PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE; DIFFUSION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGH THE

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
▪ DIFFUSION : random motion of molecules in all directions Diffusion of Gases Between Gas Phase in Alveoli and
through the respiratory membrane and adjacent fluids. Dissolved Phase in Pulmonary Blood.
▪ partial pressure of each gas in the alveolar respiratory gas
PHYSICS OF GAS DIFFUSION AND GAS PARTIAL PRESSURES mixture tends to force molecules of that gas into solution in the
blood of the alveolar capillaries.
Molecular Basis Of Gas Diffusion ▪ Conversely, the molecules of the same gas that are already
▪ there must be a source of energy dissolved in the blood are bouncing randomly in the fluid of
▪ provided by the kinetic motion of the molecules. the blood, and some of these bouncing molecules escape
▪ continually undergoing motion( except @ Abs. Zero) back into the alveoli.
▪ move rapidly and randomly among one another. ▪ directly proportional to their partial pressure in the blood
▪ net diffusion is determined by the difference between the two
Net Diffusion Of A Gas In One Direction—Effect Of A
partial pressures
Concentration Gradient.
Vapor Pressure of Water
▪ partial pressure that water moleculesexert to escape through
the surface
▪ inhaling nonhumidified air : water immediately evaporates
from the surfaces of these passages and humidifies the air
▪ Normal body temp: vapor pressure is 47 mmHg.
▪ The higher the temperature, the greater the kinetic activity of
▪ net diffusion of the gas will occur from the high- concentration the molecules and, therefore, the greater the likelihood that
area toward the low- concentration area the water molecules will escape from the surface of the water
into the gas phase.
Gas Pressures in a Mixture of Gases—Partial Pressures of
Individual Gases Pressure Difference Causes Net Diffusion of Gases Through
▪ pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of the gas Fluids
molecules. ▪ proportional to the gas partial pressure difference between the
▪ respiratory physiology: deals with mixtures of gases, mainly two areas, called simply the pressure difference for causing
oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide diffusion.
▪ rate of diffusion of each of these gases is directly proportional
to the pressure caused by that gas alone, which is called the Quantifying Net Rate of Diffusion in Fluids
partial pressure of that gas. factors affect the rate of gas diffusion in a fluid:
(1) the solubility of the gas in the fluid;
Pressures of Gases Dissolved in Water and Tissues (2) the cross- sectional area of the fluid;
▪ exert pressure because the dissolved gas molecules are (3) the distance through which the gas must diffuse;
moving randomly and have kinetic energy. (4) the molecular weight of the gas; and
▪ when the gas dissolved in fluid encounters a surface, such as (5) the temperature of the fluid.
the membrane of a cell, it exerts its own partial pressure in the ▪ In the body, the temperature remains reasonably constant and
same way as a gas in the gas phase. usually need not be considered.
▪ greater the solubility of the gas, the greater the number of
molecules available to diffuse for any given partial pressure
Factors That Determine Partial Pressure of a Gas Dissolved in difference.
a Fluid. ▪ greater the cross- sectional area of the diffusion pathway, the
▪ determined not only by its concentration but also by the greater the total number of molecules that diffuse.
solubility coefficient of the gas ▪ greater the distance the molecules must diffuse, the longer it
▪ Repel water: HIGH PARTIAL PRESSURE SOL.N will take the molecules to diffuse the entire distance.
▪ Attract water: Low Partial pressure ▪ the greater the velocity of kinetic movement of the molecules,
which is inversely proportional to the square root of the
molecular weight, the greater the rate of diffusion of the gas.

▪ CO2 is more than 20 times as soluble as O2.

▪ Therefore, the partial pressure of CO2 for a given
concentration is less than one-twentieth (5%) of that exerted by
O2.
PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE; DIFFUSION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGH THE
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE

COMPOSITIONS OF ALVEOLAR AIR AND ATMOSPHERIC AIR

ARE DIFFERENT

▪ does not have the same concentrations of gases ▪ rate at which excess gas in the alveoli is normally removed,
▪ alveolar air is only partially replaced by atmospheric air with showing that with normal alveolar ventilation, about half
each breath the gas is removed in 17 seconds.
▪ O2 is constantly being absorbed into the pulmonary blood ▪ When a person’s rate of alveolar ventilation is only half-
from the alveolar air. normal, half of the gas is removed in 34 seconds, and when the
▪ CO2 is constantly diffusing from the pulmonary blood into the rate of ventilation is twice normal, half is removed in about 8
alveoli. seconds.
▪ dry atmospheric air that enters the respiratory passages is Slow Replacement of Alveolar Air Helps Stabilize Respiratory
humidified even before it reaches the alveoli. Control
▪ preventing sudden changes in gas concentrations in the
Air Is Humidified in the Respiratory Passages blood.
▪ Table 40-1 shows that atmospheric air is composed almost ▪ makes the respiratory control mechanism much more stable
entirely of nitrogen and O2 ▪ helps prevent excessive increases and decreases in tissue
▪ contains almost no CO2 and little water vapor oxygenation, tissue CO2 concentration, and tissue pH when
▪ before the air enters the alveoli, it becomes almost totally respiration is temporarily interrupted.
humidified
▪ partial pressure of water vapor at a normal body temperature Oxygen Concentration and Partial Pressure in Alveoli
of 37°C is 47 mm Hg ▪ more rapidly O2 is absorbed, the lower its concentration in the
▪ total pressure in the alveoli cannot rise to more than the alveoli becomes
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg at sea level) ▪ more rapidly new O2 is breathed into the alveoli from the
atmosphere, the higher its concentration becomes
Alveolar Air Is Slowly Renewed by Atmospheric ▪ controlled by:
(1) the rate of absorption of O2 into the blood; and
(2) (2) the rate of entry of new O2 into the lungs by the
ventilatory process.

▪ shows this slow rate of renewal of the alveolar air

▪ 1st: excess gas is present in the alveoli
▪ End of 16th: excess gas still has not been completely ▪ shows that when 1000 ml of O2 is being absorbed each
removed from the alveoli. minute, as during moderate exercise, the rate of alveolar
▪ 2300 mL: average functional residual capacity350 ventilation must increase fourfold to maintain the alveolar Po2
ml of new air is brought into the alveoli with each at the normal value of 104 mm Hg.
normal inspiration, and this same amount of old ▪ extreme increase in alveolar ventilation can never increase the
alveolar Po2 above 149 mm Hg as long as the person is
alveolar air is expired. breathing normal atmospheric air at sea level pressure, because
149 mm Hg is the maximum Po2 in humidified air at this
pressure.
PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE; DIFFUSION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGH THE
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE

CO2 Concentration and Partial Pressure in Alveoli DIFFUSION OF GASES THROUGH THE RESPIRATORY
MEMBRANE
▪ 40-7 : respiratory unit (also called respiratory lobule), which is
composed of a respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, atria,
and alveoli.
▪ about 300 million alveoli in the two lungs, and each alveolus
has an average diameter of about 0.2 millimeter.
▪ alveolar walls are extremely thin, and between the alveoli is an
almost solid network of interconnecting capillaries

▪ continually formed in the body and then carried in the blood to

the alveoli;
▪ continually removed from the alveoli by ventilation.
▪ normal rate of CO2 excretion of 200 ml/min.
▪ At the normal rate of alveolar ventilation of 4.2 L/min, the
operating point for alveolar Pco2 is at point A
▪ alveolar Pco2 increases directly in proportion to the rate of
CO2 excretion, as represented by the fourfold elevation of the
curve (when 800 ml of CO2 are excreted per minute).
▪ alveolar Pco2 decreases in inverse proportion to alveolar
ventilation
▪ concentrations and partial pressures of both O2 and CO2 in
the alveoli are determined by the rates of absorption or
excretion of the two gases and by the amount of alveolar
ventilation. ▪ flow of blood in the alveolar wall has been described as a sheet
of flowing blood.
▪ occurs through the membranes of all the terminal
portions of the lungs, not merely in the alveoli.
▪ All these membranes are collectively known as the
respiratory membrane, also called the pulmonary
membrane.

Respiratory Membrane.
▪ shows diffusion of O2 from the alveolus into the red blood cell
and diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction.
▪ Different layers:
1.A layer of fluid containing surfactant that lines the
alveolus and reduces the surface tension of alveolar fluid
Expired Air Is a Combination of Dead Space Air and Alveolar
[Link] alveolar epithelium, composed of thin epithelial cells
Air
[Link] epithelial basement membrane
▪ has gas concentrations and partial pressures approximately as
4.A thin interstitial space between the alveolar epithelium
shown in Table 40-1
and capillary membrane
▪ method of collecting alveolar air for study is simply to collect a
5. A capillary basement membrane that in many places
sample of the last portion of the expired air after forceful
fuses with the alveolar epithelial basement membrane
expiration has removed all the dead space air.
6. The capillary endothelial membrane
PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE; DIFFUSION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGH THE
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
▪ overall thickness of the respiratory membrane in some areas is
as little as 0.2 micrometer and averages about 0.6
micrometer, except where there are cell nuclei.
▪ total surface area: 70 sq m
▪ floor area of a 25 × 30- foot room
▪ total quantity of blood in the capillaries of the lungs at any
given instant is 60 to 140 ml

Factors Affecting Rate of Gas Diffusion Through the

Respiratory Membrane
1. THICKNESS of the membrane;
a. edema fluid
b. pulmonary diseases cause fibrosis of the lungs
note:
✓ rate of diffusion through the membrane is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the membrane
✓ any factor that increases the thickness to more than two to
three times normal can interfere significantly with normal
respiratory exchange of gases.

2. SURFACE AREA of the membrane;

a. decreased by:
emphysema
3. DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT of the gas in the substance of the
membrane;
a. depends on the gas’s solubility in the membrane and,
inversely, on the square root of the gas’s molecular
weight.
4. PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OF THE GAS BETWEEN THE TWO SIDES
of the membrane.
a. measure of the net tendency for the gas molecules
to move through the membrane.

Diffusing Capacity of the Respiratory Membrane

- refers to volume of a gas that will diffuse through the membrane
each minute for a partial pressure difference of 1 mm Hg.
▪ Diffusing Capacity for Oxygen.
o diffusing capacity for O2 : 21 ml/min per mm Hg
▪ Increased Oxygen Diffusing Capacity During Exercise
o diffusing capacity for O2 increases to about three
times the diffusing capacity under resting conditions.
o caused by several factors
(1) opening up of many previously dormant pulmonary
capillaries or extra dilation of already open
capillaries, thereby increasing the surface area of the
blood into which the O2 can diffuse;
(2) a better match between the ventilation of the alveoli
and perfusion of the alveolar capillaries with blood,
called the ventilation-perfusion ratio.

▪ Diffusing Capacity for Carbon Dioxide

o diffusing capacity for CO2 has never been measured
because CO2 diffuses through the respiratory
membrane so rapidly that the average Pco2 in the
pulmonary blood is not very different from the
Pco2 in the alveoli—the average difference is less
than 1 mm Hg.
o RESTING CONDITIONS : 400 to 450 ml/min per mmHg
o EXERCISE : 1200 to 1300 ml/ min per mmHg.