NAME: BAMIDELE AYOMIPOSI FAYOKEMI

MATRIC NUMBER: LIN/2021/1096

DEPARTMENT: LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

COURSE CODE: LIN 102

LECTURER IN CHARGE: MR AWONIYI

QUESTION: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CONTEMPORARY EFFORTS OF

IKWERRE-RIVERS TOWARDS THE STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LANGUAGE

Introduction
Society is always in a state of flux as social contradiction is natural. In this regard, urbanization is a
cardinal driving force driving the metamorphosis, and each time, it successfully propels change, which
often manifests in cultural diffusion urbanization also infuses into the system a new phenomenon which
generally provides the host society where urbanization is taking place, favourable developmental
advantages ahead of other distanced society. This early exposure to urbanism, it is believed, is one
reason why the Yoruba nation in Western Nigeria is considered for more developed (especially in
education), has more manpower (both quantity and quality manpower) than other ethnic groups and
will continue to in the nearest future. This developmental head start of indigenous societies hosting
urbanization is more apparent in third world countries where development generally is urban biased.
Going by proximity advantage, it is believed that the host communities should be the very first
beneficiary of such developmental opportunity as such, they should be able to marry the new changes
with their culture (the primary basis for development) to their advantage. It is on this basis that this
work intends to establish if the indigenous Ikwerre people, the owners of Port Harcourt are actually
developed given their age-long urban advantage which they have ahead of other ethnic groups and the
abundant opportunities available to them as landlords in Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

2. Conceptual clarification
Urbanization is seen in two senses; demographic sense and a social process. The former is concerned
with redistribution of people to the extent that such redistribution has resulted into heavy concentration
of people in that area than other areas. In this sense, urbanization is closely linked with movement of
people of peoples’ settlement pattern, usually rural to urban and or urban to urban, in a given area. As a
social process, urbanization means the diffusion of people ’ s normative system, values attitudes and
behavior due to demographic increase. In this context, urbanization means change in indigenous
Ikwerre cultural values due to increasing population concentration in Ikwerre land.
• Corresponding author: Maduawuchi elem
• Sociology department, faculty of social sciences ignatius ajuru university of education
rumuolumeni, port harcourt, rivers state
•
• Embolden Ikwerre Development- Ikwerre development means a deliberate, joint and
continuous efforts by Ikwerre people to confront environmental factors (physical and social
environment) that hinder the attainment of Ikwerre higher standard of living. Social environment which
includes: class, religion, ethnicity etc are socially created. Physical environment is concerned with
natural forces or materials created by God. They include the hills, valleys, rivers, seas, terrain, etc.
Overcoming these environmental factors are imperative because environment determines the people’s
cultural contents. So Ikwerre development is one that is tailored towards overcoming all the limitations
posed by their environment in a bid to attaining prompting Ikwerre cultural values or to attaining
meaningful cultural life. Learning on this, Ikwerre development should promote Ikwerre language,
Ikwerre food culture, socio-economic activities and other social activities that define Ikwerre people as
a distinct people on a sustainable basis.
•
• Ikwerre people also called Iwhuruohna (Elem, 2020), Nsirim 2020), Tasie, 2008),
Lawrence-Hart 2020 are a distinct ethnic group and the most populous culture in Rivers State, Nigeria.
Ikwerre people are the traditional owners of Port Harcourt, the capital city of Rivers State. They occupy
four local government area (Obio/Akpor, Port Harcourt, Emohua and Ikwerre local government area)
out of the 23 local government areas that makes up the state. Ikwerre people are sandwiched in the west
by the Ogba-Egbema, Ekpeye and Abua. In the south by the Okrikas and Kalabaris. In the north by the
Etche and Imo State, while in the East they share boundary with Eleme and Oyigbo people. By their
spread, the Ikwerres are strategically blessed, they play host to over sixty per cent of companies in
Rivers State. This includes educational institutions like University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State
University, Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, and Rivers State
College of Health Science and Technology.
• Ikwerre socio-economic and socio-political activities are simply remarkable. They are
predominantly agrarian farmers and fishermen and are located in both marine ecosystem and alluvial
land. Given their vegetation, the people are famous in hunting expeditions, palm wine tapping, palm
fruit gathering, craft making, trade and palm harvesting, brewing of local gin (Omemayagbeke) from
raffia palm, production of palm oil (Ome Monowiri) from palm tree, production of palm kernel oil
(Ome Mono-Oknu) from palm tree fruits etc. Farming (Enruuvil or Ekwu) is the most spectacular of all
their economic activities as it is the chief occupation of the people. They are noted in the production of
garri, (cassava flour, a staple and compulsory food that cannot be resisted in any Nigerian menu. Just
like their garri, Ikwerre vegetable is currently the most priced of all the other vegetables from other
ethnic groups in Nigeria. Besides these, the Ikwerres produce different variety of yams too, and they
practice shifting cultivation type of farming. From these economic activities, hunger is far away from
the people.
• Ikwerre economic life is basically communal. For example, apart from Ngweta, (a
traditional mutual labour hiring method, women use to work for each other or one another’s farm on
rotational basis without money for the labour, but food or provisions which the host provides for the
other farmer or farmers) and hiring of labour, is not very common practice. From laborers are from
relatives; in-laws, friends etc. In Ngweta, the farmers are free to harvest pepper, vegetables, fetch
firewood and harvest Okro from their host farm. The act of group farming in Emohua for example is
greatly enjoyed by the Nne-Ohna and Ele-Eruurie. Nne-Ohna is a member of the Council of Chiefs also
called the Owhor or title holders. Nne-Ohna must be a man and he alongside other ohnas, rule with the
paramount ruler. A collection of Ohna is called Ele-Ohna. Ele-Eru Urie are the family heads. By their
status, they are entitled to free farm work. This act is equally replicated during harvesting of yam which
is seen as fun to all groups mentioned above as their will be so much to eat. To reciprocate their gesture,
the chief gives out tubers of yam to all those who participated in the harvest. The same communal
living is equally seen during burials, child birth, fishing and building of new or fallen houses.
• Politically, the Ikwerre are republican, Ikwerre leadership is patriarchal and gerontocractic
(Worlu, 2014). In this political arrangement, only the eldest son of each family exercises the leadership
authority or have access to the throne. In this regard, the Ohna, even the Nne Eru Urie, is seen as one
who acts as intermediary between the living and the dead. As such, should have sufficient native
wisdom and always standing for the truth and justice.
• At the apex of Ikwerre political leadership is the paramount ruler. In most Ikwerre
communities, access to the throne is through consultation from the ancestors. Below this group is the
family chiefs who preside over family matters. The family chief is assisted by a lieutenant, who will
coordinate when the Nne Eru-Urie is absent. Ascension to the throne is determined by age. In Emohua
and most Ikwerre communities no bastards can ascend these offices.
1. Of importance in Ikwerre leadership is the age grade, a group of people born within three-
years age bracket. They are essentially the community labour force, police and the custodian of
community custom. They can adjudicate on matters concerning their members. Such matters include
infidelity among members’ wives and any member of the age.
◦
• Ikwerre cosmology is crowded with believe in spirit, good and bad spirits who possess the
powers to monitor the activities of man on earth. These spirits are God Almighty (Chiokike), Ancestors,
(dead fathers) and deities, agents of demon). The Ikwerre belief in spirit is demonstrated when
misfortune happens; the people quickly go out to find out from the deities what is responsible. In the
same vein Ikwerres spiritualize the earth, thus the earth is respected as it is capable of bringing good
and bad. This is why an Ikwerre man can exclaim; Eli/Ali Ikweo ( a call on the earth to prevent such
evil from taking place) at the occurrence of a near-mishap (Lawrence Hart (2020). The sacredness of
the each is equally seen when an evil man is buried. Such a man is rejected by the land irrespective of
the years such a corpse has stayed on the ground. The rejection here is confirmed as the corpse will not
discompose, even the clothes and the casket will remain the same; fresh, the way it is, when the person
was buried. Such a corpse will be exhumed by the earth, not by any human force. Such a person will
only decompose if he/she is thrown into the evil forest.
• Equally interesting is Ikwerre entertainment which is revealed in Eregbu dance, Ikwerre
wrestling, and other musical groups like: Jimmy Conter, Majority, Tufiakwa and Promoter Eze. These
musical dance are irresistible as their tracks are full of moral lessons. Ikwerre waist dance is simply
unique among other ethnic groups in Rivers State. Wrestling is used to measure great warriors and also
attracts great honour.
• The implication of these cultural values are monumental, firstly, it is the basis for the
sustained peace and development the Ikwerres enjoy. for example, the hereditary nature of chieftaincy
thrones and the use of spiritual inquiries to determine who will ascend to chieftaincy thrones eliminate
chieftaincy tussles. Secondly, the level of moral rectitude facilitates easy delivery of justice at all levels.
Thirdly, communal living provides a good welfare system in all the diverse economic activities. Beside
these, during burials, women come together to cook free food for visitors. They also contribute food
items and fire-wood. The men whether from the family or not are committed to providing all necessary
services for the burial free. In the same vein all palm wine tappers supply their wine, compulsorily for a
token and sometimes free. In this way, the heavy burden of the burial is shared by all and reduced. All
these account for the peace and development witnessed in the idea/traditional Ikwerre society before
corruption came in, occasioned by urbanization. So the traditional Ikwerre man does not only have
talent he acquires which are vital to conquering his environmental challenges. Such talents in
addressing his needs. When a man learns to tap palm wine for example, he is aware that palm wine will
be useful during burial and wresting contexts.
• 4. Urbanization in Ikweere and Ikwerre development
• Idea urbanization substantially alters a people ’ s way of life especially the indigenous
people’s lives. This is because modern cities over time, have become modern political power houses.
Decisions, according to Ekpenyong (1999), are taken in the cities about levels of taxation and support
for rural development. In all these, cities are unique because of their size, density and heterogeneity.
• Urbanization in Ikwerre land is typical of African cities that evolved from or are midwifed
by European colonialists adventure occasioned by capitalist expansion in Europe which created the
need for external market. In Ikwerre’s case, according to Worlu (2015) and Akani (2020), Port Harcourt,
officially received its name in 1913 by Sir Fredrick Lugard, the then Governor General of Nigeria. The
choice of Port Harcourt was necessitated by its natural habour which the colonialists discovered will be
useful for seaport and railway infrastructure. The establishment of Port Harcourt initiated massive
urbanization of Iwhuruohna communities. Consequently, according to Ofonagoro (1970) in Akani (2020)
spectators, merchants, artisans, traders and the ruling class of Igbo extraction invaded Port Harcourt.
Confirming the Saro-Wiwa (1989:175) in Akani (2020) observe thus:
• “Port Harcourt was from the beginning a cosmopolitan community consisting of labourers,
employees of trading firms, traders, teachers, clergy man, from parts of Nigeria and other West African
Towns, Sierraleone, Ghanaians, Togolese as well as Syrians and Indian Shopkeepers. P. 75”
• Beyond this, the emergence of oil and gas resources and government urban bias or over
preference on Port Harcourt heightened the speed of urbanization in Ikwerre land. For example, all the
military base: Army, Navy and Air Force are in Ikwerre land, all the oil firms and the servicing firms
have their major, if not all their head offices, in Ikwerre land. These include Nigeria Television
Authority, Former Radio Rivers, Nigeria Industrial Training fund in Ozuoba, the list is endless. In the
same manner, the state government over the years is not insulted form this urban bias development. As
it stands, virtually all companies and institutions owned by Rivers State government are situated in
Ikwerre land. This makes Ikwerre land the epic centre from all manner of persons, who wants
meaningful life .
•
• Over time, Port Harcourt has to experience unguarded invasion by people, thus there is a
deficit between the demand for social services especially housing and the demand for housing. This
made the poor, who constitutes greater proportion of the population of emigrants to develop make-shift
settlements in all this eco-environment, thus all waterfront becomes congested. With the growth and the
congestion of waterfronts, the hitherto rich biodiversity of these environments are lost. The loss of the
resource base is significant as it represents the loss of Ikwerre people’s socio-economic value, life and
norms,that defined Ikwerre people.
• In order to direct development in Port Harcourt, subsequent governments over the years
embarked on urban renewal programs. During the military era, Ndoki water side was upgraded with the
false conception of building modern houses for the poor, the price of which is far from what the poor
can afford. As a result, the people congregated in another location to form another slum. During Rufus
Ada George’s era most cultural sites in Ikwerre land like the shrine in Rumuokwuta junction and the
Ojukwu Diobu shrine were destroyed. He even mapped out another land in Rumuosi area for a new
phase of Government Reservation Area. As it stands today, the social boundary between Obio/Akpor,
Port Harcourt and Ikwerre Local Government is difficult to identify. In these developmental drive, the
Ikwerre people have witnessed the worst sacrilege in Rotimi Amaechi ’ s tenure. He did not only
demolish all the remaining existing water fronts in Port Harcourt, he acquired massive land for Greater
Port Harcourt City (GPHC). The new city covers approximately 1,900 square kilometers (40,000
hectares) of land (Worlu, 2015). GPHC according to www.rirsna net in Worlu (2015) has the following
objective, vision and opportunities.
• “ To transform the GPH Area into a world class city, internationally recognizes for
excellence and the preferred destination for investors and tourists. To build a well-planned city through
the implementation and enforcement of policies that will ensure the provision of first- rate
infrastructure and delivery of quality services to enhance the standard of living and wellbeing of the
people. This will be by building a modern city with twenty-four hours electricity supply bulk sewage
system, network of good roads/streets, public transportation system, storm water management, waste
disposal systems, surveillance systems, well laid out residential, commercial and industrial areas, parks
and even gardens. The opportunities that the new city will provide to would be investors will include,
but not limited to power generation and transmission, housing project, urban transportation system,
water supply and reticulation, exciter. Importantly, funds for the projects will be provided by Rivers
State Government (RSG) and Public Private Partnership (PPP) initiative.”
• This sustained government attitude toward acquiring Ikwerre land is disturbing. Firstly it
has led to the loss of Ikwerre socio-economic activities. Wosu (2012) has observed that the invasion of
Ikwerre ancestral land led to the sale of the land by Ikwerre people and that you have become house
agents as an economic way of getting succor in the present state. Secondly, given the speed in urban
growth in Rivers State, Ikwerre people in Port Harcourt City have been subsumed by the diverse culture
in the area. Today, it is very difficult for one to meet and identify an indigenous Rebisi person in what is
known today as Port Harcourt, whether around the old township or the Diobu areas (Worlu, 2015). Like
any other land acquisition, Rivers State Government paid a paltry sum of three hundred thousand Naira
(300,000) only for a plot (Worlu, 2015). As observed above, Ikwerres are patrilineal, farm land can be
given to women, but in this ease, women who constitute significant population are neglected. This
same plot of land, if sold by the individual cannot be less than two million per lot.
• Beside this, the government also embarked on expensive dualization of roads in Port
Harcourt which affected ancestral homes and buildings. Of course, like in other past cases, the Rumular
payment for example is N300,000 per annum. In this 2020 budget, Rivers State government, aside other
projects have started construction of three overhead bridges and expansion of Ikwerre Road to the
Airport in the state. The impact of this in Ikwerre family lands and ancestral landmarks are better
imagined. This generally fear of losing land has pushed communities like Ipo, Omagwa, Igwuruta,
Omademe, which hitherto, are rural areas to start the sale of land. Today in these communities, different
land speculators have acquired large areas of land and have built estates for rent. By this, Ikwerre
people (apart from Emohua community with long history of security) have lost Port Harcourt City,
Obio/akpor and about sixty percent of farm lands in Ikwerre local government area to urbanization.
• In the face of these, can one claim that the current hyper-urbanisation has brought check
about development in Ikwerre? Several studies from Dibia (2011), Okogbule (2018), Wosu (2012) etc.
reveal a conspicuous deficit between the rate of urbanization and Ikwerre development. In these studies,
especially in Dibia (2011) urbanization in Ikwerre has only produced tremendous Ikwerre growth, not
Ikwerre development.
• This is simply true as from the very beginning, the underlying impetus wasn’t to elevate
Ikwerre culture and Ikwerre people capacity to use their resources to bring about quantitative and
qualitative improvement in all aspects of Ikwerre people’s lives. Rather, European economic interest
superseded Ikwerre’s interest. The scenario has not changed,but has deepened in contradiction with the
incorporation of the parasitic local ruling class to the existing western interest. Toda, seventy per cent of
Ikwerre food is from other ethnic groups due to unguided urbanization in Ikwerre land. The massive
infrastructural build up has grossly produced social disarticulation of Ikwerre culture due to the
presence and the influence of other well developed cultures who are attracted to Port Harcourt because
of the hyper-urbanization in the city. Ideal development means that, educational institutions for
example, should lead to an improvement in the indigenous people’s occupation including the Ikwerres
and also teach them (the Ikwerre people) the processes of developing and refining their talents to
improve the existing indigenous Ikwerre values to meet their needs on a sustainable basis. The
evidence of growth not development is seen in the high rate of unemployment among Ikwerre youths
occasioned by loss of land district from other ethnic groups who did not cede their land for
infrastructural development like the Ikwerre’s did. For example, the Ogoni’s even when they rejected
relocation of military base to Bori due to the fear of loss of land among other reasons can still boast of
not less than ten (10) retired and serving senior military officers while the Ikwerres do not have up to
four military officers given the arable land occupied by the Nigeria military in Ikwerreland. The lack of
military personnel in Ikwerre and the abundance of same among other reasons accounts for why the
Ijaws took all the military governorship slots given to Rivers State during the military era, yet not one
piece of their land was given to the military by the Ijaws.
• Beyond this, at least, given the proximity of educational institutions to the Ikwerres and the
real meaning of development, one will expect more Ikwerre and the real meaning of development, one
will expect more Ikwerres in school’s sustenance (not death) of Ikwerre cultural values like Ikwerre
language, dance, adages, folklores, stories and history. The loss of native customs and traditional values
account for incessant land and chieftaincy disputes and near cases of identity loss. Today, most
indigenous Ikwerre children are fluent in pidgin English- the adulterated English language not Ikwerre
language. The death of a people’s culture marks the end (death) of that society.
• 5. Conclusion and Recommendations
• Clearly, the age long hyper-urbanization witnessed in Ikwerreland has produced growth,
not development. It merely made available social infrastructure through excessive land acquisition
without equivalent qualitative increase in the building of Ikwerre culture. The first option for Ikwerre
development is re-invention of or a re-discovery of Ikwerre culture for development. This will entail an
establishment of Ikwerre Research and Development Group. This body should comprise of Ikwerre
with sound research knowledge/interest in Ikwerre culture, history and development. Equally important
in this re-invention enterprise is the re-introduction of Ikwerre literature books, for now, at the primary
school level. In this regard, Ikwerre literary scholars who are naturally gifted in literary works should
be ready to produce short stories on Ikwerre culture and language. This development will help to bridge
the cultural gap between the current generation and the coming ones. To achieve this, Ikwerre people
should collaborate with other ethnic groups in Rivers State to put pressure on the Rivers Sate
Government to do the same for the whole State. When this is sustained, these languages should be
made one of the subjects in all ordinary level examinations in Nigeria just like Hausa, Yoruba and Ibo.
• Similarly, Ikwerres should vehemently oppose forceful acquisition of Ikwerre land, in this,
Ikwerre unity and leadership is vital as it is the secrete why Ogoni succeeded opposing the relocation of
military base to Bori. So Ogbakor Ikwerre, Ikwerre Development Association, and other professional
bodies should brace up to provide the needed leadership drive. Where this opposition is sustained, it
will reduce the rate of urbanization and the speed of erosion of Ikwerre culture while allowing Ikwerre
people to successfully invest on their land at their own pace.
• In this regard, only Ikwerre songs and dances should be used during traditional events.
Finally, there should be extensive investment in human capital of the Ikwerres. This way, Ikwerre will
be able to meet all the privileges due them as specified in the Nigeria constitution and the Memoranda
of Understanding (MOU) they entered with all the institution in Ikwerre land. In this, “Ikwerre Buotu”
(Ikwerre is one) spirit, should drive employment opportunities available.
• Where the very host Ikwerre community is not able to have the required person even in
university admission, the next Ikwerre community should be approached for such opportunity if they
have any. It is expendient for Ikwerre people to have viable Community Development Communities in
all the communities hosting any institution in Ikwerre land who will aggressively pursue their interests
in the MOU and renegotiate the existing ones where necessary. In doing this, the committees should
ensure that Nigeria Local Content Law regarding host communities and their companies is followed.
•
• Obi Nwali(Wali)with his political position helped formed the ikwerre ethnicity, because of
the situation of igbo people in Nigeria then. Ikwerre was formed so the people can get jobs (Igbos were
not employed or allowed to have bank accounts).
•
• Igboid language
•
• Ikwerre, sometimes spelt as Ikwere, is a type of Igboid language spoken primarily by the
Ikwerre people, who inhabit certain areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. It is the biggest Igboid variety along
with Ngwa of Abia State
•
• Majority of the Ikwerre settlements have their roots traceable from the old Benin Empire.”
Iwhnur ọ hna people descended from the ancient Bini Kingdom. The name of the grand ancestor is
Akalaka. Their relations in Rivers State are Ekpeye and Ogba people. The reigning Oba of Benin when
Akalaka, the ancestor of Ihruọha (later called Iwhnurọhna) fled was Oba Ewuare (Ogwaro). Akalaka, a
member of the Benin royal family, fled in the 13 th century on allegation of plotting assassination of the
Oba. He died in 1462. Iwhnur ọhna his third son settled east of the Sombrero River by 1538 AD, as
detailed below. Chief N.M.T. Solomon (2004), native of Ikodu Ubie in Ekpeyeland, in his narrative
draws heavily from the now authenticated written historical records delivered by various informed
sources including “Eketu (Weber) of Ubeta, assumed to have lived for over two hundred (200) years as
the oldest man in all Ekpeye, Ogba and Iwhnur ọ hna (or Ikwerre), at that time (and) was asked to
narrate the history and customs of Ekpeye people” as unfolded in his lifetime. Here is what he said,
which has been validated by the accounts of the current generation through responses to our
questionnaires and direct interviews thereby increasing our level of confidence on the data: Ekpeye,
born in Benin, was the first of the three sons of Akalaka. While in Ndoni, he married a second wife to
gain the love and favour of the people. The new wife gave birth to a son, which he named Ogba.
Akalaka was still in Ndoni when his first wife, the mother of Ekpeye, gave birth to his third son called
Ihruoha (Ikwerre). Similar historical fact by J.N. Olise (1971) averred that: “Akalaka, a member of the
Benin royal family, fled with his wife from Benin to Ndoni, a community located close to the River
Niger, to save the life of his new born baby (Ekpeye) …
•
• While at Ndoni, Akalaka took a second wife. … Akalaka had two sons, Ekpeye – born to
him by his Benin wife, and Ogba – born to him by his Ndoni wife. According to F.E. Otuwarikpo
(1994): ” After the death of Akalaka in 1462 AD, his two sons, Ekpeye and Ogba had conflict, which
compelled Ogba, the younger son, to move northwards where he founded Ohiakwo (Obigwe) and
settled with his family. Ekpeye who remained at Ula-Ubie had seven sons – Ubie, Akoh, Upata,
Igbuduya, Ekpe, Awala and Asa. The last three sons – Ekpe, Awala and Asa crossed to the other side
of Sombreiro River (present day Ikwerreland and settled there since 1538 AD.” He added that: “Ekpe
migrated to present day Rumuekpe and spread through Elele (Alimini), Ndele, Rumuji and part of Ibaa.
Awala migrated to present day Isiokpo …” Amadi-Nna (1993) also said Akalaka migrated with his
half brother called Ochichi from the area of Benin Empire. Ochichi sons were Ele (Omerele, now
Elele), Elu (Elumuoha, now Omerelu), Egbe (Egbeda) and Mini (Alimini, Isiokpo). The crucial point
here, which is of great importance in tracing the joint origin of the ancestors of the Old Ahoada
Division (in the Governor Diete-Spiff administration), is the mention of the number of children that
Akalaka had, namely: Ekpeye, Ogba and Ihru ọ ha (Ikwerre). It is noteworthy that the pedigree and
name of Ikwerre people, Iwhnurọhna, obviously took its root from this original name – Ihruọha. Chief
Solomon therefore establishes a very vital historical link, which has been missing in literature on
Ikwerre origin that would assume more significance in the discourses of Ikwerre genealogy in the
future – the fact that Akalaka was the direct father of Ihru ọha (Ikwerre). Iwhnur ọ hna, in Ikwere
parlance, means the face of the community (town, city or village). Nigerian colonial history records
that the name “Ikwerre” was given by the colonial administration when they wanted to acquire the
Rebisi waterfront to build the wharf. Using an Ibo interpreter to talk to the illiterate Rebisi (Port
Harcourt) chiefs, they asked them: Would you permit us to use the waterfront to build the wharf for
ships to berth? And they answered: A KWERULEM , meaning – “We have agreed.”
• What the white-man was hearing was “Ikwerre,” so he recorded it in the official gazette
that the IKWERRE PEOPLE have agreed for the colonial administration to build the wharf. And since
it was the official record of government, the name Ikwerre became the name of the Iwhnurohna people
in all official documentations till date. Similar cases of Anglicization of native names in the NigerDelta
region by the colonial administration are Benin for Bini, Okrika for Wakrike, Degema for Udekema,
Abonnema for Obonoma, Brass for Gbara sni, Bonny for Ibani, Pepple for Perekule, Ahoada for Ehuda,
etc Even so, “… there were dissenting voices, … who believed that Ikwerre origins lay outside Igbo
land, … in the Benin Kingdom of old. It is, therefore, obvious that the interminable debate about
Ikwerre origins and migrations including the repudiation of the Igbo tradition is not a phenomenon of
the post-civil war period. The controversy, as it were, is not necessarily the product of the present
political realities wherein groups which hitherto were seen to have cultural affinities now find
themselves in different states or administrative systems.” — K.O. Amadi (1993)
• The Ogbakor Ikwerre Convention, a cultural organization of Ikwerre people, in a paper
presented to the Human Right Violation Commission headed by Rtd. Justice Chukwudifu Oputa on 10
October 2001, said: “Ikwerre ethnic nationality is not and has never been a sub-group of any other tribe
in Nigeria including Ndi-Igbo. There is no doubt that the advent of the British and later regionalization
put Ndi-Igbo at the helm of affairs in Eastern Nigeria. This brought Ndi-Igbo into Ikwerre land. In
course of time, the Igbo took advantage of their position in the then Eastern Regional Government to
grab land in Ikwerre and occupy political positions such as the mayor of Port Harcourt. In the process,
Ikwerre along with other minority groups were marginalized and driven to the background.” Professor
Godwin Tasie noted that in 1913 the Rt Rev Herbert Tugwell, the Anglican Bishop on the Niger,
undertook an experimentation tour of Ikwerre towns and villages assumed to be Ibo-speaking to test the
Union Ibo Bible Nso being introduced in Iboland. “Tugwell discovered from the tests he carried out
that although the Ikwerre were often regarded as Ibo… the Union Ibo Bible translation, surprisingly,
was not easily understood by the Ikwere.” This is obviously why Igbo vernacular was compulsorily
introduced and taught in all schools in Ikwerre land before the Nigerian Civil War to the assimilation
(i.e. destruction) of the Ikwere language. This also obviously led to the Rumuomasi Declaration in
1965. ” … in their meeting at Rumuomasi in 1965 the Ikwerre had, under the umbrella of a highly
promising new body that was to get the Ikwerre together as a people of new and clearer vision, they had
declared themselves as a people of the distinct identity of Ikwerre Ethnic Nationality – not Ibo, not Ijo,
not anything else but Ikwerre, Iwhnur ọ hna. This was the historic Rumuomasi Declaration of 1965
(G.O.M. Tasie, 2000). The full implication is that Ikwere people began to assert themselves forcefully
as an ethnic nationality of their own and not Ibos or Ijos, and efforts were made to revert to the original
Ikwere names for families, villages, communities and landmarks. For instance, there was the change
from Umuola to Rumuola, Umuoro to Rumuoro , Umukrushi to Rumuokwurusi , just to name a few.
Background to the Study
• Kachru’s (1992) eccentric model of English has positioned Nigeria within the outer circle,
thereby showing the status English as a second language in Nigeria. Grieve (1982) postulates that
English is ‘ a second language and not a foreign language in Nigeria ’ . Kachru (1982) believes that
Nigerian English is a vital component of world Englishes which has been indigenized to suit local
conditions to express local experiences and to cater for the local Nigerians’ environment. Okon et al
(1990:24) submit that ‘language learnt in contact may often exhibit some kinds of language mixing,
some stretch of speech or at different times. Lado (1957) asserts that: ‘ the student who comes into
contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult’.
This is as a result of the fact that most of the Nigerian languages are likely equivalent to the number of
Englishes being spoken in the country-Nigeria. Also, those aspects of the English language that are
similar to the learners ’ native language will be simple for the learners and those elements that are
different will be uneasy to come by. This uneasiness is popular with the phonology of English.
• In consequence, several researchers have carried out countless researches in a bid to finding
out whether the elements that are different will be difficult as postulated by language experts and
phonologists or not. These scholars (Udofot, 2004; Akinjobi; 2009, 2012; Bamgbose, 1971; Jowitt,2000;
and Akindele,2011) have attested to the assertion that there exists Nigerian English (NE), which is the
variety of the Standard English. They have added by way of confirming that the phonology of Nigerian
English is remarkably different from the Standard English Phonology. This difference reflects more in
both the segmental and supra-segmental aspects of phonology. Researchers, in the past, had focused on
the major Nigerian languages (Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo) but there is a dearth of literature on the minor
languages of the minority in Nigeria. But of recent, new researchers have renewed their focus on some
of these minor languages (Isoko, Ikwerre, Urhobo, etc) so as to prove whether their pronunciation is
standard or not. They are not but they are termed as the sub-types/varieties. In a bid to further add to the
body of knowledge in describing the Nigerian English towards the standardisation of Nigerian English,
the present study centers on Educated Ikwerre English speakers’ (EIE) stress assignment in English
disyllabic and polysyllabic words.
• The ability to speak understandable Standard English accent is synonymous to acceptable
pronunciation which can directly affect negatively or positively world standard acceptable English
accent. Therefore, this study is set to investigate the Educated Ikwerre English (EIE) speakers’ stress
assignment in English disyllabic and polysyllabic words so as to find out how acceptable the accent of
the Ikwerre English speakers is. This would help to describe the features of the phonological usages of
the Educated Ikwerre English (especially in the area of English stress) towards the standardisation of
Nigerian English which has often been said to have lacked national acceptability and world
comprehensibility.

Ikwerre people

This article is about the Ikwerre as a native ethnic group. For the language, see Ikwerre language. For
the local government area, see Ikwerre, Rivers State.
The Ikwerre (natively known as Iwhuruọha)is one of the Igbo subgroups in Rivers State. They are the
biggest ethnic group in Rivers state.Traditional history has classified Ikwerre into seven groups called
"Ikwerre Essa". They are Elele, Isiokpo, Rumuji, Emohua, Choba, Aluu, Igwuruta and Obio
group. This division was recognized by Forde and Jones; (1950) in their ethnographic study of the
Igbo speaking peoples of South Eastern Nigeria though has been disputed by indigenous ikwerre
people. It was also in line with this grouping those seven customary Courts were established in Ikwerre
during the Colonial administration. These Courts were located at Elele, Isiokpo, Umuji, Emohua,
Choba, Aluu and Obio in Ikwerreland.[3]
Ikwerre Igbo
Iwhuruọha[1]
Total population
2 million
Regions with significant populations
Rivers State, Nigeria
Languages
Ikwerre
Religion
Christianity, Omenueli
Related ethnic groups
Ogba people, Ekpeye, Etche, Abua, Kalabari, Ngwa

What is the historical background of Ikwerre?

•
•
• They are descendants from an Igbo migration from Awka and Orlu areas towards the south.
They are part of the Southern Igbo. Before the civil war, there had been dissident voices that claimed
that Ikwerre could have migrated from Owerri, Ohaji, Ngwa, and Etche areas of Igboland.

• Abstract
The work examines if urbanization which took place within Ikwerre land in Rivers State produced
Ikwerre development. The work observed that urbanization did not only removed Ikwerre people from
their land; their natural heritage, but also gave them proximity advantage which should have given
them easy access or advantage to develop at least more than other ethnic groups in Rivers State. On the
contrary, other ethnic groups appears to have had a better head start than Ikwerre people even when
their land is still intact and that urbanization eroded thoroughly Ikwerre culture especially their
language. Based on these, the work recommended a re-invention of Ikwerre culture for development
and peaceful opposition to forceful acquisition of Ikwerre land by the government.