ENGLISH

NOUNS are words that refer to a person, quality, state, action or concept.

Nouns as a Subject and Predicate

The subject of a sentence tells who or what a sentence is about.
The predicate of a sentence tells the reader what the subject does.

 “I want a new car.”

 “She likes the way he smiles.”
Nouns as a Direct and Indirect Object
Direct objects are the result of the action of a verb.
Indirect Object receives the action of the direct object, answering the questions ''to/for whom/what.''

 "She bought a new car." In this sentence, there is no direct or indirect object.
 "He read the book." The direct object is "the book" as it receives the action of the verb "read."
 "She gave him a present." The direct object is "a present" as it receives the action of the verb
"gave." The indirect object is "him" as it indicates (to whom?) the present was given.

 "I wrote my friend a letter." The direct object is "a letter" as it receives the action of the verb
"wrote." The indirect object is "my friend" as it indicates (to whom?) the letter was written.
 "They offered her the job." The direct object is "the job" as it receives the action of the verb
"offered." The indirect object is "her" as it indicates(to whom?) the job was offered.
Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns show ownership.
Type of noun Rule Examples
Singular noun/plural noun that does ’s cat’s Vijay’s; editor in chief’s; mother-in-
not end in “s” law’s; people’s; princess’s
Plural noun ending in “s,”/ singular ’ dogs’; the Smiths’; politics’; the United States’
noun that looks like a plural noun
Singular name ending in “s” ’s or ’ James’s or James’; Descartes’s or Descartes’; Vilniu
s’s or Vilnius’

PRONOUNS are words that replace a noun in a sentence.

х I thought I lost the Hunger Games book that my friend lent me, but I found the Hunger Games
book that my friend lent me in my backpack.
✓ I thought I lost the Hunger Games book that my friend lent me, but I found it in my backpack.
Some nouns need to be reused in other clauses, but inventing a new name for them will just cause
confusion. To simplify things, pronouns substitute nouns and other pronouns.

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns

I, It, She, You Me, It, Her, You Mine, Yours, His, Hers,
You, We, He, They You, Us, Him, Them Ours, Theirs, Whose

He cannot carry Thor’s Hulk cannot carry it. Hulk cannot carry his.
hammer.

Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns (also called emphatic) end with self or selves and emphasize (intensify) a noun
or another pronoun.

 Instructor himself ordered this product.

 We did all the work ourselves.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point out specific person, places, things or ideas. Examples are this, that,
these, and those.

 That is his book.

 I want to exchange this for that and these for those.
 This is an excellent idea.
Determine if the pronouns are used as subject, object, or possessive.

- Bob and I love watching them skateboard.

- It hurt itself in its own confusion.
-That is all they ever wanted from John and me.
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns.
Examples are everybody, anybody, somebody, all, each, every, some, none, and one.

 Each of the boys must finish his job by the end of the day.
 If anybody wants my position, he can have it.
Subject-verb relationship in complex sentences, compound sentences, complex-compound sentences,
and sentences with prepositional phrases, time markers, appositives and other parts of speech
Each clause has a subject and predicate. All rules hold in every clause.
(Subjects are underlined. Verbs are in bold. Objects are in normal font.)

 When I was young, I wanted to be famous, so I wrote that script.

 I am sure our noise level matched that on the floor above us.
 Therapeutic interventions that incorporate training in mindfulness meditation have become
increasingly popular, but to date little is known about neural mechanisms associated with these
interventions.
ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS
Adjectives describe only nouns, including pronouns. So if you have a noun like dog, you can give
more details about it by adding adjectives.
Adverbs commonly describes a verb.

 Richard is careless. “careless” is an adjective that modifies the proper noun Richard.
 Richard talks carelessly. “carelessly” is an adverb that modifies the verb talks.

VERB TONE and TENSES

SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE PERFECT PERFECT-
PROGRESSIVE
PAST Simple Past Tense Past Progressive Tense Past Perfect Tense Past Perfect Progressive
(action completed in the (unfinished action in the (one action took place Tense
past) past) before another action in (an ongoing action started
the past) in the past and was
completed before another
Was/Were + Present Had + Past Participle action in the past)
Participle (-ing)
Had Been + Present
Ex: Ex: Ex: Participle (-ing)
He ate my cake. I was preparing dinner I had eaten my
. while Melanie was breakfast before I left Ex:
working upstairs. the house. He had been working on
the project for six hours
before stopping to take
a break.
PRESENT Present Tense Present Progressive Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect
(present Tense (action or condition that Progressive Tense
action) (ongoing action) was completed recently) (action being continued to
the present)
Has/Have + Past Has/Have been + Present
Base Form Am/Is/Are + Present
Participle Participle (-ing)
Participle (-ing)

Ex: Ex:
Ex: Ex:
Jack has been studying
She plays badminton. My dog is wagging her We have talked about it
already. for their exams since
tail.
yesterday.

FUTURE Future Tense Future Progressive Tense Future Perfect Tense Future Perfect
(actions that haven’t (an ongoing action in the (future action completed Progressive Tense
took place yet) future) before (continuing future action
another action) before another action)
Will + Base Form Will be + Present Will have + Past Will have been +
Participle (-ing) Participle Present Participle (-ing)
Ex: Ex: Ex: Ex:
Someday, I will go to I will be making salad. Chester will have taken She will have been living
Switzerland. the pill before sleeping. in Seoul for ten years at
that point.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
(Subjects are underlined. Verbs are in bold.)

Rule 1 Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs

Juan dances.
She dances ballet.
Students dance hip-hop at the auditorium.
The children dance to Thriller every Friday.
Last Saturday, they danced barefoot in front of the audience.
My professor danced the Thai Sri-Nuan and the Burmese Kinnara to prove her point about the
similarities of traditional dances of geographically close countries.
Rule 2 Compound nouns require plural verbs

The moon and stars are very pretty tonight.

Both the book and pen are expensive.
Kenan and Kel are going to ask two girls out to the movies.
Rule 3 Nouns in plural form but singular in meaning need a singular verb. Some nouns are always plural
and always need plural
verbs.
The news is devastating.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
The acoustics in the multi-purpose hall is great for recording our new song!
The politics of fiction forces writers of developing countries to write autobiographically or
historically.
My jeans are wet!
Shears are used to harmlessly harvest wool from sheep.
The canned goods I received were too heavy to carry.
Some other nouns that are plural in form but Some other nouns that
singular in meaning: are always plural:
- Economics - Scissors
- Athletics - Clothes
- Mathematics - Pants
- Billiards - Shorts
- Ethics - Eyeglasses
- The Avengers (the movie; movie is singular) - Stairs
- We the Kings (the band; band is singular) - Outskirts
Rule 4 Gerunds (-ing) and infinitives (to+base form of the verb) are nouns, not verbs. Do not confuse the
two.
Answering grammar questions gives me headaches.
Letting go of all my attachments to my friends is difficult.
To write a series of novels is not an easy task.
To lose something, to realize that it will never return, is the mark of adulthood.
Rule 5 When the words or, nor, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also joins the parts of a compound
subject, the verb should be singular when the parts are singular; but it should be plural if both parts are
plural. Otherwise, if the parts connected differ in number, the verb agrees with the nearer subject part.
Neither the hammer nor the nail was found.
Either the students or the teachers were to blame.
Not only the horses but also the cow was slain.
Rule 6 Each, everybody, everyone, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, none, nobody, one, another,
anything, either, neither, many, a are singular pronouns because these words talk about the single
individual

Each officer has the power to confiscate unnecessary items.

Many a boy has volunteered to help.
Every student is subjected to the rules of the handbook.
Every boy and girl in the class was amazed.
Every day is a new day.
Everyday everybody who’s anybody is living in fear because of the war.
None, neither soldier nor civilian, was found underneath the rubble.
Rule 7 Many is plural, and much is singular.

Many say that the Math exam was hard.

Much is left undone.

Rule 8 Some pronouns such as all, none and some are singular or plural depending on what they’re
referring to.
Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.
Rule 9 The expression “the number” requires a singular verb while “a number” requires a plural verb. This is
because “the number” is an exact number while “a number” is an estimate.
The number of the new students is twenty- five.
A number of officials were against the decision.
Rule 10 Fractions take a singular verb if the object of the phrase that follows is singular, if not, then it is
plural

One-fourth of the students are outside.

One-half of the cake was eaten.
Rule 11 A collective noun requires a singular verb when the group is thought of as a unit, but it requires a
plural verb if individuals composing the group are acting separately.

The jury were discussing their views on the testimony.

The audience was silent.
The pieces of homework that the teachers assigned to us were too much for just a weekend.
Rule 12 The verb ties with a relative pronoun (what, who, whom, when, which, that) used as a subject; the
relative pronoun ties with the number of the person of its antecedent.

He is one of the students who were arrested during the protest.

She is one of the most vocal girls who are protesting.
It was when Napoleon wasted resources maintaining control in Spain that the decline of the French
began.
Rule 13 There is / there was precedes a singular noun. There are / there were is followed by a plural noun

There were many guests at the party.

There was dancing all night.
Rule 14 Verbs in a compound predicate follow the number of the same subject they describe.
He knocks people down and breaks their spirit into pieces.
This upbeat album won several international awards and is Charles’s favorite CD.
Rule 15 Match subjects with their corresponding verbs. Ignore appositives, prepositional phrases, and other
parts of speech.
Mae, together with her friends, is going to a road trip.
Mary, accompanied by her classmate, is watching a movie.
Marco, president of our school’s MUN (Model United Nations), is calling another meeting.
Coffee, as well as tea, keeps Marcella awake every school day.
Holding a bouquet of red roses behind him, Bolin was devastated as he watched his crush kiss his
brother.
In addition to classic identity markers of emerging adulthood, such as religion, political ideology, and
work, young adults also use media preferences to express their identity.
Together with Kommer and Jean Marais, including Marais’s little daughter May, Minke, now
matured from all his recent experiences, confronted Engineer Maurits, the man who left Annelies to
die in the Netherlands and who was about to take away Nyai Ontosoroh’s business and money.
WRITING SENTENCES
1. The Comma splice/ Run-on Sentence

Confusion caused by too much ideas poorly connected in a sentence

To correct, add a semi-colon (;), a conjunction or divide the sentence into two sentences. Remember
that clauses must have one subject and one predicate each.
х The next essay has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start analyzing it right now.
✓ The next essay has a lot of difficult information in it; you should start analyzing it right now.
х He was just about to raise the white flag when the soldier came from the side, he flanked the
entire platoon and the captain said his last words.
✓ He was just about to raise the white flag, when the soldier came from the side. He flanked the
entire platoon, and the captain said his last words.
2. Fragment
A subject or predicate is missing in a clause
To correct, complete the sentence.
х Since Carlo was talking during the entire class making it impossible for anyone to concentrate.
✓ Since Carlo was talking during the entire class, making it impossible for anyone to concentrate,
the teacher made him stay after school.
х A photon emitted spontaneously by a radioactive substance.
✓ A photon emitted spontaneously by a radioactive substance is called a gamma ray.
3. Subjunctive Mood
Subjunctive mood expresses a command, a wish, a suggestion or a condition that is contrary to
fact. A verb in the subjunctive mood may have a different form to one with the same subject
which is not in the subjunctive mood.
х If I was your parent, I would ground you for two weeks.
✓ If I were your parent, I would ground you for two weeks.
х I suggest that Emil waits for the principal.
✓ I suggest that Emil wait for the principal.
х I wish he would just drops the charges.
✓ I wish he would just drop the charges.
х I know that you steal the cookie from the cookie jar.
✓ I know that you stole the cookie from the cookie jar.
х I will not believe anything you said.
✓ I will not believe anything you say.
4. Misplaced/ Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers should describe the right noun. Make sure that modifiers are placed nearest to the noun it is
describing.
х Reaching for the frame, the ladder slipped out from under her. (The ladder cannot reach for
the
frame).
✓ When he reached for the frame, the ladder slipped out from under her.
5. Parallelism
Usually equal and similar elements must be in similar form.
х In his book on winter sports, the author discusses ice-skating, skiing, hockey and how to fish in an
ice covered lake.
✓ In his book on winter sports, the author discusses ice-skating, skiing, hockey, and fishing in an ice-
covered lake.
х This project aims to evaluate how many users are familiar with the more technical features of the
calculator and analyze the time it takes to complete a certain task on the calculator using mathematics
and statistical methods where applicable.
✓ This project aims to evaluate how many users are familiar with the more technical features of the
calculator and to analyze the time it takes to complete a certain task on the calculator using
mathematical and statistical methods where applicable.
COMMON MISUSED AND INTERCHANGED WORDS

1. PERSECUTE- to subject to ill treatment; PROSECUTE- to bring to a lawsuit.

2. ADVICE- an offered opinion or recommendation; used as a noun; ADVISE- to give
counsel to; used as a verb
3. LOSE- verb; to miss from one’s possession; LOOSE- adjective; a state of care
4. ANTICIPATE- means to expect and prepare for something; active; EXPECT- doesn’t
include idea of preparation; passive
5. LAY, LAID- to put or set something down; LIE, LAY, LAIN- to recline; LIE, LIED- to
deceive
6. A WHILE- noun; a period of time; AWHILE- adverb; for a short time
7. AWAIT- does not require a preposition (for); WAIT- usually require a preposition (for)
8. BECAUSE- use it to denote a specific cause-and- effect relationship; SINCE- is
acceptable in a causal sense but best used when it denotes a period of time
9. BESIDE- means at the side of; BESIDES- means in addition to
10. BETWEEN- general, use it for two items; AMONG- for more than two
11. BIANNUAL- twice a year; BIENNIAL- every two years
12. CAPITAL- is the city; CAPITOL- is the building
13. CARAT- unit of weight for precious stones; KARAT- measure of gold content
14. ALL READY- adjective; all prepared; ALREADY- adverb; pertains to time, something
that had happened
15. AT PRESENT- means now; PRESENTLY- means soon
16. EMINENT- respected; IMMINENT- pending
17. EMIGRATE FROM- leave; IMMIGRATE TO- transfer
18. COMPLEMENT- pair; COMPLIMENT- praise or flatter
19. TAKE- denotes movement away from the speaker or writer; BRING- denotes
movement toward the speaker
20. ELIGIBLE- meaning authenticated; ILLEGIBLE- pertains to handwriting
21. FILL IN- to answer; to be a substitute; FILL UP- to put something; fill completely; FILL
OUT- supply what is needed in the forms
22. AGREE TO- a proposal or something; AGREE WITH- a person
23. DIFFER IN- disagree in opinion; DIFFER WITH- disagree with a person
24. IN BEHALF OF- for the benefit of; in the interest of; ON BEHALF OF- representing; on
the part of
25. THAT- refers to people or things; WHICH- refers only to things; WHO- refers only to
people
26. CITIZEN- one who exercises full civil rights of a nation either by birth or
neutralization; RESIDENT- an inhabitant of the a state or a city; NATIVE- a person born in
a specific location
27. CONTINUAL - steadily repeated; CONTINUOUS - uninterrupted
28. DECLINE- implies courtesy in rejecting; REFUSE- blunt and emphatic in rejecting
29. DISINTERESTED- impartial, unbiased; UNINTERESTED- lacks interest
30. EACH OTHER- referring to two people; ONE ANOTHER- referring to more than two
31. FARTHER- use in physical distance only; FURTHER- use in all other instances
32. FEWER- refers to distinguishable units; LESS- refers to bulk sum, amount, period or
concept
33. IMPLY- to suggest; INFER- to conclude
34. IN SPITE- spelled separately; DESPITE- never use with the preposition of
35. ALL TOGETHER- people or things gathered in one place; ALTOGETHER- completely,
entirely
36. CENSOR- remove something questionable; person who censors; CENSURE- find fault
or condemns; reprimand
37. CITE- mention or quote someone; SITE- a particular place
38. CLIMACTIC- refers to the climax; CLIMATIC- refers to the climate
39. EXPLICIT- clearly expressed or observable; IMPLICIT- implied or expressed indirectly
40. MANY- people to things that could be counted; MUCH- refers to a large quantity
41. WHO- requires a subject pronouns (equivalent to he/she); WHOM- requires an
object pronoun (equivalent to him/her)
42. RAISE- transitive verb; lift, heighten, promote; RISE- intransitive verb; get up or
increase
43. LATER- referring to time; LATTER- referring to second of two persons or things
mentioned previously
44. IN- means inside; INTO- suggests movement
45. HUNG- past tense of hang (suspend); HANGED- past tense of hang (execute)
46. A LARGE NUMBER OF – used with count nouns; A LARGE AMOUNT OF – used with
non-count nouns.
COMMON IDIOMS
Add fuel to the fire To worsen the situation
Add insult to injury To make a bad situation worse for someone by
doing something else to upset them
Anybody’s game A contest where everyone has an equal chance
of winning
At loss for words Unable to speak or explain
Bad blood Enmity, hostility
Beat around the bush avoid the main topic of discussion; to evade the
issueA
Beaten black and blue Beaten with visible bruises
Catch with one’s pants down Catch off-guard, unprepared, or in an
embarrassing situation
Cheek by jowl Very close together
Come to terms Reach an agreement; accept something difficult
Down and out Lacking funds, resources, or prospects
Dutch treat / Go Dutch An economical form of hospitality in which each
person pay’s the other’s expenses, or which each
pays is own expenses.
Eat dirt Be humiliated
Face the music Take punishment or unpleasant consequence
Fair-weathered friend A friend who deserts you when you’re in trouble
Fish story Improbable story said to be true
Get hitched Get married
Get the knack of Get used to
Green-eyed monster Jealousy
Have an eye for To be good at noticing something
Heart of gold Generous and merciful in nature
Hoist the white flag Surrender
Hold your peace Keep silent; to hold one’s tongue
In black and white Written, printed or photograph form
In cahoots with In connivance with
In cold blood Without showing emotion
In good faith Sincere
In hot water Serious trouble
In the same boat Same situation
Keep mum Keep quiet (and not tell anyone)
Keep your nose clean Keep out of trouble
Keep your spirits up Don’t give up; be optimistic
Labor of love Inspired work
Laughing matter A joke
Lead a dog’s life Lead a miserable life
Lay waste To devastate
Let your hair down Loosen up
Make a name for yourself Become well-known
Make hay while the sun shines Make progress while there is still opportunities
Mark my word Remember what I say
Meet you halfway Compromise
Mess around with To annoy
Much ado about nothing Much excitement over a trifle
New blood New people with new ideas
Not born yesterday Not gullible
Nurse a grudge (against) To feel resentful (against)
Out on a limb In a precarious situation
Paint the town red Have a good time
Pass the buck Put the blame or responsibility on someone else
Play safe Be careful
Play with fire Engage in a dangerous activity
Put our heads together Pool our ideas
Rake in the money Collect huge sums of money with a little effort
Right between the eyes In a vulnerable spot
Rub elbows Meet casually
Save your skin Save your life
See things your way Agree with you
Seventh heaven A condition of perfect happiness
Sharp tongue Critical or harsh manner of speaking
Show your real face Show your real attitude
Shrug it off Disregard
Skin deep Superficial
Soak the rich Overcharge the wealthy
Speak for everybody On behalf of everybody
Straight from the horse’s mouth Direct for the source; credible
Strange bedfellows Unusual companions
Stand in your way To hinder
Take heart Be more optimistic
Taken aback Startled
Take the rap To be punished
Tell it to the Marines Interjection used as a reply to express doubt
or disbelief
Time of your life Pleasant or joyous occasion
Tit fortat This for that; reciprocation
Trailblazer A pioneer or innovator
Turn the tables on you To reverse positions
Turn yellow Become cowardly
Under oath Obligated by promise
Up in arms In violent opposition
Walk on air To feel happiness on achieving success
Weak stomach Inability to consume a variety of food
Wear pants in the family Holds the dominant position in the family
Your hands are clean Free of guilt
FILIPINO MODULE
Bahagi ng Pananalita
I. Pangngalan (Noun) -salita o bahagi ng pangungusap natumutukoy sa ngalan ng tao, bagay, pook, hayop, at
pangyayari
Uri ng Pangngalan
Ayon sa kahulugan/katangian
Pantangi (proper noun) -tumutukoy sa partikular otiyak na ngalan ng tao, hayop, bagay, lugar,
kathang-isip, o pangyayari.
-nagsisimulasa malakingtitik
-hal. Jose Rizal, Luneta, Bathala.
Pambalana (common noun) -tumutukoy sa pangkaraniwan o pangkalahatang ngalan ng tao,
hayop, lugar, bagay, kaisipan at pangyayari.
-nagsisimulasa maliit natitik.
-hal. bayani, aso, katamisan, pagdiriwang, pusa
Uri ng Pambalana:
o Konkreto -pambalanang nakikita o nahahawakan hal.bundok
o Di-konkreto -pambalanang nararamdaman lamang hal.pagmamahal
Ayon sa kayarian
Tahas

Basal
Hango
Lansak
-naranasan ng isasa limang pandamdam at may katangiang pisikal.
-hal. tubig, bundok, pagkain
-kaisipan o konsepto na hindi nararanasan ng limang pandamdam at walang pisikal na katangian.
-hal. wika, yaman, buhay
-nilapian
-hal. kaisipan, salawikain, katapangan
-tumutukoy sa isang kalipunan o karamihan. Maaaring maylapi owala.
-hal. madla, sangkatauhan, kapuluan
Patalinghaga -ang salita ay may iba pang kahulugan/hindituwirang patungkol sa bagay
-hal. buwaya (imbis na kurakot), langit (imbis na ligaya), kababuyan (imbis na kasalaulaan)
Ayon sa kasarian
Panlalaki -pari, hari, tatay, kuya, manong,tandang (lalaking manok), kalaykan (lalaking kalabaw)
Pambabae -madre, reyna, nanay, ate, libay (usang babae)
Ditiyak -tumutukoy sa ngalang maaring babae o lalaki hal. guro, estudyante
Walang Kasarian -ngalang tumutukoy sa bagay nawalang buhay hal. upuan

Ayon sa kaanyuan
Payak

Maylapi
Inuulit
-hindi inuulit, walang panlapi, o katambal
-hal. talumpati, watawat, ligalig
-binubuo ngsalitang-ugat na may panlapi sa unahan, gitna, hulihan o magkabila.
-hal. sinigang, inihaw, tindahan, palakasan
-inuulit na maaaring may panlapi o salitang-ugat lamang.
-hal. tau-tauhan, bagay-bagay, bali-balita
Tambalan -binubuo ng dalawang salitang magkaiba na pinagsasama upang maging isa at may
gitling sa pagitan nito. -hal. kisap-mata, bahay-kubo, bantay-salakay, bukas-palad
Ayon sa Kaukulan
Palagyo (subjective)
1. Simuno/paksa
2. Kaganapang pansimuno
3. Pamuno sasimuno
4. Pantawag
5. Pamunosa kaganapang pansimuno
Palayon (objective)
1. Layon ng pang-ukol
2. Layon ng pandiwa
3. Tagaganap ng pandiwang balintiyak
Paari (possessive)

II. Panghalip (Pronoun) - salita o katagang panghalili o pamalit sa pangngalan.

Uri
Panao (personal pronoun) - panghalili sa ngalan ng tao.
Panauhan/ Palagyo Paukol Paari
kailanan (subjective) (objective) (possessive)
Isahan
Una ako Ko akin
Ikalawa ikaw, ka Mo iyo
Ikatlo siya Niya kanya
Dalawahan
Una kata, kita, tayo nita, natin kanita, atin
Ikalawa kayo ninyo inyo
Ikatlo sila nila kanila
Maramihan
Una kami namin amin
Ikalawa kayo ninyo inyo
Ikatlo sila niya kanila

Pamatlig (demonstrative pronouns) - humahalili sa ngalan ng tao, bagay, atbp. na itinuturo.

paukol paturol paari patulad pahimaton gamit
kapag
dito, dine ire, yari, nire, nito ganito, ere,eto, malapitsa
ito ganire heto nagsasalita
diyan iyan, niyan ganyan ayan, mas
yaan hayan malapitsa
kausap
doon iyon, noon, ganoon, ayun, malayosa
yaon niyon gayon hayun nag-uusap

Pananong (interrogative pronouns) - panghalili sa ngalan ng tao, bagay, atbp na ginagamit sa

pagtatanong.
Isahan
sino
ano
alin
kanino ilan
Maramihan
sinu-sino anu-
ano alin-alin
kani-kanino
ilan-ilan
Panaklaw (indefinite pronouns) - ginagamit upang maipakita ang dami, kaisahan o kalahatan ng
pangngalan.
isa alinman
iba sinuman
balana ilanman
lahat kailanman
tanan saanman
madla gaanuman
pawa magkanuman
anuman kuwan
III. Pantukoy (Article) - nagpapakilalasa pangngalan
Pantangi (proper)
isahan maramihan
si sina
ni nina
kay kina

Pambalana (common)
isahan maramihan
ang ang mga
sa samga
ng ngmga

IV. Pandiwa (Verb) - nagsasaad ng kilos o galaw. Ito ay nagpapakilos o nagbibigay-buhay sa isang lipon ng
mgasalita

Aspekto ng Pandiwa
Perpektibo - ang kilos ay natapos na o naganap na
Imperpektibo - ang kilos ay nasimulan na pero hindi pa natatapos
Kontemplatibo - ang kilos ay hindi pa nasisimulan kundi iniisip o binabalak lamang.
V. Pangngalang Diwa - nagbibigay ngalansa kilos na taglay ng pandiwa
panlapi paraan ng pagbuo pandiwa pang.diwa

um pag- + SU tumalakay pagtalakay

mag magsabi pagsasabi
mang pag- + unang pantig ng SU + SU mang-akit pang-aakit pagsasabi
in/hin
sabihin
magka pagkaka- + SU magkaisa pagkakaisa pagpunta
an/han puntahan

maka pag- + SU makatawag pagtawag

ma maisip pag-isip

VI. Pang-angkop - nag-uugnay ng dalawang salita

na - ang naunang salita ay nagtatapos sakatinig
...ng - ang naunang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig
...g - ang naunang salita ay nagtatapos satitik n
VII. Pang-uri (Adjective) - nagsasaad ng katangian. Ito ay naglalarawansa pangngalan o panghalip.
Kaantasan
Lantay - tinutukoy ang basal na katangian ng pangngalan o panghalip natinuturingan.
Pahambing - kapag may pinagtutulad o pinaghahambing.
1. Magkatulad - ito ay ginagamitan ng mga panlaping kapwa, gaya, paris, tulad,pareho, kahawig,
magkasing-, kasing-, magsing- at iba pa.
2. Di-magkatulad
a. Pasahol - paghahambing ng maliit osahol sa nakakalamang at ginagamitan ng mga katagang
di-gaanong at di- gasinong na may katuwang na tuladni/ngo gaya ni/ng
b. Palamang - paghahambing ng malaki o nakakalamangsa maliit at ginagamitan ng mga
katagang mas, lalong, higit paat iba pa.
Pasukdol - nagpapahayag ng pamumukod ng katangiang inilalahad at ginagamitan ng mga
katagang di hamakna, lubhang, totoong, sukdulan ng, ubodng, napaka at, pinaka-.
Uri
Panlarawan - nagsasaad ng katangian ng tao, hayop, bagay o lugar.
Pamilang
1. Patakaran o Kardinal - ginagamit sa pagbilang o pagsasaad ng dami. Ex. Isa, sangmilyon
a. Pamahagi - may kabuuang ibinabahagi o pinaghahati-hati. Ginagamitan ng panlaping ika-
natinatambalan ng salitang bahagi. Ex. Ikawalong bahagi.
b. Palansak - nagsasaad ng bukod sa pagsasama-sama ng anumang bilang Ex. Walu-walo, waluhan
2. Panunuran o Ordinal - ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng pagkakasunod-sunod ng tao o bagay. May
panlaping ika- o pang-
a. Pahalaga - halaga ng salapi
b. Patakda - saktong bilang
c. Pamahagi - fraction
VII. Pang-abay (Adverb) - naglalarawan sa pandiwa, pang-uri o kapwa pang-abay.
Uri ng Pang-abay
Ingklitik - kataga upang bigyang diin ang pandiwa, pang-uri at pang-abay
ba sana yata lamang/lang
kasi daw/raw pala man
kaya din/rin tuloy muna
na naman nga pa
Pamanahon - kailan naganap, nagaganap o magaganap ang kilos
Panlunan - lugar na pinagganapan, pinaggaganapan o paggaganapan ng kilos.
Pamaraan - naglalahad kung pano isinagawa, isinasagawa o isasagawa ang kilos.
Pang-agam - nagsasaad ng pag-aalinlangan at di-katiyakan ng kilos na ipinahahayag
Panang-ayon - nagsasaad ng pagsang-ayon
Pananggi - nagsasaad ng pagtanggi
Panggaano - nagsasaad ng timbang osukat o bilang o dami.
Pamitagan - nagsasaad ng paggalang
Pananhi - nagsasaad ng dahilansa pagganap ng kilos.
Benepaktibo - nagsasaad ng benepisyo parasa isangtao dahil sa pagganap ng kilos.
IX. Pang-ukol (Prepositions) - nag-uugnaysa isang pangngalansa iba pangsalitasa pangungusap
Ex. ng, ni/nina, kay/kina, ayon sa/kay, parasa/kay

X. Pangatnig (Conjunctions) - nag-uugnay ng dalawang salita, parirala osugnay na pinapagsunud-sunod

sa pangungusap panimbang - nag-uugnay ng magkakapantay nasalita hal: at, o, ngunit
pamukod - maging, o, ni
paninsay - ang unang bahagi ay kasalungat ng kabila hal: subalit, kahit, bagaman
panubali - nagbabakasakali hal : sana, kapag, sakali
pananhi - sanhi o dahilan hal : sapagkat, kung kaya
panlinaw - nililinawang nasabi na hal : kung ganoon, anupa't, samakatuwid
panulad - pagtulad hal : kung saan …doondin, kungano…siyarin
panapos - nagsasaad ng wakas hal : upang, nang, sa lahat ng ito

Wastong Gamit ng Salita

Titik dat titik r
kung angtitik day nasa gitna ng dalawang patinig, gawin itong r. (dati-rati, marami-rami)
kung angtitik sa unahan ng din, dito, diyan, doon at daway patinig, palitan ang d ng r. (Halika rito.
Pupunta raw sila riyan.) g at ng
huwag tanggalin angg kung ang pantig ay nagtatapos sa ng. (manananggal, panggitara)
gamitin ang unlaping nagtatapos sa m kung ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa b op. (mambobola,
magkasimbait)
gamitin ang unlaping nagtatapos sa ng kung angsalitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa katinig *hindi kasama
ang d, l ,r, s, t, b at p* (kasinghaba, magkasingsungit)
gamitin ang unlaping nagtatapos sa n kung ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa d, l,r, s at t.
(kasindilaw, magkasinsungit)
gamitin ang ng- (ng na may gitling "-") kung ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa patinig. (kasing-
asul, laping-apat) may at mayroon
ang may ay ginagamit kung ang kasunod nitong salita ay pangngalan, pang-uri, pang-abay o pandiwa.
Sa iba pang uri ng salitaginagamitang mayroon.
Sila, nila, sina at nina
Ang sila at nila ay panghalip - panghahalili sa pangngalan. Ang sina at nina ay pantukoy -
sinusundan ng pangngalan Nang at ng
ang nang ay ginagamit bilang pangatnig, madalas itong sinusundan ng pang-uri. Ang ng ay ginagamit
bilang pang-ukol o pantukoy, sinusundan ito ng pangngalan.
Taga, taga-, maka, maka-
Ang taga at maka ay sinusundan ng pangngalang pambalana. Ang taga- at maka- ay sinusundan
ng pangngalang pantangi. hal. Makamahirap, tagabayan & maka-Jollibee, taga-Makati
Ika- at ika
Angika- ay sinusundan ng numero. Ang ika ay sinusundan ng numerong isinulat sa pangalan nito. hal.
Ikaapat & ika-10
Pahirin/Pahiran
Pahirin - punasan
Pahiran - lagyan
Subukin/Subukan
Subukin - tikman
Subukan - subaybayan
Iwan/Iwanan
Iwan - pagtitira
Iwanan - huwag isama
Walisin/Walisan
Walisin - alisin ang dumi
Walisan -alisan
Alisin/Alisan
Alisin - tanggalin
Alisan - tanggalan
Hagdan/Hagdanan
Hagdan - akyatan na baitang
Hagdanan - lalagyan ng hagdan
Hanapin/Hanapan
Hanapin - tingnan kung nasaan
Hanapan - maghanap kay/sa
Pinto/Pintuan
Pinto - matitinag na table
Pintuan - daanan ng gusali
Abutan/Abutin
Abutan - bigyan
Abutin - kunin
Ganito/Ganire
Ganito - pormal na anyo; isang instruksyon o pagbibigay panuto sa isang kinakausap\
Ganire - lalawigang gamit
Niyakap/Yinakap
Ang mga salitang ugat na nagsismulasa "y" at "l" ay naglilipat ng panlapi- mula sa gitlapi ay nagiging
unlapi.
o salitang ugat: "yakap"
o panlapi: mula sagitlaping "-in-", patungosa unlaping "ni-"
o iba pang halimbawa: "nilapat" at hindi "linapat"

IBAPA:
Sumindi-isang penomenong pagbukas ng isang ilaw na walang intervensyon ng tao
Sinindihan-pagbukas ng ilaw na mayroong intervensyon ng tao
Ipambayad-pagbibigay ng isang bagay bilang kabayaran Ipagbayad-pagbabayad parasa isang tao
Niyon-panghalip at pang-uring pamatlig
Noon-pang-abay na pamanahon at pangatnig

Kina-anyong pangmaramihan ng "kay"

Kila-varaytilamang ng "kina"
IDYOMA - salita/pariralang taliwas ang kahulugan satunay na kahulugan nito.
magsagap ng alimuom - tsismis
iguhit satubig - kalimutan
pampataba ng puso - nagpapasaya
nagmumurang kamyas - matandang nagpapabata
nagliliyab ang mata - galit na galit
may uod sa katawan - taong di mapakali
walang ilaw ang mata - bulag
nagbibilang ng poste - walang trabaho
anakpawis - dukha
bahag ang buntot - malaki angtakot
balat-kalabaw - walang hiya
balat-sibuyas - mahiyain
basag ang pula - walang silbi
kaibigang putik - hindi tapat
kalatog-pinggan - laging naghihintay ng handaan
ningas-kugon - malaki ang interes sasimula na kaagad nawawala
may hangin sa ulo - mayabang
matang manok - malabo ang mata
maikli ang pisi - hindi sapat ang panggastos
kapit tuko - mahigpit ang kapit
kapit sa patalim - gumawa ng lahat ng makakaya maging masamaman ito
magsunog ng kilay - maglamay sa pag-aaral
magpatulo ng pawis - magtrabaho
maglubid ng buhangin - magsinungaling
magsulat sa hangin - magtala, ngunit mawawala rin
nagsaulian ng kandila - binale-wala ang samahan dahil sagalit
paniningalang pugad - panliligaw
kastilyong buhangin - pangarap na madaling gumuho magpahigop ng mainit nasabaw - maghanda sa
kasal dinoktor - dinaya
suntok sa buwan - imposibleng maganap
wala sa kalingkingan - hindi maihalintulad
umutang ng buhay - pumatay ng tao

SAWIKAIN
-salita o lupon ngsalita na may matalinhagang kahulugan.
-Bahagi ito ng katutubong kaalamang nagpasalin-salin na at naging bukambibig ng bayan.

A. Mga Sawikain Tungkol sa Tao

anak-pawis - dukha; mulasasector ng manggagawa
bahag ang buntot - matindi ang pagkatakot
balat-kalabaw - walang hiya
balat-sibuyas - taong madaling masaktan
basa ang papel - hindi maganda ang record
basang-sisiw - kaawa-awa
basag ang pula - walang silbi; inutil
buhay ang loob - matapang
bukas ang palad - maawain; handang tumulong sa
nangangailangan
bukas ang aklat ng buhay - walang inililihim
butasang bulsa - walang pera
buto't balat - taong pagkapayat-payat
kaibigang putik - hindi tapat na kaibigan
kalapating mababa ang lipad - babaeng may reputasyon (masama)
kalatog-pinggan - taong laging nag-aabang ng handaan o kainan
kaututangdila - kapalagayang loob
dugong bughaw - sa lahi ng pamilyang maharlika o marangal
hampas-lupa - palaboy; laging nasalansangan atumaasa malikotang kamay - magnanakaw
lang saiba makati angdila - madaldal
hinahabol ng barbero - mahabaang buhok at dapat ng magaanang kamay -
madalingmamalo
gupitan matang-manok - malabo ang mata
isang kahig, isangtuka - sapatlangang kinikita parasa matigas angulo - sutil; mahirap
pasunurin
pagkain may gataspasalabi - bata at wala
pang kamuwang-
maikliang pisi - hindi sapatang panggastos muwang sabuhay

B. Mga Sawikaing Naglalarawan ng Kilos

bilugin ang ulo - lokohin
buhatin angsariling bangko - purihin ang sarili
kalamayin ang loob - magpakatatag; tanggapin nang
maluwag sadibdib
kapit-tuko - mahigpit ang kapit
kumapitsa patalim - gumawa ng lahat ng makakaya pati na ang paggawa ng masama dahil sa kagipitan
kumukuloangdugo - nagagalit
dinadaan sa bibig - panay salita ngunit kulang sa gawa ibangon ang puri - ibalik sa dati ang
nadungisang puri ipagtirik ng kandila - ipagdasal
ligaw-tingin - panliligaw na hindi nagsasalita
lumitaw ang tunayna kulay - magpakita ng tunay na ugali magsunog ng kilay - maglamay sa pag-aaral

C. Mga Sari-saring Sawikain

kastilyong buhangin - pangarap na madaling gumuho
kuwentong barbero - balitang hindi dapat paniwalaan
dinaanan ng bagyo - sira-sira
dinoktor - dinayaang mga papeles
dumanak ngdugo - magkapatayan
guhit ng palad - kapalaran
hulog ng langit - swerte
magpahigop ng mainit nasabaw - maghanda sa kasal

Mga Kasanayan sa Pag-unawa ng Tekstong Pasulat:

may hangin ang ulo - mayabang
malabnawang utak - mahina ang ulo
nakahigasasalapi - mayaman
nagbibilang ng poste - walangtrabaho
nagmumurang kamyas - matandang nagpapabata
ningas-kugon - matindi ang interes sasimula na kaagad nawawala
parangaso'tpusa - laging nag-aaway
panakip-butas - panghalili
parang biniyak na bunga - magkamukhang-magkamukha patay-gutom - mahirap na mahirap
sakit ng ulo - suliranin; malaking alalahanin
walang preno ang bibig - madaldal
magpatulo ng pawis - magtrabaho
maglubid ng buhangin - magsinungaling
mapagtanim - hindi maalis ang galit
nagdilang anghel - nagkatotoo angsinasabi
nagpuputokang butse - naiinis
nagpantigang tainga - biglang nagalit
nagsaulian ng kandila - binale-wala ang pagkukumpare dahilsa galito away
pagbuhatan ng kamay - saktan
tumayo ang balahibo - nahintakutan
nagtataingang kawali - nagbibingibingihan
paniningalang-pugad - panliligaw
pagbuhatan ng kamay - saktan
may pakpak ang balita - mabilis kumalat ang balita mitsa ng buhay - dahilan ng pagkakamatay
sumakabilang-buhay - namatay
suntok sa buwan - imposibleng maganap
walasa kalingkingan - hindi maihahambing; palayo sa pinagtutularan
umutang ng buhay - pumatay ng tao

a. Paghula sa kahulugan ng nawawala o di-kilalang salita batay sa konteksto

-Gumamit ng mga clues gaya ng kayarian ngsalita at pagkakaugnay-ugnay.
b. Paghanap ng pamaksang pangungusap
-Tukuyin ang kinaroroonan ng pangungusap na nagsisilbing paglalahad o generalization; madalas ito ay
nasa unahan, gitna, o hulihan ng talata.
c. Pagbibigay ng pangunahing ideya
-Ano ang nais sabihin otalakayin ng awtor tungkol sa paksa?
-karaniwang matatagpuan sa pamaksang pangungusap
d. Pag-alam sa paksa
-Tungkol saan ang inilalahad otinatalakaysa teksto?
-maaaring ipinahihiwatig otuwirang isinasaad ng pamagat, pamaksang pangungusap, o
ilustrasyon ng teksto e. Pagklasipika ng mga ideyasa pangunahing paksa at mga detalye
-Ikategorya ang mgasalita o ideya ayon sa kaugnayan ng bawat isa; tukuyin ang panlahat na ideya at
espisipikong ideya. f. Pagkilala sa hulwaran ng organisasyon
-Bigyang tuon ang mgasalitang naghuhudyat o nagsisignal ng hulwarang ginamit ng awtor
(enumerasyon, sanhi at bunga, comparison at kontras, order o pagsusunod-sunod (pagsusunud-
sunod) problema at solusyon)
-Pag-isipan kung paano isinasaayos ng awtorang kaniyang mga ideya or impormasyon sa teksto.
g. Pagbibigay ng konklusyon
-Pagsama-samahin ang mga ideya at impormasyon mulasa iba't ibang bahagi ng teksto at paghango ng bago
o karagdagang ideya h. Pagbuo ng hinuha at pagtukoy ng patunay
-Pag-isipang mabuti ang posibleng nangyari, hakbang na ginawa o gagawin ng tauhan batay sa mga pahiwatig
ng awtor.

TIPS IN ANSWERING READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS:

1. If the passage has a title, read it to get an idea about what the passage is all about.
2. Read the opening part of the passage that typically contains the main idea and any background
information about the passage,
3. Skim through the succeeding parts of the passage and take note of the main ideas and facts provided.
4. Read the questions after the passage and answer as many questions as you can. Whenever
necessary to verify your answer, return to the passage. All the data being asked are in the passage.
5. Eliminate choices which are either clearly wrong or false according to the passage and choose the
best answer.
REMEMBER:
1. When you can answer the question straightaway, there’s no need to return to the passage.
2. The order of the questions are the same as the order of the passage. The first questions are
answerable using the data provided in the first part of the passage.
3. Answer one passage at a time.
4. Apply the elimination process in questions asking for the meaning of the word, its synonym, or
antonym. Use your skill in recognizing context clues.
5. Every question is answerable by the data provided in the passage.
6. Follow what is stated in the passage. Don’t abide by rational thinking because there may be
answers that oppose facts but is correct according to the passage.
7. Draw conclusions and infer using the ideas and data in the passage. Questions regarding the
author’s message and a substitute title for the passage may be asked.
8. To make interferences, read between the lines. Search for metaphorical language and descriptive
words to examine the author’s mood, their tone, and the purpose of writing the passage.
9. For coherence, identify the relationship between the sentences by arranging the sentences into some
rational and
distinguishable order, depending on the kind of material in the paragraph. The four general principles
of organization are Chronological Order (e.g. narration, process, cause & effect), Spatial Order (e.g.
descriptions, illustrations) , Climatic
Order (e.g. comparison & contrast, analogy), and Topical Order (e.g. classification & division,
definition).
10. Identify unnecessary sentences by searching for sentences that do not assist the rest of the
sentences and the direction that the ideas are taking.