Port of Japon and Surrounding Villages

●​ Four leagues from Pangasinan lies the port of Japon, a small settlement inhabited by the
same ethnic group as those in Pangasinan.​

●​ Villages like Alinguey, Baratao, and Purao have populations of around 2,000 each. The
latter is notably wealthy in gold, being close to mines.​

5. Valleys and Towns

●​ Lumaquaque: With a population of 1,500, it is split between an encomendero and the

King.​

●​ Candon and Maluacan: Both towns have populations around 1,800 and are under
various encomenderos.​

●​ Landan Valley: With 1,000 residents, this valley belongs to the hospital of Manila.​

6. Town of Vigan and Province of Ylocos

●​ Vigan, with around 800 inhabitants, serves as the administrative center of the province.​

●​ Founded by Guido de Lavezaris in 1575, it was looted during the Limahon invasion. The
town now only has one alcalde-mayor and about 30 Spaniards.​

●​ The surrounding valleys like Bantay, Sinay, Vavo, and Cacaguayan are under different
encomenderos, with populations ranging from 1,000 to 4,000.​

●​ Despite the presence of gold, many people lead simple lives, resembling the Pintados in
their customs. They are peaceful and non-confrontational.​

7. Island of Mindoro and Surrounding Areas

●​ Mindoro, opposite Bonbon and Batangas, is predominantly inhabited by Moros. It has a

small village with around 250 residents.​

●​ The island is sparsely populated, with less than 500 inhabitants, though it is a key
source of wax.​

●​ Luban Island: Located four leagues from Mindoro, it has a small population of 500
across six villages.​

●​ Elin Island: Inhabited by around 200 Visayan Indians.​

8. Babayanes and Calamianes Islands

●​ The Babayanes, a cluster of seven islands, are named for the abundance of swine. Little
is known about the inhabitants.​

●​ The Calamianes islands, including Paraguan, are inhabited by Pintados and

mountain-dwelling Negritos.​

●​ They produce large quantities of wax, which are traded throughout the islands.​

●​ These islands are under the jurisdiction of the alcalde-mayor of Mindoro and belong to
the Spanish crown.​

Conclusion

This chapter provides a thorough account of the geography, customs, and governance of the
Ylocos province and its neighboring regions. From the bustling trade hubs of Pangasinan to the
warlike headhunters of Bulinao, the diversity in societal structure and traditions highlights the
complex nature of the northern Philippine territories under Spanish colonial rule.

Chapter Sixth

This chapter provides a detailed description of the inhabitants of the Pintados Islands, which are
part of the Visayas region in the Philippines. The term "Pintados" refers to the indigenous
people, particularly known for their elaborate tattoos. Here's a detailed breakdown of the
chapter:

Physical Appearance and Tattooing

●​ The people of the Pintados Islands are described as having lighter skin compared to
other natives.​

●​ Men and women are generally well-formed, with some women noted for their fair
complexion.​

●​ Both genders keep their hair long, tying it in a knot at the crown of the head.​

●​ Men tattoo their bodies with intricate designs using iron tools dipped in ink. The ink fuses
with the blood, making the tattoos permanent. Tattoos were often symbols of bravery and
social status.​
Health and Longevity

●​ The Pintados were observed to be in good health, with no reports of disabilities or

mental illness.​

●​ The favorable climate was believed to contribute to their physical well-being.​

●​ It was noted that they often lived long lives without any significant health issues.​

Cultural Practices and Dress

●​ Both men and women wore modest clothing made from cotton, medriñaque (a fine
cloth), or silk, often imported from China.​

●​ They adorned themselves with jewelry made of gold and other ornaments, including
earrings and armlets.​

Alcohol Consumption

●​ The Pintados were fond of a local wine made from rice or the sap of palm trees.​

●​ Interestingly, even in a state of intoxication, they rarely displayed anger. Instead,

drunkenness typically led to laughter or sleep.​

Marriage and Family Customs

●​ In contrast to many other cultures, it was the men who provided a dowry during
marriage.​

●​ If adultery occurred, only the male adulterer faced consequences, while the woman was
not punished.​

●​ However, the people of the mountains did not adopt certain extreme practices followed
by the lowlanders, such as genital modifications involving tin tubes and spur-like wheels,
which were seen as perverse.​

Circumcision and Hygiene

●​ Both lowlanders and mountain people practiced circumcision, believing it improved
hygiene and health.​

Women’s Status and Sexuality

●​ While women were described as beautiful and modestly dressed, they were also noted
for their perceived lack of chastity.​

●​ Mothers were said to tolerate or even encourage their daughters' immoral behavior
without facing social punishment.​

●​ Despite these observations, women were described as maintaining a high level of

personal cleanliness and a fondness for perfumes.​

Family Dynamics and Social Structure

●​ It was considered disgraceful to have many children due to concerns over dividing
inheritance, which would lead to poverty.​

●​ The Pintados followed strict social class distinctions in marriage, with nobles marrying
only within their rank.​

●​ Polygamy was practiced, with men taking as many wives as they could afford.​

●​ Loyalty to their wives was notable, with men often siding with their wives' families in
disputes, even against their own relatives.​

This chapter provides insight into the social norms, family structures, and cultural practices of
the Pintados people. While the text is heavily influenced by the perspectives of the Spanish
chronicler, it offers valuable information about pre-colonial Visayan society. Let me know if you'd
like further clarification or additional details!

Chapter Seventh

This chapter provides insight into the beliefs of the Pintados (Visayans) and Tinguianes (an
indigenous group from Luzon) regarding the creation of the world. It reveals how these
communities passed down their oral traditions through songs and stories, preserving their
beliefs about the origins of humanity, nature, and societal customs.
1. Social Division and Dependence

●​ The chapter describes two primary groups:​

○​ Yligueynes (Coastal People) – They lived along the coast, engaging in fishing,
trade, and maritime activities.​

○​ Tinguianes (Mountain People) – They resided inland, practicing agriculture and

producing cotton and rice.​

●​ Despite their differences, these groups maintained economic interdependence. Coastal

people needed agricultural products, while the mountaineers required salt, fish, and
other coastal resources.​

2. The Creation Story of the Yligueynes (Coastal People)

●​ The Yligueynes believed in two eternal gods:​

○​ Captan – Associated with the sky and heavens.​

○​ Maguayen – Linked to the sea and earth.​

Creation of Humanity

●​ The story begins with the marriage of the sea breeze and the land breeze, resulting in
the birth of a reed.​

●​ From the reed, two human figures emerged:​

○​ Sicalac (Male) – The origin of the term "lalac" for men.​

○​ Sicavay (Female) – The root of the word "babayes" for women.​

Incestuous Union for Survival

●​ Initially, Sicavay refused to marry Sicalac, arguing that they were siblings.​

●​ After consulting the tunnies (sea fish), doves (air birds), and even the earthquake,
they were told that marriage was necessary for the continuation of the human race.​
●​ Their children, Sibo and Samar, gave birth to the next generation, with one daughter
named Lupluban.​

3. The Tragedy of Pandaguan

●​ Pandaguan, the son of Sicalac and Sicavay, is credited with inventing the fishing net.​

●​ On his first attempt, he caught a shark and brought it ashore. However, the shark died,
which led him to lament and question the gods.​

●​ Captan, displeased by the mourning over a mere fish, struck Pandaguan with a
thunderbolt, killing him.​

●​ After 30 days in the underworld, the gods revived him and allowed him to return to the
living.​

Concubinage and Theft

●​ During Pandaguan's absence, his wife Lubluban became the concubine of a man
named Maracoyrun, marking the beginning of concubinage.​

●​ The first theft occurred when Lubluban joined Maracoyrun in eating a stolen pig.​

●​ When Pandaguan returned, Lubluban refused to believe he was alive, leading to his
despair and voluntary return to the underworld.​

●​ The narrative implies that if Lubluban had accepted his return, death might not have
become permanent, and all the dead could have come back to life.​

4. The Tinguianes' Creation Story

The Tinguianes had a distinct creation story that also began with the sea and the sky.

The Role of the Kite

●​ In the beginning, only the sky and the sea existed.​

●​ A kite (a bird), finding no place to rest, manipulated the sea into attacking the sky.​

●​ In retaliation, the sky showered down the islands of the Philippines to subdue the sea,
preventing it from rising again.​

●​ This mythical conflict symbolized the belief in mavaris, a cultural practice of taking
revenge for any perceived insult, which was seen as a matter of honor.​

Creation of Humanity

●​ Similar to the Yligueynes, the Tinguianes believed that a reed split open, revealing the
first man and woman.​

●​ However, their version includes a peculiar story about the couple’s children.​

The Origin of Social Classes

●​ One day, the father grew angry, causing the children to flee:​

○​ Chiefs – Hid in the deepest rooms, representing their elite status.​

○​ Timaguas (Freemen) – Hid in intermediate spaces, symbolizing a middle class.​

○​ Slaves – Hid within the walls and fireplaces, representing servitude.​

○​ Blacks – Associated with those who sought refuge near the fireplace.​

○​ Spaniards – Fled to the sea and eventually returned by sea, connecting this
belief to the actual arrival of Spanish explorers.​

5. Cultural Insights

●​ Both the Yligueynes and Tinguianes used mythology to explain the natural world and
social order.​

●​ Stories like the marriage of siblings, the shark’s death, and Pandaguan’s resurrection
were moral lessons, illustrating consequences for challenging the gods.​

●​ The Tinguianes' belief in the sea-sky war and the subsequent creation of islands may
symbolize their reverence for nature and the unpredictability of natural disasters like
storms and floods.​

●​ The concept of mavaris reflects the deeply ingrained belief in personal honor and the
importance of avenging perceived wrongs.​

These myths and beliefs provide a valuable glimpse into the pre-colonial worldview of the
Pintados and Tinguianes, emphasizing the interconnectedness of nature, humanity, and the
divine. If you'd like further clarification or additional analysis, feel free to ask!

Chapter Eighth

This chapter offers an in-depth view of the beliefs and practices of the Pintados (Visayans)
regarding death, the afterlife, and their customs associated with mourning and burial. It also
touches on their perspectives on war, justice, and legal systems.

1. Beliefs Concerning the Afterlife

●​ Honorable Death and Afterlife​

The Pintados believed that those who died in battle (stabbed, killed by arrows, or eaten
by crocodiles) experienced an honorable death and were elevated to godlike status.
They believed the souls of these individuals ascended to heaven through the rainbow.​

●​ Souls of the Drowned​

Conversely, those who drowned were believed to remain in the sea forever. To honor
them, relatives erected a tall reed with the deceased’s garment, which was left until it
deteriorated.​

○​ When a relative of a drowned person became sick, they would seek the help of a
baylana (priestess).​

○​ During the ritual, they would throw a chest filled with garments and valuables into
the sea, invoking the deceased for protection.​

2. Causes of Death and Beliefs About the Soul

●​ Death by Disease​
When people, especially the young, died from illnesses, the Pintados believed that
mangalos (goblins) had consumed their intestines. They did not understand the concept
of internal diseases, attributing deaths to supernatural causes.​

●​ Death by Old Age​

They believed that those who died naturally in old age had their souls snatched by the
wind.​

○​ The souls of the Arayas (inhabitants of allied villages) were said to go to Mount
Mayas on Panay Island.​

○​ Meanwhile, the Yligueynes (people of Cebu, Bohol, and Bantayan) believed

their souls were taken by the god Sisiburanen to a high mountain on Burney
Island.​

3. Concept of Sidapa and the Measurement of Life

●​ The God Sidapa​

Sidapa, a god in the sky, was believed to possess a tall tree on Mount Mayas.​

○​ At birth, he marked a spot on the tree representing the person’s destined height.​

○​ When the person’s height matched the mark, they would die, symbolizing the end
of their life.​

4. Infernal Beliefs and Redemption

●​ Infernal Regions and the Gods Simuran and Siguinarugan​

All souls, regardless of their deeds, were thought to go to Inferno.​

○​ However, through maganitos (sacrificial offerings), they could be redeemed.​

○​ The poor, who could not afford offerings, were believed to remain trapped in
Inferno, eaten or imprisoned by the gods.​

●​ Role of Maguayen and Sumpoy​

○​ After death, Maguayen transported the souls to Inferno in a barangay (boat).​

○​ Sumpoy, another god, then handed the souls over to Sisiburanen, who kept
both the good and the bad without discrimination.​

5. Rituals and Priestly Practices

●​ Baylanas and Sacrifices​

○​ Baylanas, typically priestesses, officiated rituals during sickness, agricultural

cycles, or war.​

○​ They dressed in extravagant garments, adorned with gold and garlands.​

○​ Through chants and rituals, they summoned spirits or demons for guidance.​

○​ The climax of the ritual often involved the baylana entering a trance, foaming at
the mouth, and delivering divine messages.​

●​ Offerings​

○​ A live hog, jars of rice wine (pitarrilla), and various foods were presented to the
spirits.​

○​ After the ceremony, the hog was slaughtered, and the prepared food was placed
on an altar for the spirits.​

6. Deities and Their Domains

●​ Macaptan​

○​ Macaptan was considered a malevolent god who sent diseases and death.​

○​ He was resented by the people for not partaking in earthly pleasures like food or
wine, leading to his perceived cruelty.​

●​ Lalahon​
○​ The goddess Lalahon was believed to reside in a volcano on Negros Island.​

○​ She controlled agricultural fertility, sending locusts to destroy crops if she was
displeased.​

7. Burial Practices and Mourning

●​ Burial Customs​

○​ The dead were buried in wooden coffins within their homes, accompanied by
valuables like gold and cloth to ensure a favorable reception in the afterlife.​

●​ Guarding the Dead​

○​ Fires were lit around the house, and armed men stood guard to prevent sorcerers
from touching the coffin.​

○​ It was believed that if a sorcerer touched the coffin, it would burst open, releasing
a foul odor.​

●​ Slaves Sacrificed for Chiefs​

○​ Upon the death of a chief, a slave—usually a foreign captive—was killed in the

same manner as the chief.​

○​ This act was rooted in the belief that the slave would serve the chief in the
afterlife.​

○​ The custom originated from the story of Marapan, a chief who ordered a slave
and his family to be executed after a perceived insult.​

8. Mourning Practices

●​ Men’s Mourning (Maglahe)​

○​ Men vowed not to eat rice until they captured an enemy or killed someone in
battle.​
○​ During this period, they wore armlets made of woven rattan (bejucos),
symbolizing their grief.​

●​ Women’s Mourning (Morotal)​

○​ Women participated in communal rituals aboard barangays, singing of heroic

deeds and celebrating life.​

○​ After the ceremony, they removed their mourning garb and resumed normal life.​

●​ Larao for Chiefs​

○​ Larao was a strict mourning period for chiefs.​

○​ People observed silence, reversed their daggers, and avoided wearing colorful
clothing.​

○​ Anyone who violated the mourning customs faced severe penalties.​

9. Concept of War and Justice

●​ First War​

1.​ The origin of war was attributed to Panas, the grandson of the first humans.​

2.​ He initiated conflict over an inheritance dispute, leading to the division of people
into warring factions.​

●​ Just Wars​
The Pintados justified war in three instances:​

1.​ Unjust Killings – When a person from their tribe was killed without cause.​

2.​ Abduction of Wives – The kidnapping of women triggered immediate retaliation.​

3.​ Trade Betrayals – Hostilities ensued if a trader was deceived or mistreated.​

10. Legal Systems and Mediation

●​ Laws of Lubluban​

○​ The laws were believed to be established by Lubluban, a significant figure in

their mythology.​

○​ Chiefs were responsible for enforcing laws, while mediators facilitated

reconciliations.​

○​ There were no formal judges, reflecting a communal approach to justice.​

This chapter gives a profound understanding of the Pintados' worldview, highlighting their
reverence for ancestral spirits, their belief in divine intervention, and the role of communal rituals
in maintaining societal order. If you'd like further clarification or additional insights, feel free to
ask!

Chapter Ninth

This chapter from the historical document discusses the laws, customs, and social structure
surrounding slavery in the pre-colonial Philippines. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the
information:

Laws and Customs of Slavery

●​ In the pre-colonial Philippines, people were not executed for crimes like theft, adultery, or
murder. Instead, a fine in gold or jewels was imposed.​

●​ If a person couldn’t pay the fine, they could borrow money and become a slave to their
creditor until the debt was repaid. This temporary servitude allowed for a path back to
freedom.​

●​ There were three classes of slaves:​

○​ Ayuey – The most heavily enslaved class. They worked three days for their
master and one day for themselves. They were usually domestic servants.​

○​ Tumaranpoc – These slaves lived in their own homes and worked for their
masters one day out of four. If they failed to work, they had to pay their master a
rice tribute.​

○​ Tomataban – This was the most privileged class of slaves, often participating in
festivals and celebrations with their masters. They only worked five days a month
or gave a rice tribute.​

●​ Valuation of Slaves:​

○​ Ayuey and Tumaranpoc were valued at two gold taes (equivalent to twelve
pesos).​

○​ Tomataban were valued at one tae (equivalent to six pesos).​

●​ Female slaves followed similar labor obligations, with responsibilities like spinning and
weaving cotton. Only Ayuey received food and clothing from their masters.​

Punishments Leading to Slavery

●​ Crimes like murder, adultery, theft, or dishonoring a woman of rank could lead to
enslavement.​

●​ Even chiefs could face enslavement if they committed crimes and couldn’t pay the fines.​

●​ In cases of famine, the poor could voluntarily become slaves to the wealthy to survive.​

Cultural Origins of Slavery

●​ The practice of imposing slavery as punishment was said to have started with
Sidumaguer, who introduced the practice over 2,000 years ago.​

●​ After an incident where his barangay (community) was destroyed, Sidumaguer

mandated that the descendants of the offenders provide him with two slaves out of every
ten upon their deaths. This form of hereditary servitude spread along the coastal areas.​

Timaguas (Freemen)
●​ Timaguas were the freemen of society, distinct from both chiefs and slaves.​

●​ They could choose which chief to follow and had specific obligations, such as:​

○​ Attending feasts and drinking first before the chief.​

○​ Serving as oarsmen and defending the chief’s barangay during journeys.​

●​ In return, chiefs were responsible for protecting their Timaguas.​

War and Captivity

●​ Pre-colonial Filipinos often engaged in plundering expeditions using boats during

favorable weather.​

●​ Crocodile or boar teeth were used for divination to predict the outcome of these raids.​

●​ Captured enemies were often enslaved rather than killed. Chiefs treated enslaved
chiefs with respect and allowed them to be ransomed.​

●​ If a chief was captured, his family was responsible for paying the ransom.​

Borrowing and Usury

●​ Loans of rice were common, with the expectation of repayment after one harvest.​

●​ If the borrower failed to repay, the debt would double with each subsequent harvest.​

●​ This form of gradual increase was the primary form of usury.​

Inheritance

●​ Inheritance followed a clear hierarchy:​

○​ Children inherited first, with the property divided equally.​

○​ Illegitimate children (bastards) had no automatic rights to inheritance.​

○​ If there were no children, siblings inherited, followed by cousins or other relatives.​

●​ A father could favor one child in his will, but otherwise, inheritance was typically
equitable.​

This chapter provides a fascinating insight into the intricate social and legal systems of
pre-colonial Filipino society, reflecting how justice, labor, and familial responsibility were deeply
intertwined.

Chapter Tenth

This detailed account from The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 provides insights into the
marriage customs and social practices of indigenous Filipinos before and during the early period
of Spanish colonization. Here's a breakdown of the main topics discussed in the chapter:

1. Marriage of the Chiefs

●​ Negotiations and Customs: Marriage among chiefs was a formal affair, negotiated with
the help of respected timaguas (freemen). A symbolic act involved the groom’s
representative thrusting a lance into the bride’s staircase, invoking deities and ancestors
for a prosperous union.​

●​ Dowry and Ceremonies: Chiefs typically paid a significant dowry, often in gold, slaves,
or jewels (around 100 pesos in value). Upon the bride’s arrival at her in-laws' house, she
would feign reluctance to enter, requiring multiple gifts (slaves or jewels) to proceed
through each ceremonial step.​

●​ Marriage Agreement: An elder would announce the terms of marriage publicly,

emphasizing the conditions for separation. Adultery by the wife allowed the husband to
reclaim the dowry and remarry, while neglect by the husband gave the wife the right to
leave with no obligation to return the dowry.​

●​ Parental Control: Until the couple had children, the dowry remained with the bride’s
father. If the couple were underage, they stayed in the bride’s father’s household and
worked there until mature enough to live together.​
2. Marriage Among the Timaguas (Freemen)

●​ Simpler Ceremonies: Timaguas practiced less elaborate wedding customs. Marriage

was often confirmed by drinking pitarrilla (local wine) from the same cup. A communal
shout sealed the union.​

●​ Respect for Chiefs: Unlike the chiefs, timaguas refrained from the symbolic rice
ceremony, as it was viewed as a privilege of the elite.​

3. Marriage Among Slaves

●​ Informal Marriages: House slaves (ayueys) and lower-class slaves married without
ceremony. Chiefs would negotiate marriages between their slaves using an intermediary.
The dowry for such unions was typically small, often consisting of household items like
jars or dishes.​

●​ Children’s Status: Children born to enslaved parents were divided between the
masters. Each master would own half of the children, unless a different agreement was
made. If a freeman married a slave, half the children were considered free, while the
other half remained enslaved.​

4. Collective Responsibility and Debt Practices

●​ Unjust Debt Collection: Indigenous communities practiced collective responsibility for

debts. If a debtor refused to pay, any person from the debtor's village could be seized to
cover the debt. The seized person could then demand double the repayment from the
original debtor as compensation for their suffering.​

●​ Interest on Loans: When rice was borrowed, debtors were given a year to repay.
Failing to return it after one harvest led to the amount owed doubling with each
subsequent harvest. This practice was one form of local usury.​

5. Reconciliation and Friendships

●​ Blood Compacts: Quarrels were resolved through blood compacts, where both parties
would draw blood from their arms, mix it with wine in a shell, and drink it. This ritual was
believed to secure peace and strengthen bonds.​

6. Beliefs in Witchcraft and Superstition

●​ Sorcery and Curses: The text mentions witchcraft practices that arose after the
Spaniards arrived, particularly in Ybalon (Bicol Region). Filipinos believed in spirits like
Naguined, Arapayan, and Macbarubac, to whom offerings of coconut oil and crocodile
teeth were made. With this, sorcerers claimed they could cause death merely by
declaring it.​

●​ Counteracting Witchcraft: Those cursed could seek protection through a different oil
that nullified the curse.​

7. Omens and Superstitions

○​ Sneezing was seen as a bad omen, especially before important undertakings like
war or travel.​

○​ Sailors avoided vessels with goats or monkeys, believing their presence would
cause shipwrecks.​

8. Agricultural and Social Practices

●​ Rituals for Abundant Harvests: Before planting rice, communities observed seven
days of prayer, barring strangers from their villages and refraining from grinding rice.
This practice was a form of religious offering to ensure a good harvest.​

●​ Division of Labor: Women performed spinning and weaving as part of their contribution
to the household economy. Chiefs and wealthy families often had a significant number of
slaves to carry out agricultural and domestic labor.​

9. Indigenous Flora and Fauna

●​ Coconuts: Coconut palms were highly valued for their multiple uses. They provided sap
for wine, vinegar, and honey, as well as food and materials for household tools and
weapons.​

●​ Wildlife: Notable animals included turtles, massive serpents, and crocodiles. Tabon
birds were remarkable for their large eggs, which hatched naturally under the sand. Wild
buffalo and civet cats also roamed the islands.​

10. Fruits and Natural Resources

●​ Indigenous fruits such as bananas, nancas (jackfruit), macupas (rose apples), and
santors (sentul) were enjoyed. There were also exotic fruits introduced from China, like
oranges and lemons. Some trees, particularly in Ilocos, bore edible blossoms that were
used as fish substitutes.​

Conclusion

The detailed account provides a fascinating glimpse into pre-colonial Filipino society,
highlighting social hierarchies, cultural practices, and belief systems. It also emphasizes how
local customs were adapted or misunderstood under Spanish rule, leading to confusion in legal
and religious matters. The resilience of indigenous traditions, despite external influences, is
evident in their agricultural rituals, social contracts, and symbolic ceremonies.

Chapter Eleventh

Chapter Eleven: Rites, Ceremonies, and Social Conditions of the Moros in

Manila

Religious Beliefs and Practices

●​ Batala as the Supreme God:​

○​ The Moros worshiped Batala, meaning "God," believing him to be the creator of
humans and villages.​

○​ Batala was considered distant and unreachable, living in the sky.​

●​ Role of Anitos:​

○​ Anitos were spirits or intermediaries who acted on behalf of Batala.​

○​ Each anito had a specific role, such as overseeing fields, travel, war, or health.​

○​ The Moros made offerings to anitos through the catalonan (priest), seeking their
favor.​

○​ Sacrifices often involved food, wine, gold ornaments, or chains.​

●​ Catalonan Ceremonies:​
○​ During ceremonies, the catalonan invoked the anito, fell into a trance, and
relayed messages from the spirit.​

○​ For healing, offerings were believed to serve as a ransom for a sick person's
health.​

●​ Ancestral Worship:​

○​ In mountainous areas, wooden idols representing deceased ancestors were

crafted and revered as anitos.​

○​ These idols were kept in special houses and offered food and wine as acts of
devotion.​

Government and Leadership

●​ Chiefdoms and Authority:​

○​ Like the Pintados, the Moros had district chiefs responsible for law enforcement
and governance.​

○​ In villages with multiple chiefs, the wealthiest chief held authority.​

○​ Lineage and noble ancestry were highly valued.​

●​ Law-Making Process:​

○​ Chiefs convened to create laws and ordinances addressing crimes and conflicts.​

○​ Decisions were publicly announced by the umalahocan (public crier) using a bell.​

●​ Judicial System:​

○​ Chiefs acted as judges, deciding punishments for crimes.​

○​ Criminals often faced slavery as a penalty instead of death.​

○​ Major disputes were resolved collectively by all chiefs.​

Marriage Customs

●​ Dowry System:​
○​ Dowries were essential, often consisting of gold, jewelry, or slaves.​

○​ If a man annulled the marriage without the woman's consent, he forfeited the
dowry.​

○​ Conversely, if a woman left her husband, she returned the dowry.​

●​ Adultery Laws:​

○​ Husbands could punish adulterous wives and their lovers with death.​

○​ If the adulterers escaped, financial restitution was required.​

○​ Chiefs faced heavier penalties for adultery, sometimes up to 100 taes of gold.​

Crime and Punishment

●​ Theft Laws:​

○​ Theft under four taes (20 pesos) was minor, requiring repayment and a fine.​

○​ Theft exceeding four taes resulted in enslavement.​

○​ For large-scale thefts (a catty of gold), the death penalty was imposed.​

●​ Murder:​

○​ Murderers faced the death penalty or slavery at the discretion of the victim's
family.​

○​ If the victim was a chief, an entire village could be enslaved.​

●​ Blasphemy and Insult:​

○​ Speaking disrespectfully to a chief resulted in death or a fine of 15 taes of gold.​

○​ Failure to pay fines resulted in enslavement.​

Debt and Slavery

●​ Debt Servitude:​
○​ Debtors unable to pay became slaves, with their children also enslaved if born
during the debt period.​

○​ Partnerships involved mutual financial responsibility. If one partner failed, the

other was obliged to share the burden.​

●​ Release from Slavery:​

○​ Slaves could regain freedom by repaying their debt or through the intervention of
wealthier relatives.​

Warfare and Conflict Resolution

●​ Wars and Alliances:​

○​ Villages often engaged in wars, particularly over unresolved legal disputes.​

○​ Prisoners were enslaved unless ransomed.​

●​ Ransom Practices:​

○​ Captured warriors could be freed if their families or villages paid the ransom.​

●​ Peace Settlements:​

○​ Disputes could be settled through payment, ensuring peace and restoring friendly
relations.​

Conclusion

This chapter by Miguel de Loarca provides a detailed account of the Moro society in the vicinity
of Manila, highlighting their belief systems, governance, legal practices, and social customs.
The strong emphasis on the role of chiefs, the use of anitos as intermediaries, and the
intertwining of religion with justice reflects the deeply rooted cultural traditions of the Moros
before the full establishment of Spanish colonial rule.

VOLUME 8
Here's a detailed breakdown of the Account of the Encomiendas in the Philippine Islands
(1591) from The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume 08. This section meticulously describes
the distribution of encomiendas, their governance, population, religious instruction, and
administration of justice in various provinces of the Philippines during Spanish colonial rule.

Manila and Its Surrounding Areas

The City of Manila, situated on Luzon Island, was the capital and administrative center of the
Spanish colony in the Philippines. It housed the Governor and Captain-General, a royal army,
and key government officials. The city had a cathedral, monasteries, and hospitals, making
it the hub of religious and civic governance.

Key Features of Manila:

●​ Population: ~3,000 tributarios (tax-paying natives), but only 500 tributes collected due
to high mobility.
●​ Religious Institutions: Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits
managed various convents and churches.
●​ Encomiendas & Religious Oversight:
○​ Bagunbaya: 1,200 souls (300 tributes), under the Augustinians.
○​ Laguio y Malate: 1,200 souls (300 tributes), also instructed by Augustinians.
○​ Longalo y Parañaque: 3,200 souls (800 tributes), under an Augustinian convent
with two religious ministers.
○​ Cavite & Nearby Hamlets: 1,480 souls (370 tributes), instructed by a single
ecclesiastic.
○​ Maragondón: 800 souls (200 tributes), but lacked religious instruction for three
years due to bishop’s negligence.
○​ Tondo (opposite Manila): 6,000 souls (1,500 tributes), under Augustinians and
Dominicans.

Pampanga
Pampanga was a densely populated province with 74,720 people under 18,680 tributes. It
was divided among various royal and private encomiendas, each governed by
alcaldes-mayor.

Notable Encomiendas in Pampanga:

●​ Batan (1,000 tributes, 4,000 people) - Dominican convent provided instruction.

●​ Bitis y Lubao (5,000 tributes, 20,000 people) - Four Augustinian convents provided
instruction.
●​ Macabebe (2,300 tributes, 9,200 people) - One Augustinian convent; some settlers
lacked religious instruction.
●​ Candava (2,000 tributes, 8,000 people) - One Augustinian convent, but some were
unconverted.
●​ Calompit & Agunoy (3,200 tributes, 12,800 people) - Two Augustinian convents and
an alcalde-mayor.
●​ Bulacan (1,200 tributes, 4,800 people) - One Augustinian convent; capital town of the
province.

Pampanga’s Needs:

●​ Religious instruction was generally sufficient.

●​ Justice was well-administered, but some remote areas lacked oversight.

Pangasinan
This province had 24,000 inhabitants under 6,000 tributes, divided into royal and private
encomiendas.

Significant Encomiendas in Pangasinan:

●​ Lingayen (1,000 tributes, 4,000 people) - Augustinian convent.

●​ Sunguian (600 tributes, 2,400 people) - No religious instruction.
●​ Tugui y Bolinao (2,000 tributes, 8,000 people) - Half pacified, no religious
instruction.
●​ Labaya (1,500 tributes, 6,000 people) - Had instruction and justice.

Religious Needs:

●​ Required five additional ministers to fully instruct the population.

Ilocos
This northern region had 68,520 people under 17,130 tributes and was governed by Spanish
alcaldes-mayor.

Notable Encomiendas in Ilocos:

●​ Bigan (Villa Fernandina) - Spanish settlement with a parish priest and alcalde-mayor.
●​ Purao (2,000 tributes, 8,000 people) - Had two Augustinian religious, needed two
more.
●​ Candon (900 tributes, 3,600 people) - No religious instruction.
●​ Bacarra (1,000 tributes, 4,000 people) - Two Augustinian priests.
●​ Ylagua (1,500 tributes, 6,000 people) - Three ministers.

Ilocos Needs:

●​ Required 11 more ministers for complete religious instruction.

Cagayan
Cagayan was largely unpacified with 96,000 people under 24,000 tributes. Nueva Segovia
was its capital.

Key Features:

●​ Many villages were still in rebellion.

●​ No ministers in the entire province.
●​ Required 38 additional religious ministers for full conversion.

La Laguna
This lake region had 48,400 inhabitants under 11,500 tributes.

Key Encomiendas:

●​ Mirabago (700 tributes, 2,800 people) - Needed one additional minister.

●​ Bay (2,100 tributes, 8,400 people) - Two Augustinian convents.
●​ Pila (1,700 tributes, 6,800 people) - Two Franciscan convents.
●​ Lumban (1,700 tributes, 6,800 people) - Two Franciscan convents.

Laguna’s Needs:

●​ Required four additional religious ministers.

Cebu and Visayas
Cebu was the Spanish capital of the Visayas with 15,833 tributes (~63,332 people).

Key Encomiendas:

●​ Leyte (626 tributes, 2,504 people) - No religious instruction.

●​ Butuan (1,200 tributes, 4,800 people) - Needed two ministers.
●​ Dulaque (613 tributes, 2,452 people) - No instruction.

Visayas Needs:

●​ Required 21 additional ministers.

Panay
Panay had numerous encomiendas, with justice and administration in place, but several
areas lacked religious instruction.

Key Encomiendas:

●​ Oton & Ymaras (1,600 tributes, 6,400 people) - Two friars, needed one more.
●​ Araut (2,000 tributes, 8,000 people) - Four additional ministers required.
●​ Aclán (1,300 tributes, 5,200 people) - Had instruction and justice.

Panay’s Needs:

●​ Eight additional ministers.

Summary of the 1591 Encomienda Report

Province Tributes Population Ministers Ministers
Present Needed

Manila 9,410 30,640 13 0

Pampanga 18,680 74,720 28 0

Pangasinan 6,000 24,000 8 5

Ilocos 17,130 68,520 20 11

Cagayan 24,000 96,000 0 38

Laguna 11,500 48,400 27 4

Cebu/Visaya 15,833 63,332 2 21

s

Panay 10,000+ 40,000+ 6 8

This 1591 report provides a comprehensive snapshot of Spanish rule, highlighting the
economic, religious, and administrative challenges in the Philippines. Would you like further
elaboration on a particular region?