BIORESOURCE

MODULE 1
Brief account of overall classification and taxonomy of Bioresources
Earth is considered home to more than about 8 million different species. To truly appreciate
this number, one must also keep in mind that this is not quite all; it is an ever-expanding
number since there are still species to be discovered especially in the tropics. With these
vast numbers, it becomes necessary to classify them into groups otherwise the sheer
number of different species becomes alarmingly difficult to study. Hence, the taxonomists (a
group of biologists) have devised a carefully developed plan to organize these myriad species
into one group. It all began in the mid-1700s when Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish physician,
and botanist, classified organisms with shared characteristics. He relied on the method
called binomial nomenclature for biological classification.
Linnaeus classified about 4,000 species using this method. He classified organisms into seven
groups, based on their appearance.
The Eight RankS
1. Domain
2. Kingdom
3. Phylum- The purpose of this level is to find some physical similarities among various
organisms within a kingdom.
4. Class The classes were the most common rank proposed by Linnaeus
5. Order It is much more accurate than the classes.
6. Family
7. Genus Genus is the first part of an organism’s scientific name using binomial
nomenclature followed by the second part is the species name.
8. Species There are more than 8.7 million different species of organisms on planet
Earth. As each genus name is unique, the same species names can be used for
different organisms
Kingdom-Level Classification
 Plants (Plantae): Encompasses flowering and non-flowering plants, algae, and
related organisms. Animals (Animalia): Includes vertebrates and invertebrates,
serving roles from food sources to research models. Fungi: Consists of yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms, important for decomposition, food production, and
pharmaceuticals. Protists: A diverse group of mostly single-celled organisms, some of
which are used in research and biofuel production. Bacteria: Prokaryotic
microorganisms with roles in agriculture (nitrogen fixation), industry
(bioremediation), and health (probiotics). Archaea: Prokaryotic organisms often
found in extreme environments, used in biotechnology for their unique enzymes and
resilience.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
“Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources including
terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they
are a part.” The term biodiversity was coined in 1985.
Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity supports key ecosystem services like pollination, soil
formation, nutrient cycling, and water purification, which are essential for life.
Resilience to Disturbances: Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to environmental
stresses, such as climate change, natural disasters, and invasive species. When
biodiversity is high, ecosystems are better able to adapt to changes without losing
functionality.
Food Web Support: Biodiversity ensures that food webs remain balanced, which is
necessary to support different life forms at various levels, from primary producers
(plants) to top predators.
Agriculture and Food Security: Biodiversity provides a variety of genetic resources
that are vital for crop and livestock improvement, disease resistance, and climate
adaptation. For example, diverse crop varieties help farmers maintain productivity under
changing conditions.
Medicinal Resources: Many medicines are derived from plants, animals, and
microorganisms. A loss of biodiversity could mean fewer discoveries of new drugs and
therapies for diseases.
Industrial Applications: Natural resources from diverse species are used in industries
ranging from textiles to biofuel, contributing to economic growth and job creation.
In many indigenous cultures, diverse species are sacred and integral to traditions, rituals,
and lifestyles, underscoring biodiversity’s social and spiritual importance.
Biodiverse ecosystems, particularly forests and oceans, play a crucial role in regulating
the climate by absorbing greenhouse gases.

COMPONENTS OF BIODIVERSITY (GENETIC , POPULATION LEVEL , SPECIES

DIVERSITY)
Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular
area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from
plants to different microorganisms. No two individuals of the same species are exactly
similar. For example, humans show a lot of diversity among themselves. Coral reefs are
among the most diverse ecosystems, supporting thousands of species of fish,
invertebrates, and marine plants.
Genetic diversity
It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual
of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why
every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the
same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
Ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with
each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species
living together and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed
among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like
deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity. The Amazon Rainforest,
wetlands, grasslands, and deserts

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); Causes of threats to Natural

Biodiversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty established in
1992 to promote sustainable development by conserving biological diversity, promoting
the sustainable use of its components, and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from genetic resources. It was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro and has since become a key global framework guiding efforts to protect
biodiversity.
Key Objectives
The CBD has three primary objectives:
1. Conservation of Biological Diversity: Preventing the loss of biodiversity through the
protection and restoration of ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
2. Sustainable Use of Biodiversity Components: Encouraging the use of biological
resources in ways that do not deplete them, allowing ecosystems to continue
supporting future generations.
3. Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits from Genetic Resources: Ensuring that
benefits from the utilization of genetic resources, such as medicines and crops, are
shared fairly with the countries or communities that provide them.
Main Features and Frameworks
The CBD established frameworks and agreements to implement its goals:
 National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs): Each member country
(or "Party") is required to develop an NBSAP to outline its plan for conserving
biodiversity, addressing specific challenges, and meeting the CBD's objectives.
 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Adopted in 2000, this protocol aims to protect
biodiversity from potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
focusing on the safe transfer, handling, and use of GMOs.
 The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-Sharing: Adopted in 2010, this protocol
promotes fair access to genetic resources and ensures that benefits from their use
are shared with the countries providing these resources.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets
In 2010, the CBD adopted the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, a set of 20 global goals aimed at
reducing biodiversity loss by 2020. These targets addressed various aspects of
biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, and awareness, from halting habitat loss to
expanding protected areas.
Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework
With many Aichi Targets unmet, the CBD introduced the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity
Framework to set new, ambitious targets for 2030. These include protecting at least 30%
of global land and marine areas by 2030, reducing pollution, and restoring degraded
ecosystems, aiming for a comprehensive strategy to tackle biodiversity loss.
Importance of the CBD
The CBD has played a pivotal role in raising global awareness and shaping national
policies on biodiversity. It fosters international cooperation, encourages sustainable
development, and addresses issues like climate change, pollution, and habitat loss by
linking them to biodiversity conservation. Its approach recognizes that biodiversity is
crucial for ecosystem services, human well-being, and economic development.
Challenges and Criticisms
 Implementation Gaps: Many countries struggle to meet targets due to limited
funding, resources, or enforcement. Coordination Issues: Achieving the CBD’s goals
requires coordinated action across multiple sectors, which can be challenging.
Political and Economic Pressures: Competing interests, such as economic
development and resource exploitation, often take priority over conservation efforts.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation- Deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural

expansion are the leading causes of habitat destruction. When habitats are fragmented,
species lose access to resources, mating opportunities, and larger habitats needed for
survival. Example: Rainforests, such as the Amazon, are being cleared for agriculture and
logging, causing loss of habitat for countless species.
2. Climate Change-Climate change alters temperatures, weather patterns, and
precipitation levels, which affects species’ habitats, migration patterns, and breeding
cycles. Many species may struggle to adapt, leading to population declines or
extinctions. Example: Coral reefs suffer from coral bleaching due to warming ocean
temperatures, endangering diverse marine species that rely on these reefs.
3. Pollution- Pollutants like pesticides, plastics, industrial chemicals, and oil spills
contaminate air, water, and soil, harming plants, animals, and ecosystems. Pollution can
also disrupt reproductive cycles and lead to habitat degradation. Example: Marine
animals, such as sea turtles, ingest plastics, mistaking them for food, which can be fatal.
4. Overexploitation- Overharvesting of resources, including fishing, hunting, logging, and
wildlife trade, depletes species populations faster than they can recover, threatening
biodiversity. Example: Overfishing has led to population declines in many fish species
and has disrupted marine food webs.
5. Invasive Species -Non-native species introduced to new environments can become
invasive, outcompeting, preying on, or spreading diseases to native species, disrupting
local ecosystems. Example: The introduction of zebra mussels in North American
freshwater systems has damaged ecosystems by displacing native species.
6. Disease -Emerging infectious diseases, often facilitated by global trade and habitat
encroachment, can decimate populations of certain species, especially when introduced
into new regions. Example: The chytrid fungus has significantly affected amphibian
populations worldwide, pushing many species toward extinction.
7. Land Use Changes and Agricultural Practice- Intensive agriculture, monoculture
planting, and land conversion for farming destroy natural habitats, reduce biodiversity,
and can lead to soil degradation and loss of ecosystem services. Example: Large-scale
monocultures, like palm oil plantations, displace diverse tropical rainforests, reducing
habitat for numerous species.

ENDANGERED , HIGHLY THREATENED, RARE SPECIES

1. Endangered Species
 Definition: Endangered species are those that face a very high risk of extinction in
the near future. This category is defined by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) and is part of their Red List classifications.Characteristics:
Endangered species often have small population sizes, shrinking habitats, or face
severe pressures from factors like poaching, habitat destruction, and climate
change.Examples:Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae):. Asian Elephant
(Elephas maximus)
2. Highly Threatened Species
 Definition: Highly threatened species are typically classified as Critically Endangered
or Endangered by the IUCN, signifying they are at an extremely high risk of extinction
in the immediate future.Characteristics: Highly threatened species may face
multiple, compounding threats, including climate change, pollution, and illegal trade.
They often require urgent, active intervention to prevent extinction. Examples-
Vaquita (Phocoena sinus.Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus
o 3. Rare Species
 Definition: Rare species are those with small population sizes or restricted
geographic ranges, but they may not necessarily be at high risk of extinction. They
are vulnerable due to limited numbers and/or habitats, which could lead to
endangerment under changing conditions. Characteristics: Rare species may not face
immediate threats but are vulnerable to environmental changes, habitat destruction,
and other pressures due to their limited populations or distributions. Examples:
Ghost Orchid (Dendrophylax lindenii), Golden Poison Frog (Phyllobates terribilis):

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION

1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals
should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved.
3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilized efficiently.
5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully.
7. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in
their nature as well as artificial habitats.
11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its
importance.
Protected Areas and Reserves-Strategy: Establishing national parks, wildlife reserves, and
marine protected areas (MPAs) helps preserve ecosystems and provides safe habitats for
species. Goal: Limit human impact in critical areas, enabling species to thrive without
significant human interference. Example: The establishment of biosphere reserves, such as
the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve in India, protects unique mangrove ecosystems while
allowing sustainable activities like fishing in designated areas.
2. Community-Based Conservation (CBC)-Strategy: Involve local communities in
conservation efforts, empowering them to manage resources sustainably and benefit
economically.Goal: Foster a sense of ownership and responsibility among locals, as they
directly depend on these resources .Example: Community forest management in Nepal has
improved forest health and local livelihoods by allowing communities to sustainably harvest
forest products.
3. Sustainable Agriculture and Agroforestry-Strategy: Implement practices like crop
rotation, organic farming, agroforestry, and integrated pest management (IPM) to minimize
environmental impacts.Goal: Reduce habitat destruction, soil degradation, and pollution
associated with conventional farming, while ensuring food security. Example: Agroforestry
systems combine crops with trees, enhancing biodiversity and providing habitat for wildlife.
4. Ex Situ Conservation (Zoos, Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens- Strategy: Preserve species
outside their natural habitats, safeguarding them from extinction and allowing for research
and breeding programs.Goal: Maintain genetic diversity and provide a backup for species
facing extreme threats in the wild. Example: Seed banks like the Svalbard Global Seed Vault
in Norway store seeds from around the world, preserving crop diversity for future
generations.
5. Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism -Strategy: Develop tourism activities that support
conservation by educating visitors and generating revenue for local communities and
conservation projects. Goal: Minimize tourism's ecological impact while providing
alternative livelihoods to people who might otherwise exploit resources unsustainably.
Example: Gorilla trekking in Rwanda generates income for local communities and funds for
gorilla conservation.
6. Restoration Ecology -Strategy: Actively restore degraded ecosystems through
reforestation, wetland rehabilitation, and invasive species control. Goal: Rebuild natural
habitats and reintroduce native species to improve biodiversity and ecological function.
Example: Mangrove reforestation in coastal areas protects shorelines from erosion,
enhances fish nurseries, and restores biodiversity.
7. Legislation and Policy Enforcement -Strategy: Enact and enforce laws regulating wildlife
trade, deforestation, pollution, and resource exploitation. Goal: Provide a legal framework to
protect species and ecosystems, deterring illegal activities like poaching and logging.
Example: The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the United States provides legal protection to
species at risk of extinction and their habitats.
8. Environmental Education and Awarenes- Strategy: Raise awareness about the
importance of biodiversity and sustainable practices through education and outreach
programs. Goal: Foster a culture of conservation and responsible resource use among
individuals, communities, and organizations. Example: Conservation organizations, like the
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), conduct educational campaigns to promote sustainable
practices and reduce wildlife exploitation.
9. Sustainable Resource Harvesting -Strategy: Use management techniques such as quotas,
seasonal restrictions, and sustainable harvesting practices to prevent overexploitation. Goal:
Allow continued resource use without depleting species or habitats, ensuring long-term
availability. Example: Sustainable forestry practices involve selective logging and replanting
trees to maintain forest ecosystems.
10. Genetic Resource Management and Bioprospecting -Strategy: Regulate the access and
use of genetic resources in ways that benefit local communities and conserve
biodiversity.Goal: Promote equitable benefit-sharing from genetic resources and support
local economies while conserving species.Example: The Nagoya Protocol under the
Convention on Biological Diversity ensures that benefits from genetic resources are shared
with source countries.

MODULE 2
Bioresources - food, fodder,
Food bioresources: Crops: Food crops are subsistence crops that are meant for human
consumption. They include fruits, vegetables, grains, and tubers, like potatoes. Grains, which
include crops like wheat, rice, and corn, are the most popular crops in the world, with wheat
as the most widely grown crop overall. Various plants cultivated for food purposes, such as
grains (e.g., wheat, rice, corn), vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, lettuce, carrots), fruits (e.g.,
apples, bananas, oranges), and legumes (e.g., beans, lentils, chickpeas). Livestock: Animals
raised for their meat, milk, and other food products, including cattle, pigs, chickens, sheep,
and goats. Seafood: Fish and other aquatic organisms harvested from oceans, seas, and
freshwater bodies, such as salmon, tuna, shrimp, and oysters. Edible Fungi: Mushrooms and
other fungi species that are safe for human consumption, like button mushrooms, shiitake,
and oyster mushrooms. Herbs and Spices: Various aromatic plants used to enhance the
flavor of dishes, such as basil, rosemary, cinnamon, and turmeric.
Fodder bioresources: "Fodder" refers to food given to domesticated animals, especially
livestock, as their primary source of nutrition. Fodder can be derived from various
bioresources, including plants and agricultural products. Hay: Dried grasses, legumes, or
other plants, such as alfalfa, timothy, clover, and bermudagrass, are commonly used as hay
for livestock like cows, horses, and sheep.Silage: Fermented fodder made from green crops
like corn, grass, sorghum, or legumes, which are chopped, compacted, and stored in airtight
conditions to preserve them for feeding cattle during the winter or when fresh forage is
scarce.Alfalfa: A perennial flowering plant that is rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals,
making it an excellent fodder source for various livestock animals.Grasses: Pasture grasses
like ryegrass, fescue, and orchard grass are commonly used as fodder for grazing animals
such as cattle and sheep.
Fiber bioresources: Fiber bioresources refer to natural materials that are rich in fibers and
can be used for various applications, including textiles, paper, construction materials, and
biofuels. Cotton: Cotton is one of the most widely used fiber bioresources, and it is a primary
material for the textile industry. It is obtained from the cotton plant's seed hair and is valued
for its softness, breathability, and absorbency.Hemp: Hemp is a versatile fiber bioresource
that has been used for thousands of years for making ropes, textiles, and paper. It is derived
from the Cannabis sativa plant and is known for its strength and durability.Flax: Flax is a
plant that produces fibers used for linen textiles. It has been cultivated for thousands of
years and is valued for its natural luster and strength.Jute: Jute is a long, soft, and shiny fiber
obtained from the jute plant's stems. It is commonly used to make burlap sacks, ropes,
twine, and other packaging materials.
Oil crops: Oil crops are plants that are cultivated primarily for their oil-rich seeds or fruits.
These oils have various uses, including culinary, industrial, and pharmaceutical applications.
Soybean (Glycine max) - Soybean oil is one of the most widely used vegetable oils
worldwide. It is used in cooking, food processing, and the production of biodiesel and
various industrial products.Coconut (Cocos nucifera) - Coconut oil is derived from the fruit of
the coconut palm. It is used in cooking, as a moisturizer in skincare, and in the production of
soaps and cosmetics Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) - Sunflower oil is extracted from the
seeds of sunflowers and is used in cooking, as well as in the production of biodiesel and
other industrial products.Olive (Olea europaea) - Olive oil is a staple in Mediterranean
cuisine and is valued for its health benefits. It is used in cooking, salad dressings, and various
beauty products.
Wood and timber: The use of products derived from woody plants, notably timber, takes
advantages of wood’s insulating ability, strength, workability, and abundance as a
construction and engineering material.No other material has all the advantages of wood.
Wood has long been used in the construction of buildings, bridges, and boats.Trees are
broadly classified into hardwoods and softwoodsOak, birch, and basswood are common
hardwood species, whereas longleaf pine, spruce, and cypress are softwoods.
Gums: Natural gums are long chains of sugars (polysaccharides) within native plant materials
that are either water-soluble or capable of absorbing water. Gels are formed when these
polysaccharides are mixed with water. They are widely used in the food industry for
thickening agents, emulsifiers, and stabilizers. Because they are considered inert substances,
they are also used in diet products and medicines, provide thick and rich consistency in
syrups and sauces, aid in moisture retention in bakery products.Gums produced
commercially mainly include: gum Arabic (Acacia senegal), gum ghatti, (Anogeissus latifolia),
neem gum (Azadirachta indica), gum karaya (Sterculia urens; Cochlospermum gossypium),
Joel or Jingan gum (Lannea coromandelica), and Mesquite gum (Prosopis juliflora).
Resins: Most plant resins are composed of terpenes.Rosin is a solidified resin from which the
volatile terpenes have been removed by distillation.Examples of plant resins include amber,
Balm of Gilead, balsam, Canada balsam, Boswellia .Plant resins are valued for the production
of varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents.They are also prized as raw materials for the
synthesis of other organic compounds and provide constituents of incense (incense is a
substance that's burned to produce a fragrant scent) and perfume.
1. Dyes
Dyes are substances used to add color to materials, often derived from natural sources. They
can be used in textiles, food, and cosmetics.Indigo:Source: Extracted from the leaves of the
Indigofera plant.Uses: Traditionally used for dyeing fabrics, especially denim, giving a rich
blue color. henna:Source: Derived from the Lawsonia inermis plant.uses: Commonly used to
create body art (mehndi) and to dye hair a reddish-brown color..Turmeric:Source: Obtained
from the rhizome of Curcuma longa.Uses: Used as a dye for foods, textiles, and cosmetics,
providing a bright yellow color
2. Fruit-Fruits are nutrient-rich food sources that provide vitamins, minerals, and dietary
fiber. They are essential in human diets.Mango:Nutritional Benefits: Rich in vitamins A and
C, as well as antioxidants.Uses: Consumed fresh, in smoothies, desserts, or as juice; also
used in savory dishes..Apple:Nutritional Benefits: High in fiber and vitamin C; contains
various antioxidants.Uses: Eaten raw, in salads, baked goods, and
applesauce.:Banana:Nutritional Benefits: High in potassium, vitamin B6, and fiber.Uses:
Consumed fresh, in smoothies, baked goods, or as baby food.
3. Vegetable-Vegetables are a crucial part of a balanced diet, offering essential nutrients and
health benefits.Carrot:Nutritional Benefits: Rich in beta-carotene, which converts to vitamin
A, essential for vision and skin health.Uses: Eaten raw, cooked, or juiced; common in salads
and soups. Uses: Consumed fresh in salads, cooked in dishes, or blended into smoothies.
omato:Nutritional Benefits: Rich in lycopene, vitamins C and K, and potassium.Uses: Eaten
raw, cooked, in sauces, and salads; widely used in cuisines worldwide.
4. Biofuels-Biofuels are renewable energy sources made from organic materials, offering a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.Corn:Production: Fermented to produce ethanol, a
common biofuel.Uses: Ethanol can be blended with gasoline to reduce emissions and
reliance on fossil fuels..Sugarcane:Production: Processed to produce ethanol, particularly in
Brazil.Uses: Ethanol from sugarcane is a clean-burning fuel that can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. atropha:Production: Grown for its seeds, which are rich in oil that can be
converted into biodiesel.Uses: Biodiesel from jatropha can be used in diesel engines.
5. Medicines-Medicinal plants provide natural compounds that have therapeutic properties
and are essential in traditional and modern medicine.Willow Bark:Active Ingredient:
Contains salicin, which is a precursor to aspirin.Uses: Used traditionally for pain relief and
anti-inflammatory purposes..Periwinkle:Active Ingredients: Contains alkaloids such as
vincristine and vinblastine.Uses: Used in cancer treatment, particularly for leukemia and
lymphoma. Cinchona:Active Ingredient: Source of quinine, used to treat malaria.Uses:
Historically significant in treating malaria and still used in some formulations,
6. Essential Oil-Essential oils are concentrated plant extracts used in aromatherapy,
cosmetics, and natural remedies.Lavender:Uses: Known for its calming and relaxing
properties; used in aromatherapy and skincare. Eucalyptus:Uses: Often used for its
antiseptic properties; common in cough drops and inhalants..Peppermint:Uses: Known for
its flavor and digestive benefits; widely used in food products and essential oils.

IMPORTANT ANIMALS PHYLUM’S AS BIORESOURCES

1. Phylum Chordata-Characteristics: Animals with a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, and gill
slits at some stage of development. This phylum includes vertebrates (fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals).
Examples:Fish:Significance: Important source of food (e.g., salmon, tuna), omega-3 fatty
acids, and aquaculture resources.Mammals:Significance: Provide meat, milk, leather, and
companionship (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs).Birds:Significance: Sources of meat (e.g., chickens,
turkeys) and eggs, as well as pollinators and pest control agents in agriculture.
2. Phylum Arthropoda- Characteristics: Invertebrates with an exoskeleton, segmented body,
and jointed appendages. This phylum includes insects, arachnids, myriapods, and
crustaceans.
Examples:Insects:Significance: Essential pollinators for many crops, source of honey (e.g.,
bees), and can also be used in the production of silk (e.g.,
silkworms).Crustaceans:Significance: Important seafood sources (e.g., shrimp, crabs) that
contribute significantly to global fisheries.Arachnids:Significance: Include spiders and
scorpions, which help control pest populations.
3. Phylum Mollusca-Characteristics: Soft-bodied animals, often with a hard shell. This
phylum includes gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods.
Examples:Bivalves:Significance: Sources of food (e.g., clams, oysters, mussels) and pearls,
also contribute to water filtration in aquatic ecosystems.Cephalopods:Significance: Includes
octopus and squid, important sources of seafood with high nutritional
value.Gastropods:Significance: Snails and slugs can be edible (e.g., escargot) and contribute
to ecological processes like decomposition.
4. Phylum Annelida-Characteristics: Segmented worms with a coelom and a well-developed
nervous system. This phylum includes earthworms and leeches.
Examples:Earthworms:Significance: Important for soil health; they aerate and enrich the
soil through their natural processes, enhancing agricultural
productivity.Leeches:Significance: Used in medicine for bloodletting and in some surgical
procedures; they can also be indicators of environmental health.Polychaetes:Significance:
Marine worms that play critical roles in the marine ecosystem and serve as food for fish and
other marine animals.
5. Phylum Echinodermata-Characteristics: Marine animals with radial symmetry, a water
vascular system, and tube feet. This phylum includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea
cucumbers.
Examples:Sea Urchins:Significance: Harvested for their roe (uni) in culinary dishes, and they
play a role in marine ecosystems.Sea Cucumbers:Significance: Valued in traditional medicine
and as a food source in various cultures, they also help recycle nutrients in the
ocean.Starfish:Significance: Important for maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems
through their predation on bivalves and other organisms.
6. Phylum Nematoda-Characteristics: Roundworms, which are mostly microscopic and
unsegmented. This phylum includes free-living and parasitic species.
Examples:Free-living Nematodes:Significance: Contribute to soil health and nutrient cycling;
some are used as biological control agents against pests.Parasitic Nematodes:Significance:
Some are harmful to crops and livestock (e.g., root-knot nematodes), while others have
applications in medicine (e.g., studies on nematode behavior and physiology).
Caenorhabditis elegans:Significance: A model organism in biological research, used in
studies of genetics, development, and neuroscience.
7. Phylum Porifera-Characteristics: Sponges are simple, porous animals with a cellular-level
organization. They lack true tissues and organs.
Examples:Marine Sponges:Significance: Used in cosmetics and personal care products; their
structure has been studied for biomaterials. Freshwater Sponges:Significance: Contribute to
water filtration and ecosystem health in freshwater habitats.
Significance: Sponges produce compounds with potential medicinal properties, including
anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agents.

IMPORTANT MICROBES FOR ANTIBIOTICS;

1. Penicillium chrysogenum
One of the most famous antibiotic-producing microbes is Penicillium chrysogenum, a mold
discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. This organism is the source of penicillin, the first
antibiotic to be used clinically. Penicillin was revolutionary in treating bacterial infections and
has saved countless lives since its introduction. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of
bacterial cell walls, leading to the death of susceptible bacteria. The discovery of penicillin
marked the beginning of the antibiotic era and paved the way for the development of
numerous other antibiotics derived from fungi.
2. Streptomyces griseus
The actinomycete bacterium Streptomyces griseus is another crucial player in antibiotic
production. It is the source of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis
and a variety of gram-negative bacterial infections. Discovered in the late 1940s,
streptomycin was groundbreaking for its ability to combat tuberculosis, which was a leading
cause of death at the time. This bacterium is also responsible for producing many other
antibiotics, such as neomycin and kanamycin, highlighting the importance of Streptomyces
species in the ongoing search for new antimicrobial agents.
3. Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus subtilis, a common soil bacterium, produces a variety of antibiotics, including
bacitracin and polymyxin. Bacitracin is particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria
and is widely used topically in ointments for minor wounds and infections. Polymyxin, on the
other hand, is used primarily against gram-negative bacteria and has applications in treating
serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms. The ability of Bacillus subtilis to
produce these antibiotics underscores the role of soil bacteria in natural antibiotic
production and the potential for discovering new drugs from microbial sources.

MPORTANT MICROBES FOR ANTIBIOTICS; BIOCATALYSIS AND FERMENTATION

1. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker's yeast or brewer's yeast, is one of the
most widely used microorganisms in fermentation. This eukaryotic yeast is vital in the
production of bread, beer, and wine due to its ability to convert sugars into alcohol and
carbon dioxide through fermentation. In addition to its traditional applications, S. cerevisiae
is used in biocatalysis for the production of biofuels, such as ethanol, from lignocellulosic
biomass. Its well-characterized genetics and ability to withstand high ethanol concentrations
make it an ideal candidate for industrial fermentation processes. Furthermore, S. cerevisiae
is increasingly being used in biotechnological applications to produce valuable metabolites,
enzymes, and recombinant proteins.
2. Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is a versatile bacterium extensively used in biotechnology and industrial
fermentation. Its ability to grow rapidly and its well-understood genetics make it a popular
host for the production of recombinant proteins, enzymes, and pharmaceuticals. In
biocatalysis, engineered strains of E. coli are employed to facilitate the synthesis of complex
molecules, including antibiotics and amino acids. The bacterium is also used in the
fermentation of sugars to produce organic acids, such as lactic acid and succinic acid, which
are valuable as food additives and bioplastics. Additionally, E. coli can be manipulated to
utilize a variety of substrates, expanding its potential applications in bioprocessing.
3. Lactobacillus spp.
Lactobacillus species are a group of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that play a crucial role in
fermentation processes, particularly in the production of dairy products, pickles, and
fermented beverages. These bacteria ferment lactose and other sugars to produce lactic
acid, which acts as a preservative and contributes to the flavor and texture of fermented
foods. Lactobacillus spp. are also important probiotics, promoting gut health and
contributing to the microbiota balance. In biocatalysis, some Lactobacillus species are
explored for their ability to convert various carbohydrates into biofuels and other value-
added products. Their role in food fermentation not only enhances food safety but also
improves nutritional profiles through the production of vitamins and bioactive compounds.
4. Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus niger is a filamentous fungus widely used in industrial fermentation for the
production of enzymes, organic acids, and secondary metabolites. It is particularly known for
producing citric acid, a key ingredient in food and beverage industries, as well as in
pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. The fungus can also synthesize enzymes such as amylase
and protease, which are used in the food and detergent industries for starch and protein
breakdown. Aspergillus niger is a model organism for studying fungal physiology and
metabolism, and ongoing research aims to enhance its efficiency in biocatalysis, particularly
for the production of biofuels and bioplastics from renewable resources.
5. Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus subtilis is a gram-positive bacterium that serves as an important organism in both
biocatalysis and fermentation. It is known for its ability to produce a wide range of enzymes,
including amylases, proteases, and lipases, which are utilized in various industries, including
food, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels. In fermentation, B. subtilis is used to produce
fermented foods such as soy sauce and natto, where it contributes to flavor and nutritional
enhancement. Additionally, its capacity for forming spores makes it a stable organism for
industrial applications. Researchers are also exploring genetic modifications of B. subtilis to
improve its enzyme production capabilities and develop it as a microbial cell factory for
biotechnological applications

MODULE 3
Brief knowledge of operational methodologies of bioprospecting; Techniques
of extraction
Extraction is the separation of biomolecules of plants by using selective solvents and suitable
methods of extraction. Single or mixture of solvents used based on solubility. Extraction is
the crucial first step in the analysis of medicinal plants, because it is necessary to extract the
desired chemical components from the plant materials for further separation and
characterization. The basic operation included steps, such as pre-washing, drying of plant
materials or freeze drying, grinding to obtain a homogenous sample and often improving the
kinetics of analytic extraction and also increasing the contact of sample surface with the
solvent system. The selection of solvent system largely depends on the specific nature of the
bioactive compound being targeted.. Non-polar solvents: Dissolve non-polar compounds (fats and
waxes) e.g., petroleum, ether, hexane Polar solvent: Dissolve polar compounds (alkaloids, salts,
sugars) e.g., Alcohols, water

FACTORS AFFECTING EXTRACTION

 Particle size of the plant parts: Particle size is smaller, the better result the extraction
achieves.

 Temperature: High temperatures increase the solubility and diffusion.

 Length of the extraction time: The extraction efficiency increases with the increase in
extraction duration in a certain time range. Increasing time will not affect the extraction after
the equilibrium of the solute is reached inside and outside the solid material.

 The solvent-to-sample ratio: The greater the solvent-to-solid ratio is, the higher the
extraction yield is; however, a solvent-to-solid ratio that is too high will cause excessive
extraction solvent and requires a long time for concentration.

 Solvent used AND pH of the SOLVENT

SOME TECHNIQUES
Infusion: Macerating for a short period of time with cold or boiling water

Decoction: Boiled in a specific volume of water for a defined time

Digestion: Heat gently with solvent for extraction. E. g. Extraction of Morphine

Soxhlet Extraction: Continuous extraction of a component from a solidLarge amount of drug can be
extracted with small quantity of solvent Efficient, Faster & Economic

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE):Involves the use of ultrasonic waves to create cavitation

bubbles in the solvent, enhancing the extraction of bioactive compounds.This technique is known for
its speed and efficiency, often requiring less solvent and time compared to conventional methods.

Brief knowledge of operational methodologies of bioprospecting; Techniques

of extraction, Isolation, Purification
Isolation:

Isolation refers to the separation of specific bioactive compounds from the crude extract.

 Chromatographic Techniques: Techniques such as column chromatography, high-

performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) are
commonly employed to separate components based on their chemical properties.
Precipitation: This method involves the addition of solvents or reagents that cause
specific compounds to precipitate out of the solution, allowing for their isolation.
Filtration and Centrifugation: These techniques can be used to separate particulate
matter from liquid extracts, concentrating the desired bioactive compounds.
Chromatography is based on the principle where molecules in mixture applied onto the
surface or into the solid, and fluid stationary phase (stable phase) is separating from each
other while moving with the aid of a mobile phase. The factors effective on this separation
process include molecular characteristics related to adsorption (liquid-solid), partition
(liquid-solid), and affinity or differences among their molecular weights .Stationary phase: This
phase is always composed of a “solid” phase or “a layer of a liquid adsorbed on the surface a solid
support”.Mobile phase: This phase is always composed of “liquid” or a “gaseous component.”

WRITE A BIT ABOUT SOME CHROMATOGRAPHY TECHS.

Purification:
 Purification aims to obtain a high degree of purity for the isolated compounds.
Techniques for purification include: Recrystallization: Used for solid compounds, this
method involves dissolving the crude product in a suitable solvent and allowing it to
crystallize, which can help remove impurities.Affinity Chromatography: This
specialized form of chromatography utilizes specific interactions between the target
compound and a stationary phase (e.g., antibodies, enzymes) to achieve high
purity.Size-Exclusion Chromatography: This technique separates molecules based on
their size, allowing for the purification of larger bioactive compounds from smaller
impurities.
Characterization:After purification, the isolated compounds are characterized using
techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, mass spectrometry
(MS), and infrared spectroscopy (IR) to confirm their identity and structure.Characterization
helps establish the potential applications of the purified compounds and informs further
research.

CHARACTERIZATION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES

Metabolites are the intermediate products produced during metabolism, catalyzed by
various enzymes that occur naturally within cells. Eg., antibiotics, and pigments. The term
metabolites are usually used for small molecules. The various functions of metabolites
include; fuel, structure, signalling, catalytic activity, defence and interactions with other
organisms.
Primary Metabolites-These are the chemical compounds produced during the growth and
development, processes. They are also involved in the primary metabolic processes of
respiration and photosynthesis. The primary metabolites are formed in the growth phase.
They maintain the physiological functions of the body and are known as central metabolites.
They are the intermediate products of anabolic metabolism, which are used by the cells for
the formation of essential macromolecules.A primary metabolite is a kind of metabolite that
is directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction. It usually performs a
physiological function in the organism (i.e. an intrinsic function). A primary metabolite is
typically present in many organisms or cells. Some common examples of primary
metabolites include: ethanol, lactic acid, and certain amino acids.
Characterization Methods:

1. Chromatography: High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Separates and

quantifies primary metabolites like sugars and amino acids based on their chemical
properties. Gas Chromatography (GC): Used for volatile primary metabolites such as
fatty acids.

2. Enzymatic Assays:Specific enzymatic reactions can be used to quantify primary

metabolites, such as glucose or lactate, by measuring product formation.
3. Electrophoresis:Techniques like SDS-PAGE can separate proteins (primary
metabolites) based on their size and charge.
Secondary metabolites -Secondary metabolites are not essential as primary metabolites as
these are not directly involved in growth, development and reproduction of organisms. They
are organic compounds which are not directly involved in survival of plants but they produce
some produces which aid them in their normal growth and development. Secondary
metabolites are compounds biosynthetically derived from primary metabolites. . Secondary
metabolites are considered to be the end products of primary metabolites because they are derived
by the pathways in which the primary metabolites involve. For eg., antibiotics, toxins,
pheromones, enzyme inhibitors
Characterization Methods:
1. Extraction Techniques:Secondary metabolites are often extracted using solvents (e.g.,
ethanol, methanol) or techniques like Soxhlet extraction to obtain concentrated samples for
analysis.
2. Chromatography:Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC): Quick screening method to separate
and identify secondary metabolites based on their polarity.High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC): Provides detailed separation and quantification of complex
mixtures of secondary metabolites.

PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy is defined as the scientific and systematic study of structural,physical,
chemical and biological characters of crude drugs along with their history, method of
cultivation, collection and preparation for the market.  The word Pharmacognosy is derived
from Greek word viz.  Pharmakon: A Drug  Gignosco : To acquire the knowledge

Source of crude drugs:-  Plant Source:- Neem, Babul, Tulsi, Saffron, Clove.  Animal source:-
Honey bee, bee wax, Silk,Insulin, Shark, Liver oil, Thyroid.  Mineral source:- Chalk,
bentonite, asbestos, talc, kaolin, Fuller's earth.  Micro- Organism: - Antibiotics,  Marine :-
Salt, Protozoa, etc.

Pharmacognosy has wide and broad scope in the field of Pharmacy-Cultivation and
domestication of the medicinal plants.  Analysis and Phytochemical  Preparation of
general tonic and stimulation.  The steroid industry  Herbal Preparation herbal medicine 
Flavoring agent and perfumes.  Tissue Culture  Phytomedicine
Key Components of Pharmacognosy
1. Natural Sources:Plants: The primary focus of pharmacognosy, with many medicinal
compounds extracted from various parts such as leaves, roots, bark, flowers, and
seeds. Examples include alkaloids from opium poppy, flavonoids from citrus fruits,
and terpenoids from essential oils.Fungi: Certain fungi produce compounds with
medicinal properties, such as penicillin from Penicillium chrysogenum
.Microorganisms: Bacteria and actinomycetes are crucial for discovering antibiotics
and other bioactive compounds. For example, streptomycin from Streptomyces
griseus.Algae: Source of bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides and
pigments with therapeutic potential.
2. Extraction and Isolation:Techniques such as maceration, Soxhlet extraction, and
supercritical fluid extraction are employed to isolate bioactive compounds from plant
and microbial sources.The extraction methods are chosen based on the chemical
nature of the compounds of interest.
3. Characterization:Identifying and characterizing bioactive compounds using various
techniques such as chromatography (HPLC, GC), mass spectrometry (MS), and
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.Determining the chemical
structure, purity, and concentration of the compounds is essential for understanding
their pharmacological properties.
4. Biological Activity Evaluation:Assessing the pharmacological effects of isolated
compounds through in vitro and in vivo studies.Activities can include antimicrobial,
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and analgesic properties, among
others.Bioassays are often employed to evaluate efficacy and safety.

5. Pharmacology and Ethnopharmacology:Pharmacognosy overlaps with

pharmacology to study the effects and mechanisms of action of natural compounds
in biological systems.Ethnopharmacology focuses on the traditional use of plants in
different cultures for medicinal purposes, providing insights into potential new
therapeutic agents.

6. Quality Control:Ensuring the safety, efficacy, and quality of herbal medicines and
natural products is a critical aspect of pharmacognosy.Techniques for quality
assessment may include standardization of extracts, identification of adulterants, and
determination of shelf life.

7. Regulatory Aspects:Pharmacognosy is guided by regulations to ensure that herbal

medicines and natural products meet safety and efficacy standards before they reach
consumers.Regulatory agencies, such as the FDA and EMA, have specific guidelines
for the approval and marketing of herbal products.

MODULE 4
Drugs: Substances that produce a physiological effect when administered to living
organisms. They can be derived from natural sources (e.g., plants, animals) or
synthesized in laboratories. Drugs can be used for therapeutic, preventive, diagnostic, or
palliative purposes.

Pharmaceuticals: A broader term that encompasses drugs along with the

formulations, dosages, and delivery systems used to administer them. Pharmaceuticals
refer to the complete medicinal product, which includes the active ingredient (the drug)
and the excipients (inactive substances) used in its preparation.
Classifications of Drugs
1. Based on Source:

Natural Drugs: Derived from plants, animals, or minerals (e.g., morphine from opium poppy,
aspirin from willow bark).Synthetic Drugs: Chemically manufactured in laboratories (e.g.,
ibuprofen, atorvastatin).Biologics: Derived from living organisms (e.g., vaccines, monoclonal
antibodies).
2. Based on Therapeutic Use:Analgesics: Pain relievers (e.g., acetaminophen,
opioids).Antibiotics: Treat bacterial infections (e.g., penicillin,
amoxicillin).Antidepressants: Used for depression and anxiety (e.g., selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors).Antihypertensives: Manage high blood pressure (e.g.,
beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors).
3. Based on Mechanism of Action:Agonists: Activate receptors to produce a biological
response (e.g., morphine).Antagonists: Block receptors to prevent a biological
response (e.g., naloxone).Enzyme Inhibitors: Inhibit specific enzymes (e.g., statins
reduce cholesterol levels).

Animal Sources-Honey: Produced by bees, honey is known for its antibacterial

properties and is used in traditional medicine for wound healing and cough relief.Shark
Liver Oil: Contains squalene, which has applications in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals,
particularly in anti-inflammatory and anticancer treatments.Leeches: Leeches are used in
medical applications for bloodletting and wound healing, particularly in reconstructive
surgery. Their saliva contains anticoagulants like hirudin, which prevents blood clotting.

2. Microbial Sources-Penicillin: Discovered from the mold Penicillium notatum, penicillin

was the first antibiotic and is used to treat various bacterial infections.Streptomycin:
Derived from the bacterium Streptomyces griseus, it is used to treat tuberculosis and
other bacterial infections.Probiotics: Beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and
Bifidobacterium are used in dietary supplements and fermented foods for gut health.

3. PLANT SOURCE-

Aspirin-Source: Originally derived from willow bark (Salix spp.), which contains
salicin.Uses: Used as a pain reliever, anti-inflammatory, and to reduce fever. It also has
antiplatelet effects, helping to prevent blood clots. Quinine-Source: Extracted from the
bark of the cinchona tree (Cinchona spp.).Uses: Used to treat malaria. Quinine is
effective in killing the parasites that cause malaria and is also used for leg cramps.
MorphineSource: Derived from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).Uses: A potent
analgesic (pain reliever) used to manage severe pain, particularly in post-operative or
cancer patients.

PESTICIDES, COSMETICS/COSMECEUTICALS,
Pesticides from Plants

Neem Oil-Source: Derived from the seeds and leaves of the neem tree (Azadirachta
indica)..Pyrethrins-Source: Extracted from the flowers of the chrysanthemum plant
(Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium)..Rotenone-Source: Derived from the roots of several
plants, including Derris and Lonchocarpus species.

Animals-Beeswax-Source: Produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera). Fish Emulsion-Source:

Made from fish waste, typically from processing fish for food..Chitin-Source: Derived from
the exoskeletons of crustaceans (like crabs and shrimp).

Pesticides from Microbes-Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-Source: A naturally occurring bacterium.Uses:

Widely used as a biological pesticide, Bt produces proteins that are toxic to specific insect larvae
(e.g., caterpillars). It’s often used in organic farming.Trichoderma spp.Source: A genus of
fungi.Beauveria bassiana-Source: A soil fungus.

Cosmetics/Cosmeceuticals from Plants

Aloe VeraSource: Gel extracted from the leaves of the aloe vera plant (Aloe barbadensis miller).Uses:
Commonly used in skin care products for its soothing, moisturizing, and healing properties. It is often
applied to sunburns and dry skin.Tea Tree OilSource: Extracted from the leaves of the tea tree
(Melaleuca alternifolia).Uses: Widely used in skincare for its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory
properties. It is effective in treating acne and other skin infections.Rosehip OilSource: Obtained from
the seeds of the rosehip fruit (Rosa canina).Uses: Known for its high vitamin C content and essential
fatty acids, rosehip oil is used in anti-aging products and to improve skin tone and texture.

from Animals -LanolinSource: A natural wax secreted by the sebaceous glands of sheep.Uses:
Used in moisturizing creams and lotions for its emollient properties, helping to keep skin hydrated
and soft.SqualeneSource: Originally derived from shark liver oil, but now often sourced from plant
oils like olive oil.Uses: Commonly used in moisturizers and anti-aging products for its moisturizing
and antioxidant properties.Hyaluronic AcidSource: Can be derived from rooster combs (a poultry
byproduct) or produced by fermentation of bacteria.Uses: A popular ingredient in skincare
products for its ability to retain moisture, providing hydration and plumpness to the skin.

from Microbes- Lactic Acid-Source: Produced by the fermentation of lactose by Lactobacillus

bacteria.Uses: Commonly used in exfoliating products and chemical peels for its ability to improve
skin texture and hydration.ProbioticsSource: Beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and
Bifidobacterium.Uses: Used in skincare products to promote a healthy skin microbiome and may
help in treating acne and other skin conditions.Fermented Plant ExtractsSource: Derived from
various plant materials fermented by microbes.Uses: Used in cosmetic formulations for their
antioxidant properties, improved absorption, and enhanced skin benefits.

, ADDITIVES/NUTRACEUTICALS AND OTHER INDUSTRIALLY VALUABLE

Additives are substances added to food products to enhance their flavor, appearance,
preservation, or nutritional value. They can include preservatives, flavor enhancers,
colorants, and emulsifiers. Nutraceuticals are food products or ingredients that provide
health benefits beyond basic nutrition. They often include fortified foods, dietary
supplements, and functional foods that contain bioactive compounds known to promote
health or prevent diseases.

Additives and Nutraceuticals from Animals

Animal sources also contribute valuable additives and nutraceuticals. Fish oil, rich in omega-
3 fatty acids, is widely recognized for its cardiovascular benefits and is often marketed as a
dietary supplement to support heart health and cognitive function. Another example is
collagen, derived from animal connective tissues, which has gained popularity as a
supplement for improving skin elasticity and joint health. It is commonly added to beauty
products and health supplements. Additionally, honey, produced by bees, is not only a
natural sweetener but also has antibacterial properties, making it a favored additive in
health foods and traditional remedies.

Additives and Nutraceuticals from Microbes

Microbial sources provide a range of additives and nutraceuticals that are valuable in
various industries. Probiotics, which are beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and
Bifidobacterium, are extensively used in functional foods and dietary supplements for
promoting gut health and enhancing the immune system. They can be found in products like
yogurt and kefir, as well as in capsule form. Furthermore, spirulina, a blue-green algae, is
rich in protein, vitamins, and antioxidants, making it a popular nutraceutical in health foods
and dietary supplements. It is often marketed for its energy-boosting properties and is used
as a natural colorant in various food products. Lactic acid, produced through fermentation
by bacteria, is another valuable microbial product used as a preservative and flavoring agent
in food, as well as in cosmetics for its exfoliating properties.

Other Industrially Valuable Products

Beyond additives and nutraceuticals, plants, animals, and microbes are vital sources of
various industrially valuable products. From plants, natural rubber obtained from the sap of
rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) is essential in manufacturing tires and various elastic
products. Additionally, cellulose derived from plant fibers is used in paper production,
textiles, and biodegradable plastics. From animal sources, wool from sheep serves as an
essential textile material, while silk, produced by silkworms, is highly valued in the fashion
industry for its luxurious quality. Microbial fermentation processes are crucial for producing
enzymes used in food processing, textile manufacturing, and biofuel production,
demonstrating the versatility and importance of microbial contributions to industrial
applications.

MODULE 5
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO; BIOMEDICINE: INTRODUCTION,
PRESENT SCENARIO & FUTURE PROSPECT

Biomedicine, which integrates biological and medical sciences, has transformed healthcare
by enhancing disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment through advanced technologies
and research. Nationally, countries have established strong biomedicine sectors driven by
government support, investments in research and development, and collaboration between
academia, industry, and healthcare institutions. The United States, for example, leads in
biomedicine with its robust biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, supported by
organizations like the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).Internationally, biomedicine has seen significant advancements, with
countries like Germany, Switzerland, and Singapore emerging as leaders in biomedical
research and innovation. The European Union has fostered collaboration among member
states through initiatives like Horizon Europe, which funds research and innovation in health
and biotechnology. Additionally, global partnerships, such as the World Health Organization
(WHO) and various public-private partnerships, have emphasized the importance of
biomedicine in addressing global health challenges, including pandemics, antibiotic
resistance, and chronic diseases.

Introduction to Biomedicine
Biomedicine is an interdisciplinary field that applies biological principles and techniques to
medical practice. It encompasses areas such as molecular biology, genomics, bioinformatics,
and pharmacology to understand diseases at a molecular level and develop targeted
therapies. Biomedicine has revolutionized areas like cancer treatment, regenerative
medicine, and personalized medicine, enabling more effective and tailored approaches to
patient care.

Present Scenario of Biomedicine

Currently, the biomedicine field is experiencing rapid growth and innovation. Advancements
in genomics and biotechnology have paved the way for precision medicine, where
treatments are customized based on an individual’s genetic makeup. The ongoing research
into gene editing technologies like CRISPR and advancements in immunotherapy are
reshaping cancer treatment and providing new avenues for addressing genetic
disorders.The COVID-19 pandemic has further accelerated the development of biomedicine,
highlighting the importance of vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics. mRNA vaccine
technology, which was quickly developed for COVID-19, is now being explored for other
diseases, marking a significant milestone in vaccine development. Moreover, artificial
intelligence and machine learning are increasingly being integrated into biomedical
research, enhancing data analysis and facilitating drug discovery processes.

Future Prospects of Biomedicine

The future of biomedicine is promising, with several key trends and innovations expected to
shape the field:

1. Personalized Medicine: As genomic sequencing becomes more accessible,

personalized medicine will become the norm, allowing for tailored therapies based
on individual genetic profiles.
2. Regenerative Medicine: Advances in stem cell research and tissue engineering hold
potential for developing therapies that can regenerate damaged tissues and organs.
3. Telemedicine and Digital Health: The integration of technology in healthcare will
continue to expand, with telemedicine and digital health tools playing a crucial role
in patient monitoring and management.
4. Global Health Initiatives: Collaborative efforts at national and international levels
will focus on addressing global health challenges, such as infectious diseases, chronic
illnesses, and health disparities.
5. Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: As biomedicine continues to evolve, there will
be a need for robust ethical guidelines and regulatory frameworks to ensure the
responsible use of emerging technologies.

BIOPIRACY, CASE STUDIES ON BIOPIRACY (BASMATI, NEEM, TURMERIC)

Biopiracy refers to the unauthorized use of biological resources and traditional knowledge
by companies or individuals, often without compensating the indigenous communities or
countries from which these resources are derived. This practice raises ethical, legal, and
economic concerns, as it exploits biodiversity and undermines the rights of local populations
who have cultivated and preserved these resources for generations. Biopiracy typically
occurs in the context of patenting biological materials, traditional medicine, and agricultural
products, often leading to disputes between corporations and indigenous communities.

Case Studies on Biopiracy

1. Basmati Rice

Basmati rice, a long-grain aromatic rice primarily grown in the Indian subcontinent, has been
a subject of biopiracy claims. In the late 1990s, the U.S.-based company RiceTec was granted
a patent on certain varieties of Basmati rice, which it claimed were unique and novel. This
patent included hybrid strains that were developed using traditional Basmati rice
varieties.The Indian government and farmers protested against this patent, arguing that
Basmati rice is a traditional product of India and Pakistan, cultivated for centuries. In
response to international pressure, particularly from India and Pakistan, RiceTec later
amended its patent claims. However, this case highlights the challenges faced by developing
countries in protecting their traditional agricultural products against appropriation by
foreign companies.

2. Neem

Neem (Azadirachta indica), often referred to as the "village pharmacy," has been used for
centuries in traditional Indian medicine for its numerous health benefits and pest control
properties. In the 1990s, a U.S. company, W.R. Grace, was granted a patent for a method of
using neem extracts for agricultural pest control.The Indian government challenged this
patent, asserting that the use of neem as a pesticide was a well-documented traditional
practice and thus not novel. The case reached the European Patent Office, which ultimately
revoked the patent in 2000, affirming the principle that traditional knowledge should not be
subject to patenting. This case is often cited as a victory for indigenous rights and the
importance of protecting traditional knowledge.

3. Turmeric

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), known for its active ingredient curcumin, has a long history of
use in traditional medicine, particularly in India, where it is used for its anti-inflammatory
and healing properties. In the late 1990s, a U.S. patent was granted for the use of turmeric
in wound healing.This patent was met with widespread condemnation from the Indian
government and various organizations, arguing that the use of turmeric for medicinal
purposes was an age-old practice well documented in Ayurvedic texts. After extensive
protests and lobbying efforts, the patent was eventually revoked, demonstrating the need
to protect traditional medicinal practices from biopiracy.

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE DIGITAL LIBRARY (TKDL) — CONCEPT AND

IMPORTANCE

The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) is an innovative initiative aimed at

documenting and preserving traditional knowledge (TK) related to biodiversity and
traditional medicine. It is a digital repository that captures knowledge from various cultures,
particularly focusing on practices and uses of medicinal plants, agricultural techniques, and
other forms of indigenous knowledge.The TKDL was developed to create a comprehensive
and accessible database that can be utilized to protect traditional knowledge from biopiracy
and unauthorized patenting. By digitizing this knowledge, the TKDL enables easy reference
and verification, serving as a crucial tool for patent offices, researchers, and policymakers.

Features of TKDL

1. Documentation: TKDL systematically documents traditional knowledge across

various domains, including Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and other indigenous medicinal
systems.
2. Accessibility: The library is designed to be accessible to patent examiners and
researchers worldwide, facilitating the identification of prior art and preventing the
misappropriation of traditional knowledge.
3. Multilingual: The TKDL includes knowledge documented in multiple languages,
reflecting the linguistic diversity of traditional knowledge holders.
4. Legal Framework: The library operates within a legal framework that allows for the
protection of traditional knowledge while promoting its rightful use and ensuring
that communities receive recognition and compensation for their contributions.

Importance of TKDL

1. Protection of Traditional Knowledge: TKDL plays a vital role in safeguarding

traditional knowledge from biopiracy and patenting abuses. By providing a
repository of documented practices, it helps demonstrate that certain knowledge
has existed prior to any patent claims, thus providing legal protection to indigenous
communities.
2. Empowerment of Indigenous Communities: By recognizing and valuing traditional
knowledge, TKDL empowers indigenous and local communities, enhancing their
rights over their knowledge systems and resources. It promotes respect for their
contributions to biodiversity and medicine.
3. Facilitating Research and Innovation: The TKDL serves as a valuable resource for
researchers and innovators, providing insights into traditional practices that can
inspire new products, therapies, and technologies in fields such as medicine,
agriculture, and nutrition.
4. Policy Development: The information contained in the TKDL can inform national and
international policies related to biodiversity, traditional medicine, and intellectual
property rights. It serves as a basis for discussions on the ethical use of traditional
knowledge in research and development.
5. Cultural Preservation: By documenting and digitizing traditional knowledge, TKDL
contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage. It ensures that traditional
practices, beliefs, and customs are recognized and valued, fostering
intergenerational knowledge transfer.
6. Collaboration and Partnership: TKDL encourages collaboration among various
stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, academic institutions, and indigenous
communities. This collaboration is crucial for promoting sustainable practices and
protecting biodiversity.

. BIOPROSPECTING AGREEMENTS, BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL

CONTRACTS.

Bioprospecting agreements are legal contracts that govern the exploration and utilization of
biological resources and traditional knowledge. These agreements are essential in ensuring
that bioprospecting activities are conducted ethically and that the benefits arising from
these activities are shared fairly with the communities and countries providing the
resources. Such agreements often address issues related to access to genetic resources,
benefit-sharing, and the protection of traditional knowledge.

Key Elements of Bioprospecting Agreements

1. Access and Ownership: Agreements should define who has the right to access
genetic resources and traditional knowledge, typically requiring prior informed
consent from indigenous communities and governments.
2. Benefit-Sharing: These agreements outline how the benefits arising from the use of
genetic resources will be shared. Benefits can include financial compensation,
technology transfer, and support for community development.
3. Research and Development: Contracts may specify the scope of research, including
the intended use of the collected resources, the duration of the research, and the
responsibilities of each party involved.
4. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Agreements often address the ownership of any
intellectual property developed from the resources accessed, ensuring that
indigenous knowledge and contributions are recognized.
5. Compliance with National and International Laws: Bioprospecting agreements
should comply with local regulations and international treaties, such as the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Nagoya Protocol.

Bilateral Contracts-Bilateral contracts are agreements made between two parties, typically
involving two countries or organizations. In the context of bioprospecting, bilateral
agreements can facilitate cooperation in accessing and utilizing biological resources and
traditional knowledge.

Examples and Features of Bilateral Contracts:

1. Cooperation Agreements: Countries may enter into agreements to jointly explore

specific biological resources, ensuring that both parties benefit from the findings. For
example, a country rich in biodiversity may collaborate with a developed nation with
advanced research capabilities.
2. Mutual Recognition: Bilateral agreements can include clauses for recognizing each
other's intellectual property rights and traditional knowledge systems, thereby
enhancing trust and collaboration.
3. Capacity Building: Such agreements often include provisions for capacity building,
where one party assists the other in developing the necessary skills and
infrastructure for bioprospecting and research.

Multilateral Contracts-Multilateral contracts involve three or more parties and are

essential for facilitating international collaboration in bioprospecting. These agreements can
be established between multiple countries, organizations, or stakeholders to address shared
interests and goals.

Examples and Features of Multilateral Contracts:

1. International Treaties: Multilateral agreements can take the form of international

treaties, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which provides a
framework for countries to collaborate on biodiversity conservation, sustainable use,
and equitable benefit-sharing.
2. Regional Cooperation: Countries within a specific region may establish multilateral
agreements to promote collective bioprospecting efforts, sharing knowledge and
resources while protecting regional biodiversity.
3. Joint Research Initiatives: Multilateral contracts can facilitate joint research
initiatives, where multiple countries collaborate on specific bioprospecting projects,
sharing resources, knowledge, and benefits derived from the research.
4. Standardization of Practices: These agreements can help standardize practices and
regulations regarding bioprospecting, ensuring that all parties adhere to common
ethical and legal standards.

Bioprospecting Agreements-Example -Agreement between the University of California and

the Government of Costa Rica (2003): This agreement allowed researchers from the
University of California to explore Costa Rican biodiversity for potential pharmaceutical
applications. It established terms for access to genetic resources, research obligations, and
benefit-sharing mechanisms, ensuring that Costa Rica would receive a percentage of any
profits from commercialized products derived from its biodiversity.

Bilateral Contracts -Example -Bilateral Agreement between India and the United States
(2008): This agreement aimed to enhance cooperation in bioprospecting and research on
biodiversity. It emphasized the importance of sharing benefits derived from biological
resources and traditional knowledge and included provisions for mutual recognition of each
country’s intellectual property rights. This collaboration facilitated research on traditional
medicinal plants used in Ayurveda and their potential applications in modern medicine.

Multilateral Contracts-Example -Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Established in

1992, the CBD is an international treaty with participation from over 190 countries. It
provides a framework for countries to collaborate on biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources. The CBD emphasizes fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from genetic resources, thereby protecting traditional knowledge and
ensuring that countries benefit from their biodiversity.