Module 3 Protection

Chapter 3: Sequence Components and Fault Analysis 2015

Chapter 3

Sequence Components and Fault Analysis

Objectives:
In this chapter we will introduce sequence components, Extract positive, negative and
zero sequence components from 3-ϕ unbalanced phasors, and synthesize a 3-ϕ
unbalanced phasor using sequence components. Analyze 3-ϕ, SLG, LL and LLG faults
using sequence components. We will solve some tutorial problems to extract sequence
components from an unbalanced phasor. Define sequence transformation with 'b' as
reference phasor, and Analyze the effect of changing reference phasor. Find out fault
currents for SLG, LL and LLG faults. In this chapter we will discuss per unit calculation
and its advantages. Modeling aspects of static apparatus like transmission line and
transformers. Modeling of rotating machine like synchronous machines and induction
machines. Formation of sequence admittance matrices. Evaluation of Thevenin's
equivalent. We begin with a brief review of per unit calculation used in power system
analysis. In this lecture we will solve tutorial problems on fault analysis in sequence
domain per unit values of all element impedance in the given system. Reduction of the
circuit for the given fault locations. SLG fault current for the given system.
3.1 Sequence Components:

Electrical systems occasionally experience short circuits. These short circuits are
hazardous to the safety of both equipment and people. Though the protective devices
will isolate the faults safely, the parts of the system should withstand the resulting
mechanical and thermal stresses. Fault impedance and fault current estimates also form
input for the setting and coordination of protective devices like overcurrent relay,
distance relay etc. Hence it is very important to estimate the magnitude of the fault
currents. The equipment rating are decided based on this value. Fault currents can be
estimated either by hand calculation or by fault analysis program. Sources of Fault
Current: The fault current in a system can be contributed by any of the following:
 Synchronous Motors and Condensers
 Induction Machines
 Synchronous Generators
 Electrical Utility System
 Distributed Generation
Faults in a 3-phase system can be single line to ground, double line to ground, line to
line or three phase. Power system operation during any of these faults can be analyzed
using sequence components. The method of sequence component was discovered by
Charles L. Fortescue in 1918. He came up with the following intuition that any 3-ϕ
46 Power System Protection

unbalanced system has 6 degrees of freedom; whereas, a 3-ϕ balanced system has only
2 degrees of freedom. Hence an unbalanced 3-ϕ system having 6 degrees of freedom
can be synthesized by 3 sets of balanced system each having 2 degrees of freedom.
Note: This idea can be easily extended to N-phase system where N≥3. For a three phase
system with phase sequence a-b-c, the three sets of balanced phasors are called positive,
negative and zero sequences.
3.1.1 Positive Sequence Component:

It represents a set of balanced phasors Va1, Vb1 and Vc1. If we choose 'a' phase as
reference phasor. Vb1=a2Va1, and Vc1=aVa1. Where ‘a' is cubic root of unity. Multiplying
a phasor by ‘a' causes a rotation of 120o in the anticlockwise direction (lead of 120o).
Similar usage of a2 results in in the anticlockwise direction or equivalently a lag of 120o.
The positive sequence of phasors is the same balanced set of phasors that we expect in
steady operation of an ideal power system. Thus, a, b and c phasors are nothing but Va1,
Vb1 and Vc1 respectively. The sequence phasors are shown in fig 3.1. If the stator of an
induction motor is subjected to positive sequence voltage, it should cause rotation in
anticlockwise direction. Note that placement of Va1 can be done arbitrarily in the x-y
plane. But once, Va1 is fixed both Vb1 and Vc1 are fixed. Thus, a positive sequence set
of phasors have 2 degrees of freedom i.e. we can decide placement of |Va1| (magnitude)
and /Va1 arbitrarily.
3.1.2 Negative Sequence Component:

Negative sequence phasors are used to represent a balanced set of phasors (each of equal
magnitude and phase difference of 120o) but in which the order of Vb and Vc has been
reversed with respect to the positive sequence phasor. Thus, Vb2=aVa1, and Vc2= a2Va1
This is illustrated in fig 3.1. Note that placement of Va2 in x – y plane can be done
arbitrarily. However, once Va2 is fixed both Vb2 and Vc2 are automatically fixed. Thus,
negative sequence component have exactly two degrees of freedom which is to fix
magnitude and angle of Va2. If stator of a 3-ϕ induction motor is subject to negative
sequence voltage the rotor will rotate in a clockwise direction. i.e. in exactly opposite
direction to that obtained with the positive sequence voltage.
Fig. 3.1 Set of the sequence phasor

3.1.3 Zero Sequence Component:

The zero sequence phasors Va0, Vb0 and Vc0 are a set of balanced phasors defined as
follows. Va0=Vb0=Vc0. Again there are two degrees of freedom
in placing the zero sequence phasors. Application of zero
sequence does not create any rotation to the rotor of an
induction machine. This is because the net mmf induced in the
air gap is zero. An unbalanced set of phasors can be synthesized
by linear combination (superposition of positive, negative and
zero sequence phasors). For example,
3.2 Mathematical description of sequence components:

So far we have seen that, 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0 , 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑏2 + 𝑉𝑏0 , and 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐1 +
𝑉𝑐2 + 𝑉𝑐0 , using above equation, we get:
𝑉𝑎 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎0
[𝑉𝑏 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [𝑉𝑎1 ] (3.1)
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 2
1 1 1
[ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 ] [ ][ 012 ] [ ]
or stated more compactly, 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑎 where 𝐴 = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ]and a=ej2π/3
1 𝑎 𝑎2
Matrix [A] defines a linear transformation of phasors from sequence domain to phase
domain. Matrix [A] enjoys some interesting properties. For example, every pair of rows
or columns of matrix [A] are orthogonal. For example, If c1 = (1, 1, 1)t and c2 = (1, a2,
a)t Then, (c1)H c2 = (c2)H c1 = 0 where H is Hermitian operator defined as transpose and
conjugate of a vector or matrix. Similarly, In other words, AHA = AAH = D, where D is
3 0 0
a diagonal matrix, with 𝐷 = [0 3 0],
0 0 3
1 1 1
−1 1 𝐻 1
It can be verified that 𝐴 = 𝐴 = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ], and
3 3
1 𝑎2 𝑎

𝑉𝑎0 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎
1
[𝑉𝑎1 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] [𝑉𝑏 ] (3.2)
3
𝑉𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉𝑐
3.2.1 Geometrical interpretation:

We illustrate the inverse transformation for phase to sequence domain by geometrical
method. We are given a set of unbalanced phasors and we have to compute the sequence
components from it. Algebraically, it is simply application of equation (3.2).
Geometrically, it can be interpreted by noting that 'a' represents 120o rotation of phasor
in anticlockwise direction and a2 is 240o rotation of phasor in anticlockwise direction.
3.2.2 Significance of Transformation:

One should understand the significance of linearity in sequence component
transformation clearly.
 Sequence transformation matrix [A] provides a methodology to convert
sequence domain phasors to phase domain phasors.
 Conversely, inverse transformation matrix [A-1] provides a mechanism to
convert phasors in a-b-c domain to sequence domain.
 This is typically required for analysis purpose. Also, the mapping between phase
domain and sequence domain is 1:1.
 There is no loss of information in either domain. In other words, both domains
have identical information content.
 The transformations [A] and [A-1] are linear i.e. if Vxabc and Vyabc are two sets of
three phase phasors in a-b-c domain, then superposition Vxabc and Vyabc in phase
domain is equivalent to corresponding superposition in sequence domain.

Conversely, if we superpose phasors in sequence domain, then in a-b-c domain also it

amounts to equivalent superposition of phasors. Thus:
𝐴−1 (𝛼𝑉𝑥𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝛽𝑉𝑦𝑎𝑏𝑐 ) = 𝛼𝐴−1 𝑉𝑥𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝛽𝐴−1 𝑉𝑦𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝛼𝑉𝑥012 + 𝛽𝑉𝑦012
Where Vx012=[ Vx0 Vx1 Vx2], Vy012=[ Vy0 Vy1 Vy2], and α and β are complex numbers.
Similarly, 𝐴(𝛼𝑉𝑥012 + 𝛽𝑉𝑦012 ) = 𝛼𝐴𝑉𝑥012 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑦012 = 𝛼𝑉𝑥𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝛽𝑉𝑦𝑎𝑏𝑐
Sequence components provide a methodology to view unbalanced phasors as a set of
balanced phasors. If a network is balanced, then the resulting analysis gets extremely
simplified. This is because we are able to break a three phase network into three
decoupled sequence networks (under some acceptable symmetry assumptions). We now
elaborate on this concept of decoupled sequence networks.
3.3 Modeling Network in Sequence Components:

We now show that corresponding network modeling can also be simplified in sequence
domain. If the three phase network elements enjoy a particular symmetry (circulant
structure) then, application of sequence component transformation diagonalizes three
phase impedance or admittance matrix. Thus, we achieve decoupling in positive,
negative and zero sequence networks, provided that network is balanced. Hence,
sequence component analysis is used when network is balanced but phasors or loads
are unbalanced. To begin with, consider a transposed transmission line whose three
phase model is given by the following equation. Zs is the self impedance of transmission
line and Zm is the mutual impedance between two phases. These quantities can be
evaluated from GMD and GMR of transmission line. ΔVa, ΔVb and ΔVc is the drop in
phase voltage across the line due to currents Ia, Ib and Ic respectively then:
∆𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
[∆𝑉𝑏 ] = [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [𝐼𝑏 ] (3.3)
∆𝑉𝑐 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐
𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑎0 ∆𝑉𝑎 ∆𝑉𝑎0
Applying the transformation, [𝐼𝑏 ] = 𝐴 [𝐼𝑎1 ] and [∆𝑉𝑏 ] = 𝐴 [∆𝑉𝑎1 ] with phase 'a' as
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑎2 ∆𝑉𝑐 ∆𝑉𝑎2
reference phasor.
we get, [∆𝑉 012 ] = [𝐴−1 ][𝑍][𝐴][𝐼012 ]
Hence,
∆𝑉𝑎0 𝑍𝑠 + 2𝑍𝑚 0 0 𝐼𝑎0
[∆𝑉𝑎1 ] = [ 0 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 0 ] [𝐼𝑎1 ] (3.4)
∆𝑉𝑎2 0 0 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎2
Let Z0=Zs+2Zm, Z1=Zs-Zm, and Z2=Zs-Zm
Then equation (3.3) can be decoupled into three separate equations one for each
sequence component as follows.
ΔV0=Z0I0, ΔV1=Z1I1 and ΔV2=Z2I2. Also, note that Z0, Z1 and Z2 are the eigen values of
the phase-impedance matrix Zabc. Reference phasor subscript 'a' has been dropped for
convenience. Thus, we see that positive, negative and zero sequence networks are

decoupled. In general, if Z matrix has following circulant symmetry we can decouple

the positive, negative and zero sequence networks by sequence transformation A. It can
𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚1 𝑍𝑚2
be shown that if, 𝑍𝑎𝑏𝑐 = [𝑍𝑚2 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚1 ], then Z012=A-1ZabcA
𝑍𝑚1 𝑍𝑚2 𝑍𝑠
where 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑠 + 𝑍𝑚1 + 𝑍𝑚2
𝑍1 = 𝑍𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑍𝑚1 + 𝑎𝑍𝑚2 (3.5)
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑠 + 𝑎𝑍𝑚1 + 𝑎2 𝑍𝑚2
Thus, all the sequence components can be determined from the above equations.
3.3.1 Advantages of Sequence Transformation:

 It is used when the network is balanced. For a n - node system a 3n×3n linear
system solver Iabc=YabcVabc Can be decoupled into three n×n linear system
solvers I0=Y0V0, I1=Y1V1 and I2=Y2V2. Hence it provides decoupling of the
network.
 It can be applied for both balanced and unbalanced loads. However, simplicity
and elegance of sequence component approach reduces when network is
unbalanced.
 Zero sequence current is used to provide sensitive earth fault detection technique.
3.4 Fault Current Calculation in Sequence Domain:

Consider a transposed transmission line connected to an ideal voltage source E. The
fault appears at the remote end of transmission line. We now derive sequence network
interconnections for different fault types. We begin with a three phase fault.
3.4.1 Three phase fault:

Three phase faults are considered to be symmetrical and hence sequence components
are not necessary for their calculation. It can be easily shown that for a three phase fault
as in fig. 3.4, fault currents are balanced with, I2=I0=0 and I1=Ia (Hint: I012=A-1Iabc with
Ib=a2Ia and Ic=aIa). Thus, for a Three Phase Fault only Positive Sequence Network is
considered. The fault currents are given by the following equations I1=Ea/Z1 (solid
fault), and I1=Ea/Z1+Zf (Fault through impedance Zf)
3.4.2 Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG):

On an unloaded system (fig 3.5), let there be 'a' phase to ground fault with a fault
impedance Zf. Then, the faulted system is described by, Ia=If, Ib=0 and Ic=0. Applying
sequence transformation, we get Thus, I0=I1=I2=Ia/3. Let Vf represent the voltage of the
transmission line at the receiving end of the line where fault is created. Further, from
equation,

𝑉𝑓𝑎 𝐸𝑎 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
[𝑉𝑓𝑏 ] = [𝐸𝑏 ] − [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [𝐼𝑏 ] (3.6)
𝑉𝑓𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐
Equivalent in the sequence domain we get by premultiplying (4) by A-1 i.e.
𝑉𝑎0 0 𝑍0 𝐼𝑎0
[𝑉𝑎1 ] = [𝐸𝑎 ] − [ 𝑍1 ] [𝐼𝑎1 ] or
𝑉𝑎2 0 𝑍2 𝐼𝑎2
𝑉𝑎0 = −𝑍0 𝐼𝑎0
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝑍1 𝐼𝑎1 (3.7)
𝑉𝑎2 = −𝑍2 𝐼𝑎2
Since for SLG fault at phase 'a' Va0+Va1+Va2=Va=ZfIa we can add equations 3.7. In
addition when we invoke the condition that Ia0=Ia1=Ia2=Ia/3 we get Vfa,
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 =
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2 +3𝑍𝑓
The SLG fault can be visualized by a series connection of positive, negative and zero
sequence networks with three times the fault impedance. The positive sequence,
negative sequence and Zero sequence fault currents are given by following equations.
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = (Solid Fault)
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = (Fault through impedance Zf)
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2 +3𝑍𝑓
𝐼𝑎𝑓 = 𝐼𝑎0 + 𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑎2 = 3𝐼𝑎0 = 3𝐼𝑎1 = 3𝐼𝑎2

On similar lines following equations can be derived for LL and LLG faults.
Fig. 3.4 3-ϕ fault Fig. 3.5 SLG fault Fig. 3.6 LL fault
3.4.3 LL fault:
The Zero Sequence Data is not required for this fault.
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎1 = −𝐼𝑎2 = (solid fault)
𝑍1 +𝑍2
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎1 = −𝐼𝑎2 = (fault through impedance Zf)
𝑍1 +𝑍2 +𝑍𝑓

3.4.4 Line to Line Ground Fault (LLG):

1. Bolted Fault:
𝐸𝑎 𝑍0 𝑍2
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑍 𝑍 , 𝐼𝑎2 = −𝐼𝑎1 , and 𝐼𝑎0 = −𝐼𝑎1
𝑍1 + 2 0 𝑍2 +𝑍0 𝑍2 +𝑍0
𝑍2 +𝑍0
2. Fault current through impedance Zf

𝑍𝑓 𝑍𝑓
𝐸𝑎 (𝑍0 + +3𝑍𝐹𝐺 ) (𝑍1 + )
2 2
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑍𝑓 𝑍𝑓 , 𝐼𝑎2 = −𝐼𝑎1 , 𝐼𝑎0 = −𝐼𝑎1
𝑍2 +𝑍0 +𝑍𝐹 +3𝑍𝐹𝐺 𝑍2 +𝑍0 +𝑍𝐹 +3𝑍𝐹𝐺
𝑍𝑓 (𝑍1 + 2 )(𝑍0 + 2 +3𝑍𝐹𝐺 )
𝑍1 + +
2 𝑍2 +𝑍0 +𝑍𝐹+3𝑍𝐹𝐺
Fault current in phases b and c:

Ib=I0+a2Ia1+aIa2, Ic=I0+aIa1+a2Ia2, and IF=Ib+Ic=3I0
Zf is fault impedance between the lines, while ZFG is the fault impedance to Ground.
Example 3.1:
The currents in a 3-ϕ unbalanced system are given by: Ia=(10+j4)A, Ib=(11-j9)A, and
Ic=(-15+j9)A. Calculate the zero, positive and negative sequence currents.
Ans:
Ia0=(1/3)(Ia+Ib+Ic)=(2+j1.33)A
Ia1=(1/3)(Ia+aIb+a2Ic)=(9.196+j8.84)A
Ia2=(1/3)(Ia+ a2Ib+aIc)=(-1.196-j6.172)A
Where: a=-0.5+j0.866, and a2=-0.5-j0.866
b – phase: Ib0=Ia0=(2+j1.33)A, Ib1=a2Ia1=(3.06-j12.38)A, and Ib2=aIa2=(5.94+j2.05)A
c – phase: Ic0=Ia0=(2+j1.33)A, Ic1=aIa1=(-12.25+j3.54)A, and Ic2=a2Ia2=(-4.747+j4.12)A
Example 3.2:
The zero, positive and negative sequence voltages of phase ‘a' are given below. Find
out the phase voltages Va, Vb, and Vc.
V0=200/0o, V1=210/-30o, and V2=150/190o
Ans:
Va=V0+V1+V2=268.5/-29.2o V
Vb=V0+a2V1+aV2=248/-62.5o V
Vc=V0+aV1+a2V2=431.7/54.4o V
Example 3.3:
A 20MVA, 6.6kV 3-phase generator has a positive sequence impedance of j1.5Ω,
negative sequence impedance of j1.0Ω and zero sequence impedance of j0.5Ω. and
Pm=0 (a) If a single phase to ground fault occurs on phase ‘a' find out the fault current.
(b) If the fault is through an impedance of j2Ω, what will be the fault current?
Ans:
The fault has occurred on ‘a' phase. Taking ‘a' phase as reference,
(a) Va=3810V

For a single line to ground fault, I0=I1=I2=Va/(Z0+Z1+Z2)=-j1270.2A

Fault current: IaF=I0+I1+I2=3I1=-j3810.5A
(b) If the fault is through an impedance of j2Ω
I0=I1=I2=Va/(Z0+Z1+Z2+3Zf)=-j423.3A
IaF=I0+I1+I2=3I1=-j1269.9A
Example 3.4:
In a 3-ϕ system, if the per unit values of positive, negative and zero sequence reactances
are given by: j0.1, j0.085, and j0.05 respectively. Determine the fault current, if the fault
is (a) L-L-G (b) L-L.
Ans:
(a) For LLG fault involving phases b & c. Let V = 1pu
Ia1=V/(Z1+(Z0Z2/ Z0+Z2))=-j7.6pu
Ia0=-Ia1×(Z2/(Z0+Z2))=j2.82pu
i.e., Fault current = Ib+Ic=3Ia0=j8.44pu
(b) L-L fault: For line to line fault between ‘b' and ‘c'
Ia0=0, and Ia1=-Ia2=V/(Z1+Z2)=-j5.4pu
Fault current = Ib=-Ic=Ia0+a2Ia1+aIa2=-9.36pu
Example 3.5:
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence impedance of a feeder if its self
impedance is j1.67Ω and mutual impedance is j0.67Ω.
Self impedance Zs=j1.67, mutual impedance Zm=j0.67
Ans:
Positive sequence impedance = Zs-Zm= j1.67 – j0.67 = j1Ω
Negative sequence impedance = Zs-Zm= j1.67 – j0.67 = j1Ω
Zero sequence impedance = Zs+2Zm= 1.67 + 2×0.67 = j3.01Ω
Example 3.6:
Assuming b – phase to be reference phasor define the sequence transformation matrix.
Ans:
With ‘b' phase as reference phasor, the transformation matrix can be defined as follows.
𝑉𝑏 1 1 1 𝑉𝑏0
[ 𝑉𝑐 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [𝑉𝑏1 ]
𝑉𝑎 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏2
Justifications:
Now, if Vb1=Vb2=0, i.e. only zero sequence excitation is present, then we get:
Vb=Vc=Va=Vb0 , thus we see that all the zero sequence components are extracted.
If Vb2=Vb0=0 i.e., only positive sequence excitation is present, then:

Vb=Vb1 (Vb being reference phasor)

Vc=a2Vb1 (Vc lags Vb by 120o)
Va=aVb1 (Vb lags Va by 120o)
Thus, the positive sequence component is properly extracted. Similarly, if Vb1=Vb0=0,
only negative sequence excitation is present i.e., we will get:
Vb=Vb2 (Vb being reference phasor)
Vc=aVb2 (Vb lags Vc by 120o)
Va= a2Vb2 (Va lags Vb by 120o)
Example 3.7:
Comment if the two – sequence transformations obtained by taking ‘a' phase and ‘b'
phase as reference are identical or not.
Ans:
With ‘a' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
𝑉𝑎 1 1 1 𝑉0
[𝑉𝑏 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [𝑉1 ] or Vabc=AaVa012
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉2
With ‘b' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
𝑉𝑏 1 1 1 𝑉0
[ 𝑉𝑐 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [𝑉1 ]
𝑉𝑎 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉2
Now, rearranging the equation to follow the same order as above we get,
𝑉𝑎 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉0
[𝑉𝑏 ] = [1 1 1 ] [𝑉1 ] or Vabc=AbVb012
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉2
Clearly, Aa and Ab are not identical.
Example 3.8:
In example 3.2 if the data represented sequence components with ‘b' phase as reference
phasor, instead of ‘a' phase, compute Va, Vb and Vc. Comment on the result.
Ans:
With ‘b' phase as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is given by,
𝑉𝑏 1 1 1 𝑉0 1 1 1 200∠0
[ 𝑉𝑐 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [𝑉1 ] = [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ] [210∠ − 30]
𝑉𝑎 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉2 1 𝑎 𝑎2 150∠190
We will get:
Vb=268.5∠-29.2o (Vaold), Vc=248∠-62.5o (Vbold), and Va=431.7∠54.4o (Vcold)
Hence, we can conclude that changing of reference phasor causes renaming of phasors
and hence a different result.

Example 3.9:
Analyze a bolted SLG fault on phase ‘b' of an unloaded transmission line using
sequence components with b – phase as reference phasor.
Ans:
With b- phase as reference phasor we have: Vb=Vb0+Vb1+Vb2
Now, for a bolted SLG fault; Vbf=0, Therefore,
𝐼𝑏0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑏 1 1 1 𝐼𝑓
1 1
[𝐼𝑏1 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎 ] [ 𝐼𝑐 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] [ 0 ]
2
3 3
𝐼𝑏2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑎 1 𝑎2 𝑎 0
i.e. Ib0=Ib1=Ib2=If/3,
Based on 3 phase model of balanced circuit
∆𝑉𝑏 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏
[ ∆𝑉𝑐 ] = [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [ 𝐼𝑐 ]
∆𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎
Applying sequence transformation, [∆𝑉 012 ] = [𝐴−1 ][𝑍][𝐴][𝐼012 ]
Hence, [∆𝑉𝑏012 ] = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝑍0 𝑍1 𝑍2 )𝐼𝑏012
Or: ΔVb0=Z0Ib0, ΔVb1=Z1Ib1, and ΔVb2=Z2Ib2,
Where: Z0=Zs+2Zm, and Z1=Z2=Zs-Zm
The terminal voltages are given by:
𝑉𝑏 𝐸𝑏 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏
[ 𝑉𝑐 ] = [ 𝐸𝑐 ] − [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [ 𝐼𝑐 ]
𝑉𝑎 𝐸𝑎 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎
Applying sequence transformation with b – phase as reference phasor,
𝑉𝑏0 0 𝑍0 𝐼𝑏0
[𝑉𝑏1 ] = [𝐸𝑏 ] − [ 𝑍1 ] [𝐼𝑏1 ]
𝑉𝑏2 0 𝑍2 𝐼𝑏2
Now for a bolted fault on b - phase, Vb=0, i.e., Vb0+Vb1+Vb2=Vb=0
𝐸𝑏
Eb-(Z0+Z1+Z2)Ib0=0 or 𝐼𝑏0 =
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2
Thus, to analyze SLG fault on b - phase or a - c LL fault or LLG fault we should take b
– phase as reference phasor in sequence computation.
Example 3.10:
Derive the relationship between zero, positive and negative sequence phasors defined
with ‘b' as reference phasor and corresponding sequence phasors defined with ‘a' as
reference phasor.
Ans:
With ‘a' as reference phasor, the sequence transformation is defined as,
𝐼𝑎0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
1
[𝐼𝑎1 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] [𝐼𝑏 ]
3
𝐼𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
With ‘b' as reference phasor,

𝐼𝑏0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑏
1
[𝐼𝑏1 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] [ 𝐼𝑐 ]
3
𝐼𝑏2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑎
For zero sequence phasor, Ia0=(1/3)(Ia+Ib+Ic), and Ib0=(1/3)(Ib+Ic+Ia), Therefore, Ia0=Ib0
Positive sequence phasor, Ia1=(1/3)(Ia+aIb+a2Ic), and
Ib1=(1/3)(Ib+aIc+a2Ia)=(1/3a)(aIb+a2Ic+a3Ia)= (1/a)(1/3)(Ia+aIb+a2Ic), Since aIb1=Ia1
i.e., positive sequence current with ‘b' as reference phasor lags by 120o with positive
sequence current with ‘a' as reference phasor.
Negative sequence phasor, Ia2=(1/3)(Ia+a2Ib+aIc), and
Ib2=(1/3)(Ib+a2Ic+aIa)=(1/3)(a3Ib+a2Ic+aIa)=)(1/3)a(a2Ib+aIc+Ia), Since Ib2=aIa2
i.e., negative sequence current with ‘b' as reference phasor leads the negative sequence
current with ‘a' as reference phasor, by 120o.
3.5 Sequence Modeling of Power Apparatus:
3.5.1 Review of per unit Calculation and Modeling of Apparatus:

Per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of that quantity to its base value.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Quantities like voltage, current, power, impedance etc can be expressed in per unit. In
the per unit system, there are four base quantities: base apparent power in volt-amperes,
base voltage, base current and base impedance. The following formulae apply to three
phase system, where the base voltage is the line-to-line voltage in volts or kilovolts and
the base apparent power is the three phase apparent power in kilovolt-amperes or
megavolt-ampere (MVA).
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴×1000
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑚𝑝. =
√3 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐾𝑉
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐾𝑉×1000
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑂ℎ𝑚 =
√3 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑂ℎ𝑚×𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑖𝑛 3−∅
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑉)2
Briefly, the advantages of doing computation in per unit are as follows.
 Manufacturers usually provide equipment data with name plate rating as base.
 Range for acceptable % or p.u. values can be easily fixed.
 Especially useful in networks with multiple voltage levels interconnected
through transformers.
 P.U impedance of transformer is independent of the kV base.
 Standard base conversion (scaling with MVA Base) formulae are available.
Note: Many books in first course on power system analysis cover per unit in detail.
Readers who wish to go into more details can look into these references. We now begin
discussing on the sequence modeling of power apparatus.

3.6 Modeling Aspects of Static Apparatus:

We first consider modeling of transmission lines and transformers.
3.6.1 Modeling of Transmission Line:

A balanced three phase transmission line model is given by (fig 3.8). The voltage drop
across the line in phase coordinates is given by,
∆𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
[∆𝑉𝑏 ] = [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [𝐼𝑏 ] (3.8)
∆𝑉𝑐 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐
Applying sequence transformation, we get ΔV0=Z0I0, ΔV1=Z1I1 and ΔV2=Z2I2 Where,
Z0 = Zs + 2Zm, and Z1 = Z2 = Zs - Zm
Thus, for a transposed transmission line, the positive and negative sequence impedances
are equal. A commonly used approximation for Z0 is to assume it to be three times Z1.
3.6.2 Modeling of Mutually Coupled Lines:

If a pair of 3-ϕ transmission lines are far enough, then mutual coupling between them
is negligible (or zero). Fig 3.9 shows two three phase transmission lines running parallel
and close to each other. As per Ampere's law ∮ 𝐻𝑖𝑑𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 , if the lines a1, b1 and c1
carry a positive or negative sequence currents, then flux linking in circuit 2 is zero. The
reason for this is 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡 ) = 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡 ) + 𝑖𝑏 (𝑡 ) + 𝑖𝑐 (𝑡 ) = 0 . However, for zero sequence
currents in circuit 1, flux linking in circuit 2 is not zero. Thus, we see that for parallel
coupled lines, mutual coupling is seen predominantly in the zero sequence circuit.
However, it is not modeled for positive and negative sequence circuits. The same result
can be mathematically derived as follows.
Fig. 3.8 Set of the sequence phasor Fig. 3.9 Mutually coupled lines
Consider two three phase transmission lines on the same tower. Assume that both lines
are transposed. Then, all the mutual impedances between the two circuits are equal. Let
mutual impedance of phase a2 with phases a1, b1 and c1 be equal to α. Then the model
of such transmission line in phase coordinates is given by,
∆𝑉𝑎1 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎2
[∆𝑉𝑏1 ] = [𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 ] [𝐼𝑏1 ] + 𝑗𝛼 [1 1 1] [𝐼𝑏2 ]
∆𝑉𝑐1 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑐2
Applying sequence transformation we will get,

∆𝑉01 𝑍𝑠 + 2𝑍𝑚 𝐼01 3𝛼 0 0 𝐼02
[∆𝑉11 ] = [ 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 ] [𝐼11 ] + 𝑗 [ 0 0 0] [𝐼12 ]
∆𝑉21 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼21 0 0 0 𝐼22
It can be seen that mutual coupling between positive and negative sequence network of
parallel transmission lines is zero. But, mutual coupling in zero sequence network is not
zero. Hence, three phase faults and line to line faults will not be affected by mutual
coupling. However, for all faults involving ground, fault current will be affected by
mutual coupling. This can affect the performance of relays.
3.6.3 Modeling of Ground:

With positive or negative sequence currents, the ground potential at the two distinct
ends of say a transmission line can be taken as zero. If there is a neutral conductor, no-
current flows through it because phasor summation of such balanced currents is zero.
However, the story with zero sequence currents is a bit different. The summation of
zero sequence currents in the three phases does not add to zero unless, the current itself
is zero. Thus, there will be a drop in voltage across the two ground terminals which
depends upon resistance of ground or ground wire. For simplicity, of analysis, this
ground impedance (with a scaling factor of 3) is incorporated in the transmission line
impedance of zero sequence network.
3.6.4 Modeling of Transformer:

The equivalent sequence diagram for a 2 winding three phase transformer depends upon
(1) magnetic circuit design and (2) transformer connection. By magnetic circuit design,
we imply different designs like three phase three limb core, three phase 5 limb shell, a
bank of three single phase transformers or three phase auto transformers. For modeling
of transformers, the magnetization branch is usually neglected because magnetizing
current is very small when the transformer core is not saturated. Hence, only leakage
impedance is taken into consideration. The leakage impedance is not affected
appreciably by a change in phase sequence (a-b-c or b-a-c) as the transformer is a static
device. Therefore, for transformers, positive sequence impedance and negative
sequence impedance are identical. However, excitation for zero sequence flux of the
transformer depends on the type of core used. For a core type (fig 3.10) transformer,
ϕa+ϕb+ϕc=0. This follows from the analogy of KCL.
Now, if the windings of the transformer are provided with zero sequence excitation,
then , ϕa+ϕb+ϕc=ϕ0. Substitutiting it in above equation we get ϕ0=0. Practically, the flux,
ϕa, ϕb and ϕc will not be zero. Rather a leakage flux would exist in the high reluctance
path through air and transformer tank. Since, transformer tank is not stacked, it leads to
heating of the tank. Hence, 3ϕ- core transformers should not be preferred for use in
systems where load is unbalanced e.g. a 3ϕ distribution system. In contrast, for a shell

type transformer (fig 3.11) there exists a low reluctance path through side limbs for zero
sequence flux. Hence, there is no over heating of transformer tank.
Fig. 3.10 Core type transformer
Fig. 3.11 Shell type transformer
In studies typically involving transformer protection, e.g. estimation of inrush current

computation and overfluxing, saturation of transformer core cannot be neglected.
However, such elaborate studies are not carried out with short circuit analysis programs.
Rather, time domain simulation Electro Magnetic Transient Program (EMTP) is used.
In case of a bank of three single phase transformers, it can be easily argued that for such
a configuration, independent low reluctance zero sequence flux path exists and hence
appreciable zero sequence flux can stay in the core. Therefore, zero sequence
impedance of three phase transformer bank can be as high as the positive sequence
impedance. It should be mentioned that actual impedance will also include resistance
of the windings. However, X/R ratio of transformers can be quite high. To summarize,
the positive and negative sequence reactances of all transformers are identical. Zero
sequence reactance is the transformer leakage impedance. In 3-phase core-type
transformers the construction does not provide an iron path for zero sequence. For these,
the zero-sequence flux must pass from the core to the tank and return. Hence, for these
types X0 usually is 0.85 to 0.9 X1, and when known the specific value shall be used. For
shell type transformers which are preferred in distribution systems, zero sequence
impedance is same as positive and negative sequence impedance.
Role of Circuit Connection:

So far we have discussed design issues that characterize the zero sequence impedance
of a three phase transformer. However, this impedance may not always appear between
the H (HV) to L (LV) bus. In case of positive or negative sequence currents, there is
always a path for line currents from H to L through the sequence leakage impedance.

This is irrespective of the transformer connection (Δ/Y or Y/Y etc) because, there is
always a path for positive and negative sequence line currents to flow. However, zero
sequence line currents for a transformer depend not only on zero sequence impedance
but also on the type of transformer connection. For example, a star ungrounded winding
does not provide any path for flow of zero sequence current. The neutral current is given
by In=Ia+Ib+Ic=3I0 . Since, neutral is ungrounded In=0 and hence I0 is also zero. Delta
winding permit circulating zero sequence currents which cannot appear in the line. (fig
3.12). Fig 3.13 summarizes the effect of winding connections on positive, negative and
zero sequence circuit for 3 transformer. N1 indicates neutral bus for positive sequence,
N2 indicates neutral bus for negative sequence and N0 for zero sequence networks.
Fig. 3.12 Delta connection transformer

Fig. 3.13 Zero sequence modelling for different transformer connection
3.7 Modeling of Rotating Machines:
3.7.1 Modeling of Synchronous Machines:
Positive sequence Impedance of Synchronous Generators: The subtransient

reactance Xd’’ determines the current during the first cycle after fault occurs. In about
0.1sec, reactance increases to transient reactance Xd’. In about 0.5sec to 2sec reactance
increases to Xd, the synchronous reactance; this is the value that determines the current
flow after a steady state condition is reached. Synchronous generator data available
from manufacturers.
Positive Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Motors and Condensers: Typically,
motors are used in distribution systems. Hence, fault current analysis for distribution
systems requires explicit modeling of electrical motors. During a fault, motor acts as a
generator to supply fault current. The rotor carrying the field winding is driven by the
inertia of the rotor and load. Stator excitation is reduced due to drop in voltage. The
fault current diminishes as the rotor decelerates. The generator equivalent circuit is used
for synchronous motor. The constant driving voltage and three reactance Xd’’, Xd’ and
Xd are used to establish the current values at three points in time. Synchronous
condensers can be treated in same manner as synchronous motors.
Negative Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machines: For a synchronous
machine, positive and negative sequence impedances cannot be equal. In case of a
synchronous machine, negative sequence currents create a rotating mmf in opposite
direction to the rotor mmf. Hence, double frequency emf and currents are induced in
rotor. Negative sequence impedance is 70-95% of subtransient reactance. It can be
approximated by subtransient reactance. For a salient pole machine, it is taken as a mean
of Xd’’ and Xq’’.

Zero Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machines: Zero Sequence currents

cannot create rotating mmf. In fact, with sinusoidally distributed three phase windings,
the net flux at any point in the air gap is zero. Hence, zero sequence impedance is only
a small % (0.1-0.7) of the positive sequence impedances. It varies so critically with
armature winding pitch that an average value can hardly be given. Since synchronous
machines only generate positive sequence voltage, the internal voltages used with
negative sequence and zero sequence networks are zero. If star point is grounded
through Zg impedance 3Zg, then will have to be added to zero sequence impedance of
generator.
3.8.2 Sequence Modeling of Induction Machines:

In asynchronous machines, transient state of current is damped quickly i.e. within 1-2
cycle. During a fault, rotor is driven by inertia of load and rotor itself. There is no dc
field excitation on rotor. Rotor winding is short circuited. Hence, whatever rotor
excitation is present, it is due to the induced fields in the rotor from the rotating stator
mmf. As stator excitation is lost and rotor slows down, this field is lost quickly. The
current contribution of an induction motor to a terminal fault reduces and disappears
completely after a few cycles. As a consequence, only the sub transient value of
reactance Xd’’ is assigned for positive and negative sequence. This value is almost equal
to the locked rotor reactance.
Subsequently, machine behaves as a passive element with impedance of value

Z=kV2/MVA where rated LL voltage and 3 phase MVA rating is used. Zero Sequence
modeling can be treated in similar lines as synchronous machines because rotor plays
no significant role. For fault calculations an induction generator can be treated as an
induction motor. Wound rotor induction motors normally operating with their rotor
rings short circuited will contribute fault current in the same manner as a squirrel cage
induction motor. Occasionally, large wound rotor motors operated with some external
resistance maintained in their rotor circuits may have sufficiently low short circuit time
constants. Hence, their fault contribution is not significant and may be neglected.
3.8.3 Modeling of Electrical Utility Systems:

The generator equivalent circuit can be used to represent a utility system. Usually, the
utility generators are remote from the industrial plant. The current contributed to a fault
in the remote plant appears to be merely a small increase in load to the very large central
station generators, and this current contribution tends to remain constant. Hence, it is
represented at the plant by single valued equivalent impedance referred to the point of
connection.

3.8.4 Load Modeling:

One approximate way of accounting prefault load flow condition in short circuit
analysis associated with transmission system is to model load as positive sequence shunt
impedance V1/I1=|Vi|2/(Pi-jQi). The shunt load impedances are added into diagonal of
Ybusold.
3.8.5 Modeling of Series Capacitors:

In many utilities, series capacitors or Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation
(TCSC) as shown in fig 3.14 is used to boost the transmission line power flow capacity.
The series capacitors have a negative value of reactance and hence should increase the
fault current levels in their vicinity. However, across every capacitor, a metal oxide
varistor (MOV) is also connected to limit over voltages during fault. Typically, during
a fault MOV conducts, and reduces the capacitive reactance contribution to the
transmission line impedance. Hence, it also reduces fault current values. Since, the
behaviour of MOV is non-linear i.e., its V-I characteristics are nonlinear, short circuit
analysis with series capacitors becomes an iterative process. Modeling in three phase
domain is usually preferred.
Fig. 3.14 Series capacitors with MOV
3.9 Sequence Network Admittance Matrix Formulation:

Now, that, we have necessary information about apparatus modeling, we can start
assembling the sequence network. A three phase admittance matrix model for power
system in phase coordinates can be expressed as follows:
𝐼1𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑌11 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐼1𝑎𝑏𝑐
[ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐼𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑌𝑛1 … 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐼𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑐
In the above equation, each entry in the Y-matrix is itself a 3×3 matrix with a cyclic
structure, [Viabc]=[Via, Vib, Vic]T, [Iiabc]=[Iia, Iib, Iic]T. Vi refers to the voltage of a node 'i'
and Ii refers to the current injection at a node i. The sequence transformation on nodal
voltages can be expressed as follows:
𝑉1𝑎𝑏𝑐 [𝐴 ] 𝑉1012
[ ⋮ ]=[ [𝐴 ] ][ ⋮ ]
𝑉𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑐
[𝐴] 𝑉𝑛012

Similar transformation is defined for current vector. Thus, in the sequence coordinates,
the admittance model is given by the following equation,
𝐼1012 𝐴−1 𝑌11𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐴 ⋯ 𝐴−1 𝑌𝑛1 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐴 𝑉1012
[ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
−1 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝐼𝑛012 𝐴 𝑌𝑛1 𝐴 … 𝐴 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝐴 𝑉𝑛012−1 𝑎𝑏𝑐
It can be verified that if 3×3 matrix Yijabc enjoys a cyclic structure, then
𝑌𝑖𝑗0
[𝑌𝑖𝑗012 ] = 𝐴−1 [𝑌𝑖𝑗𝑎𝑏𝑐 ]𝐴 = [ 𝑌𝑖𝑗1 ]
𝑌𝑖𝑗2
In other words, there is no coupling between the zero, positive and negative sequence
components of a balanced network because 3×3 matrices [Yij012] and [Yii012] are
diagonal matrices. By permuting the rows and columns in such a way that all the zero
sequence, positive sequence and negative sequence quantities are grouped together, a
three phase admittance matrix can be described by three decoupled sequence matrices
as follows,
0 0 0
𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠
1 1 1
[𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 ]=[ 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 ] [𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 ]
2 2 2
𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠
In the above equation, each of the sequence admittance matrix represents the
corresponding sequence network.
Differences between YBUS Modeling in Short Circuit Analysis and Load Flow
Analysis: Load flow analysis uses only positive sequence admittance matrix while short
circuit analysis requires positive, negative and zero sequence admittance matrix. The
admittance matrix formulation used in load flow analysis and short circuit analysis have
some subtle differences. In load flow analysis, the voltage at generator terminal is
assumed to be fixed. Hence, source impedance and internal generator voltages are not
modeled. In contrast, in short circuit analysis, the generator model is an internal emf
source (open circuit source voltage) behind a transient reactance (see fig 3.15) which
leads to equivalent Norton circuit as shown in fig 3.16. Hence, machine sequence
impedances admittance have to be added to the corresponding diagonal entries of YBUS
in short circuit analysis. Similar remarks hold for load modeling.
Fig. 3.15 Generator internal EMF modelling Fig. 3.16 Norton’s Equivalent
Hence, positive sequence YBUS of load flow analysis and short circuit analysis are not
identical.
3.10 Short Circuit Analysis Using Sequence Components:

Let the prefault network be described by the following model [Is]=[Ybuss][Vs], where 's'
can be 0, 1 or 2, are the sequence components under consideration. Typically, for a
balanced system representing a prefault transmission network, [I0]=[ [I2]=0. Hence, in
the prefault condition, the only equation of interest is [I1]=[Ybus][V1]. We use subscript
old to indicate the prefault value. Hence, prefault equation is given by:
[Iold1]=[Ybusold1][Vold1].
3.10.1 Construction of Thevenin's Equivalent:

Estimation of the fault current requires construction of Thevenin's equivalent circuit at
the faulted busses. Interconnection of thevenin's equivalents in sequence domain will
depend upon fault type. Faults in a power system can be classified into shunt faults and
series faults. Shunt faults are typically, bus faults viz. LLL, LL, LG and LLG. An
example of series fault is opening of a phase conductor in a transmission line. A
simultaneous fault involves multiple occurances of fault at the same time instant. For
example, a phase conductor breaking and falling to ground is a simultaneous fault which
is mix of both shunt and series faults. Most of above faults can be analyzed in sequence
components. For simplicity, we restrict analysis to bus fault which is created at a bus i
. Faults on intermediate points of transmission line can be modeled by introducing
phantom buses. The prefault load flow analysis (typically carried out on the positive
sequence network) provide the Thevenin's (open circuit) voltage Vith, while the fault
impedance Zf is treated as the “load impedance” on the ith bus.
To compute the Thevenin's impedance at faulted bus 'i', all the current sources are open
circuited (made zero) and then 1 p.u. of current is injected at bus 'i' . In the vector
notations, this process is represented by current injection vector ei where ei is the ith
column of identity matrix. Then, the equation [Ybusold1][V1]=[e1] is solved by sparse LU
factorization and forward backward substitution. The ith element of the resulting voltage
Vi gives the Thevenin's impedance. The computation of Thevenin's impedance for
negative and zero sequence networks proceed on similar lines. The fault currents are
computed by well known sequence network interconnections, discussed in this chapter.
3.10.2 Calculation of Short Circuit MVA:

When short circuit analysis program is used to determine the rating of circuit breakers,
short circuit MVA at the fault bus is specified. Typically, it is computed for a three
phase fault. The following equations summarize its calculation.
3∅ − 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼3∅ 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢 × 3∅ − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑆𝐿𝐺 − 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼𝑆𝐿𝐺 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢 × 3∅ − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴

Since, from design considerations, the maximum fault MVA is of interest, the faults
considered are bolted faults. Short circuit MVA is also used to specify the strength of
the utility interconnection, while carrying out fault analysis for distribution system. For
example, if short circuit MVA level is specified as 500MVA at the point of
interconnection, then on a 100kVA system base, it implies a source impedance of
j100/500=j0.2. A bus with high value of fault MVA is said to be a strong bus and
conversely a bus with low fault MVA, is said to be a weak bus.
3.11 Closing Remarks:

Fault analysis involves quasi-sinusoidal-steady-state modeling of a dynamical system
involving fault. It assumes that (a) the system is stable and (b) network natural transient
are neglected. Evaluation of the system stability i.e. whether post-fault system will
retain synchronism or not requires transient stability analysis. The justification for such
approximation in fault analysis is that, it is used to determine rating of circuit breakers,
and pickup settings for relays which depend on fault currents. A more involved analysis
of transient behaviour immediately after a fault (a few cycles) requires usage of Electro
Magnetic Transient Program (EMTP). EMTP models fast transients but usually
neglects electromechanical transients which are essentially slower due to inertia of
rotors. Thus, fault current levels can as well be extracted by EMTP. However, data
requirement of EMTP modeling is quite high. In absence of data for such detailed
modeling, short circuit analysis program provide a fast and conservative estimate of
fault currents. However, fault analysis programs cannot model onset of dc offset current.
Many standards like IEC, ANSI/IEEE, VDE specify empirical multiplication factors to
obtain the maximum asymmetrical fault current levels. For industrial systems, an
approximate value that can be used is 1.6 i.e. maximum asymmetrical fault current can
be taken to be 1.6 times maximum symmetrical fault current. At transmission system
level, this value can increase further. It can be of the order of 2.7-3.0. Finally, when
setting for time delayed relays have to be evaluated (example, setting of backup relays),
then the values of source impedances also have to be altered. Standards specify the
requisite multiplication factors. Considering, all such issues, we conclude that fault
analysis is a flavour of both "science and art".
Example 3.11:
Fig 3.17 shows the single line diagram of a 13.8kV system connected to a 480V bus
through a 13.8kV/480V transformer. Two motor loads of 400hp and 600hp are
connected to the bus through three parallel three core copper cables. If a 3 phase bolted
fault occurs at F1, compute the fault currents. Repeat the calculations for fault at F2.
Ans:
Let us take base power as 1000kVA and base voltage as 480V.

.
Fig. 3.17 Three phase distribution system
𝑘𝑉𝐴×1000
Then base current = =1202.8A
√3×𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
Base impedance = =0.2304Ω
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Now, we have to convert all impedances element into per unit values on a common
base. Here the impedance base is 0.2304Ω. Short circuit contribution from 13.8kV
source = 600MVA.
600×1000
Source Modeling: Short circuit current = =25102A, and X/R ratio = 15
√3×13.8
Zs=base kVA/short circuit kVA=1000/600000=0.00166pu
Zs2= Rs2+ Xs2= Rs2+ (15×Rs)2, Rs=0.00011pu, and Xs=0.00165pu
i.e. Zs in pu =0.00011+j0.00165
1000kVA Transformer Modeling. Zt=5.75%, Rt=1.21%
The per unit value of Rt=0.0121×(1000/1000)=0.0121
Per unit value of Zt=0.0575×(1000/1000)=0.0575, the Xt=0.0562pu
i.e. Zt in pu =0.0121+j0.0562
Cable C1 Modeling: Length of cable C1=500m,
Resistance of one conductor per km = 0.178Ω
Reactance of one conductor per km = 0.108 Ω
Since, three conductors are in parallel, equivalent resistance and reactance for 500m
length is given by,
Rc1=(0.178/3)×(500/1000)=0.0297Ω, and Xc1=(0.108/3)×(500/1000)=0.018Ω
Converting Rc1 and Xc1, into per unit,
Rc1=0.0297/0.2304=0.129 in pu, and Xc1=0.1080/0.2304=0.078 in pu
i.e. Zc1 in pu = 0.129+j0.078

Cable C2 Modeling: Length of cable C2=300m,

Resistance of one conductor per km = 0.181Ω
Reactance of one conductor per km = 0.124Ω
Since, three conductors are in parallel, equivalent resistance and reactance for 300m
length is given by,
Rc2=(0.181/3)×(300/1000)=0.0181Ω, and Xc2=(0.124/3)×(300/1000)=0.0124Ω
Converting Rc2 and Xc2, into per unit,
Rc2=0.0181/0.2304=0.0786 in pu, and Xc2=0.0124/0.2304=0.0538 in pu
i.e. Zc2 in pu = 0.0786+j0.0538
Motors:
Note that 1hp = 746watts; if we assume a motor power factor of 0.746, then equivalent
motor kVA will be unity. Hence, we will assume that 1hp is equivalent to 1kVA.
Subtransient reactance = 25%, X/R Ratio = 6
Per unit reactance of motor 1, Xm1=0.25×1000/400=0.625 pu, Rm1=0.625/6=0.1042 pu,
and Zm1 in pu =0.1042+j0.625
Per unit reactance of motor 2, Xm2=0.25×1000/600=0.416 pu, Rm1=0.416/6=0.069 pu,
and Zm2 in pu =0.069+j0.416
The equivalent circuit of the system used to calculate the Thevenin's equivalent at node
A is shown in fig 3.18. The dotted lines indicate the ground potential.
Fault at F1:
We now desire to compute Thevenin's impedance at node A. For fault at F1, the network
as shown in fig 3.18 can be reduced to network as shown in fig 3.19. Hence, Thevenin's
impedance, Zth is given by, 1/Zth=1/(Zs+Zt)+1/(Zci+Zm1)+1/(Zc2+Zm2)=20.3∠-77.1o,
then: Zth= 0.049∠77.1o pu. Therefore, three phase fault current at fault F1 =(Vf/Zth)×base
current = 1×1202.8/0.049=24547A
Fault at F2:
For fault at F2, the network shown in fig 3.18. can be reduced as shown in fig 3.20.
Calculation of Z = Zc1+1/(1/(Zs+Zt)+1/(Zc2+Zm2))=0.141+j0.131 pu
1/Zth=1/Z+1/Zm1=6.53∠-51.2o, then Zth=0.153∠51.2o pu. Therefore, three phase fault
current at fault F2 =(Vf/Zth)×base current = 1×1202.8/0.126=7861.44A
Fig. 3.18 Equivalent circuit Fig. 3.19 Reduced network

Fig. 3.20 Thevenin’s Equivalent at F2 Fig. 3.21 Three bus system
Example 3.12:
Fig 3.21 shows the single line diagram of a 3 bus system. The sequence data for
transmission lines and generators are given in table. If a bolted single line to ground
fault occurs at F, calculate the fault current. If the fault impedance is j0.1 pu; what will
be the fault current?
Description Sequence data in pu
Zero Positive Negative
Generator A J0.03 J0.25 J0.15
Generator B J0.02 J0.20 J0.12
TL 1 J0.14 J0.08 J0.08
TL 2 J0.17 J0.13 J0.13
TL 3 J0.10 J0.06 J0.06
TL4 J0.12 J0.06 J0.06
Ans:
Let us take E as 1 pu. For a SLG fault, Fault current = 3E/(Z0+Z1+Z2+3Zf), where
Z0=Zero sequence impedance, Z1=Positive sequence impedance, Z2=Negative sequence
impedance. We have to find out the Thevenin's equivalent zero, positive and negative
sequence impedances with respect to fault F.
Zero Sequence Impedance: For calculating Z0, the circuit shown in fig 3.21 is reduced
as shown in fig 3.22. i.e. Z1 = j0.052 pu
Positive Sequence Impedance: Similarly, positive sequence impedance Z1 can be found
out by reducing the circuit as shown in fig 3.23. i.e. Z1 = j0.134 pu
Negative Sequence Impedance: Negative sequence impedance Z2 For negative sequence
impedance the circuit can be as shown in fig 3.24. i.e. Z2 = j0.09 pu
Now, fault current If=3E/(Z1+Z2+Z0)=3/j0.276=-j10.869pu
If fault impedance Zf=j0.1pu, then If=3E/(Z1+Z2+Z0+3Zf)=3/j0.576=-j5.208pu

Fig. 3.22 Computation of Thevenin’s Equivalent impedance Z0

Review Questions
1. What are sequence components?
2. Derive the sequence transformation matrix using 'c' phase as reference phasor.
3. Show that sequence transformation is linear.
4. If Zs is the self impedance and Zm mutual impedance of a transmission line, show
that Z0=Zs+2Zm and Z1 and Z2=ZS-Zm.
5. Derive the equation for fault current in (a) L-L fault with fault impedance Zf. (b)
L-L-G fault.
6. If we do not want to lose information during a transformation 'f' from domain
say A to B, then it is required that 'f' should be invertible. In addition, to simplify
analysis, we prefer linear transformations. List out some other transformations
that you have come across in electrical engineering.
7. Clarke's transformation with 'a' phase as reference phasor is defined as follows:
𝐼0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
1
𝐼
[ 𝛼 ] = [2 −1 −1 ] [𝐼𝑏 ]
3
𝐼𝛽 0 √3 −√3 𝐼𝑐
Show that the transformation matrix is invertible. Hence, define the inverse
transformation from Clarke's components to phase components.
8. Using Clarke's transformation show that:
1) for a - g fault: Iα=2I0, Iβ=0
2) b - c - g fault Iα=-I0
3) b - c fault Iα=0, I0=0
4) 3 - phase fault I0=0
9. Suppose that in an DSP implementation of relay, we have to choose between the
sequence transformation and Clarke's transformation suggest your choice and
justify it from computational requirement and ability to correctly detect a fault.
10. Derive the relationship between the transformation matrices Aa and Ac with 'a'
and 'c' as reference phasors respectively.
11. Derive the relationship between positive, negative and zero sequence phasors
with 'c' as reference phasor with corresponding sequence phasor with 'b' as
reference phasor.
12. Out of the four fault types (SLG, LL, LLG and 3-ϕ) magnitude of which fault
current will be the highest and why?
13. Find the symmetrical components if Va=200∠30o, Vb=180∠-60o and
Vc=150∠145o.
14. The zero, positive and negative currents of phase ‘a' are given by (5+j1)A, (7.5–
j1.2)A and (6+j2)A respectively. Find out Ia, Ib, and Ic.
15. A 3-ϕ, 20MVA, 11kV generator with positive, negative and zero sequence
impedance j2, j1.8 and j0.6 is connected to a feeder with sequence impedance

j1.5, j1.5 and j4.5. If a SLG fault occurs at the remote end of the feeder, calculate
the fault current.
16. Find out the ratio of fault currents for SLG fault to bolted fault of a generator
with Z1=j1.0pu, Z2=j0.8pu, and Z0=j0.3pu. Comment on your findings.
17. In a 3-ϕ system, the pu values of positive, negative and zero sequence
impedances are given by j1.5, j1.25 and j0.6 respectively. The fault impedance
is given by j1Ω. Determine the fault current for LL fault and LLG fault.
18. What are the advantages of per unit computation?
19. How does mutual coupling between transmission lines affect the fault current?
20. Why is the zero sequence impedance of a shell type transformer different than
that of a core type transformer?
21. The zero sequence impedance of a synchronous machine is small compared to
its positive sequence impedance. Why?
22. A 3ϕ fault MVA of an industrial power system at the point of connection with
utility system is 50kVA. On a 100kVA base, determine the sequence impedances
for utility system.
23. Calculate the symmetrical fault currents at locations F1 and F2 of fig 3.25.
24. For the system shown in example no. 3.12 , find out the fault current for:
1) SLG fault with j0.1 fault impedance.
2) LL fault and LLG fault between b - c phases.
3) LL fault and LLG fault with j0.1 fault impedance. Single line diagram of
this question is shown in fig 3.21
25. Single line diagram of a system is shown in fig 3.26. The base value is taken as
30MVA, 34.5kV. The positive and negative sequence impedances of load are
1.0∠25.84o, 0.6∠29o pu respectively. Load voltage is kept at 1.0 pu. Calculate
the fault current for fault at F. Assume that zero sequence reactance of generator
is zero.
Fig. 3.25 3ϕ distribution system Fig. 3.26 3ϕ distribution system

Recap
In this chapter we have learnt the following: Sources of fault current, Method to extract
sequence components from unbalanced phasor, Advantages of sequence
transformation, Derivation of sequence transformation matrix, Fault current formulae
and interconnection of sequence network for three phase, SLG, LL and LLG faults.
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
To calculate sequence components for an unbalanced set of phasors. To find out the
unbalanced phasors from a given set of sequence components. Relationship between
sequence transformation matrices with 'b' and 'c' as reference phasors. To find out fault
currents for different types of faults. To calculate the sequence impedance of a feeder.
In this lecture we have learnt the following: The advantages of per unit calculation.
Modeling of static apparatus. Effect of mutual coupling on the zero sequence impedance
of transmission line. Modeling of synchronous machines and induction machines.
Sequence network admittance matrix formulation. In this lecture we have learnt the
following: To calculate per unit values of different elements in a system. Reduction of
the given complex circuit for different fault locations. Three phase symmetrical fault
current calculation. Fault current calculation of the given system.

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Chapter 3: Sequence Components and Fault Analysis 2015

Sequence Components and Fault Analysis

3.1 Sequence Components:

46 Power System Protection

3.1.1 Positive Sequence Component:

3.1.2 Negative Sequence Component:

Fig. 3.1 Set of the sequence phasor

47 Power System Protection

3.1.3 Zero Sequence Component:

Fig. 3.2 Set of the sequence phasor

3.2 Mathematical description of sequence components:

48 Power System Protection

3.2.1 Geometrical interpretation:

Fig. 3.3 Set of the sequence phasor

3.2.2 Significance of Transformation:

49 Power System Protection

Conversely, if we superpose phasors in sequence domain, then in a-b-c domain also it

3.3 Modeling Network in Sequence Components:

50 Power System Protection

decoupled. In general, if Z matrix has following circulant symmetry we can decouple

3.3.1 Advantages of Sequence Transformation:

3.4 Fault Current Calculation in Sequence Domain:

3.4.1 Three phase fault:

3.4.2 Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG):

51 Power System Protection

𝐼𝑎𝑓 = 𝐼𝑎0 + 𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑎2 = 3𝐼𝑎0 = 3𝐼𝑎1 = 3𝐼𝑎2

52 Power System Protection

3.4.4 Line to Line Ground Fault (LLG):

2. Fault current through impedance Zf

Fault current in phases b and c:

53 Power System Protection

For a single line to ground fault, I0=I1=I2=Va/(Z0+Z1+Z2)=-j1270.2A

54 Power System Protection

Vb=Vb1 (Vb being reference phasor)

55 Power System Protection

56 Power System Protection

3.5 Sequence Modeling of Power Apparatus:

3.5.1 Review of per unit Calculation and Modeling of Apparatus:

57 Power System Protection

3.6 Modeling Aspects of Static Apparatus:

3.6.1 Modeling of Transmission Line:

3.6.2 Modeling of Mutually Coupled Lines:

Applying sequence transformation we will get,

3.6.3 Modeling of Ground:

3.6.4 Modeling of Transformer:

59 Power System Protection

Fig. 3.10 Core type transformer

Fig. 3.11 Shell type transformer

In studies typically involving transformer protection, e.g. estimation of inrush current

Role of Circuit Connection:

60 Power System Protection

Fig. 3.12 Delta connection transformer

61 Power System Protection

Fig. 3.13 Zero sequence modelling for different transformer connection

3.7 Modeling of Rotating Machines:

3.7.1 Modeling of Synchronous Machines:

Positive sequence Impedance of Synchronous Generators: The subtransient

62 Power System Protection

Zero Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machines: Zero Sequence currents