Objectives : you must understand the
following
Mechanism of ventilation
How Gas exchange?
What are respiratory membrane?
What are Partial pressures?
How ? Oxygen (O2) transport
1. Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of lungs.
2. Gas exchange: between air in lungs and blood.
3. Transport: of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
4. Internal respiration: Gas exchange between the blood
and tissues.
• That mean movement of air into and out of
lungs, air moves from area of higher pressure to
area of lower pressure.
• Intra-pleural pr. : is the pressure in the intra-
pleural space that is generated between the lungs
and chest wall.
• Alveolar pr. : is the pressure within the alveoli.
• Trans-pulmonary pr. : is alveolar pressure minus
intra-pleural pressure.
• At rest with mouth open external pressure (Pb)= internal
pressure (Pi)= 0.
• During inhalation: movement of diaphragm down word
and external intercostal muscles outside and up lead to
increase volume of rib cage and decrease the pleural
cavity pressure (decrease internal pressure of lungs (Pi)),
while the external pressure (Pb) is now greater than Pi so
air flows from high external pressure to low internal
pressure until Pi = Pb.
During exhalation:
Opposite process, decrease rib cage volume lead to
increase in pleural cavity pressure and lead to
increase Pi, so Pi is greater than Pb and this will
lead to air flows from high internal pressure to low
external pressure until Pi = Pb again.
Active expiration:
1. Using muscles of expiration
2. Occurs during exercise or in obstructive lung diseases.
3. During heavy breathing, the elastic forces are not powerful
enough to cause the necessary rapid expiration
4. So that extra force is achieved mainly by contraction of the
abdominal muscles, which pushes the abdominal contents upward
against the bottom of the diaphragm, thereby compressing the
lungs.
5. The muscles that used during forcible expiration are mainly (1)
abdominal recti, and (2) internal intercostal muscles.
• In summary
• Receptors in the bronchi and trachea
• Afferent nerve impulses pass mainly through the vagus
nerves to the medulla of the brain.
• Mechanism :
• First: up to 2.5 liters of air are rapidly inspired.
• Second: the epiglottis closes, and the vocal cords shut
tightly to entrap the air within the lungs.
• Third: the abdominal muscles contract forcefully,
pushing against the diaphragm while other expiratory
muscles, such as the internal intercostal M, also contract
forcefully. Consequently, the pressure in the lungs rises
rapidly to as much as 100 mm Hg or more.
• Fourth: the vocal cords and the epiglottis suddenly open
widely, so that air under this high pressure in the lungs
explodes outward. Sometimes this air is expelled at
velocities ranging from 75 to 100 miles / hour.
• The sneeze reflex:
• Receptors in the nasal passageways.
• The initiating stimulus of the sneeze reflex is irritation in
the nasal passageways.
• The afferent impulses pass in the fifth cranial nerve to the
medulla.
• A series of reactions similar to those for the cough reflex
takes place; the uvula is depressed, so that large amounts of
air pass rapidly through the nose.
• Gas movement is directly proportional to the area of
diffusion and inversely proportional to the thickness.
The blood-gas barrier.
Respiratory membrane (blood-gas barrier) :
Is 0.3 micrometer thickness, it has a surface area of 50 to
100 m2 and contain 60- 140ml blood. and composed of:
1) Fluid (surfactant) in alveoli
2) Epithelium of alveoli
3) Epithelial basement membrane
4) Interstitial fluid
5) Capillary basement membrane
6) Endothelial cells of capillary.
Factors Affecting Diffusion through the
Respiratory Membrane
• Thickness of the membrane.
• Surface area of the membrane.
• Diffusion coefficient.
• Difference in partial pressure.
Thickness and Surface Area of the Membrane
• The thicker the membrane, the slower the rate
of diffusion. E.g., edema in the interstitial
space increases the distance gasses must
diffuse.
• If surface area decreases, the rate of diffusion
will decrease. E.g., emphysema causes
dissolution of alveolar walls.
Diffusion Coefficient
• The diffusion coefficient is proportional to the
solubility/MW. (low MW is high DC and vice versa ).
• The greater the diffusion coefficient, the greater the rate
of diffusion.
• So, a small molecule that is highly soluble diffuses fast
(e.g., CO2). CO2 diffuses ~ 20 x more rapidly than O2.
Partial Pressure
Each gas in atmosphere contributes to the entire
atmospheric pressure, denoted as P. Gas enters liquid
and dissolves in proportion to its partial pressure
• Partial pressure = Percentage of concentration of
specific gas × Total pressure of a gas……Dalton’s law
Total pressure = Sum of partial pressure of all gases in
a mixture
Atmosphere
O2 = 20.93% = ~ 159 mm Hg PO2
CO2 = 0.03% = ~ 0.23 mm Hg PCO2
N2 = 79.04% = ~ 600 mm Hg PN2
• Water vapor reduces the PO2 in the trachea about 10
mm Hg to 149 mm Hg.
• Alveolar air is altered by entry of CO2, so Average
alveolar PO2 = 103 mm Hg
Partial Pressures in Alveoli
• Henry’s law: Gases diffuse from high pressure to low pressure.
• Alveolar PO2 depends on:
1. The rate of O2 absorption into the blood.
2. The rate of entry of new O2 during ventilation.
• Alveolar PCO2 depends on:
1. The rate of CO2 excretion from the blood.
2. The rate of removal of CO2 during ventilation.
• Diffusion rate depends upon : Pressure differential and Solubility
of the gas in the fluid. (O2 and CO2 Exchange by DIFFUSION)
PO2 in alveoli ~ 103 mmHg, while in pulmonary
capillaries ~ 40 mm Hg.
Result:
**O2 moves into pulmonary capillaries from high PP in
alveoli (~103-104 mmHg) to low PP in capillaries (~ 40
mmHg) till reach the equilibrium stat (~ 104 mmHg).
**While in tissues O2 move from high partial pressure
in capillaries (~ 95 mmHg) to low PP in tissues (~ 20
mmHg) till reach the equilibrium stat (~ 40 mmHg)
While PCO2 is 45mmHg in alveolar capillaries
and 40mmHg in alveoli.
**So moves of CO2 from high PP in capillaries to
low PP in alveoli till reach the equilibrium stat (~
40 mmHg).
**While in tissues CO2 move from high partial
pressure in tissues (~ 45 mmHg) to low PP in
capillaries (~ 40 mmHg) till reach the equilibrium
stat (~ 45 mmHg).
Gas Exchange arteriole
External Respiration end
PCO2 = 46 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 mm Hg
PO2 = 103 mm Hg
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
inspired air
O2
pulmonary
alveolus CO2 capillary
expired air
PO2 = 40 mm Hg
PCO2 = 46 mm Hg
PO2 = 100 mm Hg
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
venule end
Gas Exchange arteriole
Internal Respiration end
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
PO2 = 100 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 mm Hg
PCO2 = 46 mm
OHg
2
systemic systemic
cell CO2 capillary
PO2 = 100 mm Hg
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 mm Hg
PCO2 = 46 mm Hg
venule end
