UNIT 16 SECULAR AND THEOCRATIC REGIMES

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Secularism and Secular Regimes
16.2.1 Protestantism
16.2.2 Social Basis of Secularism
16.2.3 Secular Regimes: Meaning and Features
Theocratic Regimes
Relevance and Trends in Secular Polity
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

16.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit examines the nature of the relationship between state and religion
which constitutes an important basis for the classification of contemporary
political system. After going through this unit, you should be able to :
Define secularism and explain its origins;
Identify the features of secular regimes;
Describe the meaning and features of theocracy; and
Recognise the importance and relevance of secular polity.

The relationship between religion and politics has always been fraught with
potential conflict. Religion is acknowledged to be a crucial source of legitimacy
and political mobilisation in all societies, ranging from those that are avowedly
secularist, such as communist regimes, to those that are theocracies. This factor,
combined with the developments in the last three decades or so- the
establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the late 1970s, the growth of
politic'ally committed religious movements in tlie 1980s, the resurgence of the
New Right in the West and the collapse of secular co~nmunistregimes- diaw our
attention to the role of religion in public life. It is in this context that the nature
of relationship between the state and religion has emerged as an important basis
for classification of contemporary political systems. We will first examine the
concept of secularism and its evolution, before identifying the features of secular
and theocratic regimes. Later, we will examine tlie trends in secular polity and
relevance of secularis~nin contemporary world.

The word secular, from which secularism is derived, refers to something

concerned with temporal, that is with matters of this world than with something
religious or otherworldly. Secularism as a doctrine can be defined as the attempt
to establish a body of principles concerning human behaviour based on rational
knowledge and experience rather than theology or the supernatural. In sphere of
politics, secularism advocates that the domain of operation of religious influence
should be restricted in society, and that in particular the state shoi~ldbe

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Classification of Political independent o f religion. I t must be noted that when we talk here o f religious
Regimes
influence or independence from religion, we are referring to religion as an
organised socio-political force and not merely as a system o f sacred beliefs.

Secularism is a dominant feature o f modern times. Secularisation or the decline

o f the prestige and power o f religion began in Europe and is closely associated
with the break up o f the medieval feudal order in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Beginning in the 4th century, when the Roman Emperor Constantine adopted
Cllristia~lityas a state religion, Christianity had acquired a powerful hold over
medieval Europe. The Church came to combine both spiritual and temporal
authority. Tlle Church (and therefore the Pope) directly ruled over small regions
around Rome, but its influence extended over the entire Europe. I t had more
political power than any government in Europe. This was because in those days
the power and authority of Emperors and kings was limited by the fact that land
was divided into feudal estates. The holder o f the estate, the feudal lord, was for
all practical purposes, an independent ruler. Most rulers were virtually puppets
placed in position by the Church (usually from among large wealthy families
who were considered to be benefactors o f the Church). With the Cllurcll
becoming deeply involved in the political and non-spiritual affairs, its leaders like
the Popes, bishops and clergy amassed great wealth, indulged in earthly pleasures
and behaved like princes and military men. The political intrigues and
manipulations, co~nbinedwith the Church's i~lcreasi~lg power and wealth
contributed to the bankruptcy o f the C l l i ~ r cas
l ~ a spiriti~alforce.

'The most i~nportantconsequence o f the domination o f religion and the Cllurch

was on the i~ltellectualclimate o f Europe. Man's thougllts and feelings were
expressed in terms o f religious values. Christianity believed that human mind and
its reason are not reliable, as sources o f knowledge and that througl~the help o f
Christian faith and Gods grace alone, human beings can know what is true or
untrue. I n other words, faith was more important than reason. This attitude
dominated so much that the quest for knowledge was mostly confined to
'spiritual' matters like the interpretation o f the Bible and o f the writings and
sayings o f Popes and religious writers. I n the universities o f Padua and Bologna
in Italy, Sarbonne in France and Oxford and Cambridge in England teaching and
learning was mostly on religious subjects and they trained priests, and
tl~eologians(scholars in Christian religious subjects). Although non-religious
subjects such as astronomy, geology, medicine, cllemistry and law were studied,
Cllristiarl view o f the world limited the scope o f l l u ~ n a enquiry.
~l N o one dared to
question the Church (and therefore the Pope) as it was believed to be infallible
and in direct contact with God. People who questioned the authority o f the
Cl~urcllor disagreed with its teacllings were imprisoned, exiled or executed.
Many scllolars therefore describe the medieval period as the Dark Age.

The seemingly impregnable intellectual and political edifice o f Christianity began

to crumble under the assault o f Humanism, the Renaissance, and the Protestant
Reformation. From the 14th century onwards, several developments combined to
undermine the medieval feudal order. The Crusades and the contacts with the
East established by medieval travellers like Marco Polo, brought to Europe new
knowledge and information. I t also increased the trading activity. Consequently
new towns emerged in Europe, especially, in the Mediterranean region. A new
class in society, the middle class began to emerge. I t was in these circu~nsta~lces
that there was a revival o f Greek learning and values. An important development
contributing to the Renaissa~lceor 'rebirth' o f classical ideas was the fall o f
Constantinople, the capital of Eastern Roman Empire to the Muslim Turks in
1453. Many scllolars in Constantinople fled westward, carrying with them Greek
classics and manuscripts. The rediscovery o f Greek learning in Europe changed
the intellectual clinlate o f Europe in many ways.
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Classical humanist ideas e~nphasisingthe dignity o f Inan became popular. Tliese Secular and Theocratic
Regimes
were reflected i n literature and arts, which turned to themes about Inan and
nature from themes about religion. Tlie humanist concerli with the condition o f
man here on earth and with enquiries about to make man's life better and happy
can be taken as the first manifestation o f secularism

The new intellectual awakening in turn created a new spirit o f enquiry among tlie
people. Human reason and pursuit o f learning, which were not confined to
religious learning alone, began to receive priority. This resulted in important
scientific discoveries being made and known to people. Discoveries made by
scientists like Copernicus, Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin directly cliallenged
the Cliristian view o f the world. We can therefore say tliat the Age o f Faith was
effectively questioned and began to be replaced by tlie Age o f Reason because o f
tlie Renaissance.

In politics also, important changes were brought about. Several thinkers

challenged the authority o f tlie Church and Christian morality over emperors and
kings. I n the 13th century, Aquinas, the greatest scholar o f the age, borrowing
from Aristotle, aided in raising the dignity o f the civil power by declaring tlie
state a perfect society (the other perfect society being tlie church) and a
necessary good. The Renaissance writer Niccolo Machiavelli advocated the
important idea that princes and rulers need not be guided by religious morality
but should be able to conduct politics mainly with the purpose o f increasing tlie
power o f the state. Sometimes, this idea itself was,dangerous, as it could mean
that kings and rulers need not follow morality in politics. But in another sense
this idea was very crucial. I t helped to strengtlie~ithe powers o f tlie rulers as
against the Churcli. Politics in Europe became free from religious control. This
political thinking coincided witli the desire o f many princes and kings who
wanted to becollie independent. Tlie result was that independent kingdo~nsbased
on the idea o f nationalism got establislied in important areas o f Europe and
gradually spread to otlier regions.

16.2.1 Protestantism

The intellectual stimulation provided by the Hu~nanistsprovided the spark for the
Reformation, which further weakened tlie authority o f the Cliurch. I n the 16th
century, a pious Catholic priest in Germany, Martin Luther, sought to rid the
Church from corruption by re-establishing the Christian concept o f the secular
and the spiritual found in tlie words o f Jesus: "Render to Caesar the tliings that
are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's". He not only attacked
corruptio~iin tlie life of the Cliurcli but questioned tlie role o f tlie Cliurch. He
argued tliat tlie individual Cliristia~iwas free to approacli God directly without
tlie i~iter~nediaryrole o f tlie Church. Although lie left tlie Catliolic Cliurch in
1520, niany cliurcli~iie~ijoined Luther in cliallengi~igtlie Church. 1-his resulted in
tlie Refor~natio~i beco~iiinga great movement. In liialiy parts o f Europe, the
obedience and loyalty to tlie Cliurcli were witlidraw11and a new branch of
Christianity arose which was later tertiied as Protestantism. Protesta~itis~ii was not
a single and unified movement. There were sollie who joined Lutlier against the
Catholic Cliurch but differed witli Lutlier on some i~nporta~it pliilosopliical and
religious issues. Today there are niore tl~aria liu~idredvarieties o f Protestant sects
in tlie world. But the main point is that tlie authority o f the Catliolic Cliurcli was
successfully challenged in the name o f freedom o f tlie Christians to understand
the Bible and approach God.

The fragmentation o f the Churcli provided an opportunity for strong rulers to

consolidate state authority. For instance, in England Henry V l l l ended ties with
tlie Churcli in Ronie and assunied the lieadship o f the Cliurcli o f England. Tlie
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Clsssitication or Politicrl frag~nentationo f the Church also resulted in a series o f wars between the
Regimes
Catholic and Protestalit nations between tlie 16th and 18th centuries. I t was only
fro111 tlie 18th century onwards tliat tolera~iceo f ideas and real freedom o f
enquiry arid tliouglit became pronounced in Europe. Tliese wars o f religion
furthered tlie secularisatio~io f state by encouraging tlie notion o f a neutral public
power tliat gave priority to the secular purposes o f protecting life and
~naintainingorder. Therefore, by tlie end o f tlie wars o f religion, nation-state had
emerged as a priniary force influencing tlie lives o f citizens. Christianity that hz.l
split into numerous sects had lost its autliority to challenge this fact.

16.2.2 Social Basis of Secularism

Secularis~nand secularisation o f state autliority in Europe was a more co~nplex

affair than lias bee11described above. Tlie rise o f nioderti capitalistic econoliiy
liad an i~nportantrole in tlie secularisation o f state autliority. As we saw. trade
and commerce played an iniportant role in stimulating tlie renaissance and
reforniation movements. Strong rulers wlio created the nation-states made active
use o f tlie rising niiddle classes in overco~ningtlie feudal aristocracy, tlie chief
barrier in tlie unifying process. Tlie strengtli o f the niiddle class lay in the wealth
they accunii~latedtlirougli trade and commerce. Tlie niiddle classes wlio did not
like tlie obstacles placed by landed feudal aristocracy in pursui~igtrade and
c o ~ liierce
ii supported strong rulers wlio can regulate trade and commerce within
and outside country. As tlie capitalis~nspread and moved into a higher stage o f
development, tlie industrial phase, regulation o f econoniic activity by despotic
rulers was seen as an obstacle for further develop~nento f industrialisation.
Moreover, tlie new class o f men- artisans, industrial workers and middlemen-
from humble origin began to demand social and political opportunities. 'Tliese
pressures ultiniately gave rise to liberalisni and democratic institutions in Europe.

From tlie above, it is clear tliat secularism lias been a part o f a process o f liuman
liberation from donii~iatio~i-initiallyfro111 that o f the Cliurcli and latter from
despotic rulers. In Europe, it has played an iniportant role in checking
absolutism, bigotry and fanaticism, in ensuring tliat tlie values enshrined in a
particular religion did not trump otlier values and in managing religious conflicts.
It has also bee11an ele~iiento f tlie process o f deniocratic transforniation.

Even though secularism as a political force liad established its hold over niost o f
Europe, tliere was in practice no formal separation o f religion and politics until
1791, w l i e ~ tlie
i first an~endnientto the co~istitutio~i
o f the United States was
passed. This amendment laid down tliat tlie Congress would not pass a law
respecting an establisli~nento f a religion, or prohibiting tlie free exercise o f
religion.

With time, secularis~nspread to otlier parts o f tlie world niaking tlie laws o f tlie
state independent o f religion. I n most o f the developing countries o f Asia, Africa
and Latin America. secularism was introduced during the colonial period. In the
post-colonial period, these countries found secularisnl useful to avoid religious
conflict and promote natio~ialintegration.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use space provided below to write your answer.
ii) Clleck your answer witli those given at tlle end o f this unit.

1) Define secularism and explain its origins?

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Secular and Theocratic
2) How did the Reformation contribute to the growth o f secular authority? Regimcs

I 3) Why did the emerging middle class support the rise o f strong nation-states?

16.2.3 Secular Regimes: Meaning and Features

A secular state involves tliree distinct and interrelated sets o f relationships

concerning the state, religion and the individual. First, a relationship between the
individual and religion from which the state is excluded. Second, a relationship
between the individual and the state from which religion is excluded. That is, an
individual is a citizen independent o f membership o f any particular religious
group. The institutional arrangement for these relationships is a separation
between state and religion. That is, there is neutrality o f state in matters o f
religion. 'There is no state religion.

Some o f tlie characteristic features o f secular political systems are as follows:

a) The secular state is not based on any particular religion. This mealis that
such a state does not owe any allegia~iceto any particular religion. Nor such
a political system adheres to tlie principles o f a particular theology.

b) Though the secular state does not favour any particular religion, it is not anti
religion or irreligious. I t cannot be said to non-religious. We cannot call such
a state immoral or an atheistic state. Secular states do follow principles that
are characteristic o f any religion such as truth, non-violence, love, and
morality, but they do not align with any particular religion. In other words, a
secular state may tie itself to certain universal ethical principles without
allowing any particular religion to dictate its policies.

c) A secular state does not bother whether its members belong to this religion
or that religion. Primarily concer~iedwith an individual's external life, a
secular state does not colicerli itself with religious affiliation o f i t s citizens.
Religion is seen as something concer~ii~ig an individual's inter~iallife, that is,
a matter o f purely individual and private faith.

d) Separating religion and politics, a secular state treats all religions alike. It
does not allow religion to influence political issue. Religion does not impede
or interfere in any decision o f the state. To that extent, religious
discrimination i s absent in a secular state.

e) A secular state admits numerous religions under its jurisdiction. I t advocates

religious harmony, acco~nmodationand co-operation. A l l religious
organisations are accorded equal treatment and are equally respected. To that
extent, a secular state is multi-religious state.

f) A secular state by its very nature is a democratic state. It is democratic

because it treats individuals as individuals and not as a member o f this or
that particular faith.
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Classificvtion o f Political Secularism i s the ~iiostwidely established policy on religion today. I n most
Regimes
countries o f tlie conte~iiporaryworld, tliere i s a strolig tendency to limit the role
o f religion to tlie 'religious' sphere o f society. Secular regimes can be broadly
categorised into two- the liberal and tlie Marxist. The liberal secular regimes are
those which regard religion as a societal resource and allow for individual as
well as corporate religious freedom to a greater or lesser extent. Religion in these
liberal countries may in practice have a significant role in political life. A vast
majority o f modern political regimes, i~icludingtlie United States of America,
Canada, Australia, India, Soutli Africa, most European states and others belong to
this category. In the Marxist versio~io f secular regimes, we have couritries like
tlie former Soviet U~iionand China that have an ideologically defined negative
view of religion. In tliese and otlier countries inspired by a Marxist critique o f
religion, there i s a strong ideological divide between religio~iand politics, and
corporate religious freed0111 is often subordinated to tlie prerogatives o f political
organisations.

16.3 THEOCRATIC REGIMES

Theocracy is a society governed by priests, or one whose government i s heavily

influenced by religious leaders. Originally, theocracy meant a system where
divine law was the basis o f all humanly enacted law, and in which religio~~s and
political hierarchies were merged. Today, the term theocracy is applied to refer to
tlie dominance o f religion over state.

A theocratic regime by its very nature i s a religious state. It is wedded to a

particular religion. It believes and functions on particular tlieological principles.
Theocratic regimes are not merely dominated by particular theology; they are, in
fact, co~itrolledby that theology. In otlier words, in tliese regimes, politics and
religion get assimilated illto each other: religion donii~iatespolitics and politics is
carried on religious principles. Since tliese states are uni-religious states, allowing
o ~ i l yone particular religion to flourish and sliape its policies, tlieir attitude
towards otlier religions is one o f 'distance'. People belo~igingto other faiths are
treated as second-class citizens. 'There i s neither religious harrno~iynor ally
religious tolerance.

Some o f the cliaracteristic features o f theocratic regimes are as follows:

a) A theocratic state i s associated with a particular religion. It believes in the

principles and precepts o f the religion it advocates. All the rules and
regulations, laws and by-laws framed by the state are in tune with tlie state
religion.

b) A theocratic regime preaches, practices and promotes the religion it follows.

I t expects its citizens to follow the state religion. Here, religion is not merely
a private faitli o f the individual; it is a public faith. It i s the faith of tlie state
and also o f its members. 'The theocratic state demands its people true and
faithful allegia~iceto tlie religion o f the state.

c) A theocratic state does not separate religion from politics, nor politics from
re1igion. For such a state, religious precepts become political precepts and
the laws o f the state are so framed that they do not interfere into tlie '
religious dictates o f tlie states faith.

d) A theocratic state does not treat other religions, whether within its
boundaries or outside, with equal respect as $hen to its own religion. In
fact, such a state treats other religions with tlie sense o f imputability, that is,
as a secondary kind o f religious faith only to be condemned and curbed.
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e) A theocratic state is predomina~itlya totalitarian state, or it tends to become Secular and Theocratic
Regimes
totalitarian. It attempts to control every aspect of .an individuals l i f e by
projecting itself as tlie torch bearer o f not only 'this' world, but also o f
'heavenly' other world.

f) A theocratic state by its nature is a rigid state; and therefore, by those

standards, a fundamelltalist state, an authoritarian one and hence an anti-
democratic one.

Theocratic regimes, with more or less intimate interaction between religion and
politics, are few in contemporary international relations. In this category we have
pure theocratic regimes as well as other regimes having close relationship with
religion. A good example o f the former is the Islamic Republic o f Iran, where
the state apparatus is subordinated to Islam and religious leaders have a decisive
say in political affairs. Tliere are also countries where even though there is a
state religion, religious leaders and institutions are to some extent subordinated to
the interests o f the state. Countries with Muslim majority populations like Egypt,
Malaysia, Indonesia and some predomi~ia~itly Christian and Buddhist countries
such as Sweden and Thailand fall in this category.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use space provided below to write your answer.
ii) Clieck your answer with those given at tlie elid of this unit.

1) What is the relationship between the individual, state and religion in a

secular polity?

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2) Describe the features o f theocratic regimes.
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3) Identify a couple o f theocratic regimes in India's neighbourhood.

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16.4 RELEVANCE AND TRENDS IN SECULAR POLITY

As we have observed in the earlier section o f this unit, secularism has been a
part o f a process of human liberation from do~iiinationand a do~ninantfeature o f
modern times. Even religion could not remain im~iiuneto secular philosophy and
outlook. For instance, the Catholic Church in Latin America has witnessed the
secularisation o f religion. In the 1960s' when great disparities in wealth and

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Ctassificatiun o f Political poverty bred social unrest and revolution in Latin America, many Catholic
Regimes
clergymen, bishops as well as parish priests, joined the people in their resistance
to exploitation and oppression. In so doing they fasliioned a theoretical
fou~idatio~ifor their actions in what is called liberatioil theology. This theology
rejected the traditional distinction between religion and politics, and analysed
history in terms o f tlie pliilosophy o f Karl Marx as a series o f class struggles
leading to a classless society. 'The Roman Catholic Church in Vatican has
rejected liberation theology as an approach for social renewal. But the attempt
made by liberation theology to combine Christian faith with a commitment to
social change clearly reflects the hold secularisln has come to have in
contemporary times.

At the same time, however, there has been a growth o f anti-secularist tnovements
in tlie last three decades or so. Anti-secular movements seeking to strengtlie~ithe
political role o f religion became pronou~icedafter tlie lslarnic revolution in Iran
in 1979. Much attention lias been bestowed on tlie Islamic movements in the
Middle East with articulate political objectives. However, as we shall see, anti-
secular or politically oriented religious movements, often described as
'fundamentalist,' are not limited to a particular religion or region.

In Africa, tlie lslaniic Salvation Front in Algeria souglit to establisli a lsla~iiic

state based on tlie sliaria. Tlie Muslim Brotlierliood in Sudan lias similar
objectives and has beeti successful in achieving far reaching Islaniisation. In
Senegal, a coulitry with liiore than 90 per cent Muslini population, Islanlic groups
have been anti-secular and in conflict with Sufism. In Togo, Sierra Leone, the
Central African Republic, Liberia and Kenya, funda~iie~italist Christian Church,
even while clai~iiingto be apolitical. has beconie a strong support base for
autocratic rulers. In Tanzania, neo-fi~ndamentalistkind o f Cliristia~iityhas
emerged on the political arena to counteract 'Muslim threat'.

Asia lias also witnessed tlie rise o f anti-secular forces. In India, since the early
1980s, tlie Vishwa Hindu Parishad has been seeking to stre~igtlie~i Hindu identity
with the objective o f establishing a Hindu state. In Sri Lanka, lnovemelits aimed
at strengthening the political role o f Buddhism have emerged, partly in struggles
against minority groups like the Tamils. Pakistan lias witnessed lsla~nisationo f
successive constitutio~issince the mid-1970s. Tlie most significant develop~ne~it in
this regard has bee11tlie takeover o f niajor parts o f Afglianistan by fu~idariieiitalist
Tali ban groups.

I n the United States, a group called tlie Nation o f lsla~iilias voiced strolig
protests against co~iservativeChristia~isas well as against secularis~nand tlie
wliole o f A~nerica~i political system. In Russia, followi~igthe de~iiiseo f tlie
Marxist-Leninist ideology, Orthodox Christianity in associkion with Russian neo-
liberalis111lias appeared as tlie most important political alternative to a Western
liberal democratic develop~nentin Russia. In several countries o f east Europe,
there exists a distrust o f the West and o f the Catholic Church and religious
nationalism appears as an important alternative to communis~n.

The increased sig~iifica~ice o f religion in politics is partly related to tlie problems

o f nationalism and ethnicism. Juergensmeyer, refers to these religious activists,
who strive for a revival o f religion in public sphere, as religious nationalists.
According to him, religious nationalists 'are concerned about the ratio~ialefor
having a state, tlie moral basis for politics, and tlie reasons why a state should
elicit loyalty', and they strongly dismiss 'secular ~iatio~ialis~n as fu~idamentally
bereft o f moral and spiritual values'. Thus, the success o f the lsla~nicnioveliielit
in Iran, the rise o f Orthodox Christia~iityin Russia and in Serbia, Bulgaria,
Rumania and Greece in the 1990s is attributable to religious nationalis~iibased on
distrust o f the West and rejection o f Wester~iisation.
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Elsewhere, the rise o f religious activisni can be traced to tlie probleni o f Secular and Theocratic
Regimes
ethnicity. For instance, minority ethnic groups in Myanmar, Philippines and
Thailand believe that they are increasingly coerced into conforming with tlie
requirements o f the dominant national group. These groups do not perceive
tliemselves as fully part o f tlie nation, believing that tlieir religious, political and
economic rights are violated. Similar sentiments among Sikhs in Punjab and
Christians in Nagaland have led to religious activism among minority groups in
India. Their activities have often provoked claslies with tlie government and
contributed to violent confrontations between adherents o f different religions.

I t has been argued by several scholars that one o f tlie reasolis for tlie success o f
tlie Islamic lnovenient in Iran was that tlie religious institutions and leaders were
not completely, or even largely, incorporated into and controlled by tlie state.
Hence, it retained tlie possibility o f autonomous action and organisation. A
striving for institutio~ialor orga~lisationalindependence from the state lias been a
typical feature o f tlie Islamic revival in niany coi~[Link], religious
~novementsare serving as i11ipo1-tantchannels o f political opposition. l'liis is
particularly tlie case in countries lacking democratic traditions or where tlie
regime lias failed in sti~nulatingecononiic development or in spreading the fruits
o f econo~nicgrowth.

I n dealing with politically oriented religious movements, secularists have to keep

in mind the specific role o f religion in politics in a particular context. As we
saw, in some cases, it seeks to reform society in accordance with religious tenets
and create a tradition oriented, less ~nodernisedsociety. I n others, it is part o f tlie
democratic struggle, serving as a channel for political opposition or participating
in social transfor~iiation.A democrat or a secularist must not disniiss religio~ibut
must take into account its social base and expose its liegenionic role and
differentiate tlie democratic ele~nentwherever available and invite it into struggle
against class and social domination.

16.5 LET US S U M UP

Religion lias played an i~iiportantrole in tlie life o f tlie individual. It lias made
his life ethical and lias introduced to liim tlie efficacy o f a moral life. Its role in
politics lias been even greater. The medieval period was tlie period o f the
dominance o f religion over politics; most of tlie states were part o f tlie
Christendom.

With science and reason replacing divine will and divine laws in the modern age,
state laws became independent o f religion. This marked the decline o f theocratic
states, though tlie remains o f theocracy are found still.

Observing the relevance o f secularism we saw tliat it gives tliat political system a
de~liocraticand modern culture; it gives tlie govermnient a popular base; it gives
people a code o f conduct where they are equal to each other. By providing equal
opportunities for all tlie people irrespective o f tlieir ~iienibersliipin a religious
group, secularis~iiprovides security and gilarantees to religious minorities.

During the last two centuries enipliasis lias bee11on secular reginies and most
democracies today are secular both in theory and practice. However, in the last
three decades or so there has been a growtli of anti-secular movements in several
parts o f the world. Tliese ~novelnentsseek to strengthen the political role o f
religion and are generally opposed to tlie idea af a secular state. Appropriate
secular programmes have to be launched to counter them.

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Classification of Polilicnl
Regimes 16.6 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
Bliargaua Rajeev (2000) [Link]~riu ~ i c ils
l Crilics, Oxford University Press,
Calcutta f

Sankliader, MM (Ed) (1992) [Link]/[Link] i r i III&

DeepU ,
and Deep, New Dellii

Madan T N (1991) Religion i

ll India, Oxford University Press, Delhi

Martin, David (1978) A Gerieral Theory of Secularisalion, Basil Blackwell,

Oxford

Smith Donald (1963) India as a Secular Slale, Princeton University Press,

Princeton.

16.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) 'The atteliipt to establish a body o f principles concerning human beliaviour

based on rational knowledge and experience rather than theology or tlie
supernatural.

2) I t freed tlie individual and tlie state from the authority o f the Church.
Individuals no longer regarded the Cliurch as a mediator between tlie~nand
God. The division o f the church into numerous sects weakened the authority
o f the church. Conflicts between different sects strengthened tlie state by
freeing it from tlie hold o f religion.

3) Feudal lords had becollie obstacles to free trade. Also, they wanted a strong
authority to regulate trade atid commerce, w i t l i i ~ iand outside tlie national
boundaries.

Check Your Progress 2

I) State is not concerned with tlie relationship between the individual and
religion. Religion is not concerned witli tlie relationship between tlie state
arid individual.

2) 'The Cliurcli or institutionalised religion doniinates over state. I t preaches,

practices and pro~notesstate religion. I t does not treat other religio~iswitli
equal respect. I t is rigid and authoritarian and has a tendency to become
totalitarian.

3) Afghanistan, Bhutan, and Tibet (prior to Clii~ieseoccupation).

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