Transient Analysis

of Three-Phase Power Systems

In normal operating conditions, a three-phase power
system can be treated as a single-phase system when the
loads, voltages, and currents are balanced. If we postulate
plane-wave propagation along the conductors (it is,
however, known from the Maxwell equations that in the
presence
of losses this is not strictly true), a network representation
with lumped elements can be made when the physical
dimensions of the power system, or a part of it, are small as
compared with the wavelength of the voltage and current
signals. When this is the case, one can successfully use a
singleline lumped-element representation of the three-
phase power system for calculation. A fault brings the
system to an abnormal condition. Shortcircuit faults are
especially of concern because they result in a switching
action, which often results in transient overvoltages.
Line-to-ground faults are faults in which an overhead
transmission line touches the ground because of wind,
ice loading, or a falling tree limb. A majority of
transmission-line faults are single line-to-ground faults.
Line-to-line faults are usually the result of galloping lines
because of high winds or because of a line breaking and
falling on a line below. Double line-to-ground faults
result from causes similar to that of the single line to-
ground faults but are very rare. Three-phase faults, when
all three lines touch each other or fall to ground, occur in
only a small percentage of the cases but are very severe
faults for the system and its components.
In the case of a symmetrical three-phase fault in a
symmetrical system, one can still use a single-phase
representation for the short-circuit and transient analysis.
However, for the majority of the fault situations, the
power system has become unsymmetrical. Symmetrical
components and, especially, the sequence networks are an
elegant way to analyse faults in unsymmetrical three-phase
power systems because in many cases the unbalanced
portion of the physical system can be isolated for a study,
the rest of the system being considered to be in balance.
This is, for instance, the case for an unbalanced load or fault.
In such cases, we attempt to find the symmetrical
components of the voltages and the currents at the point of
unbalance and connect the sequence networks, which are,
in fact, copies of the balanced system at the point of
unbalance (the fault point).
1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
In 1918, C. L. Fortescue published a paper called ‘Method of
Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the Solution of
Polyphase Networks’ in the Transactions of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers. In this paper, he proposed a
method to resolve an unbalanced set of n-phasors
into n − 1 balanced n-phase systems of different phase
sequence and one zero-phase system in which all phasors
are of equal magnitude and angle. This approach will be
illustrated for a three-phase system. Figure 2.1
shows three such sets of symmetrical components.
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 (2.1)
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0
where Va, Vb, Vc are three phasors that are not in balance
and Va1, Vb1,Vc1 and Va2, Vb2, Vc2 are two sets of three
balanced phasors with an angle of 120° between the
components a, b, and c. The components of the phasor
set Va0, Vb0, Vc0 are identical in amplitude and angle.
Equation (2.1) can be simplified by making use of the a-
operator:
Figure 2.1 A set of three unbalanced voltage phasors resolved in three
sets of symmetrical components

The relation between the set of phasors (Va, Vb, Vc) and the
positive phasors, negative phasors, and zero phasors is

(2.2)
Or Vabc = AV012 (2.3)

The a-operator rotates any phasor quantity by 120° and the

inverse relation of Equation (2.2) can be written as

2.4

Or V012 = A−1Vabc (2.5)

In Equation (2.4), 0 refers to the zero sequence, 1 to the positive

sequence,and 2 to the negative sequence. The names zero,
positive, and negative refer to the sequence of rotation of the
phasors. The positive-sequence set of phasors (Va1, Vb1, Vc1) is the
same as the voltages produced by a synchronous generator in the
power system that has phase sequence a-b-c. The negative
sequence (Va2, Vb2, Vc2) has phase sequence a-c-b.
The zero sequence phasors (Va0, Vb0, Vc0) have zero-phase
displacement and are identical. The symmetrical
component transformation is unique if the matrix
operator A is nonsingular. If A is nonsingular, its inverse
A−1 = A exists. The method of symmetrical components
applies to any set of unbalanced three-phase quantities;
similarly, for currents we have relations identical to
Equation (2.4) and Equation (2.5).
2 SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
FOR UNBALANCED NETWORK IMPEDANCES
A general three-phase system has unequal self-impedances
and mutual impedances, as depicted in Figure 2.2:

2.6

Figure 2.2 A general three-

phase system
Both the self-impedances and mutual impedances constitute
sets of unbalanced or unequal complex impedances, and even
balanced currents produce unequal voltage drops between m
and n. The voltage-drop equation from m to n can be written in
matrix form as

2.7

By applying the symmetrical components transform to both

sides, we get
AVmn−012 = ZAI012 (2.8)

The symmetrical components of the voltage drop are given by

Vmn−012 = A−1ZAI012 = Zmn−012 I012 (2.9)

Z is a transform that takes a current vector Iabc into a
voltage-drop vector Vmn, both in the a-b-c system. A is a
linear operator that transforms currents and voltages from
the 0-1-2 coordinate system into the a-b-c system. The new
impedance matrix Z mn−012 can be found directly (see
Equation (2.9)):

2.10

with

2.11
and
2.12

We made use of the property of the a-operator 1 + a + a2 = 0 and

a3 = 1. In Equation (2.12), we made use of the property that
mutual impedances of passive networks are reciprocal, and in this
case it means that Zab = Zba,Zac = Zca and so forth. When the
impedance matrix of Equation (2.10) is substituted in Equation
(2.9), the equation for the positive-sequence component of the
voltage drop V mn−012 is

V mn−1 = (Zs1 − Zm1)Ia0 + (Zs0 − Zm0)Ia1 + (Zs2 + 2Zm2)Ia2 (2.13)

The positive-sequence voltage drop depends not only on Ia1 but
also on Ia2, and this means that there is a mutual coupling between
the sequences. Further, we can conclude that Z mn−012 is not
symmetric; therefore, the mutual effects are not reciprocal and
this is a rather disturbing result. This is the reason that we prefer
to work with the special cases of both self-impedances and
mutual impedances in which the matrix Z mn−012 is simplified. In
many practical cases, the mutual impedances can be neglected
because they are small compared with the self-impedances. The
matrix Z mn−012, however, is nonsymmetric with respect to Zs and Zm
terms and is therefore not made symmetric by eliminating either
the self-terms or the mutual terms, and because elimination of
self-impedance terms cannot be applied (because of the inherent
nature of the power system),a simplification must be sought in
the special case of equal impedance and symmetric impedance. In
many practical power system problems, the self-impedances or
mutual impedances are equal in all the three phases. In such
Zs0 = Zaa , Zs1 = Zs2 = 0 (2.14)
and
Zm0 = Zbc , Zm1 = Zm2 = 0 (2.15)

If we substitute Equation (2.14) and Equation (2.15) in

Equation (2.10) and examine the result, we see that the off-
diagonal terms of Z mn−012 are eliminated, that the
impedance matrix Z mn−012 has become reciprocal,
and that zero-coupling exists between the sequences.
A less-restrictive case than that of equal impedances is the
one in which the self-impedances or mutual impedances
are symmetric with respect to one phase, for example, for
phase a:
Zbb = Zcc and Zab = Zca (2.16)

In this case, the self-impedances become

Zs0 = 1/3 (Zaa + 2Zbb)

Zs1 = Zs2 = 1/3 (Zaa − Zbb) (2.17)

and the mutual impedances are

Zm0 = (Zbc + 2Zab)

Zm1 = Zm2 = (Zbc − Zab) (2.18)
When Z mn−012 is diagonal, it means that the sequences are
uncoupled and currents from one sequence produce voltage
drops only in that sequence – this is a very desirable
characteristic.
A symmetric impedance matrix means that there is a mutual
coupling between sequences but that it is the reciprocal; the
coupling from positive to negative sequences is exactly
the same as the coupling from negative to positive. This
situation can be simulated by a passive network. A
nonsymmetric impedance matrix means that the mutual
coupling is not the same between two sequences; this
situation requires, in general, controlled voltage sources but
its mathematical representation is no more difficult than that
in the symmetric case. It requires computation of all matrix
elements instead of computing only the upper or lower
triangular matrix, as in the symmetric case. In most of the
practical power system calculations, the self-impedances are
considered to be equal, and except for the case of
nonsymmetric mutual impedances, the problem is one of a
diagonal or a symmetric matrix representation.
3 THE SEQUENCE NETWORKS
In the case of an unbalanced load or a fault supplied from
balanced or equal-phase impedances, the unbalanced
portion of the physical power system can be isolated for
study, the rest of the power system being considered as
balanced. In such a case, we determine the symmetrical
components of voltage and current at the point of
unbalance and transform them to determine the system a-
b-c quantities. Therefore, the major objective in problem-
solving is to find the sequence quantities, and for this
purpose, sequence networks are introduced.
The fault point of a power system is that point to which
the unbalanced connection is attached in the otherwise
balanced system. For example, a single line-to-ground
fault at bus M makes bus M the fault point of the
system and an unbalanced three-phase load at bus N
defines N as the fault point. In general terminology, a
fault must be interpreted as any connection or situation
that causes an unbalance among the three phases of the
power system.
A sequence network is a copy of the original balanced power
system to which the fault point is connected and which contains
the same per phase impedances as the physical, balanced power
system. The value of each impedance is a value unique to each
sequence and it can be determined by applying Thevenin’s
theorem by considering the sequence network to be a two-
terminal or a one-port network. Because the positive and
negative-sequence currents are both balanced three-phase
current sets, they see the same impedance in a passive three-
phase network. The zero currents, however, generally see an
impedance that is different from the positive- and negative-
sequence impedance. Care must be taken when the machine
impedance, of the supplying synchronous generators
or of the asynchronous motors in certain loads, has to be taken
into account, because the sequence impedances for electrical
machines are usually different for all the three sequences!
Sequence networks are drawn as boxes in which the fault
point F, the zero-potential bus N (often the neutral
connection), and the Thevenin voltage are shown. Figure 2.3
shows the sequence networks for the zero, positive, and
negative sequences.

Figure 2.3 Sequence networks for the zero, positive, and negative
sequences
By definition, the direction of the sequence current is away from
the F terminal. This is because the unbalanced connection is to be
attached at F, external to the sequence networks, and the
currents are assumed to flow toward this unbalanced connection.
The polarity of the voltage is defined to be a rise from N to F –
this makes Va1 positive for a normal power system. The Thevenin
equivalent voltage Vf in the positive sequence network is the
voltage of phase a at the fault point F before the fault occurred.
The relation for the voltage drop from F to N is an important one
and from Figure 2.3, we can write this voltage drop in a matrix
notation as

2.19
4 THE ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL
THREE-PHASE FAULTS
These rather straightforward steps are illustrated by the
analysis of two power system fault cases that are taken as
typical for circuit breaker testing and standardisation. The
single line-to-ground fault is a very common fault type;
much less common is a three-phase-to ground fault. The
three-phase-to-ground fault, however, is a severe fault
to be interrupted by high-voltage circuit breakers.
4.1 The Single Line-to-Ground Fault
The three-phase circuit of the single line-to-ground fault
(SLG) is drawn in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Three-phase circuit diagram of an SLG fault at fault point F

of the power system
The boundary conditions in the a-b-c system can be derived
by inspection of Figure 2.4:

Ib = Ic = 0 (2.20)
Va = ZfIa (2.21)

These boundary equations are transformed from the a-b-c

system to the 0-1-2 coordinate system:
2.22

2.33
This implies that all the sequence currents are equal, and
when the boundary equations for the voltage relations of
Equation (2.21) are transformed, we find the relation
Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = ZfIa = 3ZfIa1 (2.24)

The fact that the sequence currents are equal implies that
the sequence networks must be connected in series. From
Equation (2.24), we note that the sequence voltages add to
3ZfIa1 – this requires the addition of an external impedance.
The connection of the sequence networks for a single line-
to-ground fault is depicted in Figure 2.5. From Figure 2.5,
we can write
2.25

and now that the sequence current relations are known, we

can determine the sequence voltage relations from Equation
(2.24).
Figure 2.5 Sequence network
connection for an SLG fault
4.2 The Three-Phase-To-Ground Fault
The three-phase-to-ground fault is, in fact, a symmetrical
fault because the power system remains in balance after the
fault occurs. It is the most severe fault type and other faults,
if not cleared promptly, can easily develop into it. The three-
phase circuit of the three-phase-to-ground fault (TPG) is
drawn in Figure 2.6.
The boundary conditions in the a-b-c system can be derived
by inspection of Figure 2.6:

Va = ZfIa + Zg(Ia + Ib + Ic) (2.26)

Vb = ZfIb + Zg(Ia + Ib + Ic) (2.27)
Vc = ZfIc + Zg(Ia + Ib + Ic) (2.28)
Figure 2.6 Three-phase circuit diagram of a TPG fault at fault point F
of the power system
The boundary conditions are again transformed from the a-b-
c system to the 0-1-2 coordinate system, and when we write
in terms of the symmetrical components of phase a, we get

Va = (Va0 + Va1 + Va2) = Zf(Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2) + 3ZgIa0 (2.29)

Vb = (Va0 + a2Va1 + aVa2) = Zf(Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2) + 3ZgIa0 (2.30)
Vc = (Va0 + aVa1 + a2Va2) = Zf(Ia0 + aIa1 + a2Ia2) + 3ZgIa0 (2.31)
It is considered that Ia + Ib + Ic = 3Ia0 = 0 because the fault
impedances Zf and also the supply voltages in each phase are in
balance. Therefore,the currents are also in balance and we can
write

2.32
Figure 2.7 Connection of the sequence network for a TPG fault

This leads to Ia1 = Ia , Ia0 = Ia2 = 0. The sequence networks

are therefore connected as shown in Figure 2.7. When the
fault impedance Zf is small,or even zero, the TPG fault is in
fact a short circuit.
After clearing a three-phase fault, the power system changes
from the steady-state situation, in which the three-phase short-
circuit current is flowing, to the state in which only the power
frequency–recovery voltage is present across the contacts of
the circuit breaker. In an inductive circuit, the change from one
steady state to another is always accompanied by a
transient – the transient recovery voltage or TRV. At current
zero, the arc voltage and the arc current extinguish and the TRV
oscillates from zero to the crest of the AC power frequency–
recovery voltage (See Chapter 4,Circuit Breakers). One of the
breaker poles clears first and the two last clearing poles
interrupt 90° later – they, in fact, form a single-phase circuit.
Of interest is the value of the AC power frequency–recovery
voltage of the first clearing phase because the TRV oscillates to
this value. Let us consider the situation depicted in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8 The interruption of a three-phase line-to-ground-fault in a
power system grounded via a neutral impedance

The system is grounded by means of a neutral impedance at

the star point of the three-phase delta/wye transformer.
When the first pole of the circuit breaker interrupts the
short-circuit current, let us assume that this is phase a, the
other two poles are still arcing and therefore in a conducting
state. In fact, these two last clearing poles interrupt a double
line-to-ground (DLG) fault.
The boundary conditions for this DLG fault are
Ia = 0
Vb = (Zf + Zg)Ib + ZgIc (2.33)
Vc = (Zf + Zg)Ic + ZgIb

These boundary conditions are transformed from the a-b-c

system to the 0-1-2 coordinate system and this results in
Ia = 0 = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 (2.34)
From Equation (2.2) we can write

Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + aVa2 (2.35)

Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a2Va2 (2.36)

and for the difference,

Vb − Vc = −j √3 (Va1 − Va2) (2.37)

From Equation (2.33) we can also write
Vb − Vc = Zf(Ib − Ic) (2.38)

Substituting Equation (2.37) into Equation (2.38) gives

−j√3(Va1 − Va2) = Zf(Ib − Ic) (2.39)

2.40

or
2.41