Written Report

GROUP 3 (BSN 3C)

MAYOR | PARAISO
AMBUYOC | GAFFUD
EBILANE | CESPEDES | LABRADOR

Chapter 3: Reasoning and Inferences

Topics
Logical Arguments
Deductive Arguments
Eduction

- Square of Opposition
- Logical Arguments - may be defined as the science that evaluates arguments. It
plays a central role in many areas, particularly in mathematics.
- Logic is also essential for constructing and testing computer programs. 
- All of us encounter arguments in our day-to-day experiences, we read them in books
and newspapers, hear and see them on TV and formulate them when communicating
with friends and associates

Argument
- As it is used in logic, is a group of statements, one of which (the conclusion) is
claimed to follow from the other or others (the premises). It does not mean, for
example, a mere verbal fight, as one has with one’s parent, spouse, or friend.

All arguments may be placed in one of the two basic groups:

1. Good Arguments - those in which the conclusion really does follows the premises.
2. Bad Arguments – those in which it does not, even though it is claimed

Argument Examples:
All cats are animals.
Garfield is a cat.
Therefore, Garfield is an animal
If the demand rises, the companies expand.
If companies expand, then they hire workers.
If the demand rises, then companies hire workers
- Some dogs are the “aspin” breed. Scooby doo is a dog. Therefore, Scooby doo is an
aspin

Premise
is a statement that an argument claims will induce and justify a conclusion. It is an
assumption that something is true.
- The premises of an argument are those statements or propositions in it that are
intended to provide the support or evidence.
Conclusion
- the conclusion of an argument is that statement or proposition in which the premises are
intended to provide support. (In short, it is the point the argument is trying to make.) A
conclusion is a claim that has been reached by the process of reasoning

For Example:
All musicians can read music
John is a musician premises
Therefore, John can read music conclusion

Inference
-is a conclusion reached by using evidence and reasoning. Making inference is a way of using
information available in a text to make informed guesses about what is not yet known (i.e
"reading between lines")

For Example:
-is a conclusion reached by using evidence and reasoning. Making inference is a way of using
information available in a text to make informed guesses about what is not yet known (i.e
"reading between lines")

Statement
- a sentence that is either true or false, in other words, it is typically a declarative
sentence. 

The following sentences are statements:

1. Mr. Cruzate is an instructor.
2. World War II began in 1939.
3. Some cats are dogs.
4. COVID19 gives happiness to a lot of people in the Philippines.
Truth- Value
- the attribute by which a statement is either true or false. Thus, the truth-value of the
first two statements is true, and the truth-value of the second two is false. 

Unlike statements, many sentences cannot be said to be either true or false. Questions,
proposals, suggestions, commands, and exclamations usually cannot, and so are not usually
classified as statements.

The following sentences are not statements:

What is the atomic weight of oxygen? (Q)
Allyson will you wash the dishes. (P) 
I suggest that you travel by bus. (S) 
Hey Marlon, clean your room. (C) 
Shut up! I hate you! (E)
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS

Deductive Arguments

 Uses facts, rules, definitions, or properties to reach logical conclusions.

 The process of reaching conclusion by applying general ideas called "premises".
 From GENERAL to SPECIFIC

Syllogism - where is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrive at specific conclusion by
examining two other premises or ideas.

Similar to transitive of equality:

For example:

 All dancers are thin. Karen is a dancer. (premises) Therefore, Karen is thin. (true
conclusion)
 All teachers are nice. Ms. Santos is a teacher.(premises) therefore, Ms. Mayumi is
nice.(true conclussion)
 All birds can fly. Parrot is a bird. (premises) Therefore parrots can fly. (true
conclusion

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
 also known as reasoning by induction, are assessed as strong or weak, rather than as
valid or invalid.

 Takes specific examples to make general rules

 It uses pattern sequences and order
 Uses examples to make a general statement.
 Uses experiences to make an assumptions

 Is a process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific observations.

NARROW PREMISE + NARROW PREMISE = PROBABLE CONCLUSON

EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE ARGUMETS:

1. Yesterday morning, Marjorie went jogging. This morning, she jogged again.

Therefore, Marjorie will probably jog tomorrow again.

2. COMPARE THESE TWO INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS

a) I FOUND SHOWTIME A PHILIPPINE NOON-TIME SHOW ENTERTAINING.
SO MY FRIENDS WILL SURELY FIND IT FUNNY
b) GIVEN: 2,4,6,8,10,

The next term is going to be 12

3. ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF INDUCTIVE REASONING

A) Ma'am Hyacinth used Google Classroom in the last few classes. Therefore, Ma'am
Hyacinth will use Google Classroom tomorrow

B) Kyla a psychology student just moved here from the College of Arts And
Sciences. Kyla has pink hair. Therefore, all people from the College of Arts And
Sciences have pink hair.
The Square of Opposition

The A, E, I and O propositions form what logicians call the traditional square of
opposition, which gives rise to the four kinds of logical opposition:
(1) Contrary Opposition, (2) Contradictory Opposition, (3) Subaltern Opposition and
(4) Subcontrary Opposition.

1. Contrary opposition - one which exists between two universal propositions that
differ in quality.

Example:
A and E ; All S is P - No S is P

Here one is Universal Affirmative (A) and the other is Universal Negative (E)
Propositions.

2. Contradictory opposition - one which exists between two propositions that differ
in both quality and quantity.

Example:
A - O ; All S is P - Some S is Not P
E - I ; No S is P - Some S is P

A is Universal Affirmative and O is Particular Negative.

E is Universal Negative and I is Particular Affirmative.

3. Subaltern opposition - one which exists between two propositions that differ in
quantity. Take the examples A and I, E and O.

The A and I are called the affirmative subalterns, while the E and O are the negative
subalterns .
The universal subaltern is called subalternant, and the particular subaltern subalternate.

4. Subcontrary opposition - one which exists between two particular propositions

that differ in quality.

Example:
I-O ; Some S is P - Some S is Not P
I is Affirmative and O is Negative