GRAMMAR NOTES

Subject Verb Agreement If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for
A singular subject takes the s-form of the verb; a plural subject the verb.
takes the base form of the verb.
Exceptions to the Basic rule:
A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, a. The first person pronoun I takes a plural verb (I go, I drive).
shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb. b. The basic form of the verb is used after certain main verbs
such as watch, see, hear, feel, help, let, and make. (He
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk. watched Ronaldo score the winning goal).

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/
subjectVerbAgree.asp

SIMPLE PAST
The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that
happened or existed before now. Imagine someone asks what your
brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend.

For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if
the root form already ends in an e)
SIMPLE PRESENT
The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the
simple present tense when an action is happening right now, or
when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s
sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the

-s or -es to the end.

simple present tense is formed by using the root form or by adding

In the simple present, most regular verbs use the root form, except
in the third-person singular (which ends in -s).
SIMPLE FUTURE
The simple future is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things
that haven’t happened yet.

The formula for the simple future is will + [root form of verb].

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verb-tenses/#:~:text=Verbs%20come%20in%20three%20tenses,or%20things%20that%20are
%20continuous.

ARTICLES
Types:
Definite
-The - particular or specific noun

Indefinite
-A - consonant sounds
-An - vowel sounds
PREPOSITION
-are usually used in front of nouns or pronouns and they show the relationship between the noun or pronoun and other words in a
sentence.

PREPOSITION OF PLACE PREPOSITION OF TIME

IN IN
-interiors -period of time (range), months, years, centuries, and long
-vehicles (cars) periods
-cities, countries, world, neighborhood, community ex. December
-enclosed spaces
ON
ON -days and dates (specific day)
-streets, boulevards, avenue, road, highway, court, surfaces
-vehicles (two-wheeled) AT
-big vehicles: bus, plane, train, ship -hour (part of the day), precise time
-screen/media (websites, social media, TV, PC, radio) ex. at 8:00, at night, sunrise, noon

AT
-specific point/place
-bus stops
-train stations
-at the corner
-airport
-school
-home
-university
-complete address

CONJUNCTION
- joins two or more words, ideas, phrases, or clauses together.

F - for
A - and
N - nor
B - but
O - or
Y - yet
S – so

Independent Clause Dependent Clause

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a A dependent clause contains a subject and verb but cannot
subject and a verb. An independent clause is a sentence. stand on its own as a complete sentence; an independent clause
Independent clauses are clauses that express a complete includes a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
thought. They can function as sentences. These are clauses that An independent clause is a complete sentence in itself but may
can function on their own. They do not need to be joined to appear together with other clauses in compound or complex
other clauses, because they contain all the information sentences.
required to be a complete sentence.
The following indefinite pronouns are always singular: Plural in form, but singular in meaning:
-each -acoustics -pants
-one -aeronautics -physics
-no one -billiards -politics
-nobody -calisthenics -remains
-anyone -civics -scissors
-anybody -clothes -series
-someone -goggles -shorts
-somebody -eyeglasses -The Netherlands
-either -jitters -The Philippines
-neither -mathematics -The United States
-everyone -measles -tongs
-everybody -molasses -tonsillitis
-mumps -trousers
-news -tuberculosis
The following indefinite pronouns are always plural: The following indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural:
-both -all
-few -most
-many -any
-several -some
-none

PARTS OF SPEECH
ADJECTIVE
NOUN -describes, modifies, or gives more information about a noun
-names of people, places, things, or ideas or pronoun

Types: VERB
-proper nouns -shows actions or states of being
-common noun
-collective nouns ADVERBS
-possessive nouns -modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
-compound nouns
INTERJECTION
PRONOUNS -expresses a strong feeling or emotion
-takes the place of a noun

Compound Sentences
- A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a
sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought.
- Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences.
- These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Examples:
1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
^Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences. “The shoplifter had stolen clothes”
can stand alone and so can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a compound
sentence.
Complex Sentences
- A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A
dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does
not express a complete thought.
- A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Examples:
1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
^ The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before
it is dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The
Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought.
Compound-Complex Sentences
- A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.
Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for
lunch, and they went to the movies.
^ If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a
compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.

What is a verb tense?

Verb tenses show when an action took place, as well as The past, present, and future are the central divisions of
how long it occurred. The main verb tenses are the past, time in English. The present represents actions
present, and future. happening now, while the past represents actions that
There are also additional aspects that give extra details, happened earlier, and the future describes actions that
such as the length of time the action occurred, which will happen later.
actions happened first, or whether a past action has an
impact on the present. These grammatical aspects are
the simple tense, perfect tense, continuous tense, and
perfect continuous tense.
Past, present, and future tenses

Simple Tense Continuous Tense

The simple tense is a grammatical aspect that refers to We use the continuous tenses (also known as the
the normal forms of the past, present, and future tenses progressive tenses) for ongoing actions or actions that
—nothing fancy! Unlike the other aspects, it doesn’t add happen a while before completion. For example, They
any new information. True to its name, simple tenses are are studying all night means the studying lasts many
the easiest to form and have the fewest rules. hours before it’s finished.
Please note that you usually do not use the continuous
Perfect Tense tense with stative verbs like want, love, have, and need.
The definition of the perfect tense is a little more The continuous tenses use a conjugation of the auxiliary
complicated. It’s used for actions that relate to other verb be along with the main verb’s present participle, or
points in time, either completed or ongoing. –ing form.
For example, in the sentence I have played soccer since I
was a child, the perfect tense indicates that the action Perfect Continuous Tense
occurred continuously in the past and still happens in the When you combine the perfect and continuous tenses,
present. By contrast, in the sentence I played soccer you get the perfect continuous tense. It’s typically used
when I was a child, the simple past tense indicates that just like the perfect tense, except it describes ongoing
the action occurred only in the past and has no relation actions that happen over a period of time.
to the present. The construction of the perfect continuous tense uses a
The perfect tenses use a conjugation of the auxiliary conjugation of the auxiliary verb have, the auxiliary
verb have with the past participle of the main verb. verb been (the past participle of be), and the present
participle of the main verb.

English tenses examples: verb tenses chart

Past Present Future
I helped my neighbor I help my neighbor every I will help my neighbor
Simple
yesterday. day. tomorrow.
Perfect I had helped my neighbor clean I have helped my I will have helped my neighbor
his attic before I fixed his car. neighbor too much this a hundred times by the end of
week. the month.
I am helping my
I was helping my neighbor I will be helping my neighbor
Continuous neighbor while he fixes
when he brought me iced tea. next month when he moves.
up his house.
I had been helping my neighbor I have been helping my
Perfect I will have been helping my
for a year before he finally neighbor since I moved
continuous neighbor for a year next month.
thanked me. in.

PAST TENSES

Simple Past
We use the simple past to show actions completed in the Past Continuous
past, with no extra emphasis. [was/were] + [present participle]
For regular verbs, you form the simple past tense by Use the past continuous to show an ongoing action in the
adding the suffix –ed to the end of the verb (or just –d if past, especially if the action was interrupted by another
the past tense verb already ends in an e). action. It’s also used for habitual actions that occurred in
Be careful of irregular past tense verbs, however. These the past but not in the present. It’s usually used with
don’t follow the normal rules and use their own unique adverbs like always or adverb phrases like all the time.
forms for the past tense. For example, the past tense of My dog was whimpering in his sleep when the TV woke
the irregular verb go is went. him up.
Regular verbs: I picked up the glass, but it dropped from As kids, my friends and I were always getting into
my hand. trouble.
Irregular verbs: This morning I went to the store, but
I forgot the milk. Past Perfect Continuous
[had] + [been] + [present participle]
Past Perfect The past perfect continuous tense is used just like the
[had] + [past participle] past perfect tense, except it describes ongoing actions
What if you’re talking about two different actions in the that happened in the past instead of a one-time
past and want to show that one happened before the occurrence. It’s often used with the words when, until,
other? The past perfect, also known as the pluperfect, and before to connect it to another past action.
shows that one past action happened earlier than Before he got his first job as a writer, he had been
another one. working as a proofreader.
She had arrived at the office before she realized it was I had been living on my friend’s couch for a year until
Sunday. they kicked me out.
I ran to my car when I noticed my wife had left already.

PRESENT TENSES
Simple Present Present Perfect
The simple present is the most basic of the English [have/has] + [past participle]
tenses. It’s used for individual actions or habitual actions Although it’s quite common, the present perfect is one of
in the present. the most difficult English verb tenses. It is used to
Often the simple present is just the root verb with no describe a few different types of actions, including:
changes or additions. The main exception to this is when  an ongoing action started in the past that is not
the subject is third person and singular. In this case you yet completed
add the suffix –s. If the verb ends  the same action completed multiple times in the
in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh, or z, you add –es. If the verb ends past and likely to be completed again
in a consonant and y (and the subject is third-person  an action completed very recently (usually
singular), drop the y and add –ies. with just or now)
Today I feel like a million bucks!  an uncompleted action that is expected to be
My brother carries the groceries while my finished (in the negative)
sister stays on the couch.
Additionally, the present perfect can be used to I am reading The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy for
emphasize the significance of a completed action, the fifth time!
especially one that happened over time. We are eating pizza tonight.
We have tricked him every April Fool’s Day since we
were kids. Present Perfect Continuous
My niece has grown so much this year! [have/has] + [been] + [present participle]
The present perfect continuous shows an ongoing action
Present Continuous in the present that was started in the past. It is often
[am/is/are] + [present participle] used to emphasize the length of time.
Use the present continuous to show an action happening We have been waiting for over an hour!
right now or in the near future. The team has been practicing nonstop for the
tournament.

FUTURE TENSES

Simple Future Future Continuous

Use the simple future for actions that have not happened [will] + [be] + [present participle]
yet but will later. To form the simple future, just place Use the future continuous tense for future actions
the modal verb will before the root form of the main happening over a period of time, especially when a
verb. (Note that if the action will happen in the near specific time is mentioned. The future continuous tense
future, you can use the present continuous instead.) also shows more certainty and likelihood than the simple
She will be president one day. future.
I will not go to the wedding without a date! By this time tomorrow, I will be drinking margaritas on
the beach.
Future Perfect We will be attending a meeting from noon until 3 p.m.
[will] + [have] + [past participle]
The future perfect shows an action that will be Future Perfect Continuous
completed in the future by a specified time. Because it [will] + [have] + [been] + [present participle]
depends on another time, the future perfect is often The future perfect continuous depicts future ongoing
used with words like by, before, at, or when. actions that continue up until a certain point. Like the
By the time you read this, I will have already left. future perfect and future continuous, it’s used with a
She will have eaten lunch before her sister even wakes specified time.
up. In ten minutes, my parents will have been waiting in
traffic for four hours.
I will have been eating healthy for a whole year by
September.