Legal reasoning is the process of analyzing and applying legal principles, rules, and

precedents to arrive at a logical conclusion or decision in a legal context. It involves:

*Key Components:*

1. Identifying the relevant laws, regulations, and precedents.

2. Analyzing the facts and circumstances of a case.

3. Applying legal principles and rules to the facts.

4. Drawing conclusions and making decisions based on the analysis.

5. Justifying the decision with logical and coherent arguments.

*Types of Legal Reasoning:*

1. *Deductive Reasoning*: Applying general rules to specific facts.

2. *Inductive Reasoning*: Drawing general conclusions from specific facts.

Purpose: To build Argument

Logic
Logic is the systematic study of reasoning and argumentation, focusing on the principles
and methods for evaluating information, constructing arguments, and making informed
decisions.

Aristotle: Father of Logic

Book: Systematic logic

*Key Concepts:*

1. Argument: A set of statements leading to a conclusion.

2. Premise: A statement supporting the conclusion.

3. Conclusion: The inferred result of the premises.

4. Inference: The process of drawing conclusions from premises.

Purposes: 1) To set methods and principle in order to discover truth .

2) Two differentiate between correct and incorrect.

Truth
Truth is the quality or state of being in accordance with fact or reality. In philosophy and
logic, truth refers to the accuracy or correctness of statements, beliefs, or propositions in
relation to the world.

Practical truth refers to truth in actions or outcomes—what works or is ethical in practice.

Example: A diet that leads to good health is practically true.

Propositional truth is about whether a statement accurately reflects reality.

Example: “The sky is blue” is true if the sky is actually blue.

Truth value :

Truth value refers to the classification of a proposition as either true or false. It indicates
whether a statement accurately reflects reality (true) or does not (false). Some systems,
like fuzzy logic, also allow for degrees of truth.

Proposition: logical False/ Logical Truth

Premise: True/ False

Inductive reasoning: valid/ invalid

Deductive reasoning: valid / invalid

Sound Arguments: All premises true , conclusion must be true.

Arguments:
An argument is a set of statements or reasons presented to support a conclusion. In logic,
an argument consists of premises (statements or evidence) that provide the basis for the
conclusion. A valid argument has a logical connection between the premises and the
conclusion.

Argument is the main subject matter basis of logic .

set of declarative sentence.

Ie proposition with two parts:

1st premise: Given proposition

2nd conclusion: when we established new from given proposition

Structure of Argument:

(Group of proposition )

1) 1st two proposition called premise

2) Last two called conclusion.

Sound Arguments
All premises true , conclusion must be true.

Proposition
A proposition is a declarative statement that can be either true or false. It expresses a
specific idea or claim about the world that has a definite truth value. Propositions are
central in logic and reasoning.

Example: "The earth orbits the sun" is a proposition because it can be evaluated as true.

1st : Starting point of any argument

2nd : Building Block of reasoning

3rd : Collection of declarative statements.

1. Proposition Contents:
Subject: The main topic or entity being discussed in a proposition.
Predicate: What is asserted or denied about the subject.

Copula: The linking verb that connects the subject and predicate (e.g., “is”).
Quantifier: Indicates the quantity of the subject (e.g., “all,” “some”).

Categorial Proposition:
1) Universal
a) U affirmative
A universal affirmative (A proposition) states that all members of one
category belong to another. Its form is: “All S are P.” For example, “All dogs are
mammals.”

b) U denied
A universal negative (also called an E proposition) states that no members of
one category belong to another. Its form is:
“No S are P.”
For example: “No dogs are reptiles.”

2) Particular
a) P affirmative
A particular affirmative (also called an I proposition) states that some
members of one category belong to another. Its form is:
“Some S are P.”
For example: “Some cats are friendly.”
b) P denied

A particular denied (also called an O proposition) states that some members

of one category do not belong to another. Its form is:
“Some S are not P.”
For example: “Some birds are not able to fly.”

Proposition Ingredients:

1) Argument:

2) Knowledge:
A system of ideas in our mind.
We obtain knowledge from two Types.

1. Immediate: Tongue, nose, eye, ear, skin.

Direct knowledge: As sense organs.
2. Mediate knowledge: New knowledge on the basis of previous
knowledge.

3) Inference:

Mental process: The process in which a person moves from one

proposition to another.

Via linga (language) → Middle Term: This seems to refer to the use of
language or a specific term in reasoning, possibly indicating a transition
or medium in the inferential process.
Medium or experience: Inference seems to rely on a medium (like
language) or an experience that helps bridge the gap between different
propositions or ideas.

Already we experience shifting from previous knowledge: Inference

involves shifting from what we already know to new knowledge or
conclusions.

Difference Between Inference and Argument.

Inference and argument are both important concepts in reasoning, but they differ in their
roles and structure:

1. Inference:

Definition: Inference is the mental process of drawing a conclusion from evidence or

premises. It’s how you connect facts or statements to reach a conclusion that may not be
explicitly stated.

Example: You see wet streets, and you infer that it probably rained recently.

Focus: Inference focuses on the conclusion that you mentally derive from given
information or observations.
Purpose: It helps to interpret information and arrive at logical conclusions without a formal
presentation.

2. Argument:

Definition: An argument is a set of statements (premises) that are presented in order to

support or prove a conclusion. It is more formal and structured than an inference.

Example:

Premise 1: All men are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Focus: An argument focuses on both the premises (reasons) and the conclusion, explicitly
showing how the conclusion follows from the premises.

Purpose: It aims to persuade or justify a conclusion based on logical reasoning.

Induction

Induction is establishment of :
1. General
2. Real proposition
3. Based on observation
4. Of particular and different cases
5. It has inductive leap
Leap: passing from known to unknown
6. Conclusion must be:
a. Formally True
b. Material True

Induction Types:
1. Proper leap presence
a. Scientific
b. Analogy
c. Unscientific
2. Improper leap absence
a. Perfect
b. Colligation
c. Priority of reasoning

Paradox of induction :

What is paradox: Two things happening at a time.

J.s Logician says : Law of uniformity of nature is the : Result , Ground of Induction.