CONVENTIONAL RADIOGRAPHY • Numerous scientists and researchers

contributed to the development of

• Conventional radiography uses film and
modern MRI.
intensifying screens for image formation.
• Film is placed on screens that emit light when 3. Fluoroscopy – 1970s
struck by x-rays.
• Major advancements due to
• Light exposes the film in proportion to the
improvements in computer
amount and energy of x-rays.
technology.
• Film is processed with chemicals, resulting in
a manifest image. • Analog-to-digital converters (ADC)
• The film is taken to a radiologist for enabled higher-resolution real-time
interpretation. imaging on TV monitors.
• For more details, consult a radiographic
imaging textbook. • Allowed for digital storage of
fluoroscopic images.
DIGITAL IMAGING
4. Ultrasound & Nuclear Medicine
Digital imaging is a broad term
encompassing text, photos, drawings, • Easily transitioned to digital imaging
animations, and video, enabling their display due to the nature of image capture.
on the World Wide Web. • Utilized frame-grabbing, where the
In medicine, digital imaging began with the displayed image is captured and stored
introduction of computed tomography (CT) by as a digital file.
Godfrey Hounsfield in the 1970s. 5. Computed Radiography (CR) & Digital
Over the decades, various imaging Radiography (DR)
modalities have transitioned to digital formats. • Significant image quality
Digital imaging refers to any imaging improvements led to the adoption of
process that creates an electronic image, digital formats.
which can be viewed and manipulated on a • These advancements paved the way for
computer. digital mammography.
Most modern medical imaging technologies DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
generate digital images that can be
transmitted through computer networks for The concept of digitally transmitting
remote access. images was pioneered by Albert Jutras in
Canada during the 1950s.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Jutras experimented with teleradiology,
1. Computed Tomography (CT) – 1970s which involved transmitting medical images via
• Considered the second major telephone lines to remote locations.
milestone in medical imaging after the The early Picture Archiving and
discovery of X-rays. Communication Systems (PACS) were
• First CT scanner was developed by developed by the U.S. military in the 1980s.
Godfrey Hounsfield in the 1970s. The purpose of PACS was to transfer
• The earliest CT scanner: medical images between Veterans
Administration (VA) hospitals and battlefield
o Took several hours to acquire a hospitals.
single image slice.
Government involvement played a crucial
o Took several days to reconstruct role in the advancement of PACS technology.
the image from raw data.
In the early stages, analog radiographs
• The first commercial CT scanners were had to be scanned (digitized) so they could be
designed for head imaging only. sent via computer networks.
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – COMPUTED RADIOGRA[HY
1980s
• Also known as cassette-based digital
• Introduced commercially in the early radiography.
1980s.
• Uses storage phosphor plates to
• Development was inspired by Paul produce projection images.
Lauterbur’s article in 1973.
• Can be used in standard radiographic ▪ Light is detected by a CCD
rooms just like traditional film-screen or thin-film transistor
radiography. (TFT) array.
• Essential components of CR ▪ Light is then converted into
systems: an electrical signal, which
is sent to the computer for
o CR cassettes and phosphor
processing and viewing.
plates
o Direct Capture DR
o CR readers (devices that
process the stored images) ▪ Converts x-ray energy
directly into an electrical
o Technologist quality control
signal.
workstation
▪ Uses a photoconductor
o Image viewing device (printer or
as the x-ray absorber.
viewing station)
▪ The electrical signal is
• Storage phosphor plates function
sent to the computer for
similarly to intensifying screens but can
processing and viewing.
store a portion of the x-ray energy for
later readout. Early Development of Digital Radiography
• First introduced commercially in the • In the early 1970s, digital pioneers
United States in 1983 by Fuji Medical developed the first clinical digital
Systems of Japan. imaging application:
• The first CR system included: o Digital Subtraction
Angiography (DSA) at the
o A phosphor storage plate
University of Arizona in
o A reader Tucson.

o A laser printer to print images o Key contributors:

onto film
▪ Dr. M. Paul Capp and Dr.
• Adoption was initially slow because Sol Nudelman
radiologists were hesitant to embrace
▪ Hans Roehrig, Dan
the new technology.
Fisher, and Meryll Frost
• In the early 1990s, CR adoption
• Their research led to the precursor of
increased significantly due to
modern full-field DR units.
technological improvements.
• Technology advancements:
• Today, several major vendors have
installed CR systems in hospitals across o Early large-field detectors were
the U.S. developed using:
▪ CCD technology
(originally developed by
Digital Radiography (DR)
the military)
• Also known as cassette-less digital
▪ TFT arrays
radiography.
o CCD and TFT technologies
• Uses x-ray absorber materials coupled
continue to develop in parallel,
with flat-panel detectors or charged-
with neither proving superior.
coupled devices (CCDs) to form
images. Comparison of Computed Radiography
(CR), Digital Radiography (DR), and
• Retrofitting is required to install DR in
Conventional Radiography
existing x-ray rooms unless a new DR
room is built. 1. Equipment and Workflow
• Two categories of DR: • Conventional Radiography
(Film/Screen) & CR:
o Indirect Capture DR
o Require a traditional x-ray room
▪ Absorbs x-rays and
with a table and wall Bucky.
converts them into light.
o Both use cassettes, making o The electrical signal is digitized
them similar in ease of use and and immediately available for
efficiency. review.
• Digital Radiography (DR):
o Does not use cassettes; 3. Image Processing
instead, a detector panel
• Conventional Radiography:
replaces the Bucky in the table
and wall stand. o Requires chemical processing
in a darkroom or automatic
o Image processing occurs directly
processor.
at the room console, allowing
instant image review (3-5 o Film response is nonlinear,
seconds). meaning exposure must be
carefully controlled.
• CR & DR:
2. Latent Image Formation
o Processed digitally by a
• Conventional Radiography:
computer.
o Uses a film inside a cassette
o CR processing occurs near the
that contains an intensifying
CR reader, while DR processing
screen.
happens directly at the x-ray
o X-rays interact with the screen, console.
producing light photons, which
o CR requires more processing
expose the film.
time compared to DR.
o Chemical processing is
required to develop the image
into black metallic silver. 4. Exposure Latitude (Dynamic Range)
• Computed Radiography (CR): • Conventional Radiography:
o Uses a photostimulable o Has a limited exposure range
phosphor plate (PSP) inside a due to film characteristics.
CR cassette.
o Film response is nonlinear,
o X-rays interact with phosphor, making it less forgiving to
storing energy in electron traps exposure variations.
(latent image).
• CR & DR:
o The plate is read using a laser,
which releases the stored energy o Use digital detectors with a
as light. wide exposure latitude.

o Light is converted into an o The response is linear, allowing

electrical signal and digitized. better exposure control.

• Digital Radiography (DR):

o Uses flat-panel detectors built 5. Contrast and Density Control
into the table or wall stand (no • Conventional Radiography:
cassettes).
o Radiographic contrast is
o Indirect Capture DR: controlled by kilovoltage peak
▪ Uses a scintillator to (kVp).
convert x-rays into light, o Optical density is controlled by
which is then converted milliamperage seconds (mAs).
into an electrical signal.
• CR & DR:
o Direct Capture DR:
o Contrast is controlled by a
▪ Uses a photoconductor Look-Up Table (LUT)
to convert x-rays directly (predefined contrast adjustments
into an electrical signal. in software).
o Density is controlled by image
processing algorithms, with
mAs primarily affecting image 1. X-ray Energy:
noise.
o X-rays are directly absorbed by a
semiconductor layer made of
amorphous selenium.
6. Sensitivity to Scatter Radiation
2. Amorphous Selenium Layer:
• CR & DR are more sensitive to scatter
than film-screen radiography. o Converts the x-ray energy directly
into an electrical charge without
• CR phosphor plates (barium
the intermediate step of light
fluorohalide) have a k-edge at 37 keV,
conversion.
making them more likely to absorb
scatter radiation. 3. Field Electrode:
• Proper collimation and grid use are o Collects the charges generated in
essential for maintaining image quality in the semiconductor layer and
CR & DR. directs them downward.
Figure 1-5: Indirect Capture DR
System (CCD Detector with
Scintillator Screen)
1. X-ray Energy:
o X-rays emitted from
the source strike the
scintillator screen.
2. Scintillator Screen:
o Converts x-rays into
light photons. The
material used is
typically cesium iodide
or gadolinium
oxysulfide.
3. Focusing Lenses:
o Focus and direct the
emitted light photons
onto the CCD
4. Dielectric Layer:
(charge-coupled device)
cameras. o Assists in isolating and directing
the flow of charges to the
4. CCD Camera:
collection layer.
o Captures the light photons and
5. Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) Array:
converts them into an electrical
signal. o Stores and transmits the
electrical signals to the computer
5. Mirror:
for image processing.
o Ensures the light is appropriately
6. Output:
directed toward the CCD
cameras. o The signal is digitized to form the
final digital image.
6. Output:
This process is called direct conversion since
o The electrical signal is digitized
x-rays are immediately converted into electrical
and processed to create the final
signals.
digital image.
This process uses indirect conversion, as x-
ray energy is first converted into light and then Figure 1-7: Conventional Radiography
into an electrical signal. Latent Image Formation (Screen-Film
System)
1. X-ray Energy:
Figure 1-6: Direct Capture DR System
(Amorphous Selenium Detector)
o X-rays penetrate the body and • CR is the digital acquisition modality that
strike the scintillator screens uses photostimulable phosphor plates to
inside the cassette. produce digital projection images.
• DR is divided into two categories:
2. Scintillator Screens:
indirect capture and direct capture.
o Convert x-ray energy into light • Indirect capture uses a detector that
photons, which expose the film. produces light when struck by x-rays,
and then the light is captured and
3. Film:
converted to an electrical signal.
o The light photons interact with • Direct capture uses a detector that
silver halide grains in the captures
film emulsion, ejecting the x-ray
electrons and creating a energy
latent image. and
converts
o This latent image is
it directly
developed using chemical
to an
processing to form the
electrical
manifest (visible) image.
signal.
• A
PACS is
Figure 1-8: CR Latent Image
a
Formation
1. X-ray Energy:
o X-rays interact with the
photostimulable storage
phosphor imaging plate
(PSP) inside a CR
cassette.
o The PSP stores a portion of
the x-ray energy in electron
traps within the phosphor networked group of computers, servers,
material, creating a latent image. and archives that can be used to
manage digital images.
2. Imaging Plate Moved to Reader:
• DICOM is a standard that allows
o After exposure, the cassette is imaging modalities and PACSs to
placed in a CR reader where the communicate in the same “language.”
imaging plate is scanned. • PACSs are made up of many different
parts, such as the reading stations,
3. Laser Scanning: physician review stations, web-access,
o A focused laser beam stimulates technologist quality control stations,
the trapped electrons, causing administrative stations, archive systems,
them to release the stored energy and many interfaces to various hospital
as visible light photons. and radiology systems.

4. Light Emission: COMPUTER

o The emitted light is collected by a Basic Components of a Computer:

photomultiplier tube (not shown in • Input Devices: Allow the user to interact
the diagram), which converts the with the computer (e.g., keyboard,
light into an electrical signal. mouse, barcode reader, touch screen,
5. Digital Conversion: microphone, image scanner). These
devices are common in modern
o The electrical signal is digitized, radiology departments.
creating a digital image for review
and processing. • Output Devices: Provide the user with
processed information (e.g., monitors,
SUMMARY printers, speakers).
• Digital imaging is any imaging • Processing Device: The Central
acquisition process that produces an Processing Unit (CPU) handles data
electronic image that can be viewed and
manipulated on a computer.
processing, using binary code for o Limitation: Smaller size restricts
computations. upgrades and expansion.
Processing with Binary Code: 2. Tower Model:
• The computer operates using binary o Positioned vertically, often placed
code (1s and 0s). under the desk within the user’s
reach.
• Transistors act as switches:
o Advantage: More room for
o Closed circuit (current passes)
component expansion.
= Value 1.
o Benefit: Keeps desk space free
o Open circuit (no current
and organized.
passes) = Value 0.
• Transistors switch on and off millions of
times per second, enabling fast The Motherboard
processing.
The motherboard is the largest circuitry
Units of Data: board inside the computer, critical for its
operation. It contains the following essential
• A bit is the smallest unit of data
components:
(represents a single 1 or 0).
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
• A byte consists of 8 bits and is the
memory required to store one o The "brain" of the computer
alphanumeric character. where most calculations and
processing occur.
• Memory is measured in larger units:
2. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS):
o Kilobytes (KB): 1,024 bytes.
o A small chip that initializes the
o Megabytes (MB): 1,024 KB.
computer and loads the operating
o Gigabytes (GB): 1,024 MB. system during startup.

o Terabytes (TB): 1,024 GB. 3. Memory:

Communication Devices: o Includes random-access memory

(RAM), which temporarily stores
• Computers also include devices for data for active processes.
sharing information, ensuring seamless
communication in radiology workflows. 4. Bus:

HARDWARE COMPONENTS o Pathways for transferring data

between components inside the
The Box (Computer Encasement) computer.
The computer encasement serves two primary 5. Ports:
purposes:
o Connectors for external devices
1. Protection and Environment Control: like keyboards, mice, monitors,
o It houses all computer and storage drives.
components in a cool, clean, and 6. Complementary Metal-Oxide
safe environment. Semiconductor (CMOS):
2. Electromagnetic Shielding: o A chip that stores system
o It shields the external configuration settings, such as
environment from the radio date and time.
frequencies emitted by the CPU
computer's electronic
components. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or
microprocessor is a small chip on the
Configurations of the Box: motherboard and acts as the brain of the
1. Desktop Model: computer.

o Positioned horizontally, usually on Common Misconception: Many people

a desk beneath the monitor. mistakenly refer to the PC case as the CPU,
but the CPU is just one component inside.
o Disadvantage: Takes up desk
space. Functions of the CPU:
• Reads data from storage. o Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI) – Used for
• Manipulates (processes) data.
certain storage devices.
• Sends data back to storage or to
o Accelerated Graphics Port
external devices (e.g., monitors,
(AGP) – Dedicated for video
printers).
adapters (older technology).
Major Manufacturers:
o Universal Serial Bus (USB) –
• Intel Connects external devices
(keyboard, mouse, etc.).
• AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)
• Main function: Provides pathways for
Naming & Speed: information to flow within the computer.
• CPUs are named based on their Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory)
manufacturer and clock speed.
• Purpose: Stores data currently being
Evolution of Microprocessors: processed by the CPU.
• First CPU in a PC: Intel 8088 (1979) • Temporary Storage:
o Clock speed: 4.77 MHz o RAM holds open programs and
o Needed 12 cycles per data for quick access.
instruction o When the computer is turned off,
• Modern CPUs (Pentium 4 example): RAM is wiped clean (volatile
memory).
o Clock speed: 3.2–3.8 GHz
• Why RAM is Needed:
o Can complete one instruction
per cycle o The CPU has limited internal
memory and relies on RAM for
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) additional storage.
• Contains simple instructions for the o More RAM is required for high-
computer. performance programs and
• The CPU uses the BIOS during boot- graphics processing.
up to start the computer. • Types of RAM:
• Runs start-up diagnostics to check if o DRAM (Dynamic RAM) –
peripherals (keyboard, mouse, etc.) are Needs constant refreshing;
working. used as main memory in older
• After boot-up, it manages basic computers.
functions like: o EDO RAM (Extended Data
o Receiving and interpreting Out RAM) – Faster than DRAM;
keyboard input. improves data access speed.

o Communicating with different o VRAM (Video RAM) –

ports. Dedicated for graphics
processing; enhances video
• Acts as an intermediary between the rendering.
operating system (OS) and the
hardware. o SRAM (Static RAM) – Faster
and more reliable than DRAM;
The Bus (Information Highway of the used in CPU cache.
Computer)
o SDRAM (Synchronous
• A series of connections, controllers, Dynamic RAM) – Syncs with
and chips that transfer data inside the CPU clock; improves
computer. processing speed.
• Connects CPU, system memory, and o SIMM/DIMM (Memory
peripherals. Modules) – SIMM (older, single
• Different types of buses: data path) vs. DIMM (modern,
dual-channel, faster).
o Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) – Connects o SDRAM-DDR (Double Data
adapters to the motherboard. Rate SDRAM) – Transfers data
twice per cycle; used in 4. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)
modern PCs (DDR, DDR2, Port
DDR3, DDR4, DDR5).
o Found on the motherboard.
o RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) –
o Connects hard drives, floppy
High-speed memory for
drives, and CD-ROM drives via
graphics-intensive applications
ribbon cables.
(now outdated).
o Used for internal storage devices
• Memory Capacity & Cost Over Time:
(mostly replaced by SATA today).
o Early PCs had 16 KB (kilobytes)
5. SCSI (Small Computer System
of RAM, costing $100 (~$4000
Interface) Port
per MB).
o Fastest and most versatile port
o Modern RAM pricing is much
for connecting peripherals.
cheaper (e.g., 256 MB for ~$30,
or 12 cents per MB). o A single SCSI controller can
manage up to seven devices in
o RAM sizes have increased, with
a daisy chain.
common configurations like 128
MB, 512 MB, and 1 GB (now o Commonly used for hard drives,
outdated). CD-ROM drives, scanners, and
printers
• Pricing & Technology Change
Quickly: CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor)
o The passage advises checking
current RAM capacities and • A special memory chip powered by a
prices as they evolve rapidly. small rechargeable or lithium battery.
PORTS • Retains PC hardware settings even
when the computer is turned off.
• Ports are connectors on the back of a
PC that allow external devices to • Stores system clock data (date and
connect to the computer. time).
• They link adapter cards, drives, • Uses a quartz crystal to set the CPU
printers, scanners, keyboards, mice, speed.
and other peripherals.
• System Clock Function:
Types of Ports and Their Functions
o A clock tick represents the time
1. Parallel Port to switch a transistor on/off.
o 25-pin connector, mainly used o A 3.0 GHz CPU has a clock that
for printers. ticks 3 billion times per second.
o Can send 8 bits of data at a time. • Detects hardware changes and
prompts the system to install new
o Faster than serial ports but now
components.
largely replaced by USB.
Sound Card
2. Serial Port
• Handles recording and playback of
o 9-pin or 25-pin connector.
audio.
o Transfers 1 bit of data at a time.
• Can be an expansion card or
o Used for devices like mice and integrated into the motherboard.
modems that do not require high
• External ports allow connections for:
speed.
o Speakers, headphones,
3. USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port
microphones, and CD players.
o Most common interface for
• Supports multiple audio file types,
modern devices.
including:
o Can connect multiple devices
o WAV (Waveform Audio)
(up to 127 devices per port).
o MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3)
o Supports plug-and-play
functionality for easy use.
o MIDI (Musical Instrument o A small motor spins the disks at
Digital Interface) high speeds.
Network Card (NIC – Network Interface • Performance & Evolution:
Card)
o Early hard drives:
• Enables the PC to connect to a
▪ 10 MB storage, ~80 ms
network.
access time.
• Can be a separate expansion card or
o Modern hard drives:
built into the motherboard.
▪ 100 GB+ storage, ~8.7
• Has an RJ-45 adapter jack for
ms access time.
connecting an Ethernet cable.
• Cost & Capacity Trends:
• Allows communication with other
computers on the same network. o Storage capacity has increased
significantly over time.
Power Supply
o Price per megabyte has
• Function: Delivers electricity to all PC
decreased drastically.
components.
• Speed Limitation:
• Cooling: Contains a fan to prevent
overheating. o Still the slowest component in a
PC because it is both
• Power Conversion:
mechanical and electrical.
o Converts AC (Alternating
CD/DVD Drive
Current) from the wall into DC
(Direct Current). CD (Compact Disc) Structure & Function
o Supplies different voltages: +/- • Made of polycarbonate plastic with
12V, +/- 5V, and sometimes microscopic bumps representing 1s
+3.3V. and 0s.
• Connections: • Has a reflective aluminum layer and a
clear acrylic protective coat.
o Uses color-coded wires with
plastic connectors to distribute • Storage capacity: Up to 780 MB (or 74
power. minutes of music).
• Power Rating: DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) Structure &
Function
o Measured in watts (W).
• Holds 7x more data than a CD.
o Typical power supplies range
from 150W to 300W. • Storage capacity:
o High-performance PCs may o Single-sided: Up to 9.4 GB.
require 400W or more.
o Double-sided: Up to 17 GB.
• Protection:
• Uses multiple layers of polycarbonate
o Absorbs power surges to plastic.
protect the PC.
• Inner layers have aluminum, outer
o Designed to be easily layers have gold (semi-reflective for
replaceable if damaged. laser penetration).
Hard Drive in Bullet Form Types of CD/DVD Drives
• Function: The main storage device for 1. CD/DVD-ROM (Read-Only Memory)
programs and documents on a PC.
o Reads data but cannot write.
• Structure:
o Used in early computers.
o Composed of multiple magnetic
platters stacked closely together. 2. CD/DVD-R (Write Once – Read Many)

o Uses a read/write head that o Allows one-time burning of data.

glides over the disk surface to 3. CD/DVD-RW (Read & Write Multiple
access data. Times)
o Enables rewriting data multiple o Infrared: Wireless via infrared
times. port.
o Most common in modern PCs. • Mouse Types:
How CD/DVD Drives Work o Mechanical: Uses a rubber ball
and sensors to track movement.
• Located on the front panel of a
computer. o Optical: Uses a laser/LED to
detect movement.
• Components include:
o Optomechanical: Hybrid of
o Disk tray, motor, read head,
mechanical and optical
and write head (if RW).
technology.
• Reading Process:
Scanners
o Motor adjusts speed so the area
• Function: Converts paper documents
above the read head spins
into digital images.
consistently.
• Use in Radiology: Special scanners
o A laser beam strikes the
digitize film X-rays for comparison with
reflective layer.
PACS (Picture Archiving and
o Reflected light (from land areas) Communication System).
and scattered light (from pits)
Speakers
are detected by a light-sensing
diode. • Function: Converts sound data from a
sound card into audible vibrations.
o The diode translates reflections
into binary code (1s and 0s) for • Role: Provide alerts and sound output
the computer. from software.
Peripherals Microphones
Keyboard • Function: Captures voice for recording
or voice dictation.
• Two types:
• Use in Radiology: Voice dictation
o Click keyboards: Audible sound
software improves efficiency.
when pressed.
• Modern Technology: Speech
o Soft keyboards: No audible
recognition software can accurately
click.
interpret various voices.
• Connection types:
Monitors
o PS/2 (older standard).
Types of Monitors
o USB (modern, versatile).
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Older
o Wireless (Infrared or RF signals). technology using electron beams.

• Function: Sends signals to the • LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Modern,

motherboard for processing. energy-efficient, and slim.

• Maintenance: Should be kept clean, • Plasma Screen: Gaining popularity,

avoiding food and drinks. especially for large displays.

Mouse Key Monitor Terms & Measurements

• Function: Moves cursor and interacts • Pixel: Smallest controllable element on

with software. a screen.

• Connection Types: • Dot Triad: A group of one red, one

green, and one blue dot forming a
o Serial: Standard connection. pixel.
o Bus: Uses a dedicated controller • Resolution: The number of pixels in an
card. image (higher resolution = clearer
o PS/2: Special mouse port. image).

o USB: Common modern o Common resolutions: 1024 ×

connection. 768, 1280 × 1024, 2048 × 1536,
2048 × 2560.
• Dot Pitch: Distance between dots in a ❌ Disadvantages
pixel (smaller dot pitch = sharper
image). • Limited viewing angles (color shifts at
different angles).
• Refresh Rate (Vertical Scanning
Rate): • Slower response time (can cause
motion blur).
o Number of times the screen
refreshes per second. • More expensive than CRTs.

o Measured in Hertz (Hz); common

rates: 60–75 Hz (reduces flicker). 3. Plasma Displays
• Aspect Ratio: Width-to-height ratio of a • Uses tiny fluorescent lights to
screen. generate images.
o CRT monitors: 4:3 ratio. • Adjusts light intensity to create a wide
o LCD monitors: 16:9 ratio range of colors.
(widescreen). ✅ Advantages
• Viewable Area: The diagonal • Better contrast and deeper blacks
measurement of the screen from one than LCDs.
corner to the other.
• Wider viewing angles (consistent color
CRT, LCD, and Plasma Displays from any angle).
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors • Smooth motion display (ideal for fast-
• Uses a vacuum tube with a cathode moving images).
and anode to create images.
❌ Disadvantages
• Electrons interact with phosphor-
• Higher power consumption than
coated glass to emit red, green, or blue
LCDs.
colors.
• Screen burn-in risk (if static images
• Electron beam scans across the screen,
are displayed too long).
refreshing 60-75 times per second.
• Heavier and more expensive than
✅ Advantages
LCDs.
• High color accuracy and contrast. Operating Systems (OS)
• Fast refresh rate (reduces motion blur). What is an Operating System?
• Durable with a long lifespan. An OS is software that manages computer
❌ Disadvantages hardware and acts as a bridge between
applications and hardware. It allows users to
• Bulky and heavy. interact with the computer and execute
• High power consumption. programs.

• Generates heat. Major OS Types:

1. Windows (Microsoft) – Most common
OS for PCs, user-friendly, widely
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors supported.
• Uses liquid crystal between two 2. MacOS (Apple) – Found on Macintosh
polarized glass layers. computers, optimized for performance
and security.
• Light passes through color filters to
create images. 3. UNIX/Linux – Used for servers and
professional workstations, known for
✅ Advantages
stability and multitasking.
• Slimmer, lighter, and more energy-
efficient than CRTs.
Types of Operating Systems
• Sharper images with no flicker.
• Better for long-term viewing (reduces
eye strain).
OS Type Description Example Use • Used in enterprise & server
environments | - Steeper learning
Digital X-ray curve
Controls specific machines,
Real-Time • Limited support for consumer apps
machines and medical
OS
scientific devices, • Not ideal for gaming |
(RTOS)
instruments. industrial
automation
Use of OS in Medical Imaging & PACS
Single-
Designed for one
User, Palm OS, early • Medical imaging devices (like X-ray
user, one task at
Single- mobile devices machines) run on specialized OS
a time.
Task (Windows, UNIX, or proprietary
software).
Allows one user Windows,
Single- • PACS (Picture Archiving and
to run multiple macOS, Linux
User, Communication System) often uses
programs on personal
Multitask Windows-based OS, but some larger
simultaneously. computers
servers still use UNIX for multitasking
Supports UNIX, Linux, capabilities.
Multiuser multiple users Windows
OS and tasks at Server, Communication Basics
Computer Networks
once. mainframes
A computer network is a system where two or
more devices share resources and exchange
data. Networks are used for everyday tasks
Graphical User Interface (GUI) vs. like checking emails, streaming videos,
Command-Based OS shopping online, and more.
• Early OS (e.g., MS-DOS) required text- Types of Network Communication
based commands. 1. Person-to-Person Communication
o Example: Phone calls, video
• Modern OS use GUI (Graphical User
calls, messaging apps
Interface) with icons, drop-down
(WhatsApp, Messenger)
menus, and mouse interaction, 2. Computer-to-Computer
making them user-friendly. Communication
o Example: Sending emails,
sharing files, online banking
Advantages & Disadvantages of Major OS
Platforms Components of a Network
A network includes not just computers but also
OS Advantages Disadvantages other connected devices like:
• Printers – Shared by multiple users.
- User-friendly • Scanners – Used for document
Windows
GUI digitization.
• Barcode Readers – Used in retail and
• Wide software compatibility inventory management.
• Plug-and-play hardware support | - • Terminals – Devices that connect to a
Vulnerable to viruses/malware central server for computing.
• Servers – Powerful computers that
• Requires frequent updates manage network resources.
• Can be resource-heavy | | MacOS | -
Optimized performance
Geographic Classifications
• Secure and stable
Networks can be divided into two major
• Great for creative professionals | - geographic categories: Local Area
Expensive hardware Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks
(WAN). These classifications mainly differ in
• Limited customization their geographic coverage area, but both are
essential for different organizational needs,
• Fewer software options than
including in medical environments like
Windows | | UNIX/Linux | - Highly radiology.
stable and secure
• Open-source (Linux) Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is typically
confined to a small geographic area, such as a
single building or a group of buildings (e.g., an
office, a school, or a hospital).
Key Features of LANs:
• Size: Small, usually within a single
building or a nearby set of buildings.
• Speed: LANs are faster than WANs due
to the smaller physical area and the
fewer network resources they require.
• Cost: They are the least expensive to
set up, as they require fewer devices
and resources to establish connectivity.
• Components: LANs use wired
connections (cables) or wireless
access points (Wi-Fi) to connect Component Role Classification of Networks
devices, allowing them to share data Networks can be classified based on the roles
and resources like printers and the various components play within the
scanners. network. These classifications are mainly Peer-
In the Context of Radiology: to-Peer (P2P) and Server-Based (Client-
• Example: The Picture Archival and Server) networks. Below is a detailed
Communication System (PACS) used breakdown of each type:
in radiology reading rooms operates
within a LAN. Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P)
o PACS Workstations: Radiology • Definition: In a Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
computers are interconnected via network, all computers are equal.
LAN, enabling the sharing of There is no central controlling computer.
images and reports efficiently Each device can function as both a
within the same facility. client and a server depending on the
needs of the other devices on the
Wide Area Network (WAN) network.
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that • Characteristics:
spans a much larger geographic area, such as o Equal Roles: Each computer
across a city, country, or even globally. controls its own information and
Key Features of WANs: operation.
• Size: WANs cover large geographic o Limited Scope: Suitable for
areas, such as entire cities, states, or small networks (up to 10
countries. devices). More than 10
• Connectivity: WANs connect devices computers can cause
that are not physically near one bottlenecks and collisions in
another. Instead of using traditional data traffic.
network cables, WANs rely on long- o Simple Setup: Easy to set up,
distance communication links such making it ideal for small offices or
as: homes.
o Telephone lines o Cost-Effective: Low-cost
o Satellite links solution, as it does not require
o Fiber optic cables specialized servers or high-end
• Operating Costs: Due to the distance hardware.
and the need for specialized o Use Case Example: A small
communication infrastructure, WANs medical office where computers
tend to be more expensive to are used to check in patients,
maintain. The communication equipment verify insurance, produce bills,
required is more costly, and the and document patient history. A
bandwidth needed to support the shared printer is connected to
network across larger distances adds to the network, and each computer
the operational costs. can access it.
In the Context of Radiology: • Advantages:
• WANs may be used to connect multiple o Low Cost: Minimal infrastructure
hospitals, medical facilities, or needed.
radiology centers in different cities or o Simplicity: Easy to set up and
countries, allowing radiologists to maintain.
access and share medical images and • Disadvantages:
reports across various locations. o Limited Scalability: Cannot
o Example: If a radiology practice handle large numbers of devices
or hospital has multiple branches, effectively.
a WAN can be used to link the o Less Security: No centralized
various PACS systems together, control over access or data
enabling remote diagnosis or integrity.
consultation.
Server-Based Network o Efficiency: This method cuts
• Definition: In a server-based network, down on the amount of data
there is a centralized server that being transferred across the
controls the operations, files, and network, which can improve
sometimes the programs of the network performance and
computers (called clients) connected to reduce congestion.
the network. The server acts as the • Use Case Example: A network where
centralized storage and access point. data processing is handled by the
• Characteristics: server (e.g., in a cloud computing
o Central Control: The server environment or web-based
manages the entire network’s application), and only the necessary
operations and data storage. results or outputs are sent back to the
o File Management: When a client clients.
requests a file, the server sends • Advantages:
the entire file to the client for o Reduced Network Load: Only
processing. After processing, the the processed data is transferred,
client sends the modified file optimizing network performance.
back to the server for storage. o Improved Efficiency: More room
o High Capacity: The server must for other requests, better overall
have high-quality, high- performance.
capacity hardware to manage • Disadvantages:
network resources. o Server Load: The server needs
o Multiple Servers: There can be to handle all the processing,
multiple servers in a network, but which can cause bottlenecks if
one server typically controls the the server isn’t powerful enough.
entire network (i.e., handles the Components of a Network
network's overall operations). Below is a detailed breakdown of the typical
• Use Case Example: In a radiology components that make up a network, focusing
department, a Picture Archival and on the types of computers, communication
Communication System (PACS) is mediums, and network devices.
used to store and distribute medical
images across the hospital. A Computers in a Network
centralized server contains all the 1. Server
images, and the PACS system sends o Purpose: Manages resources for
the images to various client computers other computers, servers, and
based on requests. devices on the network.
• Advantages: o Functions:
o Centralized Data Storage: ▪ Stores files, houses
Easier data management, applications, and manages
backups, and security. networked tasks.
o Scalability: Can accommodate ▪ Often dedicated to specific
more devices and users as the tasks (e.g., file storage,
network grows. print management, internet
o Security: Better control over access).
access to files and data. o Characteristics:
• Disadvantages: ▪ Usually the most robust
o Cost: Requires high-capacity computer on the network.
servers, which can be expensive. ▪ May serve multiple roles,
o Maintenance: Servers require such as managing storage,
regular maintenance and print functions, or providing
management. internet access.
2. Thin-Client
Client-Based Network (Similar to Server- o Purpose: Requests services and
Based) resources from a server.
• Definition: A Client-Based Network is o Examples: Could be a printer,
similar to a server-based network, but personal computer (PC), or any
instead of sending the entire resource networked device.
to the client for processing, the server o Function: Relies on the server to
processes the resource itself and only complete tasks, such as
returns the results to the client. processing and data
• Characteristics: management.
o Resource Processing: The o Characteristics:
server processes the requested ▪ Does not perform
data and sends back only the significant processing
processed results, reducing the independently.
load on the network. ▪ Mostly used in
environments where
centralized control of depending on the category of
resources is needed. the cable.
3. Thick-Client 3. Fiberoptic Cable
o Purpose: Functions o Description: Uses glass
independently of the network and threads to transmit data.
manages its own files and o Components: A fiberoptic core
operations. with a plastic protective
o Examples: High-end covering.
workstations used for o Advantages:
specialized tasks like medical ▪ High-speed transmission
imaging or 3D modeling. compared to metal cables.
o Functions: ▪ Ideal for long distances
▪ Can perform high-level due to minimal signal loss.
processing for specific o Disadvantages:
applications. ▪ Expensive and fragile
▪ Connected to the network (prone to damage from
to share resources such as kinking or twisting).
printing or security o Common Use: Often used in
features. network infrastructure like
o Characteristics: network closets and large
▪ Capable of operating server rooms.
without constant server 4. Wireless Connections
support. o Description: Uses infrared or
▪ Common in healthcare: radio frequencies for
Cross-sectional imaging communication.
modalities like CT and o Advantages:
MRI often use thick-client ▪ No physical cabling
workstations. required, allowing for
mobility and
convenience.
o Limitations:
▪ Limited range;
Network Connectivity: performance can be
affected by walls,
Communication Mediums distances, and
Once the equipment is set up, they are interference.
connected via communication mediums. The o Common Use: Increasingly
type of medium selected depends on factors common in personal devices
like speed, cost, and distance. (e.g., smartphones, laptops) and
1. Coaxial Cable network access points.
o Description: Consists of a
center conducting wire Network Devices
surrounded by insulation and a 1. Network Interface Card (NIC)
braided shield. o Purpose: Provides the physical
o Purpose: Used in network connection between the
infrastructure, offering computer and the network
protection from electrical and medium.
radio frequency interference. o Functions:
o Common Use: Often used in ▪ Works with networking
building networks; sturdy but software to establish
less common today in most communication.
networks. ▪ Packages data and
2. Twisted-Pair Wire handles addressing
o Description: Consists of four issues.
twisted pairs of copper wire o Types:
that are bundled together with an ▪ Can be integrated into the
RJ-45 termination. motherboard or installed
o Common Types: as adapter cards
▪ Cat 5 (Category 5): The (especially in laptops).
most commonly used in 2. Network Hub
LANs. o Purpose: Connects multiple
o Purpose: Used for general devices for communication
network connections; cost- purposes.
effective and easy to install. o How It Works:
o Characteristics: Offers varying ▪ Broadcasts data to all
levels of quality and capacity, connected devices,
unaware of the destination.
o Use: Common in small office or o Each device is assigned a
home applications. unique address, combining the
o Disadvantages: computer’s hardware address
▪ Inefficient due to sending and a node address given by the
data to all devices, which network.
causes congestion and o Internet Protocol (IP)
slowdowns. Addressing:
3. Network Switch ▪ Comprised of four octets
o Purpose: More advanced than a (8-bit groups), e.g.,
hub; sends data only to the 144.162.21.107.
intended destination device. ▪ The first numbers indicate
o How It Works: the network class and the
▪ Reads the data’s others provide the exact
destination address and location of the device on
forwards it to the specific the network.
device. o The NIC reads the destination
o Advantages: address in the data packets to
▪ Reduces network traffic determine whether it should
and improves overall accept or ignore the message.
performance. 2. Network Protocols:
o Use: Generally used in larger o Protocols define how data is
networks with higher traffic structured, transmitted, and
demands. received across the network.
4. Network Bridge o Data is divided into packets,
o Purpose: Segments a large each containing:
network into smaller sub- ▪ Destination address
networks to reduce traffic. ▪ Source address
o How It Works: ▪ Sequence information
▪ Connects two segments (e.g., part 2 of 12)
of a network. ▪ Error-checking data
▪ Can recognize the o Protocol Stacks:
destination address Communication is organized in
within a segment and layers to break down the
forward data accordingly. functions and responsibilities in
o Use: Often used to connect data transmission.
same-protocol networks (e.g.,
different LANs). OSI Model Layers (Simplified)
5. Network Router 1. Layer 4: Transport Layer
o Purpose: Directs data across o Ensures data sequencing and
multiple networks, even those error-free transmission.
using different protocols. o Example: Transmission Control
o How It Works: Protocol (TCP) manages data
▪ Reads parts of data flow and ensures packet
packets and forwards reliability.
them to the correct 2. Layer 3: Network Layer
network. o Handles the data packet routing
o Advanced Functions: through different network paths.
▪ Helps segment the o Example: Internet Protocol (IP)
network for security and directs the message to the
efficient routing. correct network address.
▪ Common in larger 3. Layer 2: Data Link Layer
networks to optimize o Packages data into frames to
performance and ensure prepare for physical transmission.
the proper flow of data. o Example: Ethernet operates at
o Use: Found in large networks both Layer 2 and Layer 1
with multiple devices and (physical layer).
varying protocols. 4. Layer 1: Physical Layer
Network Communication o Responsible for transmitting
Network communication involves devices bits over physical media.
communicating via a Network Interface Card o Involves hardware components
(NIC) through various types of communication that send and receive signals.
mediums. The flow of data is managed by a set
of rules known as network protocols, Network Topology
ensuring the messages reach the correct Network topology refers to the physical
destination. layout or arrangement of devices and their
Addressing in Network Communication interconnections in a network. Several common
1. Unique Address for Each Computer: topologies include bus, ring, star, and mesh.
Each topology has distinct characteristics, National Electrical Manufacturers
advantages, and limitations. Association (NEMA), first completed in
1. Bus Topology: 1985. The current version is 3.1.
o Description: All devices connect Key Features of DICOM 3.0:
to a single wire (bus) and listen • Communication Protocol: Uses
for communication. TCP/IP (or other standard protocols) for
o Point of Failure: A break in the communication, enabling devices to use
wire disrupts the entire network. commercial hardware and software.
o Data Transmission: Devices • Image Data Structure: Specifies the
broadcast data to all others on header contents and pixel data structure
the wire, and each device checks for each modality, improving
if the message is for it. interoperability.
o Pros: Simple and low-cost. • Conformance System: Ensures
o Cons: Vulnerable to failure if the devices work together by clearly
single wire is damaged. outlining supported functions in vendor
2. Ring Topology: documentation.
o Description: Devices are • Open Development: Encourages
connected in a circle, and data consensus development between
circulates until it reaches the vendors and users.
destination. Parts of DICOM Standard (Version 3.1):
o Transmission: Devices pass • Composed of 16 parts, each addressing
data to the next node in the circle. a specific aspect of DICOM usage:
o Token Ring: A token passes 1. Introduction and overview
through the network; a device can 2. Conformance
only send data when it has the 3. Information object definitions
token. 4. Service class specifications
o Point of Failure: A break in the 5. Data structures and encoding
ring stops the entire network. 6. Data dictionary
o Pros: Can be efficient for small 7. Message exchange
networks. 8. Network communication
o Cons: Network failure if there is a support
break in the ring. 9. Media storage and file format
3. Star Topology: for media interchange
o Description: Devices are 10. Media storage application
connected to a central hub or profiles
switch. 11. Media formats and physical
o Transmission: Data is sent from media for media interchange
one device to the hub, and then 12. Grayscale standard display
routed to the destination device. function
o Pros: Common, reliable, and 13. Security and system
easy to manage. management profiles
o Cons: A failure in the central hub 14. Content mapping resource
causes the entire network to go 15. Explanatory information
down. 16. Web access to DICOM-
4. Mesh Topology: persistent objects (WADO)
o Description: Devices are Service Classes in DICOM:
interconnected through multiple • SOP (Service/Object Pair): Defines the
pathways. interactions between devices based on
o Redundancy: Multiple routes services and objects.
ensure continuous network • Roles:
connectivity. o Service Class User (SCU): The
o Common Use: Used for large, device requesting a service.
complex networks, such as the o Service Class Provider (SCP):
Internet, to provide redundancy The device providing the service.
and high availability. • Common service classes include:
o Pros: High fault tolerance due to o Image storage
multiple paths. o Query/retrieval
o Cons: Expensive to implement o Print
and manage. o Modality worklist
Application Interfacing o Modality performed procedure
DICOM (Digital Imaging and o Storage commitment
Communications in Medicine) o Interchange media storage
• Purpose: DICOM is a standardized
protocol for exchanging medical images
between networked medical devices.
• History: Developed by the American
College of Radiology (ACR) and
DICOM Conformance: to view comprehensive information from
• Devices provide a conformance a common system.
statement that outlines which SOPs
and roles they support.
• Example: An MRI scanner in SCU role Summary
sends images to a PACS archive in SCP • DICOM standardizes the communication
role if both support the MRI storage of medical images, ensuring
SOP. interoperability between devices,
Unique Identifiers (UIDs): platforms, and systems. It includes well-
• UIDs are used to uniquely identify defined service classes, roles, and a
studies, series, and images globally. framework for image compression,
• They are generated based on factors ensuring effective image storage,
like: retrieval, and sharing.
o Vendor number • The HL-7 standard is essential for
o Equipment serial number managing clinical and administrative
o Date, time, and patient number data across hospital systems, improving
• Example of a typical study instance data exchange between HIS, RIS, and
UID: other related systems.
1.2.840.8573.4567.1.20051011764589. • UIDs in DICOM ensure that images are
8765.1 uniquely identified across systems, and
Compression in DICOM: compression technologies facilitate
• DICOM supports lossless the efficient storage and transfer of
compression (e.g., JPEG 2:1) for images.
storage, commonly used in hospitals to • The physical connection among the
avoid image degradation. devices is one of the following three
• For external transfers, lossy types: coaxial cable, twisted-pair wire, or
compression may be used to reduce fiberoptic cable.
file size, though some image detail is • Information is transmitted via a NIC
lost in the process. through a communication medium onto
Modality Worklist Management: the network and possibly through a hub,
• DICOM supports interfaces with switch, bridge, or router.
Radiology Information Systems (RIS) • The data travel along the network using
to automatically pull patient data, an agreed-on set of rules known as a
reducing the risk of error. protocol.
• If supported, the modality can interface • Topology is the physical layout of the
with the RIS directly via DICOM or connected devices on a network.
through a gateway to other systems like • There are four common topologic
HL-7. configurations: bus, ring, star, and
mesh.
HL-7 (Health Level 7): • DICOM stands for digital imaging and
• HL-7 is a widely used standard for the communications in medicine.
exchange of clinical and administrative • It is a universally accepted standard for
data in healthcare settings, such as exchanging medical images among
patient demographics, medical records, networked medical devices.
and reports. • DICOM defines specific information
• Key Applications: objects and the functions (service
o Medical devices classes) that can be performed on them.
o Imaging • The HL-7 standard oversees most
o Insurance and pharmacy clinical and administrative data such as
• Communication Between Systems: demographics, reports, claims, and
o Used to interface between orders.
Hospital Information Systems • The HIS holds the patient’s full medical
(HIS) and Radiology information, from hospital billing to the
Information Systems (RIS). inpatient ordering system. The RIS
o HIS stores comprehensive patient holds all radiology-specific patient data,
data (e.g., billing, medical from the patient scheduling information
records). to the radiologist’s dictated and
o RIS holds radiology-specific data transcribed report.
(e.g., patient scheduling, reports).
Electronic Medical Records (EMR):
• EMRs contain all patient records,
including lab results, radiology reports,
and clinical notes.
• EMRs interface with ancillary systems
(e.g., PACS) to retrieve reports and
images, allowing referring physicians