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What is Instrumentation and Control ?

by Editorial Staff

Instrumentation is the branch of engineering that deals with

measurement and control.

According to ISA or known as Instrumentation and Systems Automation

Society formerly known as Instrument Society of America, the official
definition of Instrumentation – is a collection of Instruments and their
application for the purpose of Observation, Measurement and Control.
Reference: ISA std. S 51.1 – (Instrument Society of America)

An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical

variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure etc. Instruments
include many varied contrivances which can be as simple as valves and
transmitters, and as complex as analyzers. Instruments often comprise
control systems of varied processes. The control of processes is one of the
main branches of applied instrumentation.

Control instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, circuit

breakers, and relays. These devices are able to change a field parameter,
and provide remote or automated control capabilities.

Transmitters are devices which produce an analog signal, usually in the

form of a 4–20 ma electrical current signal, although many other options
using voltage,frequency, or pressure are possible. This signal can be used
to control other instruments directly, or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS,
SCADA system, or other type of computerized controller, where it can be
interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and
processes in the system. Instrumentation plays a significant role in both
gathering information from the field and changing the field parameters,
and as such are a key part of control loops.

Measurement

Instrumentation can be used to measure certain field parameters

(physical values): These measured values may include: pressure, either
differential or static, flow, temperature,
level, density, viscosity, radiation, process instrumentation etc … list goes
on.

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Control

In addition to measuring field parameters, instrumentation is also

responsible for providing the ability to modify some field parameters.

Instrumentation engineering

Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on

the principle and operation of measuring instruments which are used in
design and configuration of automated systems in electrical, pneumatic
domains etc.

They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as

chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of improving system
productivity, reliability, safety, optimization and stability.

To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices

such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their
ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.

Value of Instrumentation Engineer:

The purpose of an instrumentation engineer is to Conceptualize, Design,

Detail, Maintain and Trouble shoot control system for its client/ industry.
Changed mindset and government’s compliance put efforts to make
safety as first priority against profits and production.

When the word safety comes, I usually compare it with a vehicle which I
am driving and suddenly I have to apply brakes. A good vehicle will
immediately comes to a halt without skid and without harm to any
passenger.

What being an Instrumentation Engineer Means

“ Know Thyself ” An instrumentation engineer-

It makes eyes and ears of industry’s happenings. Its an art and science of
measurement and control.

To list a few duties, the sensors selection and implementation,

troubleshooting of all its functioning instruments & tuning its brain
(control system) for best performance and response.

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The value of Design Engineer who DESIGNS

“Rewards are just tokens, its the Hard-Work that counts”

Learn from Worst Incidents happened earlier

“Planning for safer Future”

Most helpful thing while designing could be the lessons from the past, and
techniques which didn’t work and the man-made mistakes, or the
responses which didn’t work for which those were designed.

These lessons could help to design a robust control system which works
flawless and is flexible for more add-on control actions which workers
learn from their daily activities.

Upgrade and Up-to-date

“Change-Replace the existing for better, else get replace by the

better, keep your sustenance”

It is one of the most versatile branch of engineering and changing are

happening at very fast pace with global competition.

Technology we used to use about ten years ago are now being replaced
by more reliable and high speed data communication protocols.

Similarly, technology being used by industry are getting updated at

regular intervals and responsible person should update himself for
changes to understand and implement.

Instrumentation technologists and mechanics

Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in

troubleshooting and repairing and maintenance of instruments and
instrumentation systems.

This trade is so intertwined with electricians, pipe fitters, power engineers,

and engineering companies, that one can find him/herself in extremely
diverse working situations.

An over-arching term, “Instrument Fitter” is often used to describe people

in this field, regardless of any specialization.

Modern Automation World :

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In today’s modern world, the top target of every plant management or
plant ownership is to achieve the safest and maximum production out of
their equipment, machinery and devices. In order to reach that target, one
of the major steps it follows is to install good instrumentation in the plant.

When we walk through a modern day plant, we find many transmitters,

gauges, trolls, control valves, motors, solenoid valves etc. This is all
nothing but Instrumentation. But the fact is, that instrumentation can’t do
anything alone.

It needs some brain that can constantly monitor the readings provided by
it and takes actions accordingly to operate the final control elements like
valves, motors etc.

At the same time, these actions must ensure to operate these devices at
optimal parameters as to ensure their health and long-life. This is where
the world of control comes in.

Control System enables the instrumentation to operate in a way to give

you the safest and optimum production. Nowadays, it is fully automatic.
Once configured, it brings your whole plant over the screens of control
room.

This blog has been developed in order to discuss about these two greatest
technologies of industrial plants. We will be sharing our experiences, our
ideas and our observations. We invite you to be the part of it to contribute
it to be the world’s best resource of learning and sharing the experiences
of instrumentation and control.

Basics of 4 to 20 mA analog Signals

by Editorial Staff

The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial

instrumentation systems is the 4 to 20 milliamp DC standard. This is an
analog signal standard, meaning that the electric current is used to
proportionately represent measurements or command signals.

Typically, a 4 milliamp current value represents 0% of scale, a 20

milliamp current value represents 100% of scale, and any current value
in between 4 and 20 milliamps represents a commensurate percentage
in between 0% and 100%.

The following table shows the corresponding current and percentage

values for each 25% increment between 0% and 100%. Every

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instrument technician tasked with maintaining 4-20 mA instruments
commits these values to memory, because they are referenced so often:

For example, if we were to calibrate a 4-20 mA temperature transmitter

for a measurement range of 50 to 250 degrees C, we could relate the
current and measured temperature values on a graph like this:

This is not unlike 3-15 pounds per square inch (PSI) pneumatic signal
standard, where a varying air pressure signal proportionately represents
some process variable.

Both 3-15 PSI and 4-20 mA signal standards are referred to as live zero
because their ranges begin with a non-zero value. This “live” zero
provides a simple means of discriminating between a legitimate 0%
signal value and a failed signal (e.g. leaking tube or damaged cable)

An important concept to with all analog instrumentation is that

instruments sending and receiving analog signals must be compatibly
ranged in order to properly represent the desired variable.

For example, let us consider a temperature measurement system

consisting of a thermocouple , a temperature transmitter, a 250 ohm
resistor (to convert the 4-20 mA analog signal into a 1-5 volt analog
signal), and a special voltmeter functioning as a temperature indicator:

4 to 20 mA analog Signals

Note that how the output range of each sending device matches the input
range of its corresponding receiving device. If we view this system as a
path for information to flow from the thermocouple’s tip to the transmitter
to the resistor and finally to the voltmeter/indicator, we see that the
analog output range of each device must correspond to the analog input
range of the next device, or else the real-world meaning of the analog
signal will be lost.

This correspondence does not happen automatically, but must be

established by theinstrument technician building the system. In this case,
it would be the technician’s responsibility to properly adjust the range of
the temperature transmitter, and also to ensure the indicator’s display
scale was properly labeled.

Both the thermocouple and the resistor are non-adjustable devices, their
input/output characteristics being fixed by physical laws.

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DC current signals are also used in control systems to command the
positioning of a final control element, such as a control valve or a variable-
speed motor drive (VSD).

In these cases, the milliamp value does not directly represent a process
measurement, but rather how the degree to which the final control
element influences the process.

Typically (but not always!), 4 milliamps commands a closed (shut)

control valve or a stopped motor, while 20 milliamps commands a wide-
open valve or a motor running at full speed.

Final control elements often are equipped with adjustable ranges so that
an accurate correspondence between the analog signal and the desired
control action may be ensured.

Thus, most industrial control systems use at least two different 4-20 mA
signals: one to represent the process variable (PV) and one to represent
the command signal to the final control element (the “manipulated
variable” or MV):

The relationship between these two signals depends entirely on the

response of the controller. There is no reason to ever expect the PV and
MV current signals to be equal to each other, for they represent
entirely different variables.

In fact, if the controller is reverse-acting, it is entirely normal for the two

current signals to be inversely related: as the PV signal increases going
to a reverse-acting controller, the output signal will decrease.

If the controller is placed into “manual” mode by a human operator, the

output signal will have no automatic relation to the PV signal at all,
instead being entirely determined by the operator.

How to Convert Current to Voltage using Resistor ?

by Editorial Staff

In this article, we discuss about How to Convert Current to

Voltage using Resistor with different examples like 0-20 mA to 0-10 VDC
Conversion, 4-20 mA to 2-10 VDC Conversion, 0-20 mA to 0-5 VDC
Conversion.

Convert Current to Voltage

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It is extremely simple to measure 0-20 mA signal with a device that will
measure only Voltage inputs. If the Voltage input module available will
accept a 0-10 Vdc signal, but may not accept a 0-20ma signal directly.

Basically, Ohms law is used to calculate a resistor value in order to

convert the 0-20ma signal to a voltage.

Example : 0-20 mA to 0-10 VDC Conversion

Ohms law states: R = V/I where V is the Voltage, I is the current and R is
the resistance
R = 10V/0.020A = 500 Ohms
Example : 4-20 mA to 2-10 VDC Conversion
Ohms law states: R = V/I where V is the Voltage, I is the current and R is
the resistance
R = 10V/0.020A = 500 Ohms
V = I*R = 0.004*500 = 2V
V = I*R = 0.020*500 = 10V
Example : 0-20 mA to 0-5 VDC Conversion
Ohms law states: R = V/I where V is the Voltage, I is the current and R is
the resistance
R = 5V/0.020A = 250 Ohms
V = I*R = 0*250 = 0V
V = I*R = 0.020*250 = 5V

Note:-
 To avoid damage you must ensure that the external current source
has short-circuit protection in all conductor cases.
 The external resistor is a source of error because of its dependency
on temperature and its inaccuracy.
 In order to obtain measuring results that are as precise as possible
it is recommended to use resistors with tolerances that are as small
as possible.

Performance Characteristics of Sensors and Transducers

by K Mugunthan
In this article, we will learn about sensors and transducers and their
performance characteristics & their features with examples.

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Sensors and Transducers

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy/signal to

another form of energy/signal. For example, conversions of variations in
physical quantity such as force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.
Typical applications are in automation, control systems and they measure
to convert physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, level, flow
or brightness, etc., into an electrical signal or vice versa.

The term Transducer is often used in place of the term sensor.

Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to some physical
change experience a related change.

A sensor is a device that can be used for measuring the physical quantity
and converts it into signals that can be read by a user, an observer, or by
an instrument.

The term sensor is used for an element that produces a signal relating to
the quantity being measured. In the case of an electrical resistance
temperature element, the quantity being measured is temperature and
the sensor transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance.
Thus, Sensors are Transducers. A measurement system may use
transducers in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to
convert signals from one form to another form.

Performance Terminology of Transducers

The following terms are used to define the performance of transducers:
Range and Span
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can
vary on the working. The Span is the difference between the maximum
value and the minimum value.

For example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a
range of 0 to 50kN and its span is 50kN (50 kN – 0 kN = 50kN).

Error

Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the
true value of the quantity being measured.

Error = measured value – true value

but the actual reading is 49 ℃, then the error is +1℃ (50℃ – 49℃). If the
For example, measurement system gives a temperature reading of 50℃ ,

actual reading is 52 ℃ , then the error is -2℃ (50℃ – 52℃). The error can
obtain in both positive and negative values.

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Accuracy

It is the extent in which the value indicated by a measurement system

might be wrong. It is the summation of all the possible errors that are
likely to occur as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been
calibrated.

For example, if the temperature of the system have a specified accuracy

within plus or minus 5 ℃ of the true value.

of ± 5℃, this means that the reading given by the instrument to be lie

Accuracy is mainly expressed in percentage of the full range.

output of 0 to 500 ℃, then the reading can be expected from plus or

For example, a transducer having an accuracy of ± 10% of full range

minus 50 ℃ of the true reading i.e., from 450 ℃ to 550℃.

Sensitivity

It is normally termed as the relationship showing how much output there

is per unit input, i.e., output/input.

For example, a resistance thermometer has sensitivity of 1Ω/℃. This

shows that the thermometer having sensitivity, where there is a deflection
of 1Ω for every 1℃. This is also used to indicate the sensitivity to inputs
other than being measured.

Hysteresis Error

Transducers can give different values of outputs to the same value of

quantity being measured.

So the output value will be obtained by continuously increasing or

continuously decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.

The difference between the decrease in change and increase in change on

the system of measurement known as hysteresis error.

Non-Linearity error

In many Transducers linear relationship between the input and output is

assumed over the working range. i.e., for the given input the obtained
output will produce a graph of straight line. But some times this linearity
will not be occurred due to certain possible errors. The error is defined as
the maximum difference from the straight line. It is known as Non-

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Linearity error. Various methods are used for the numerical expressions
of the non-linearity error.

This error is generally defined by percentage of the full range output. We

can identify the non-linearity error by observing the linear relationship of
the input and output, plot them in a straight line on a graph.

Then the non-linearity function for the input and output also plot in the
same graph. Surely, this non-linearity will not be in straight line. The
difference between two graphs is called error (non-linearity error). Below
image shows the graph of non-linearity error

Repeatability/Reproducibility

Repeatability /reproducibility in transducer is defined as the ability to give

the same output for the applications of the same input value.

The error occurring from the same output not given with repeated
applications is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output.

Repeatability = (max value- min value)/ full range * 100

For example, the maximum resistance measured in system of 100 ℃ is

75Ω and the minimum resistance is 0.1 Ω of the range (0 to 75 Ω), then
the repeatability is calculated by

Repeatability = (75-0.1)/75 *100

Repeatability = 74.9/75 = 0.99 *100
Repeatability = 99
For the system the repeatability will be 99% for the same output value for
the same input.

Stability

Stability of a transducer is the performance of a transducer which will give

the same output when used to measure the same input for a period of
time.

Normally, stability is nothing but for the constant given input the output
will be stable only for given period of time in the measurement system.

Drift

The term drift is used to describe the change in output for a given period
of time for the same input.

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The drift may be expressed as percentage of the full range of output.
There is a term called Zero Drift which is used to describe the change in
output on the system when there is no input or zero input.

Dead Band

The dead band of a transducer is the range of input values in the system
for which there will be no output.

For example , in a Load measurement system the change of resistance

will define the amount of weight but if there will be no output for some
range of input after that output will occur similarly.

The space / time where there is no output for the input is known as Dead
Band or Dead space.

Resolution

When the input varies continuously over the range in the system, which
may cause small change in output signals. Resolution is nothing but small
change in input will cause the observable change in output also.

For example, in wire wound potentiometer the slider moves from one turn
to the next one which will change the output resistance reasonably. For a
transducer giving a digital output will produce a smallest change in output
signal is 1 bit.

Output Impedance

The term output impedance comes to the action in transducers is when it

gives an electrical signal output is interfaced with an electronic circuit.

Because this impedance is being connected with circuits either in series or

parallel connection. The process of this action will gradually modify the
behavior of the system to which it is connected.

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