+2 Chemistry EM Material 2024-2025

G.ANBUSELVAM, PG ASST (CHEMISTRY), GHSS, POTHUMBU, MADURAI – .

Ph: 9442286172
+2 Std. Chemistry important question &answer 2024 – 2025
unit 1. Metallurgy
Short questions
1. What is auto reduction?
Some of the ores gives the crude metal by simple roasting without using any reducing agents is known
as auto reduction. Example. HgS + O2 Hg + SO2
2. What is calcination?
Calcination is the process in which the concentrated ore is strongly heated in the absence of air.
During this process moisture, volatile organic matter are removed and the ore become porous.
Eg., CaCO3 CaO + CO2
3. What is gangue?
Non metallic impurities, rocky materials and siliceous matter which are associated with ore,
collectively known as gangue. Example: sand, rocks.
4. What is flux?
During smelting, the substance which is added to react and remove gangue by converting it into slag.
Eg. Basic flux = CaO and Acidic flux = SiO2.
5. What is slag?
In smelting, the remaining gangue materials are removed as slag by reacting with flux.
Example: SiO2 (gangue) + CaO (flux) → CaSiO3 (slag)
6. What is roasting?
Roasting is oxidation of concentrated ore by heating with excess of oxygen in a suitable furnace below
the melting point of the metal. E.g., 2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2↑
7. Give the basic requirements for vapour phase refining.
1. The metal is treated with a suitable reagent which can form a volatile compound with the metal.
2. Then the volatile compound is decomposed to give the pure metal.
8. What is leaching?
The crushed ore is allowed to dissolve in a suitable solvent. The metal present in the ore is
converted to its soluble salt or complex while the gangue remains insoluble. The insoluble gangue
removed by filteration and the pure metal is separated from the compound.
9. What is cementation?
The solution obtained in the cyanide leaching, is treated with zinc metal to reduce the metal to its
elementary state and is called cementation. eg. Gold.
10. How ore is concentrated by gravity separation or hydraulic wash?
Powdered heavy ore is treated with rapidly flowing current of water. During this process lighter gangue
particles are washed away by water and heavy ore settled at the bottom. Eg. Tinstone, Haematite and Gold.
11. What is Ellingham diagram?
The graphical reparesentation of variation of the standard Gibbs free energy of reaction for the
formation of various metal oxides with temperature is called Ellingham diagram.
12. What are the steps involved in the extraction of pure metal from its ore?
1. Concentration of ore.
2. Extraction of crude metal from the ore.
3. Refining of crude metal.
13. What is copper matte?
The molten mixture of Cuprous sulphide and Ferrous sulphide is called copper matte.
14. Which type of ores can be concentrated by froth floatation method? Give two examples for such
ore.
This method is suitable for sulphide ores. E.g., Galena (PbS) and Zinc blend (ZnS).
15. What are the 2 steps involved in the extraction of crude metal from the concentrated ore?
i) conversion of the ore into oxide of the metal of interest
ii) reduction of the metal oxides to elemental metals.
APPLICATION / USES / IMPORTANCE
1. Give the uses of zinc.
1. used in galvanizing metals to protect them from rusting and corrosion
2. zinc oxide used in the manufacture of paint, rubber, cosmetics, plastics, pharmaceutical etc.,
3. zinc sulphide is used in the manufacture of luminous paints, x-ray screet, fluorescent lights
4. Brass an alloy of Zinc is used in water valves and communication equipment since it less corrosive
2. Give the uses of copper.
1. first metal used by human
2. used in making coins with gold and other metals
3. its alloys used in making wires, water pipes and electrical equipment

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G.ANBUSELVAM, PG ASST (CHEMISTRY), GHSS, POTHUMBU, MADURAI – . Ph: 9442286172
3. Give the uses of Aluminium
1. in the manufacture of cooking vessel, heat exchangers
2. used in packing material (Aluminium foil)
3. Duralumin alloy is used in the construction of aeroplanes, and other formats of transport
4. used in design of chemical reactors, medical equipment
5. its alloy with iron is used in high voltage cables.
4. Give the uses of Iron.
1. Magnets can be made from iron and its alloys and compounds
2. Stainless steel used in architecture, bearings, cutlery, surgical instruments and jewellery
3. cast iron is used to make pipes, valves and pump stoves, etc
4. Nickel steel is used for making cables, automobiles and aeroplane parts.
5. Chrome steels are used for manufacturing cutting tools and crushing machines.
5. List out the applications of gold.
1. Its copper alloy is used extensively in jewellery.
2. It is used in electroplating to cover other metal with thin layer of gold
3. nano particles of gold used to increase efficiency of solar cells
4. It is used as an catalyst.
6. What is the application of Ellingham diagram?
Ellingham diagram helps us to select a suitable reducing agent and appropriate temperature range
for reduction.
7. What is the use of adding cryolite in the extraction of Aluminium?
1. It reduce the melting point of mixture from 2000K to 900K. It improves the electrolytic conductance
in the cell.
8. What is the use of adding silica in the extraction of copper?
It is used as acidic flux to remove basic gangue FeO as slag (Ferrous silicate).
Differences / Differentiation
1. Differentiate Mineral and Ore
Sl.No. Mineral Ore
1 It is a naturally occurring substance obitained by It is a mineral, if the metal present in it can be
mining which contains metal in free state or in easily and commercially separated from it, is
the form of a compound like oxide, sulphide, etc known as ore.
2 All minerals are not ore All ores are minerals
3 Eg. China clay, bauxite Eg. Bauxite
Reasons/ give reason / why?
1. What is the role of quicklime in the extraction of iron from its ore Fe2O3?
During smelting, the added limestone along with iron ore and coke decomposed into calcium oxide
(quicklime) in the blast furnace. It acts as flux and reacts with the sandy impurities (silicon di oxide) to form
slag.
2. Why Sodium cyanide is added in the froth floatation method? (Short notes on Depressing agent.)
Sodium cyanide is acts as depressing agent in froth floatation method to selectively prevent other
sulphide impurities from coming to the froth. Sodium carbonate can also used as depressing agent.
3. Why graphite rods used in the electro metallurgy of aluminium?
Graphite anode rod prevent production of oxygen by reacting with it to form CO2, otherwise aluminium
will get oxidized.
4. Out of coke and CO, which is better reducing agent for the reduction of ZnO? Why?
Ellingham diagram clearly shows that free energy formation of CO or CO 2 from C is lower than that
of formation of CO2 from CO than ZnO. Thus coke is a better reducing agent.
5. How Cr2O3 is reduced to Cr by aluminium powder? (Aluminothermite process)
Cr2O3 can reduced by an aluminothermite process. In this process, the metal oxide is mixed with
aluminium powder and placed in fire clay crucible. To initiate the reduction process ignition mixture (BaO2 +
Mg) is used. During the above reaction a large amount of heat is evolved which facilitated the reduction of
Cr2O3 by aluminium powder. Cr2O3 + 2Al 2Cr + Al2O3
6. Why blistered copper called so?
During the extraction of copper, SO2 is evolved when cuprous oxide is reduced by cuprous sulphide.
The metallic copper is solidified and it has blistered appearance due to evolution of SO2 gas formed in the
process. Hence this copper is called blistered copper.
7. In Ellingham diagram for most of the metal oxide formation, the slope is positive. Why?
Oxygen gas is consumed during the formation of metal oxides which results in the decrease in
randomness. Hence ΔS becomes negative and it makes the term TΔS positive in the straight line equation.

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8. In Ellingham diagram the straight line for the formation of carbon monoxide has negative slope.
why?
In this case ΔS is positive as 2 moles of CO gas is formed by the consumption of one mole of oxygen
gas. It indicates that CO is more stable at higher temperature.
9. Why there is a sudden change in the slope at a particular temperature for some metal oxides like
MgO, HgO?
This is due to the phase transition (melting or evoporation)
10. Ag2O and HgO can be reduced without any reducing agent. Give reason.
In Ellingham diagram for the formation of Ag2O and HgO is at upper part of the diagram and their
decomposition temperatures at 600 and 700K respectively. It indicates that these oxides are unstable at
moderate temperatures and will decompose on heating even in the absence of a reducing agent.
11. Cr2O3 can be reduced by Al, but MgO and CaO cannot be reduced by Al. Why?
In the Ellingham diagram, for the formation of Cr2O3 lies above that of the formation of Al2O3, can be
reduced by Al. However, it cannot be used to reduce the oxides of magnesium and calcium which occupy
lower position than aluminium oxide.
12. Is it possible to reduce F2O3 using coke at a temperature around 1200K?
It is possible, because above that temperature straight line of carbon lies below the straight line of
Iron in the Ellingham diagram.
13. Explain the role of Iodine in the refining of Zirconium.
Iodine react with zirconium to give volatile compound and on heating decompose to give pure
zirconium.
Theory / Explanation
1. Explain any one method to refine nickel. (Mond Process)
Ni(s) + 4CO(g) 350K→ Ni(CO)4(g) 460K→ Ni(s) + 4CO(g)
2. Explain zone refining.
1. This method is based on the principle of fractional crystallization.
2. Elements such as germanium(Ge), silicon(Si) and gallium(Ga) etc. are refined using this process.
3. The melting point of impure metal is less than the melting point of pure metal.
4. In this process the impure metal is taken in the form of a rod. One end of the rod is heated using a mobile
induction heater which results in melting of the metal on that portion of the rod.
5. When the heater is slowly moved to the other end the pure metal crystallises at high temperature.
6. As the heater moves further away, the molten zone containing impurities also moves along with it.
7. On further move the pure metal obtained as solid at one end and impurities retain in the molten rod.
8. Pure metal is obtained by removing the end with impurities.
9. This process is carried out in an inert gas atmosphere to prevent the oxidation of metals.
3. Explain the concentration of ore by froth flotation process.
1. This method is suitable for sulphide ores like Galena (PbS) and Zinc blend (ZnS).
2. Principle: The metallic ore particles (metal sulphides) which are preferentially wetted by oil can be
separated from gangue.
3. Frothing agents: pine oil, eugalyptus oil, etc.,
4. Collector: Sodium Ethyl Xanthate.
5. Process: The crushed ore is mixed with frothing agents and collector. The mixture is suspended in water.
A froth is generated by passing air through the mixture. Ore is rise to the surface along with the froth. The
froth is skimmed off and dried to recover concentrated ore.
6. Depressing agents(to remove other metal sulphide as impurity): Sodium cyanide and Sodium carbonate.
4. Explain the principle of froth floatation process.
The metallic ore particles (metal sulphides) which are preferentially wetted by oil can be separated from
gangue.
5. How is gold ore concentrated by cyanide leaching?
The crushed ore of gold is leached with aerated dilute solution of sodium cyanide. Gold is converted
into a soluble cyanide complex. The gangue, aluminosilicate remains insoluble.
4Au + 8KCN + O2 + H2O → 4Na[Au(CN)2] + 4KOH
6. Explain the concentration of ore by magnetic separation method.
This method is based on the magnetic properties of the ore and impurities. The crushed ore is poured
on the conveyor belt rolled over two rollers. One of the roller is converted into electromagnet. The substance
which are attracted by the magnet falls close to the roller and the non magnetic substance falls away from it.
eg. tin stone (non magnetic) can be separated from wolframite impurities (magnetic).
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7. The selection of reducing agent depends on the thermodynamic factor: explain with an example.
For a spontaneous reaction ΔG must have negative value. For the coupled reaction of metal oxide
formation reaction and formation oxide reaction or reducing agent, if the standard free energy change
possess negative value only can reduce metal oxide to metal. Hence coupled reaction should be selected
with higher negative value of free energy change for the selection of reducing agent.
ZnO + CO → Zn + CO2 ΔGo = +ve; ZnO + C → Zn + CO ΔGo = -ve
Hence among C and CO, C is the suitable reducing agent to reduce ZnO to Zn.
8. Explain electrochemical extraction of aluminium.
Cathode : Iron tank lined with carbon. (electrolysis chamber)
Anode: Carbon blocks immersed in the electrolyte.
Electrolyte: A 20% solution of alumina, obtained from the bauxite ore is mixed with molten cryolite + 10%
calcium chloride (this helps to lower the melting point of the mixture).
Temperature: 1270K
Ionisation of alumina Al2O3 → 2Al3+ + 3O2-
Reaction at cathode 2Al3+ (melt) + 6e- → 2Al(l)
Reaction at anode 6O2- (melt) → 3O2 + 12e-
Since carbon acts as anode the following reaction also takes place on it.
C(s) + O2- (melt) → CO + 2e-
C(s) + 2O2- (melt) → CO2 + 4e-
Over all reaction 4Al3+ (melt) + 6O2- (melt) + 3C(s) → 4Al(l) + 3CO2(g)
9. Explain electrorefining with an example. Or Explain electrorefining of Silver.
Example: electrorefining of silver
Cathode: pure silver sheet
Anode: impure silver rod
Electrolyte: Silver nitrate + nitric acid (AgNO3 + dil.HNO3)
When an electric current passes thorough electrolyte, pure metal (pure silver) dissolves from anode
and deposited at the cathode.
10. Explain the process separating copper from copper pyrites.
2CuFeS2(s) + O2(g) → 2FeS(l) + Cu2S(l) + SO2(g)
2FeS(l) + 3O2(g) → 2FeO(l) + SO2(g)
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) → FeSiO3(s)
2Cu2S(l,s) + O2(g) → 2Cu2O(l,s) + 2SO2(g)
2Cu2O(l) + Cu2S(l) → 6Cu(l) + SO2(g)
11. Explain acid leaching with suitable example.
2ZnS(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) + O2(g) → 2ZnSO4(aq) + 2S(s) + H2O
12. Explain alkali leaching with suitable example.
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq)
Gangue removed by filteration.
2Na[Al(OH)4](aq) + CO2(g) → Al2O3.xH2O(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
The precipitate is heated around 1670K to get pure alumina Al2O3.
13. Explain Van – Arkel method for refining of Titanium.
Ti(s) + 2I2 (s) 550K→ TiI4 (vapour)
The impurities are left behind, as they do not react with iodine.
TiI4 (vapour) 1800K→ Ti(s) + 2I2 (s) The iodine is reused.
14, Explain the distillation process for refining of metal.
1. Impure metal is heated to evaporate.
2. Vapour condensed to pure metal. This process is suitable for low boiling volatile metals like zinc and
mercury.
15. Explain the liquation method to refine metals.
This method is employed to remove the impurities with high melting points from metals having
relatively low melting points such as tin, lead, mercury and bismuth. The crude metal placed on a
sloping hearth of a reverberatory furnace and it is heated just above its melting point in the absence
of air. The molten pure metal flows down and impurities are left behind.
16. Write a short note on electrochemical principles of metallurgy.
When a more reactive metal is added to the solution containing the relatively less reactive metal
ions, the more reactive metal will go into the solution.
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ΔGo = - nFEo
n = number of electrons involved in the reduction process
F = Faraday Eo = Electrode potential of the redox couple.
If E is positive then the ΔG is negative and the reduction is spontaneous and hence a redox reaction
o
is planned in such a way that the e.m.f of the net redox reaction is positive.
e.g. Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
17. Using Ellingham diagram predict the conditions under which
i) Aluminium might be expected to reduce magnesia.
ii) Magnesium could reduce alumina.
i) Above 1665K, the standard gibbs free energy of formation of alumina from aluminium is less than
that of magnesia from magnesium. Therefore above 1665K aluminium might be expected to reduce
magesia. Below that temperature it aluminium will not reduce magnesia.
ii) Below 1665K magnesium could reduce alumina, because below that temperature ΔGo value for the
formation of magesia is less than that of the formation of alumina.
18. Carbon monoxide is more effective reducing agent than carbon below 983K, but above this
temperature, the reverse is true – explain.
As per Ellingham diagram, below 983K ΔGo value for the formation of carbon di oxide from carbon is
more than that of formation of carbon di oxide from carbon monoxide. Hence below that temperature carbon
monoxide is more effective reducing agent than carbon.
Limitations:
1. Write the limitations of Ellingham diagram.
1. Ellingham diagram is constructed base only on thermodynamic considerations. It gives information about
the thermodynamic feasibility of a reaction. It does not tell anything about the rate of the reaction. More over
it does not give any idea about the possibility of other reactions that might be taking place.
2. The interpretation of ΔG is based on the assumption that the reactants are in equilibrium with the product
which is not always true.
Unit 2. p – block elements – I.

Short questions
1. What is water gas equilibrium?
The equilibrium involved in the reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen, has many industrial
application and is called water gas equilibrium. CO2 + H2 ⇌ CO + H2O
Water gas
2. What is amphiboles?
Double chain silicates are also called amphiboles. These silicates contains [Si4O11]n6n- ions. In these
silicates there are two different types of tetrahedra; 1. Those sharing 3 vertices 2. Those sharing only 2
vertices. Eg. Asbestos
3. What are inosilicates? What are its classification?
Silicate which contain ‘n’ number of silicate units linked by sharing two or more oxygen atoms are
called inosilicates. They are further classified as 1. Chain silicates and 2.Double chain silicates.
4. Write any two conditions for catenation.
1. The valency of element is greater than or equal to two.
2. Element should have an ability to bod with itself
3. The self bond must be as strong as its bond with other elements
4. Kinetic inertness of catenated compound towards other molecules.
5. What is catenation? Describe briefly catenation property of carbon.
Catenation is an ability of an element to form chain of atoms.
Catenation property of carbon: 1. Valency of carbon is four
2. It has tendency to form bond with itself.
3. Its self bond is very strong. 4. Its self bon is inert.
6. What are allotropes?
Some elements exis in more than one crystalline or molecular forms in the same physical state. For
example: carbon exists as diamond and graphite. This phenomenon is called allotropism
7. Boron does not react directly with hydrogen. Suggest one method to prepare diborane from BF 3 .
8. AlCl3 behaves like a lewis acid. Substrantiate this statement.

AlCl3 is a electron deficient compound. Since it has tendency to attract electron pair, it behaves like
a Lewis acid.
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9. Write a note on Hydroboration.
6CH3-CH=CH2 + B2H6 → 2(CH3-CH2-CH2)3B
(CH3-CH2-CH2)3B + 3H2O2 3CH3-CH2-CH2-OH + B(OH)3
10. Give one example for each of the following. (i) Icosogens (ii) tetragens (iii) pnictogen (iv)
Chalcogens
(i) Icosogens = Boron (ii) Tetragens = Carbon (iii) pnictogens = Nitrogen (iv) Chalcogen = Oxygen
11. Complete the following reactions.
a. B(OH)3 + NH3 → (or) How is boron nitride prepared from Boric acid?
b. Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O →
c. B2H6 + 2NaOH + 2H2O →
d. B2H6 + 6CH3OH →
e. 4BF3 + 3H2O →
f. HCOOH + H2SO4 →
g. 2SiCl4 + NH3 →
h. SiCl4 + C2H5OH →
i. B + NaOH →
j. H2B4O7
a. B(OH)3 + NH3 BN + 3H2O Temperature range 800 – 1200K
b. Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O → Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3
c. B2H6 + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaBO2 + 6H2
d. B2H6 + 6CH3OH → 2B(OCH3)3 + 6H2
e. 4BF3 + 3H2O → H3BO3 + 3H+ + 3[BF4]-
f. HCOOH + H2SO4 → CO + H2O + H2SO4
g. 2SiCl4 + NH3 Cl3Si-NH-SiCl3
h. SiCl4 + C2H5OH → Si(OC2H5)4 + 4HCl
Tetra ethoxy silane
i. 2B + 6NaOH → 2Na3BO3 + 3H2
j. H2B4O7 2B2O3 + H2O
12. CO is a reducing agent. Justify with an example.
CO + Fe2O3 → 2Fe + 3CO2
13. Give the action of heat on Boric acid.
4H3BO3 373K→ 4HBO2 + 4H2O
4HBO2 413K→ H2B4O7 + H2O
H2B4O7 2B2O3 + H2O
14. What are silicates?
The mineral which contains silicon and oxygen in tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units linked together in
different pattern are called silicates.
15. Write short notes on metallic character of p – block elements.
The tendency of an element to form a cation by loosing electrons is known as electropositive or
metallic character. In p – block, the elements present in lower left part are metals while the elements in the
upper right part are non metals.
1. List the uses of Borax.
1. used to identify coloured metal ions
2. In the manufacture of optical and borosilicate glass, enamels and glazes for pottery
3. It is also used as a flux in metallurgy.
2. List out the uses of alum.
1. It is used for purification of water
2. It is used for water proofing and textiles
3. It is used in dyeing, paper leather tanning industry
4. It is used as septic agent to arrest bleeding
3. Write the uses of silicones
1. used as low temperature lubrication and vacuum pumps, high temperature oil baths, etc.
2. in making water proofing clothes 3. insulator in electrical motors and other appliances
4. silicone rubber retains its elasticity even at low temperature
5. mixed with paint and varnishes to make the resistant towards high temperature, sunlight, dampness and
chemicals.
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4. What are the uses of boron?
1. 10B5 is used as moderator in the nuclear reactor.
2. Amorphour boron is used as a rocket fuel igniter.
3. Boron is essential for the cell walls of plants.
4. compounds of boron are used as eyedrops, antiseptic, washing powders etc. boric acid is used in the
manufacture of pyrex glass.
5. Give the uses of Boric acid.
1. In the manufacture of pottery glazes, glass , enamels and pigments
2. as an antiseptic and as an eye lotion
3. as a food preservative..
6. Give the uses of diborane.
1. as a high energy fuel for propellant.
2. as a reducing agent in organic chemistry.
3. in welding torches.
7. List out the uses of Boron trifluoride.
1. to prepare HBF4, a catalyst in organic chemistry.
2. as a fluorinating reagent.
8. What are the uses of Aluminium Chloride?
1. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in Friedel Crafts reaction.
2. In the manufacture of petrol by cracking the mineral oils.
3. as a catalyst in the manufacture of dyes, drugs and perfumes.
9. Give the uses of carbon monoxide.
1. as industrial fuel, water gas (CO + H2) and producer gas (CO + N2)
2. A good reducing agent in metallurgy.
3. It is an important ligand to forms carbonal compounds with transition elements.
10. What are the uses of carbon di oxide?
1. used to produce an inert atmosphere for chemical processing.
2. in the photosynthesis
3. in the fire extinquisher and as a propellent gas
4. in the production of carbonated beverages and foam
11. Give the uses of silicon tetrachloride?
1. In the production of semiconductor.
2. starting material in the synthesis of silica gel, silicic esters and a binder material for ceramics.
1. What are the reason for the anomalous behaviour of first element of each group in p-block
elements?
1. Small size of the first member
2. High ionisation enthalpy and high electronegativity
3. Absence of d orbitals in their valence shell
2. Aluminium (III) Chloride is more stable whereas Thallium (III) Chloride is highly unstable more over
TlCl is more stable than AlCl. Why?
This is because of inert pair effect. This effect increases from top to bottom in a group. Since 3s
electrons of aluminium involved in chemical bonding, AlCl3 is more stable. But the 6s electrons of thallium do
not involved in chemical bonding, TlCl3 is highly unstable.
Due to the same reason TlCl is more stable and AlCl is less stable.
3. There is only a marginal difference in decrease in ionisation enthalpy from Aluminium to Thallium
– Explain why?
This due to the presence of inner d and f electrons which has poor shielding effect.
4. How Graphites conducts electricity?
In Graphite, the flat two dimensional sheet, made up of hexagonal net of sp2 hybridised carbon atoms.
Each carbon atom forms three σ bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms using three of its valence
electrons and the fourth electron present in the unhybridized p orbital forms a π bond. These π electrons are
delocalized over the entire sheet which is responsible for its electrical conductivity.
1. Explain the structure of diborane.
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1. In diborane two BH2 units are linked by two bridged hydrogens. Therefore, it has eight B-H bonds. However
diborane has only 12 valence electrons and are not sufficient to form normal covalent bonds.
2. Four B-H bonds are normal covalent bonds. That is two centre – two electron bond (2c-2e bond)
3. Two three centred B-H-B bonds utilize two electrons each. Hence these bonds are three centre-two
electron bonds (3c-2e bonds).
4. Each boron atom in diborane possess 4 sp3 hybridised orbitals. Out of 4, 3 sp3 hybridised orbitals are
singly filled and 1 sp3 hybridised orbital is vacant.
5. Half-filled Boron’s sp3 hybridised orbital and 1s orbital of Hydrogen combined together to form 4 B-H
normal covalent bonds.
6. one Boron’s vacant sp3 hybridised orbital, 1s orbital of Hydrogen and one half-filled Boron’s sp3 hybridised
orbital overlaps together to form two B-H-B three centred-two electron bonds are formed.
2. Explain the classification of silicones.
1. Linear silicones:
They are obtained by the hydrolysis and subsequent condensation of dialkyl or diaryl silicon
chlorides. a) silicone rubbers b) silicone reisins.
2.Cyclic silicones: These are obtained by the hydrolysis of R2SiCl2.
3. Cross linked silicones: They are obtained by hydrolysis of RSiCl3.
3. Explain the Structures of Zeolite.
They are hydrated sodium alumino silicates. They are 3-dimensional crystalline solids containing
aluminium, silicon and oxygen in their regular 3- dimentional frame work. Its general formula is
NaO.(Al2O3).x(SiO2).yH2O (x=2 to 10; y=2 to 6). Zeolites have porous structure in which the monovalent
sodium ions and water molecules are loosely held. They have a 3-dimensional crystalline structure looks like
a honeycomb consisting of a network of interconnected tunnels and cages. Water molecules moves freely in
and out of these pores but the zeolite framework remains rigid. This structure allowing the crystal to act as a
molecular sieve. This is used in the removal of permanent hardness of water.
4. CO is a reducing agent. Prove it with an example.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g)
5. How is potash alum obtained?
The alunite the alum stone is treated with excess of sulphuric acid, the aluminium hydroxide is
converted to aluminium sulphate. A calculated quantity of potassium sulphate is added and the solution is
crystallised to generate potash alum. It is purified by recrystallisation.
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3 + 6H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 3Al2(SO4)3 + 12H2O
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O → K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
6. Explain the structures of Graphite and Diamond.
Graphite: This the most stable allotropic form of carbon at normal temperature and pressure. It is soft and
conducts electricity. It is composed of flat two dimensional sheets of carbon atoms. Each sheet is a hexagonal
net of sp2 hybridised carbon atoms. The C-C bond length is close to the C-C bond distance in benzene. Each
carbon atom forms three σ bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms using three of its valence electrons
and the fourth electron present in the unhybridized p orbital forms a π bond. These π electrons are
delocalized over the entire sheet which is responsible for its electrical conductivity.
Diamond: This is very hard allotrope of diamond. In this carbon atoms are sp3 hybridised and bonded to four
neighbouring carbon atoms by single σ bonds. This results in a tetrahedral arrangement around each carbon
atom that extends to the entire lattice. There is no free electron for conductivity. Being the hardest element,
it is used for sharpening hard tools, cutting glasses, making bores and bore drilling.
7. Explain the types of silicates.
1. Ortho silicates (Neso silicates) : eg. phenocite, olivin
2. Pyro silicates (soro silicate) : eg. Thortveitite
3. Cyclic silicate (Ring slilicate) : eg. Beryl
4. Ino silicate.1. Chain silicate (pyroxine) : eg. spodumene
2. Double chain silicates (amphiboles) eg. Asbestos
5. Sheet or phyllo silicate :e,g Talc, mica
6. Three dimentional silicate (Tecto silicate) : eg. quartz.
Properties / Salient features:
1. Give the properties of silicones.
1.The extent of cross linking and nature of alkyl group determine the nature of polymer.
2. They range from oily liquids to rubber like solids.
3. All silicones are water repellent.
4. They are also thermal and electrical insulators.
5. Chemically they are inert.
6. The viscosity of silicon oil remains constant and they don’t thicken during winter.
8
Differences:
1.Differentiate Graphite and Diamonds.
S.No. Graphite Diamond
1 It is soft It is very hard
2 It conducts electricity It does not conduct electricity
3 Carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised Carbon atoms are sp3 hybridised
4 C – C bond length is 1.41 Ao C – C bond length is 1.54 Ao
5 It has delocalised π electrons No π electrons
6 It is used as lubricant It is used for cutting glass and making bores
Naming Reaction:
1. Fischer Tropsch Synthesis
nCO + (2n+1) H2 CnH(2n+2) + nH2O

nCO + 2nH2 CnH2n + nH2O
2. Mc Afee Process
Aluminium chloride is obtained by heating a mixture of alumina and coke in a current of chlorine.
Al2O3 + 3C + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3CO2
On industrial scale it is prepared by chlorinating aluminium around 1000K.
2Al + 3Cl2 1000K→ 2AlCl3
Preparation reaction
1. What is inorganic benzent? And How is it prepared?
Inorganic benzene is Borazine or Borozole
2. How is Borax prepared?

2Ca2B6O11 + 3Na2CO3 + H2O 3Na2B4O7 + 3CaCO3 + Ca(OH)2
Tests / Identification
1. How do you identify boric acid/borate radicals?
Drawing the structure:

1. Resonance structures of CO and CO2
Problem:
1. A hydride of 2nd period alkali metal (A) on reaction with compound of Boron (B) to give a reducing
agent (C). Identify A, B and C.
B2H6 + 2LiH ether→ 2LiBH4
A = LiH (Lithium Hydride)
B = B2H6 (diborane)
C = LiBH4 (Lithium boro hydride)
Unit 3. p – block elements – II

Short questions
1. What is inert pair effect?
In the heavy elements of p-block, electrons in the p-orbital only participate in bond formation without
ns2 electrons is known as inert pair effect.
2. What is interhalogen compounds?
Each halogen combines with another halogen to form several compounds known as interhalogen
compounds. Eg. ClF,ClF3,BrCl
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3. What is Holmes signal?
In a ship, a pierced container with a mixture of calcium carbide and calcium phosphide, liberate
phosphine and acetylene when thrown into sea. The liberated phosphine catches fire and ignites acetylene .
These burning gases serves as a signal to the approaching ships. This is known as Holmes signal.
CaC2 + 2H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 Ca3P2 + 6H2O → 3Ca(OH)2 + 2PH3
4. Give the balanced equation for the reaction between chlorine with cold NaOH and hot NaOH.
With Cold NaOH = Cl2 + 2NaOH → NaOCl + NaCl + H2O
With hot NaOH = 3Cl2 + 6NaOH → NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O
5. Give the oxidation state of halogen in the following.
a. O2F2 b.Cl2O3 c. OF2 d. I2O4
a. O2F2 Oxidation state of Fluorine is = -1
b. Cl2O3 2x + 3(-2) = 2x – 6; 2x = +6; x = +3: Oxidation state of Chlorine is = +3
c. OF2 Oxidation state of Fluorine is = -1
d. I2O4 2x + 4(-2) = 0 ; 2x – 8 = 0; 2x = +8 ; x = +4
6. Give the equations of xenon and fluorine under different conditions.
Xe + F2 XeF2
Xe + 2F2 XeF4
Xe + 3F2 XeF6
7. Write the valence shell electronic configuration of group – 15 elements.
Nitrogen = 2s22p3 Phosphorus = 3s23p3 Arsenic = 4s24p3 Antimony = 5s25p3
2 3
Bismuth = 6s 6p
8. Give a reaction between nitric acid and a basic oxide.
ZnO + 2HNO3 → Zn(NO3)2 + H2O
3FeO + 10HNO3 → 3Fe(NO3)3 + NO + 5H2O
9. Give two equations to illustrate the chemical behaviour of phosphine.
PH3 + 4Cl2 → PCl5 + 3HCl
Reducing property of phosphine. 3AgNO3 + PH3 → Ag3P + 3HNO3
1. NaCl + MnO2 + H2SO4 →
2. NaNO2 + HCl →
3. IO3- + I- + H+ →
4. I2 + S2O32- →
5. P4 + NaOH + H2O →
6. AgNO3 + PH3 →
7. Mg + HNO3 →
8. KClO3
9. Cu + mlh; H2SO4 →
10. Sb + Cl2 →
11. HBr + H2SO4 →
12. XeF6 + H2O →
13. XeO64- + Mn2+ + H+ →
14. XeOF4 + SiO2 →
15. Xe + F2
1. 4NaCl + MnO2 + 4H2SO4 → Cl2 + MnCl2 + 4NaHSO4 + 2H2O
2. NaNO2 + HCl → NaCl + HNO2
3. IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ → 3I2 + 3H2O
4. 2I2 + 2S2O32- → S4O62- + 2I-
5. P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O → 3NaH2PO2 (Sodium hypophosphite) + PH3↑ (Phosphine)
6. 3AgNO3 + PH3 → Ag3P + 3HNO3
7. 4Mg + 10HNO3 → 4Mg(NO3)2 + N2O + 5H2O
8. 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
9. Cu + mlh; 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2↑
10. 2Sb + 3Cl2 → 2SbCl3
11. 2HBr + H2SO4 → 2H2O + Br2 + SO2
12. XeF6 + 3H2O → XeO3 + 6HF
13. 5XeO64- + 2Mn2+ + 14H+ → 2MnO4- + 5XeO3 + 7H2O
14. 2XeOF4 + SiO2 → 2XeO2F2 + SiF4
15. Xe + 3F2 XeF6
10
11. What happens when PCl5 is heated?
PCl5(g) → PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
Differences / Comparison
1. What are the differences between white phosphorus and red phosphorus?
Sl.No. White phosphorus Red Phosphorus
1. It is colourless and turns into yellow due to a It is deep red in colour.
formation of layer of red phosphorus. Hence it
is also called yellow phosphorus.
2. It has Garlic smell. It is odourless
3. It shows phosphorescence. It does not shows phosphorescence.
4. Its ignition temperature is low. It does not ignite at low temperature.
5. It is poisonous. It is not poisonous.
6. The four atoms forms tetrahedral structure. It exist in polymeric structure with chains of P4
linked tetrahedrally.
1. Give the uses of Helium
1. He-O2 mixture is used instead of N2-O2 mixture for divers to prevent painful condition Bends.
2. used to provide inert atmosphere in electric arc welding of metals
3. used in cryogenic technology
4. It is used to filling air balloons.
2. Give the uses of Neon
1. used in advertisement board
2. used as alert lamp
3. In garden lamp to improve the production of chlorophyll in plants.
3. Give the uses of Argon
1. Argon prevents the oxidation of a hot filament and prolongs the life in filament bulbs.
2. It is also used in radio valves and tubes.
4. List out the uses of Chlorine
1. in the purification of drinking water
2. used as bleaching agent
3. in the separation of gold and platinum
4. used as disinfectant
5. Give the uses of Kripton.
1. In fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs etc.
2. As they can penetrate through dense fog, it is used as approaching lights in airports.
6. Give the uses of Xenon.
1. In fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs and lasers.
2. In high speed electronic flash bulbs used by photographers.
7. Give the uses of sulphuric acid.
1. In the manufacture of fertilisers, like ammonium sulphate and superphosphates.
2. As a drying agent. 3. In the preparation of pigments, explosives etc.,
4. In the manufacture of other chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid.
8. Give the uses of nitrogen.
1. In the manufacture of ammonia, nitric acid and calcium cyanide.
2. Liquid nitrogen is used for producing low temperature required in cryosurgery and so in
biological preservation.
9. Give the uses of nitric acid.
1. in the preparation of aquaregia.
2. salts of nitric acid usedin photography (AgNO3) and gun powder for free arms (NaNO3)
10. Give the uses of phosphorus.
1. Red phosphorus is used in the match boxes.
2. In the production of phosphor bronze.
11. What are the uses of phosphine?
1. For the production of smoke screen
2. In Homes signal
12. Give the uses of oxygen.
1. For the survival of living organism
2. In oxyacetylene welding. 3. Liquid oxygen as a fuel in rockets.
11
13. List out the uses of sulphur di oxide.

1. In bleaching hair, silk, wool etc.,
2. For disinfecting crops an plants in agriculture.
14. What are the uses of Hydrochloric acid?
1. In the extraction of glue from bone.
2. In the manufacture of chlorine, ammonium chloride, glucose from starch, etc.,
1. Fluorine is highly reactive than other halogens. Why?
Because bond dissociation energy of fluorine is very low than other halogens.
2. Like Phosphorus, Nitrogen do not form pentachloride. Why?
Because in nitrogen there is no vacant d orbital.
3. Why ICl is more reactive than I2?
Because bond dissociation energy of ICl is less than I2.
4. Ozone is strong oxidising agent than Oxygen. Why?
Ozone decomposed easily and give nascent oxygen. This nascent oxygen is highly reactive than
molecular oxygen.
5. Why HF cannot be stored in glass bottles?
HF reacts with glass. Na2SiO3 + 6HF → Na2SiF6 + 3H2O
HF cannot be stored in silica bottles. Why?
HF reacts with silica. SiO2 + 4HF → SiF4 + 2H2O
6. What are the reason for SO2 acting as a bleaching agent.
In presence of water, sulphur di oxide bleaches coloured wool, silk, sponges and straw into colourless
due to its reducing property.
SO2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4 + 2(H)
X (coloured) + 2(H) → XH2 (colourless)
However, the bleached product is allowed to stand in air, it is reoxidised by atmospheric oxygen to its original
colour. Hence bleaching action of SO2 is temporary.
7. Chalcogens belongs to p-block. Give reason.
General electronic configuration of Chalcogens is ns2np4. Since it contains partially filled p – orbital, it
belongs to p – block elements.
8. Explain why fluorine always exhibit as oxidation state of – 1?
Because fluorine is the most electronegative element.
9. Write the reason for the anamolous behaviour of nitrogen.
1. smaller size
2. High electronegativity and Ionisation energy.
3. No d orbital.
10. What is the reason for the inertness of nitrogen?
Due to high bonding energy of the molecules. i.e 225 cal mol-1 (946KJmol-1).
11. HF is a weak acid, while other hydrohalic acids are strong acid. Give reason for why it is
so.
Because bond dissociation energy of HF is more than other hydrohalic acid and hence will
not give protan easily.
1. Give a reason to support Sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent.
When pure carbon monoxide is prepared by warming methanoic acid with con. Sulphuric acid which
acts as dehydrating agent.
HCOOH + H2SO4 → CO + H2SO4. H2O
2. Explain the bleaching action (oxidising) of Cholorine.
H2O + Cl2 →HCl + HOCl
HOCl →HCl + (O)
Colouring matter + Nascent oxygen → Colourless oxidation product
3. Explain the reducing action of sulphur dioxide with KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7.
2KMnO4 + 5SO2 + 2H2O → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4
K2Cr2O7 + 3SO2 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
Preparation reaction:
1. Laboratory Preparation of Phosphine
P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O → 3NaH2PO2 (Sodium hypophosphite) + PH3↑ (Phosphine)
2. Laboratory Preparation of Ortho phosphoric acid P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4
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3. How is phosphine obtained from phosphorus acid?
4H3PO3 3H3PO4 + PH3↑
4. Manufacture of Sulphuric acid by Contact Process
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7(oleum) 2H2SO4
5. How is Chlorine prepared in the laboratory?
4NaCl + MnO2 + 4H2SO4 → Cl2 + MnCl2 + 4NaHSO4 + 2H2O
6. How is bleaching powder prepared?
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
7. Give the reactions of ammonia with copper and Iron salts.
1. FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl 2. CuSO4 + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4
8. Explain the manufacture of chlorine by Deacon’s process.
4HCl + O2 2H2O + Cl2 ↑
9. Prove that sulphuric acid is a dibasic acid.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Properties / Salient Features:
1. Give the properties of interhalogen compounds.
1. The central atom will be the larger one.
2. It can be formed only between two halogen and not more than two halogens.
3. Fluorine can’t act as a central metal atom being the smallest one.
4. They can undergo the auto Ionisation.
5. They are strong oxidising agents.
Tests / Identification:
1. Give the test for sulphuric acid / sulphate radical.
1. BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4↓ (white precipitate) + 2HCl
2. (CH3COO)2Pb + H2SO4 → PbSO4↓ (white precipitate) + 2CH3COOH
Drawing the structure
1.Nitric acid (HNO3) 2. Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4)
3. Phosphorus tri chloride (PCl3) 4. Phosphine (PH3)
5.Phosphorus acid (H3PO3) 6.Phosphorus penta chloride (PCl5)
7. Iodine hepta fluoride (IF7) 8. Bromine penta flouride (BrF5)
9. Bromine tri fluoride (BrF3)
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10. What is the hybridization of XeOF2?Give its structure.
Hybridisation = sp3d
Structure = T shaped
11. Give the structures of following oxy acids and mention their basicity.
1. Hypo phosphoric acid 2. Ortho phosphoric acid 3. Pyrophosphoric acid
; Basicity
Hypophosphoric acid – 4, Orthophosphoric acid – 3 Pyrophosphoric acid - 4
12. Write any five compounds of Xe and mention their hybridization and structure.
Compound Hybridisation Structure
XeF2 sp3d linear
XeF4 sp3d2 Square planar
3 3
XeF6 sp d Distorted octahedron
XeOF2 sp3d T shaped
XeOF4 sp3d2 Square pyramidal
3
XeO3 sp pyramidal
13. Give the hybridization and structures of the following compounds. 1. BrF5 ,2. IF7, 3. BrF3, 4. BrF
1. BrF5 = Hybridisation : sp3d2 structure : square pyramid
3 3
2. IF7 = Hybridisation: sp d structure: pentagonal bipyramid
3. BrF3 = Hybridisation: sp3d structure : T – shape
4. BrF = Hybridisation: sp3 structure : linear
14. Write the molecular formula and draw the structure of sulphurous acid and Marshall’s acid.
15. Give the molecular formula and structural formula of dinitrogen pentoxide?
Di nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5)
Structural formula
Unit 4. Transition and Inner transition elements

Short questions
1. What are interstitial compounds?
An interstitial compound is compound that is formed when an atom which is small enough sits in an
interstitial place in a metal lattice. Eg. TiC, ZrH1.92, Mn4N.
2. What is lanthanoid contraction?
The steady decrease in atomic/ionic radius from La3+ to Lu3+ is known as lanthanoid contraction. This
is because on increase in nuclear charge in one unit and the additional electron enters into antepenultimate
shell. Due to random shielding of (n-2) f orbitals, contraction occurs in the second inner shell.
3. What are transition elements? Give any two of its properties.
Transition elements are an element whose atom has an incomplete d subshell or which can give rise
to cations with an incomplete d sub shell. Eg. Fe, Cu, Ni. 1. Transition elements can form coordination
compounds. 2. These shows variable valency.
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4. Classify the following elements into d-block and f-block elements. 1. Tungsten 2. Ruthenium 3.
Promethium 4. Einsteinium.
d-block elements = Tungsten, Ruthenium
f-block elements = Promethium, Einsteinium
5. What is zeigler – Natta catalyst? What is its uses?
Zeigler – Natta catalyst is the mixture of TiCl4 and trialkyl Aluminium and is used for polymerisation.
6. What are inner transition elements?

Since f block elements forms intermediate series inside the transition series, it is known as
inner transition elements. They are 1. Lanthanoids and 2. Actinoids
7. What are actinoids? Give 3 examples.
The fourteen elements following actinium, i.e., from thorium to lawrentium are called
actinoids. eg. Thourium, Uranium, Lawrentium, Plutonium.
8. Compare the ionization enthalpies of first series of the transition elements.
1. The first 4 elements (Sc, Ti, V, Cr) there is only small variation in their ionisation energies.
2. The final 4 elements (Fe, Co, Ni, Cu) have nearly same value of ionisation energies.
3. Since Zn has completely filled d orbital, it has more stability and hence possess highest
ionisation energy.
9. What are the properties of intertitial compounds?
1. They are hard and show electricl and thermal conductivity.
2. They have high melting points higher than those of pure metals.
3. Transition metal hydrides are used as powerful reducing agents.
4. Metallic carbides are chemically inert.
1. Write the uses of Potassium di chromate
1. as a strong oxidising agent
2. in dyeing and printing
3. leather tanneries for chrome tanning
4. in the quantitative analysis for the estimation of iron compounds and iodides.
2. Write the uses of Potassium permanganate
1. as a strong oxidising agent
2. for the treatment of various skin infections and fungal infections of the foot
3. in water treatment industries to remove iron and hydrogen sulphide from well water
4. as a Bayer’s reagent
5. in the quantitative analysis for the estimation of ferrous salts, oxalates, hydrogen peroxide and iodide
1. Differentiate lanthanoids and actinoids
Sl.No. Lanthnoid Actinoid
1 The final electron enters in to the 4f subshell The final electron enters into the 5f subshell
2 The binding energy of 4f orbital is high The binding energy of 5f orbital is low
3 They show less tendency to form complex They show more tendency to form complex
4 Most of Lanthanoids are colourless Most of the Actinoids are coloured
5 They do not form oxo cations They are form oxo cations
6 Highest oxidation state is +4 Highest oxidation state is +6
1. Why Gd3+ ion is colourless?
Electronic configuration of Gd = [Xe]4f75d16s2 and Gd3+ = [Xe]4f7
There is no electron in d orbital in Gd3+. d-d transition is not possible. Hence it is colourless.
2. Why Fe3+ is more stable than Fe2+?
Valence shell electronic configuration of Fe3+ is 3d5 and Fe2+ is 3d6. Since Fe3+ has half filled 3d orbital,
Fe3+ is more stable than Fe2+.
3. Among Mn2+ and Mn3+, which is more stable? Why?
Mn2+ (valence shell electronic configuration is 3d5) is more stable than Mn3+ (valence shell electronic
configuration 3d4), because Mn2+ has half filled 3d orbital.
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4. Cu2+ is coloured but Zn2+ is colourless. Why?
Cu2+ (3d9) is coloured because it has partially filled 3d orbital. Zn2+ (3d10) is colourless because it has
completely filled 3d orbital. i.e. d-d transition is not possible.
5. Explain why Cr2+ is strongly reducing while Mn3+ is strongly oxidising?
Cr2+ is strongly reducing nature. It has 3d4 configuration which acting as a reducing agent, it gets
oxidised to Cr3+ (electronic configuration 3d3). This d3 configuration can be written as t2g3 configuration, which
is more stable configuration.
In the case of Mn3+(3d4), it acts as an oxidising agent and gets reduced to Mn2+(3d5). This has an
exactly half-filled d-orbital and is highly stable.
6. d-block (transition) elements exhibit variable oxidation states. Why?
1. Transition elements possess ns and (n-1)d orbitals.
2. The energy difference between ns and (n-1)d orbitals are very low.
7. Transition metals show high melting points. Why?
Transition metals have high melting points which is due to their strong metallic bond. The metallic
bonding depends upon the number of unpaired electrons.
8. Why transition metal forms large number of complexes. Give examples.
1. Transition metal ions are small size and with high positive charge density.
2. They have vacant (n-1)d orbitals which has low energy orbitals to accept lone pair and unshared pair of
electrons from the ligands for bonding with them.
Examples. [Fe(CN)6]4-, [Co(NH3)6]3+, etc.
9. Why transition metals form alloys?
1. Similar atomic sizes and crystal structure.
2. One metal atom can be easily replaced by another metal atom from its crystal lattice to form alloys.
10. Why do transition metals acts as catalyst?
Transition metal has energetically available d orbitals that can accept electrons from reactant
molecule or metal can form bond with reactant molecule using its d electrons.
11. Out of Lu(OH)3 and La(OH)3 which is more basic and why?
La(OH)3 is most basic and Lu(OH)3 is least basic. Due to lanthanoid contraction. As the size of
lanthanoid ions decreases from La3+ to Lu3+ , the covalent character of the hydroxide increases and hence
the basic strength decrease.
12. Which metal in the 3d series exhibits +1 oxidation state most frequently and why?
Cu = [Ar]3d104s1
Copper, attains +1 oxidation state by losing one electron. Hence Cu+ ion has attain stable d10
electronic configuration.
13. Actinide contraction is greater from element to element than the lanthanoid contraction, why?
Because, the screening effect of 5f electrons in actinoids is less than the screening effect of
4f electrons in lanthanoids.
14. Why europium (II) is more stable than Cerium (II)?
Outer electronic configuration of Eu2+ is 4f7. Outer electronic configuration of Ce2+ is 4f1. Since Eu2+
has half filled outer electronic configuration is more stable.
15. Why do zirconium and Hafnium exhibit similar properties?
Due to lanthanide contraction.
16. Which is stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+.
Cr3+ + e- → Cr2+ (Eo = - 0.41V) Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+ (Eo = +0.77V)
since reduction potential has higher negative value, the element with higher oxidation state is more
stable. As per the above value, Cr2+ can easily oxidised to Cr3+. So Cr2+ acts as a strong redusing
agent.
17. The value for copper is positive. Suggest a possible reason for this.
Copper has positive reduction potential value. i.e., Cu element is more stable than Cu 2+ ion.
18. Why first ionisation enthalpy of chromium is lower than that of zinc?
Zn = [Ar]3d104s2 Cr = [Ar]3d54s1
For first ionisation enthalpy, electron has to be removed from partially filled 4s 1 orbital in Chromium,
whereas electron has to be removed from symetrically filled 4s2 orbital in zinc. Hence ionisation
enthalpy of chromium is lower than that of zinc.
1. What are the consequences of lanthanoid contraction.
1. The size of the ion decreases from Ce3+ to Lu3+. As per Fajan’s rule, covalent character increases on
decrease in size and hence the basic character of Ln(OH)3 decreases as we move from Ce3+ to Lu3+.
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2. Due to lanthanoid contraction their chemical properties are quite similar.
3. The elements of the second and third transition series resemble each other more closely.
2. Justify the position of lanthanoid and actinoid in the periodic table.
❖ The fourteen elements after lanthanum, the last electron enters into 4f orbital. Hence these are known
as 4f elements and hence they are 4f elements or lanthanoids.
❖ Lanthanoid show similar chemical properties.
❖ The fourteen elements after actinium, the last electron enters into 5f orbital. Hence these are known
as 5f elements or actinoids.
❖ Actinoids show similar properties.
❖ The properties of the elements of lanthanoids and actinoids belongs to a group would be different and
it would affect the proper structure of the periodic table. Hence a separate position is provided to the
inner transition elements.
3. Explain the variation in 3d series.

1. Higher oxidation states of Ti, V and Cr has priority.
2. To reduce Cr3+, the Zn metal which has higher negative value of reduction potential has to be used.
3. Since Mn3+/Mn2+ possess higher reduction potential, Mn3+ is more stable than Mn2+.
4. Lower value of Fe3+/Fe2+gives the possibility of occurrence of Fe3+ , Fe2+ under normal condition
5. On moving from Mn to Fe, reason for decrease in potential value is Mn2+ ion has outer electronic
configuration 3d5. The reduction of Mn3+ to Mn2+ is possible.
4. Explain the oxidation states of 3d series elements.
1. Scandium has +3 oxidation state only.
2. At the beginning of the series, +3 oxidation state is stable but towards the end +2 oxidation state
becomes stable.
3. The middle element Mn has six different oxidation states from +2 to +7.
4. The last element Cu shows +1 and +2 oxidation states only.
5. Mn2+ (3d5) is more stable than Mn3+(3d4).
5. Explain the oxidation states of 4d series elements.
1. Oxidation sate of 4d series varies from +3 and +8.
2. The element in the middle of the series has highest oxidising state.
3. The element combine with O, F and Cl will have highest oxidising state.
4. Last element Cadmium exist in +2 oxidation state.
6. Explain the oxidation states of 4f series elements.
1. In general oxidation state of 4f series(lanthanoids) is +3.
2. Some elements of 4f series has show +2 and +4 oxidation state also.
3. Gd3+ and Lu3+ has half filled 4f7 and completely filled 4f14 electronic configuration and are more stable.
4. Ce4+ and Tb4+ has 4f0 and 4f7 electronic configuration respectively.
5. Eu2+and Yb2+ has half filled (4f7) and completely filled (4f14) f - orbital.
Rule/ Principle:
1. Give the Hume – Rothery rule for alloy formation.
According to Hume-Rothery rule for alloy formation,
1. The difference between the atomic radii of solvent and solute is less than 15%.
2. Both the solvent and solute must have the same crystal structure and valence.
3. Their electronegativity difference must be close to zero.
Problem / Calculation:
1. Calculate number of single electrons in ions Ti3+ and Mn2+. Also calculate its magnetic moment.
Ti3+ ; valence shell electronic configuration = d1 ; No. of single electron = 1 . magetic moment
μ = √𝑛(𝑛 + 2) = √1(1 + 2) = √3 = 1.75μo
Mn2+ ; valence shell electronic configuration = d5 ; No. of single electron = 5 . magetic moment
μ = √𝑛(𝑛 + 2) = √5(5 + 2) = √35 = 5.96μo
1. Preparation of Potassium dichromate
4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 900 – 1000oC→ 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2↑
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl → K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
2. Give the reaction of ammonia with Iron and Copper salt.
FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl CuSO4 + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4
3. Complete the following reaction 1. 2MnO2 + 2KOH + O2 → 2. Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14H+ →
1. 2MnO2 + 2KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 + 2H2O 2. Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14H+ → 2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O
17
4. Preparation of Potassium Permanganate
2MnO2 + 2KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 + 2H2O
Potassium manganate oxidised to potassium permanganate by any one of the following method.
Chemical oxidation Electrolytic oxidation
2MnO4 + O3 + H2O → 2MnO4 + 2OH + O2
2- - -
K2MnO4 ⇌ 2K+ + MnO42-
2MnO4 + Cl2 → 2MnO4 + 2Cl
2- - -
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-
Anodic reaction :
MnO42-(green) ⇌ MnO4- (purple) + e-
Cathodic reaction
2H+ + 2e- → H2↑
5. Complete the following reaction.
1) MnO42- + H+ → ?
2) C6H5CH3 acidified KmnO4→ ?
3) MnO4- + Fe2+ → ?
4) KmnO4 Red hot temperature→ ?
5) Cr2O72- + I- + H+ → ?
6) Na2Cr2O7 + KCl → ?
1) MnO42- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
2) C6H5CH3 acidified KmnO4→ C6H5COOH
3) 2MnO4- + 10Fe2+ + 16H+ → 2Mn2+ + 10Fe3+ + 8H2O
4) 2KmnO4 Red hot temperature→ K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
5) Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14H+ → 2Cr3+ 3I2 + 7H2O
6) Na2Cr2O7 + KCl → K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
1. Write the chromyl chloride test.
When potassium chromate is heated with any one of chloride salt and con.H2SO4, gives orange red
vapours of chromyl chloride.
K2Cr2O7 + 4NaCl + 6H2SO4 → 2KHSO4 + 4NaHSO4 + 2CrO2Cl2↑ + 3H2O
1. General electronic configuration of 4f and 5f elements
General electronic configuration of lanthanoid (4f group elements) is [Xe]4f1-145d0-16s2
General electronic configuration of Actinoid (5f group elements) is [Rn]5f2-146d0-27s2
2. Write the electronic configuration of Ce4+ and Co2+.
Electronic configuration of Ce4+ = [Xe]4f0 Electronic configuration of Co2+ = [Ar]3d7
Unit 5. Coordination Chemistry

Short questions
1. What is linkage isomerism?
This type of isomer arises when an ambidentate ligand bonded to a central metal atom/ion through
either of its two different donar atoms. Eg. [Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2
2. What is ionisation isomerism?
The coordination compounds having same molecular formula gives different ions when dissolved in
water is known as ionisation isomerism. Eg. [Co(H2O)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(H2O)5SO4]Cl
3. What is coordination isomerism?
The interchange of one or more ligands between the cationic and anionic coordination entities results
in different isomers. Eg. [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6] and [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6]
4. What is hydrate isomerism? (solvate isomerism)
The exchange of water (solvent molecule) in the crystal lattice with a ligand in the coordination entity
gives different isomers. Eg. [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O and [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2.H2O
5. What is crystal field splitting energy?
After the splitting of degenerate levels, the energy difference between eg and t2g orbitals is known as
crystal field splitting energy.
6. What is crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE)?
CFSE is defined as the energy difference of electronic configurations in the ligand field (ELF) and the
isotropic field (Eiso)
7. Give the IUPAC name of coordination compound Na2[Ni(EDTA)].
Sodium-2,2’,2”,2’”-(ethan-1,2-diyldinitrilo)tetraacetatonickalate(II)
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8. What are labile complexes and inert complexes?
In some cases, complexes undergo rapid ligand substitution; such complexes are called labile
complexes.
Some complexes undergo ligand substitution very slowly, such complexes are called inert complexes.
9. What is stability constant (β)? Give its significance.
The stability of a coordination complex is a measure of its resistance to replacement of one ligand by
another. The stability of a complex refers to the degree of association between two species involved
in a equilibrium.
Significance 1. It is used to measure the stability of coordination complex. 2. If the value of the stability
constant is more, the stability of the coordination complex is also more.
10. Write the following for the coordination complex [Fe(en)2Cl2]Cl.
1. Oxidation number of Fe, 2. Hybridization and geometry, 3. Magnetic property, 4. Number of
geometrical isomerism, 5. Is there any optical isomerism and 6. IUPAC name.
1. Oxidation number of Fe is +3
2. Hybridization = d2sp3 Geometry = Octahedral
3. Magnetic property = para magnetic
4. No. of geometrical isomerism = 2, cis and trans isomerism
5. Is there any optical isomerism = yes, cis isomer gives optical isomerism
6. IUPAC name = dichloridobis(ethan-1,2-diamine)Iron(III) Chloride.
11. Write any two hydrate isomers of the complex with the molecular formula CrCl3.6H2O.
1. [CrCl3(H2O)3]3H2O 2. [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl.2H2O 3. [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2.H2O 4. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3
12. Write the IUPAC name of the following. 1. [Ag(NH3)2]+ 2. [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+
1. diammine silver(I)ion 2. Pentaamminechlorocobalt(III)ion
13. Write the IUPAC names for the following complexes.
i) Na2[Ni(EDTA] ii) [Ag(CN)2]- iii) [Co(en)3]2(SO4)3
2+
iv) [Co(ONO)(NH3)5] v) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]
i) Sodium-2,2’,2’’,2’’’-(ethan-1,2-diyledinitrilo)tetraacetatonickalate (II)
ii) Dicyanoargentate(I) ion
iii) Tris(ethylene diamine)Cobalt(II)sulphate
iv) Pentaamminenitrito-k-O-cobalt(III) ion
v) Diamminechloronitro-k-N-platinam(II)
14. Write the formula for the following coordination compounds.
a) Potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(II)
b) Pentacarbonyliron(0)
c) Pentaamminenitrito-k-N-cobalt(III)ion
d) Hexaamminecobalt(III)sulphate
e) Sodiumtetrafluoridodihydroxidochromate(III)
a) K4[Fe(CN)6]
b) [Fe(CO)5]
c) [Co(NO2)(NH3)5]2+
d) [Co(NH3)6]2(SO4)3 e) Na3[CrF4(OH)2]
15. What is the coordination entity formed when excess of liquid ammonia is added to an aqueous
solution of copper sulphate?
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion is formed.
16. Define the following terms. 1. Ligand, 2. coordination sphere 3. Coordination number
4. coordination polyhedron 5. Central metal atom/ion 6. oxidation number
1. Ligand: The ligands are the atoms or groups of atoms bound to the central atom/ion.
2. Coordination sphere: The complex ion of the coordination compound containing the central metal atom/ion
and the ligands attached to it, is collectively called coordination sphere and are usually enclosed in square
brackets with the net charge.
3. Coordination number: The number of ligand donor atoms bonded to a central metal ion in a complex is
called coordination number of the metal.
4. Coordination polyhedron: The three dimensional spacial arrangement of ligand atoms/ions that are directly
attached to the central atom is known as the coordination polyhedron.
5. Central metal atom / ion: The central atom /ion is the one that occupies the central position in a coordination
entity and binds other atoms or groups of atoms (ligands) to itself, through a coordinate covalent bond.
6. oxidation number: The oxidation state of a central atom in a coordination entity is defined as the charge it
would bear if all the ligands were removed along with the electron pairs that were shared with the central
atom.
19
17. Identify the following in the complex [Pt(NO2)(H2O)(NH3)2]Br. (a) Central metal atom / ion
(b) coordination number (c) oxidation number of central metal ion
(a) Central metal atom / ion = Pt2+
(b) Coordination number =4
(c) Oxidation number of central metal ion = +2
18. Mention the oxidation state of the central metal ion, coordination number, nature of ligand for the
complex K4[Mn(CN)6].
Oxidation state of central metal ion = +2; Coordination number = 6; nature of the ligand =
monodentate ligand with negative charge (CN-).
19. Write the names of the following ligands. a) C2O42- b) H2O c) Cl-
a) oxalato b) aqua c) chlorido
20. Write the IUPAC names of the following complexes. i) [Ag(NH3)2]+ ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+
i) diamminesilver(I)ion ii) pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) ion
21. Write the ligand, central metal ion and IUPAC name of complex ion [Ag(NH3)2]+.
1) ligand = NH3 2) Ag+ 3) diamminesilver(I)ion
1. Write a note on complexes in biological process.
1. In Red Blood Corpuscle, haem is iron-porphyrin complex carrying oxygen from lungs to tissues and CO2
from tissues to lungs.
2. Chlorophyll is a Magnesium-modified porphyrin complex plays important role in photosynthesis
3. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) contains Cobalt – porphyrin complex.
4. Many enzymes are metal complexes which regulates biological processes
2. Write the complexes used as medicine in treatment for various diseases.
1. Ca-EDTA chelates is used to remove lead and radioactive metal ions from the body.
2. cis- platin is used as an antitumor drug in cancer treatment
3. Give an example for complex used as medicine in treatment for various disease and in biological
process.
Complex used as medicine in treatment for various diseases: 1. Ca-EDTA 2. cis- platin
Complexes in biological process. 1. Heamoglobin 2. Chlorophyll 3. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine)
1. Differentiate double salt and coordination compounds
Sl.no. Double salt Coordination compounds
1 It is obtained by evaporation of solutions of 2 or It obtained by the combination of Lewis acid and
more salts Lewis base
2 They lose their identity in solution They do not loose their identity in solution
3 It dissociates into simple ions in solution It never dissociates into simple ions
4 Its property aligned with its ionic property Its property does not aligned with is ionic
property
5 Eg. FeSO4(NH4)2SO46H2O (Mohr’s salt) Eg. K4[Fe(CN)6]
1. [Ti(H2O)6]3+ is coloured whereas [Sc(H2O)6]3+ is colourless. Why?
The valence shell electronic configuration of Ti3+ ion in [Ti(H2O)6]3+ is 3d1. d-d transition is possible
and hence is coloured.
The valence shell electronic configuration of Sc3+ ion in [Sc(H2O)6]3+ is 3d0. d-d transition is not
possible and hence is colourless.
2. A solution of [Ni(H2O)4]2+ is green, whereas a solution of [Ni(CN)4]2- is colourless. Why?
In [Ni(H2O)4]2+, H2O is a weak field ligand. The ligand will not be paired up single electrons in the d
orbitals. The d-d transition of electron is possible. Hence this is coloured.
In [Ni(CN)4]2-, CN- is a strong field ligand. This ligand will be paired up single electrons in the d orbitals.
The d-d transition of electron is not possible. Hence this is colourless.
3. The aqueous solution of [Fe(CN)6]4- and [Fe(H2O)6]2+ are differently coloured. Why?
In [Fe(CN)6]4- and [Fe(H2O)6]2+ complex, the central metal ion Fe2+ ion has four unpaired electrons in
d orbital. H2O is a weaker ligand and will not be paired up unpaired electron. Hence this aqua complex is
coloured due to the possibility of d-d of electrons. CN- is a stronger ligand and will be paired up the unpaired
electron. Hence cyanido complex is colourless due to absence of unpaired electron for d-d transition.
4. Why tetrahedral complexes do not exhibit geometrical isomerism?
Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because the relative position of
unidentate ligands attached with central metal atom are same with respect each other.
5. [CuCl4]-2 exists while [CuI4]-2 does not exist why?
Cu2+ reacts with I- gives Cu+ and I2. Hence [CuI4]-2 does not exist.
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6. Why [Ni(CN)4]2- shows diamagnetism whereas [NiCl4]2- shows paramagnetism?
7. Arrange the following complex compounds on the basis of absorbed wavelength and give reason.
[Ni(NO2)6]4-, [Ni(NH3)6]2+, [Ni(H2O)6]2+.
Arranging of complexes on the basis of absorbed wavelength is depends upon the nature of ligands.
According to spectrochemical series H2O < NH3< NO2, and so crystal field splitting energy series is Δo H2O
< Δo NH3< Δo NO2. Hence on the basis of absorbed wavelength in the visible region ascending order of
complexes are [Ni(H2O)6]2+ < [Ni(NH3)6]2+ < [Ni(NO2)6]4-.
8. Based on VB theory explain why [Cr(NH3)6]3+ is paramagnetic.
1. Write the postulates of Werner Theory.
1. Central metal atom possess two types of valency. They are a) Primary (ionisable) valency and b) secondary
(non-ionisable) valency.
Primary or Ionisable valency Secondary or Non-ionisable valency
Represents oxidation number Represents co-ordination number
Compensated by negative ions Compensated by neutral molecules or negative ions
Non directional Directional
The molecules satisfy this are called ligands
2. The lone pair of electron and unshared pair of electrons in ligands overlaps with the empty orbitals of
central metal ion to form coordinate covalent bond.
3. There are two spheres of attraction around a metal atom / ion in a complex.
1. The inner sphere is known as coordination sphere and the groups present in this sphere are firmly
attached to the metal ion.
2. The outer sphere is known as ionisation sphere. The groups present in this sphere are loosely
bound to the central metal ion.
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2. Write the main assumption of VBT.
1. The ligand →metal bond in a coordination complex is covalent in nature.
2. Each ligand should have at least one lone pair of electrons
3. Central metal atom or ion should possess empty orbitals equal to the coordination number.
4. The vacant orbitals of central metal atom or ion undergoes hybridisation to form hybridized orbitals.
5. The vacant hybridized orbitals of central metal ion linearly overlap with the filled orbitals of ligand to form
coordinate covalent sigma bonds between the metal and the ligand.
6. The hybridized orbitals are directional and hence complex ion gives definite geometry.
Eg. sp hybridisation gives linear structure and sp3 hybridisation gives tetrahedral structure, etc.
7. In the octahedral complexes, if the (n-1)d orbitals are involved in hybridisation, then they are called inner
orbital complexes or low spin complexes or spin paired complexes. If the nd orbitals are involved in
hybridisation, then such complexes are called outer orbital or high spin or spin free complexes.
8. If the central metal atom or ion in the complex containing unpaired electron, it is paramagnetic. If all the
electrons are paired then the complex is diamagnetic.
9. Ligands such as CO, CN-, en and NH3 present in the complexes cause pairing of electrons present in the
central metal atom. Such ligands are called strong field ligands.
3. Write the salient features Crystal field theory(CFT)
1. The bond between the ligand and the central metal atom is purely ionic.
2. In case of charged central metal atom and ligand are considered as point charges. In case of neutral metal
atoms or ligand are considered as electric dipoles.
3. According to CFT, the complex formation is considered as the following series of hypothesis.
Step1: In an isolated gaseous state, all the five d orbitals of the central metal ion are degenerate. Initially, the
ligands form a spherical field of negative charge around the metal. In this field, the energies of all the five d
orbitals will increase due to the repulsion between the electrons of the metal and the ligand.
Step2: The ligands are approaching the metal atom in actual bond directions. To illustrate this let us consider
an octahedral field, in which the central metal ion is located at the origin and the six ligands are coming from
the +x, -x, +y, -y, +z and – z directions. Hence the orbitals lying along dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals will experience
strong repulsion and raise in energy to a greater extent than the orbitals with lobes directed between the axes
(dxy, dyz and dxz). Thus the degenerate d orbitals now split into two sets and the process is called crystal
field splitting.
Step3: When the ligands approach further, there will be an attraction between the -vely charged electron and
the +vely charged metal ion, that results in a net decrease in energy and thus complex formed.
4. Explain the nature of bond in metal carbonyls.
In metal carbonyls, the electron pair donation from the carbon atom of carbonyl ligand into a vacant
d- orbital of central metal atom forms M←CO sigma bond. This sigma bond formation increases the electron
density in metal d orbitals and makes the metal electron rich. In order to compensate for this increased
electron density, a filled metal d-orbital interacts with the empty π* orbital on the carbonyl ligand and transfers
the added electron density back to the ligand which is called π-back bonding. This synergic effect accounts
for strong M←CO bond in metal carbonyls.
5. Explain optical isomerism in coordination compounds with an example.
1. Coordination compounds which possess chirality exhibit optical isomerism.
2. The pair of two optically active isomers which are mirror images of each other are called enantiomers.
3. Their solution rotate the plane polarised ligh either clockwise or anticlockwise and the correstponding
isomers are called d (dextrorotatory) and l (leavo rotatory) forms respecively. eg. . [Co(en)3]3+
Limitation:
1. What are the limitation of Werner theory?
It does not explain their colour and the magnetic properties.
2. What are the limitation of VB theory?
1. It does not explain the colour of the complex
2. It considers only the spin only magnetic moments and does not consider the other components of magnetic
moments.
3. It does not provide a quantitative explanation as to why certain complexes are inner orbital complexes and
the others are outer orbital complexes for the same metal. For example, [Fe(CN)6]4- is diamagnetic (low spin)
whereas [FeF6]4- is paramagnetic (high spin)
1. Calculate the magnetic moment and magnetic property of [CoF6]3-
Magnetic property : unpaired electrons = 4, i.e., paramagnetic
Magnetic moment ;: 𝜇 = √𝑛(𝑛 + 2) = √4(4 + 2) = √24 = 4.899 𝐵𝑀
22
1. Give one test to differentiate [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5SO4]Cl
[Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5SO4]Cl are ionization isomerism. When these isomers are dissolved
in water, they ionize to give different ions in solution which react differently with different reagents.
[Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 + BaCl2 → [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 + BaSO4(White precipitate)
[Co(NH3)5SO4]Cl + BaCl2 → No reaction
2. Which reagent is used to identify Ni2+? What is the formula and colour of the complex?
Dimethyl glyoxime is the reagent to identify Ni2+.
Formula of the complex = [Ni(ONC(CH3)C(CH3)NOH]2
Colour = Rose red colour
1. Give the structures of isomers of [Co(en)2Cl2]+..
2. Draw the picture of crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes.
3. Draw the picture of crystal field splitting in octahedral complexes.
Unit 6. Solid state

Short questions
1. What is meant by the term coordination number? What is the coordination number of atoms in a
bcc structure?
The number of nearest neighbour of any constituent particle present in the crystal lattice is called
coordination number. In a bcc structure the coordination number is 8.
2. What is impurity defect?
The defects in ionic solid is by adding impurity ions is known as impurity defect. Eg. In AgCl crystal
CdCl2 added as impurity.
3. What is radius ratio?
The ratio of radius of cation and anion is known as radius ratio. Radius ratio = rC+/rA-
4. What is Packing fraction (efficiency)?
Packing fraction Total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell x 100
(or) Packing efficiency = Volume of the unit cell
5. What is unit cell?
A basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid is called unit cell.
6. What is crystal lattice?
The definite orientation of atoms, ions or molecules, relative to one another in a three dimensional
pattern throught the crystal. Such regular arrangement is called crystal lattice.
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7. Write short notes on Primitive and non-primitive unit cell.
A unit cell that contains only one type of lattice point is called a primitive unit cell, which made up from
a lattice points at each of the corners.
If there are additional lattice points, either on a face of the unit cell or within unit cell is called non-
primitive unit cell.
8. What are the seven of unit cell?
1. Cubic 2. Rhombohedral
3. Hexagonal 4. Tetragonal
5. Orthorhombic 6. Monoclinic
7. Triclinic.
9. Classify the following solids a) P4 b) Brass c) diamond d) NaCl e) iodine
a) P4 = molecular solid b) Brass = Metallic solid
c) diamond = Covalent solid d) NaCl = Ionic solid
e) Iodine = Molecular solid
10. What are point defect?
The deviation occurs due to missing of atoms, displaced atoms, the imperfection in crystal is called
point defect.
11. What is the two dimensional coordination number of a molecule in square close packed layer?
Coordination number = 4
12. What are covalent solids?
1) In covalent solids, the constituents(atoms) are bound together in a three dimensional network
entirely by covalent bonds. 2) very hard, 3) have high melting point, 4) poor thermal and electrical conductors.
example = Diamond, Silicon carbide.
13. Write short notes on metallic solids.
In metallic solids, the lattice points are occupied by positive metal ions and cloud of electrons pervade
the space. Its properties are 1) hard 2) have high melting point 3) possess excellent thermal and electrical
conductivity 4) possess bright lustre. example = Cu, Fe, Cr, Ni, Zn. etc. and its alloys.
14. Tabulise the relation ship between the radius ratio and crystal structure of ionic crystals
𝒓𝑪+ Coordination number structure Example
(𝒓𝑨−)
0.155 – 0.225 3 Trigonal planar B2O3
0.225 – 0.414 4 Tetrahedral ZnS
0.414 – 0.732 6 Octahedral NaCl
0.732 – 1.0 8 Cubic CsCl
1. Differentiate crystalline solid and amorphous solid
Sl.No. Crystalline solid Amorphous solid
1 Definite shape Irregular shape
2 Anisotropic in nature Isotropic like liquids
3 True solids Pseudo solids or supercooled liquid
4 Sharp melting point No sharp melting point
5 Long range orderly arrangement of constituents Short range, random arrangement of
constituents
6 Definite Heat of fusion Heat of fusion is not definite
7 Eg. NaCl crystal Eg. Rubber, plastic, glass, etc
2. Distinguish tetrahedral and octahedral void
Sl.no. Tetrahedral void Octahedral void
1 It is unoccupied empty spaces present in It is unoccupied empty spaces present in
substances having tetrahedral crystal systems substances having octahedral crystal systems
2 It can be found in substances having a It can be found in substances having an
tetrahedral arrangement in their crystal system. octahedral arrangement in their crystal systems
3 It can be observed in edges of the unit cell. It can be observed in the centre of the unit cell
4 Its coordination number is 4 Its coordination number is 6
5 No. of void formed is equal to 2n No. of void formed is equal to n
3. Differentiate Isotropy ad Anisotropy
Isotropy Anisotropy
In solid state isotropy means having identical Anisotropy is the property which depends on the
values of physical properties such as refractive direction of measurements i.e., show different
index, electrical conductance etc., in all directions. values in different direction. eg. velocity of light
travel through crystal solid.
24
4. Differentiate hexagonal close packed (hcp) structure from cubic close packed (ccp) structure.
Sl.No. Hexagonal close packed structure Cubic close packed structure
1. aba arrangement abc arrangement
2. In this arrangement, the tetrahedral voids of the The third layer may be placed over the
second layer are covered by the spheres of the second layer in such a way that all the
third layer. spheres of the third layer fit in octahedral
voids.
3. The number of spheres in a unit cell is 6 The number of spheres in a unit cell is 4
1. Why ionic crystals are hard and brittle?
The three-dimensional arrangement such as (i) size of cation and anion. (ii) the charge on the ions
and (iii) the case with which anions can be polarised. In such that the opposite forces are completely
compensated or neutralised. Hence, ionic crystals are hard and brittle and possess higher melting point.
2. ZnO is colourless at room temperature. When it is heated, it becomes yellow in colour. Why? (Write
about the metallic defect in ZnO.)
On heating, it loses oxygen and thereby forming free Zn2+ ions. The excess Zn2+ ions move to
interstitial sites and the electrons also occupy the interstitial position.
1. Describe Schottky defect with example.
Schottky defect arises due to the missing of equal number of cations and anions from the crystal
lattice. The cation and anion are of almost of similar size show Schottky defect. The number of cations and
anions are same and hence the crystal is neutral. Its density decreases. Eg. NaCl crystal.
2. Describe Frenkel defect with example.

Frenkel defect arises due to the dislocation of ions from its crystal lattice and occupies an interstitial
position. This defect occurs when anion is larger than cation in size. Since number of anion and cation are
same, the crystal is neutral. There is no change in density. Eg. AgBr crystal.
3. Write note on Metal excess defect.

Metal excess defect arises due to the presence of more number of metal ions as compared to anions.
Alkali metal halides NaCl, KCl show this type of defect. The electrical neutrality of the crystal can be
maintained by the presence of anionic vacancies equal to the excess metal ions or by the presence of extra
cation and electron present in interstitial position.
4. Write a note on metal deficiency defect.
Metal deficiency arises due to the presence of a smaller number of cations than the anions. This
defect is observed in a crystal in which, the cations have variable oxidation states. Eg. FeO crystal, some of
the Fe2+ ions are missing from the crystal lattice. To maintain the electrical neutrality, twice the number of
other Fe2+ ions in the crystal is oxidised to Fe3+ ions. In such cases, overall number of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions are
less than the O2- ions.
5. Describe the classification of molecular solids with example.
In molecular solids, the constituents are neutral molecules. They are held together by weak van der
waals forces or by dipole-dipole force of attraction. They are soft. Their classification are
1. Non polar molecular solids: In non-polar molecular solids constituent molecules are held together by weak
dispersion forces or London forces. They have low melting points. Eg. naphthalene, etc.
2. Polar molecular solids: They are held together by relatively strong dipole-dipole interactions. Their melting
points are higher than the non-polar molecular solids. Eg. solid CO2, solid NH3, etc.
3. Hydrogen bonded molecular solids: The constituents are held together by hydrogen bonds. They are
generally soft solids under room temperature. Eg. solid ice(H2O), glucose, urea etc.
6. Explain F centre with clear diagram.
When NaCl crystals are heated in the presence of sodium vapour, Na+ ions are formed and are
deposited on the surface of the crystal. Chloride ions (Cl-) diffuse to the surface from the lattice point and
combines with the Na+ ion. The electron lost by the sodium vapour diffuse into the crystal lattice and occupies
the vacancy created by the Cl- ions. Such anionic vacancies which are occupied by unpaired electrons are
called F centres.
7. What are the classification of point defects?
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1. Stoichiometric defects:
i. Schottky defect and ii. Frenkel defect
2. Non-stoichiometric defects:
i. Metal excess defect and ii. Metal deficiency defect
3. Impurity defect.
1. Give the characterestics of ionic compounds.
1. Ionic solids have high melting points.
2. These solids do not conduct electricity, because the ions are fixed in their lattice positions.
3. They do conduct electricity in molten state or when dissolved in water.
4. They are hard as only strong external force can change the relative position of ions.
1. Calculate the packing efficiency of packing in case of face centered cubic crystal.
3
Volume of the cubic unit cell = a
𝑎√2
Radius of sphere calculated from the face of the cube r =
4
4 √2𝑎 3
Volume of the sphere = 3π( 4
)
Number of spheres present in a unit cell = 4
√2𝜋 3
Volume of all the spheres in a unit cell = 6
a
√2𝜋 3
a
6
Packing efficiency = ----------- x 100 =74%
a3
2. Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of body centered cubic crystal.
Volume of the cubic unit cell = a3
√3
Radius of sphere calculated from the face of the cube r = 𝑎
4
√3
Volume of the sphere = 𝜋a3
16
√3𝜋 3
Volume of all the spheres in a unit cell = a
8
√3𝜋 3
a
8
Packing efficiency = ----------- x 100 = 68%
a3
3. Calculate the number of atoms in the i) sc ii) fcc iii) bcc unit cell.
4. Calculate the packing efficiency in simple cubic arrangements and derive.

Volume of the cubic unit cell = a3
𝑎
Radius of sphere calculated from the face of the cube r =
2
𝜋
Volume of the sphere = 6 a3
26
𝜋
Volume of all the spheres in a unit cell = 1 x 6 a3
𝜋 3
6
a
Packing efficiency = ----------- x 100 = 52.31%
a3
5. X and Y atoms forms bcc. X and Y occupy the corner position and center of cube. What is the
formula of that compound.
X = 8 x 1/8 = 1 ; Y = 1 x 1 = 1
Molecular formula of the compound = XY
6. An element crystallises in the form of fcc. Its density is 10 g/cm3 and cube edge is 100 pm. Calculate
the number of atoms in 1g of crystal.
The number of atoms in fcc is = 4.
100 pc = 100 x 10-12 x 100 = 10-8
ρ = nM/a3NA M = ρa3NA/n
M = 10 x (10 ) x 6.023 x 1023/4
-8 3
= 1.50575 g
1.50575 g element contains Avogadro number (NA) of atoms.
1g of element = 1g x 6.023 x 1023 / 1.50575g
= 4 x 1023 number of atoms.
7. A face centered cubic solid of an element (atomic mass 60) has a cube edge of 4A o. Calculate its
density.
Given values 1. N = number of atoms in unit cell = 4 (fcc) 2. M = atomic mass = 60 gmol-1
3. a = cube edge = 4 x 10-8cm 4. NA = Avogadro number = 6.023 x 1023
Density of unit cell ρ = nM/a NA
3
= 4 x 60/(4 x 10-8)3 x 6.023 x 1023= 60/16 x 6.023 x 10-1

= 0.6226 x 101 = 6.226 g cm-3.
8. If the no. of close packed sphere is 6, calculate the number of Octahedral voids and Tetrahedral
voids generated.
Octahedral void is 6 and Tetrahedral void is 12.
9. Aluminium crystallises in a cubic close packed structure. Its metallic radius is 125pm. Calculate
the edge length of unit cell.
𝑎√2 4𝑟 4𝑥125
r= a= = = 353.5 pm
4 √2 √2
Unit 7. Chemical Kinetics

Short questions
1. What is activation energy?
The excess amount of energy absorbed by the reactant molecules so that their energy becomes equal
to threshold value is called activaton energy. Activation energy = Threshold energy – Average kinetic energy
of the reaction.
2. What is pseudo first order reaction?
In a second order reaction, the amount of one of the reactant is taken in excess and the reaction
becomes first order reaction which is known as pseudo first order reaction. Eg. Acidic hydrolysis of an ester.
3. Give Arhenius equation.
K = Ae-(Ea/RT)
k = rate constant A= frequency factor
Ea = activation energy R=gas constant
T = temperature.
4. What is rate of a chemical reaction? what is its unit?
In a chemical reaction, the change in the concentration of the species involved in a chemical reaction
per unit time gives the rate of a reaction. Its unit is molL-1s-1.
5. What is order of reaction?
Order of a reaction is the sum of the powers of concentration terms involved in the experimentally
determined rate law.
6. What is molecularity?
Molecularity is the total number of reactant species that are involved in an elementary step
7. What is half life period?
The time required for the reactant concentration to reach one half its initial value.Half life period for
first order reaction can be determined by the following equation.
0.6932
t1/2 =
𝑘
27
8. What is zero order reaction?
A reaction in which the rate is independent of the concentration of the reactant over a wide range of
concentrations is called as zero order reactions.
9. What is the average rate and instantaneous rate.
Average rate: The change in concentration of a reactant or product in particular time interval over which the
change occurs.
Instantaneous rate: The rate or the reaction, at a particular instant during the reaction is called the
instantaneous rate.(i.e., in the shorter time period)
10. Define rate law and rate constant.
Rate law: It is defined as an experimentally determined equation which expresses the rate of chemical
reaction in term of molar concentration of the reactants.
xA + yB → product Rate = k[A]x[B]y
Rate constant: It is a constant of proportionality in the rate law expression and is equal to the rate of reaction
when the molar concentration of each of the reactant is unity. units of rate constant = (molL-1)1-ns-1
11. What is an elementary reaction?
Each and every step in a reaction mechanism is called an elementary reaction.
12. Write the rate law for the following reactions.
a) A reaction that is 3/2 order in x and zero order in y.
b) A reaction that is second order in NO and first order in Br2.
a) rate = K[X]3/2[Y]0
b) rate = K[NO]2[Br2]1
13. Give examples for zero order reaction.
1. H2(g) + Cl2(g) h٧→ 2HCl(g)
2. N2O(g) N2(g) + ½O2(g)
3. CH3COCH3 + I2 H+→ ICH2COCH3 + HI with respect to iodine it is the zero order reaction.
14. Give examples for first order reaction.
1. Decomposition of dinitrogen pentoxide; N2O5(g) → 2NO2(g) + ½O2(g)
2. Decomposition of thionylchlorides ; SO2Cl2(l) → SO2(g) + Cl2(g)
3. Decompostion of the H2O2 in aqueous solution; H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + ½O2(g)
4. Isomerisation of cyclopropane to propene.
15. For a reaction x + y + z → products the rate law is given by rate = k[x] 3/2[y]1/2 what is the overall
order of the reaction and what is the order of the reaction with respect to z.
Over all order of reaction = 3/2 + ½ = 4/2 = 2.
The order of the reaction with respect to z is zero, because there is no concentration terms of z in
the rate law.
1. Distinguish rate of reaction and rate constant of reaction
Sl.no. Rate of reaction Rate constant of reaction
1 Represents the speed of a reaction It is a proportionality constant
2 It is measured by decrease in concentration of It is equal to the order of reaction when the
reactant or increase in concentration of product concentration of each of the reactant in unity
3 Depends on the initial concentration of Does not depend on the initial concentration of
reactants. reactants.
2. Distinguish order of a reaction and molecularity of a reaction
Sl.no. Order of a reaction Molecularity of a reaction
1 It is the sum of the powers of concentration It is the total number of reactant species that are
terms involved in the experimentally determined involved in an elementary step
rate law
2 It can be zero or fractional or integer It is always whole number, cannot be zero or a
fractional number
3 Assigned for a over all reaction Assigned for each elementary step or
mechanism
1. Explain briefly the collision theory of bimolecular reactions.
1. This theory is based on the kinetics theory of gases. Chemical reaction occurs as a result of collision
between the reacting molecules. A2(g) + B2(g) → 2AB(g)
28
If it is considered as the reaction occurs due to the collision between A2 and B2.
Rate α number of molecules colliding per litre per second (collision rate).
The number of collision is directly proportional to the concentration of both A2 and B2 (reactants).
Collision rate α [A2][B2] Collision rate = Z[A2][B2] where Z is a constant.
All the collisions are not effective to lead to the reaction. In order to react, the colliding molecule must possess
a minimum energy called activation energy.
Fraction of effective collisions (f) is given by the following expression. f = 𝑒−𝐸𝑎/𝑅𝑇
The fraction of effective collisions (f) having proper orientation is given by the steric factor p.
Rate = p x f x collision rate.
−𝐸𝑎
i.e., Rate = p x 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 x Z[A2][B2]
−𝐸𝑎
As per the rate law Rate = k[A2][B2] where k is the rate constant. Therfore k = pZ𝑒 𝑅𝑇
2. Explain the factors affecting the rate of reaction.
1. Nature and state of the reactants: Gas phase reactions are faster as compared to the reactions involving
solid or liquid reactants. For example, reaction of sodium metal with iodine vapours is faster than the reaction
between sodium metal solid iondine.
2. Concentration of the reactants: Higher the concentration, greater is the possibility for collision and hence
the rate of the reaction is increased.
3. Surace area of the reactant: Powdered reactants has more surface area leads to more collisions and hence
the rate of reaction is increased.
4. Temperature of the reaction: When the temperature of the reaction increases, kinetic energy increases
leads to more collisions and hence the rate of the reaction is increased.
5. Presence of a catalyst: Since catalyst reduces activation energy and forms an intermediate leads to
increase in the rate.
3. Explain the rate determining step with an example.
Let us consider the reaction, the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide catalysed by I-. It is
experimentally found that the reaction is first order with respect to the both H2O2 and I-, which indicates that
I- is also involved in the reaction. The mechanism involves the following step.
Step – 1: (CH3)3CCl → (CH3)3C+ + Cl- (slow step)
Step – 2: (CH3)3C + + OH →- (CH3)3COH (fast step)
Step 1 is the rate determining step (Slow step), since it depends only on concentration of (CH3)3CCl,
the reaction is unimolecular.
Formulas / Equation derivation:
1. Derive integrated rate law for a zero order reaction. A → product. (Derive the rate constant for a
zero order reaction.)
A → product
Rate = k [A]o
−𝑑[𝐴]
= k (1) (/[A]o = 1)
𝑑𝑡
⟹ - d[A] = k dt
Integrate the above equation between the limits time t = 0 to t=t and concentration [Ao] to [A]
[𝐴] 1 [𝐴] [𝐴𝑜]−[𝐴]
− ∫[𝐴𝑜] 𝑑[𝐴] = k ∫0 𝑑𝑡 ; −([𝐴])[𝐴𝑜] = k(𝑡)𝑡0 ; [Ao] – [A] = kt ; / k =
𝑡
2. Derive integrated rate law for a first order reaction. A → product. (Derive the rate constant for the
first order reaction.)
A → product
rate = k [A]1
−𝑑[𝐴]
= k [A]1
𝑑𝑡
29
−𝑑[𝐴]
⟹ [𝐴]
= k dt Integrate the equation between the limits time t = 0 to t=t and concentration [Ao] to [A]
[𝐴] −𝑑[𝐴] 1 [𝐴] [𝐴𝑜]
∫[𝐴𝑜] [𝐴] = k ∫0 𝑑𝑡 ; −(𝑙𝑛[𝐴])[𝐴𝑜] = k(𝑡)𝑡0 ; ln[Ao] – ln[A] = kt ; ln [𝐴] = kt
[𝐴𝑜] 2.303 [𝐴𝑜]
2.303 log [𝐴]
= kt ; k= 𝑡
log [𝐴]
3. Derive the half life period for zero order reaction.

[𝐴𝑜]−[𝐴] [𝐴𝑜] [𝐴𝑜]−[𝐴𝑜]/2 [𝐴𝑜]
k= 𝑡
; t = t1/2 ; vdpy; [A] = 2 ; k= 𝑡
; k = 2𝑡½
[𝐴𝑜]
t½ = 2𝑘 Half life period of zero order reaction is directly proportional to initial concentration of
reactant.
4. Derive half life period for first order reaction. (Prove that half life period for first order reaction is
independent of initial concentration of reactant.)
Rate constant for the first order reaction is
2.303 [𝐴𝑜] [𝐴𝑜] 2.303 [𝐴𝑜]
k= 𝑡
log [𝐴] ; t = t1/2 ; vdpy; [A] = 2
; k= 𝑡½
log [𝐴𝑜]
2
2.303 0.693 0.693
k= 𝑡½
log 2 ; k= 𝑡½
; t½ = 𝑘
Half life period for first order reaction is independent of initial concentration of reactant.
5. Derive the equation to calculate activation energy Ea from rate constants K1 and K2 at
temperatures T1 and T2 using Arrhenius equation.
Arrhenius equation is
−𝐸𝑎
k = A𝑒 𝑅𝑇 On taking logrithm on both side.
−𝐸𝑎
−𝐸𝑎
ln k = ln A + ln 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 ; ln k = ln A –( 𝑅𝑇 ) ; (/ln e = 1)
𝐸𝑎 1
ln k = ln A - 𝑅 𝑇
At T = T1 rate constant k = k1
𝐸𝑎 1
/ ln k1 = ln A - --------------------- ( 1 )
𝑅 𝑇1
At T = T2 , rate constant k = k2
𝐸𝑎 1
/ ln k2 = ln A - 𝑅 𝑇2 --------------------- ( 2 )
(2)–(1)⟹
𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑎 𝑘2 𝐸𝑎 𝑇2−𝑇1 𝑘2 𝐸𝑎 𝑇2−𝑇1
ln k2 – ln k1 = - ; 2.303 log = ; log =
𝑅𝑇1 𝑅𝑇2 𝑘1 𝑅 𝑇1𝑇2 𝑘1 2.303𝑅 𝑇1𝑇2
Problem / Calculations:
1. Show that in case of first order reaction, the time required for 99.9% completion is nearly ten times
the time required for half completion of the reaction.
When [Ao] = 100;
t = t99.9% ; [A] = (100 – 99.9) = 0.1
2.303 [𝐴𝑜]
k = 𝑡 log [𝐴]
2.303 [100] 2.303 2.303 6.909 0.6909
t99.9% = 𝑘
log [0.1] = 𝑘
log 1000= 𝑘
x3= 𝑘
=10 x 𝑘
= 10 t½
2. In a first order reaction 40% of the reaction completed in 50 minutes. Calculate the rate constant,
How much will it takes to complete 80% of the reaction?
k1 = 2.303/t80% x log 100/20 = 2.303/t80% x log 5
k1 = 2.3030/t40% x log 100/60 = 2.303/50 x log 1.667 = 0.04606 x 0.2219= 0.01022 m-1
t80% = 2.303/k1x log5 = 2.303/0.01022 x 0.6989 = 157.49 minutes
3. If the rate constant of a first order reaction is 1.54 x 10-3 S-1, calculate its half life period.
0.693 0.693 0.693 𝑥 1000
t½ = 𝑘 = 1.54 𝑥 10−3 = 1.54
= 450 s
4. The rate of the reaction x + 2y → product is 4 x 10-3 mol L-1s-1, if [x] = [y] = 0.2 M and rate constant
at 400K is 2 x 10-2 s-1, What is the overall order of the reaction?
rate = k[x]n[y]m
4 x 10-3 molL-1s-1 = 2 x 10-2 s-1 (0.2molL-1)n(0.2molL-1)m
4 x 10−3 molL−1s−1
2 𝑥 10−2𝑠−1
= (0.2)n+m (molL-1)n+m
0.2 (mol L-1) = (0.2)n+m (molL-1)n+m
Comparing the powers on both sides, the oveall oder of reaction n + m = 1
5. Show that in case of first order reaction the time required for the completion of 99% is twice the
time required for the completion of 90% of the reaction.
30
t99% = 2.303/k1 log100/(100-99) = 2.303/k1log100
t90% = 2.303/k1 log100/(100-90) = 2.303/k1log10
t99%/t90% = log100/log10 = 2/1 = 2
t99% = 2 t90%
Unit 8. Ionic Equilibrium

Short questions
1. What is common ion effect?
The dissociation of weak electrolyte is decreased by the addition of common ion is known as common
ion effect. Eg. The dissociation of AgCl decreased by the addition of NaCl (the common ion is Cl-)
2. What is buffer solution? What are the types of buffer solution? Give example.
The buffer solution is a mixture of solution consists of weak acid and its conjugate base or weak base
and its conjugate acid. Their two types
1. Acidic buffer solution eg. CH3COOH + CH3COONa 2. Basic buffer solution eg. NH4OH + NH4Cl
3. What is buffer action?
The ability of a solution to resists drastic changes in its pH upon addition of a small quantity of acid or
base is called buffer action.
4. What is buffer capacity and buffer index?
Buffer capacity and buffer index, is defined as the number of gram equivalents of acid or base added
to 1 litre of the buffer solution to change its pH by unity.
𝑑𝐵
Buffer index β = ; dB = no. of gram equivalent of acid or base added.
𝑑(𝑝𝐻)
d(pH) = The change in the pH after the addition of acid /base.
5. What is salt hydrolysis?
In certain cases, the cation, anion or both react with water and the reaction is called salt hydrolysis.
6. What is solubility product?
The solubility product of a compound is defined as the product of the molar concentration of the
constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric co-efficient in a balanced equilibrium equation.
7. What is auto ionisation of water?
Pure water itself has a little tendency to dissociate. i.e., one water molecule donates a proton to an
another water molecule. This known as auto ionisation of water.
8. What is ionic product of water?
In the equilibrium reaction of auto ionisation of water the product of concentration of hydroxyl ions and
hydronium ions is known as ionic product of water. At room temperature its value is Kw=[H3O+][OH-]=1x10-14.
9. Define pH.
It is defined as the negative logarithm of base 10 of the molar concentration of the hydronium ions
present in solution. pH = -log10[H3O+]
10. What is conjugate acid – base pairs?
The species that remains after the donation of a proton is a base (Base1) and is called the conjugate
base of the Bronsted acid (Acid1). In other words, chemical species that differ only by a proton are called
acid – base pairs.
11. Write the pH value of the following substances:
1. Vinegar 2.Black coffee 3. Baking soda 4. Soapy water.
1. Vinegar = 2(acid)
2. Black coffee = 5 (acid)
3. Baking soda = 9 (base)
4. Soapy water = 12(base)
12. Classify the following as Lewis acid and Lewis base.
A) BF3 B) CO2 C)MgO D) CH3-
A) Lewis acid B) Lewis acid C) Lewis base D) Lewis base
13. Identify the conjugate acid base pair for the following reaction.
i) HS-(aq) + HF ⇌ F-(aq) + H2S(aq) ii) HPO42- + SO32- ⇌ PO43- + HSO3-
+ 2- -
iii) NH4 + CO3 ⇌ NH3 + HCO3
31
14. Account for the acidic nature of HClO4 in terms of Bronsted – Lowry theory, Identify its conjugate
acid and base.
1. HClO4 is more acidic nature .
2. Generally with increase in oxidation number of a particular halogen atom, the acidic character of
corresponding oxo acid increses.
3. The number of doubly bonded oxygen atoms in a acid has a major effect on the acid strength.
4. The Cl = O bond is very good attracting electrons are drawn away from the -OH bond. Hence the removal
of H+ is become easier. Conjugate base of HClO4 is ClO4-
1. Distinguish Lewis acid and Lewis base
Sl.no. Lewis acid Lewis base
1 Electron deficient molecule eg.AlCl3 Molecule with one or more lone pair of electrons
eg. NH3, H2O
2+ 3+
2 All metal atom or ions eg. Fe , Cr All anions eg. F-, Cl-,
3 Molecules that contain a polar double bond eg. Molecules that contain carbon-carbon multiple
SO2, CO2 bond eg. CH2=CH2, CHΞCH
4 Due to availability of empty d-orbitals central All metal oxides eg. CaO, MgO
atom can expand its octet eg. SiF4, SF4
5 Carbonium ion (CH3)3C+ Carbanion CH3-
1. Explain Arrhenius concept for Acids and Bases.
Acid is a substance that dissociate to give hydrogen ions in water.
Eg. HCl (g) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Base is a substance that dissociates to give hydroxyl ions in water.
Eg. Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)
2. Explain Lowry- Bronsted Theory for Acids and Bases (Proton Theory)
An acid is defined as a substance that has a tendency to donate a proton to another substance (proton
donor = Acid) eg. HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl-
Base is defined as a substance that has a tendency to accept a proton from other substance (proton
acceptor = Base) eg. H2O + NH3 ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
3. Explain Lewis concept for acid and bases (Electron theory).
Acid: The species that accepts an electron pair is called acid. eg. BF3, AlCl3
Base: The species that donate an electron pair is called base. eg. NH3, H2O
Eg. F3B + :NH3 → F3B←NH3
Lewis acid Lewis base adduct
4. Explain the buffer action of the acidic buffer.
Dissociation reactions of acidic buffer is
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
CH3COONa (s) CH3COO- (aq) + Na+ (aq)
If an acid is added to this mixture, it will be consumed by the conjugate base CH3COO- to form undissociated
weak acid. i.e, the increase in the concentration of H+ does not reduce the pH significantly.
CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) → CH3COOH (aq)
If a base is added, it will be neutralised by H3O+ and the acetic acid is dissociated to maintain the equilibrium.
Hence the pH is not significantly altered. OH- (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) → CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l)
Formulas / Equation / Derivation:
1. Derive Ostwald’s dilution law.
Ostwald’s dilution law relates the dissociation constant of the weak acid (Ka) with the degree of
dissociation (α) and the concentration (C). The degree of dissociation,
The dissociation of acetic acid can be represented as CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+

[𝐻+][𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂−]
The dissociation constant of acetic acid is Ka = [𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻]
CH3COOH H+ CH3COO-
Initial number of moles 1 - -
Degree of dissociation of CH3COOH α - -
Number of moles at equilibrium 1-α α α
Equilibrium concentration (1-α)C αC αC
32
Substituting the equilibrium concentration in the above equation
(𝛼𝐶)(𝛼𝐶) 𝛼2𝐶
Ka = (1−𝛼)𝐶 = 1−𝛼
The value of α is so small and hence 1-α=1.
𝐾𝑎 √𝐾𝑎
Ka = α2C ⟹ α2 = ;α=
𝐶 √𝐶
The hydrogen ion concentration is derived as follows.
√𝐾𝑎
[H+] = αC / [H+] = ( ) C = √𝐾𝑎𝐶
√𝐶
2. Derive Henderson – Hasselbalch equation.
The concidicentration of hydronium ion in an acidic buffer solution depends on the ratio of the
concentration of the weak acid to the concentration of its conjugate base present in the solution i.e.,
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
[H3O+] = Ka [𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒]
The weak acid is dissociated only to a small extent. By the addition of conjugate base, the dissociation
further suppressed. Hence the equilibrium concentration of acid is nearly equals to the initial concentration
of undissociated acid and the concentration of conjugate base equals to its initial concentration of added salt.
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
[H3O+] = Ka [𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
Taking logrithm on both sides of the above equation and reverse the sign on both sides.
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
- log[H3O+] = - logKa - log [𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
We know that pH = - log[H3O+] and pKa = - logKa
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
pH = pKa - log [𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
[𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
pH = pKa + log[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
3. Derive the relationship between pH and pOH.
pH = -log10[H3O+] -------------(1) ; pOH = -log10[OH-] ----------------(2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ p + p = -log10[H3O ] - log10[OH-]
H OH +
= - (log10[H3O+] + log10[OH-]) = - log10[H3O+][OH-] = - log10Kw

= pKw = -log1010-14 = 14 log1010 = 14
/ at 25oC pH + pOH = 14.
4. How solubility product determined from molar solubility?
For a solute XmYn
XmYn (s) ⇌ mXn+ (aq) + nYm- (aq)
If s is the solubility of XmYn, then [Xn+] =ms and [Ym-] =ns
/ Ksp = [Xn+]m[Ym-]n = (ms)m(ns)n = (m)m(n)n(s)m+n
5. Derive hydrolysis constant and pH for the hydrolysis of salt of strong base and weak acid.
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
In aqueous solution CH3COONa is completely dissociated as below.
CH3COONa (aq) → CH3COO-(aq) + Na+(aq)
CH3COO- is a conjugate base of the weak acid CH3COOH and it has a has a tendency to react with
H from water to produce unionised acid. There is no such tendency for Na+ to react with OH-.
+
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + OH- (aq) and therefore [OH-]>[H+], in such cases, the solution
is basic due to hydrolysis and pH is greater than 7
[𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻][𝑂𝐻−]
Kh = [𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂−] ---------------(1)
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)
[𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂−][𝐻+]
Ka = [𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻] ----------------(2)
(1) X (2) ⇒ KhKa = [H+][OH-]= Kw
pH of salt solution in terms of Ka and the concentration of the electrolyte,
pH + pOH = 14
𝐾𝑤𝐶
pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – (-log[OH-]) = 14 + log[OH-] = 14 + log(KhC)1/2 = 14 + log( 𝐾𝑎 )1/2
pH = 14 + (½ logKw + ½logC - ½logKa) = 14 – 7 + ½logC + ½pKa
= 7 + ½pKa + ½logC.
6. Derive hydrolysis constant and pH for the hydrolysis of salt of strong acid and weak base.
HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) ; NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+ + Cl- (aq)
NH4+ react with OH- from water to produce unionished NH4OH as shown below.
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)
Hence the solution is acidic and the pH is less than 7.
33
Kh.Kb = Kw
𝐾𝑤
Kh = h2C kw;Wk; [H+] = √𝐾ℎ𝐶 = √ 𝐾𝑏 𝐶
𝐾𝑤𝐶 1/2
pH = -log[H+] = - log ( ) = -½ logKw - ½ logC + ½ log Kb
𝐾𝑏
pH = 7 - ½ pKb - ½ logC
Rules / Statements / Laws:
1. Give Ostwald’s dilution law.
Ostwald’s dilution law relates the dissociation constant of the weak acid (Ka) with its degree of
dissociation (α) and the concentration (C).
Limitations:
1. What are the limitation of Arrhenius theory.
1. Arrhenius theory does not explain the behaviour of acids and bases in non aqueous solvents such as
acetone, Tetrahydrofuran etc…
2. This theory does not account for the basicity of the substances like ammonia (NH3) which do not possess
hydroxyl group.
2. What are the limitation of Lowry – Bronsted theory?
Substances like BF3, AlCl3, etc., that do not donate protons are known to behave as acids.
1. Calculate solubility product of Ca3(PO4)2.
Ca3(PO4)2 3Ca2+ + 2PO43-
(3s) (2s)
Ksp = [Ca2+]3[PO43-]2 = (3s)3(2s)2 = (27s3)(4s2) = 108s5
2. Write the equation for the solubility product of Hg2Cl2.
Hg2Cl2 Hg22+ + 2Cl-
(s) (2s)
Ksp = [Hg22+][Cl-]2 = (s)(2s)2 = 4s3
3. Find the pH of 0.1M CH3COOH> Ka value of CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-5
[H+] = √(𝐾𝑎 ∗ 𝐶) = √(1.8 x 10-5 x 0.1)
= √(1.8 x 10-6) = 1.3416 x 10-3
pH = -log[H+] = -log(1.3416 x 10-3) = -log1.3416 -log10-3
= 3log10 – log1.3416 = 3x1 – 0.1276 = 2.8724
4. Find the pH of 0.001M HCl solution.
pH = -log[H+] = - log(0.001) = - log(10-3) = 3log10 = 3x1 = 3
5. Calculate pH of 10-7 M HCl.
[H3O+] = 10-7 (from water) + [H3O+] = 10-7 (from HCl acid) = 10-7(1+1) = 2 x 10-7
pH = -log10[H3O+] = - log10(2x10-7) = - [log2 + log10-7]
= 7 – log2 = 7 – 0.3010 = 6.6990 = 6.7
6. Calculate pH of 0.1M CH3COONa solution. (pKa value of CH3COOH is 4.74)
pH = 7 + ½pKa + ½ logC = 7 + ½ x 4.74 + ½ log0.1
= 7 + ½4.74 + (log1x10-1)/2 = 7 + 4.74/2 + log1/2 – log10/2
= 7 + 4.74/2 + 0 -1/2 = 7 + (4.74 – 1)/2
= 7 + 3.74/2 = 7 + 1.87 = 8.87
7. Calculate the concentration of OH- in a fruit juice which contains 2 x 10-3 M, H3O+ ion. Identify the
nature of the solution.
Given [H3O+] = 2 x 10-3 M
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
/ [OH-] = Kw = 1 x 10-14 = 5 x 10-12M
+ -3
[H3O ] 2 x 10
2 x 10-3 >> 5 x 10-12 i.e., [H3O+] >>[OH-], hence fruit juice is acidic in nature.
8. Find the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.20 mole litre-1 sodium acetate and 0.18 mole litre-1
acetic acid. Ka for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10-5.
[𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
pH = pKa + log[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
0.20 10
pH = - log Ka + log 0.18 = - log(1.8 x 10-5) + log 9 = 5log10 – log1.8 + log10 – log9
= 5 – 0.2553 + 1 – 0.9542 = 6 – 1.2095 = 4.7905
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Unit 9. Electrochemistry
Short questions
1. What is sacrificial protection (cathodic protection)?
The metal such as Mg or Zn which is corroded more easily than iron can be used as a sacrificial
anode and the iron material acts as cathode. So iron is protected, but Mg or Zn is corroded.
2. What is corrosion?
The redox process which causes the deterioration of metal is called corrosion.
3. What is molar conductivity?
The conductivity of a solution which contain one mole of electrolyte is known as molar conductivity.
4. What is equivalent conductivity?
The conductivity of a solution which contain one gram equivalent of electrolyte is known as equivalent
conductivity.
5. Give Debye – Huckel and Onsager equation.
Λm = Λm˚ – (A + B Λm˚)√𝐶 A and B = Debye constant
82.4 8.20
A= B =3 x105 D = dielectric constant of the medium
√𝐷𝑇𝜂 √𝐷𝑇
Ƞ = viscosity of the medium T = Temperature in kelvin
6. Give the method of Galvanic cell notation.
Zn (s) | Zn2+ (aq) || Cu2+ (aq) | Cu(s)
1. In the above notation, a single vertical bar (|) represents a phase boundary and the double verticle
bar (||) represents the salt bridge.
2. The anode half cells is written on the left side of the salt bridge and the cathode half cell on right side.
3. The anode and cathode are written on the extreme left and extreme right, respectively.
4. The emf of the cell is written on the right side after cell diagram.
7. What is intercalation?
During discharge of the lithium-ion battery, the Li+ ions produced at the anode move towards cathode
through the non-aqueous electrolyte. When a potential greater than the emf produced by the cell is applied
across the electrode, the cell reaction is reversed and now the Li+ ions move from cathode to anode where
they become embedded on the porous graphite electrode. This is known as intercalation.
8. What is electrochemical series? How this series is used to determine the capacity of corrosion?
The standard aqueous electrode potential at 298K for various metal-metal ion electrodes are arranged
in the decreasing order of their standard reduction potential value is called electrochemical series. It is a
measure of the oxidising tendency of the species. The greater the value, greater is the tendency to accept
electron undergo reduction, lesser is the tendency to undergo corrosion.
9. What is the role of salt bridge in Galvanic cells?
Salt bridge is an inverted U tube containing a agar-agar gel mixed with the inert electrolyte such as
KCl, Na2SO4,etc. The ions of inert electrolyte do not react with other ions present in the half cells and they
are not either oxidised or reduced at the electrolytes. The solution in the salt bridge cannot get poured out,
but through which the ions can move into or out of the half cells. Thus half cells are joined and circuit closed.
10. How Kohlrausch law is useful to determine the molar conductivity of weak electrolyte at infinite
dilution? (Write any one use of Kohlrausch law.)
Λ̊CH3COONa = λ̊Na+ + λ̊CH3COO- ------------(1)
Λ̊HCl = λ̊H+ + λ̊Cl- ------------------------------(2)
Λ̊NaCl = λ̊Na+ + λ̊Cl- ---------------------(3)
(1) + (2) – (3) ⇒ (Λ̊CH3COONa) + (Λ̊HCl) + (Λ̊NaCl) = λ̊H+ + λ̊CH3COO- = Λ̊CH3COOH
11. Reduction potential of two metals M1 and M2 are EoM12+/M1 = - 2.3 V and EoM22+/M2 = 0.2 V. Predict
which one is better for coating the surface of iron? Given: EoFe2+/Fe = - 0.44 V.
Reduction potential of M22+ is more +ve than the reduction potential of Fe which indicates that it will
prevent iron from rusting.
1. What are the uses of Kohlrausch’s law?
1. to calculate molar conductance at infinite dilution of a weak electrolyte
2. to calculate degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte
3. to calculate solubility of sparingly soluble salts
1. Why specific conductance decreases when dilution increases?
The specific conductance is defined as the conductance of a cube of an electrolytic solution of unit
dimensions. On dilution the number of ions in the unit volume decreases and hence specific conductance
decreases.
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2. Why is AC current used instead of DC in measuring the electrolytic conductance?
To prevent electrolysis, AC current used instead of DC in measuring the electrolytic conductance.
3. Is it possible to store copper sulphate in an iron vessel for a long time?
Given EoCu2+/Cu =0.34V and EoFe2+/Fe = -0.44V.
Iron gets oxidized and copper gets reduced, represented by this positively charged electrode potential
values. That is vessel will be dissolved. Hence it is not possible to store copper sulphate in an iron vessel.
4. Molar conductance of a solution increases with increase in dilution. Why?
This is because, for a strong electrolyte, interionic forces of attraction decrease with dilution. For a weak
electrolyte degree of dissociation increase with dilution.
5. Why is anode in galvanic cell considered to be negative and cathode positive electrode?
1. The electrode at which the oxidation occur is called the anode. Electrons are liberated at anode and hence
it is negative (-ve).
2. The electrode at which the reduction occur is called cathode. Electrons are consumed and hence it is
positive (+ve)
6. Two metals M1 and M2 have reduction potential values of -xV and +yV respectively which metal will
liberate H2 from H2SO4?
Metals having higher reduction potential will liberate H2 from H2SO4. Hence, the metal M2 having +yV,
reduction potential will liberate H2 from H2SO4.
7. Can Fe2+ oxidises bromide to bromine under standard conditions? Given EoFe3+|Fe2+ = 0.771V and
EoBr2|Br- = 1.09V.
Eocell = (Eoox) + (Eored) = - 1.09 + 0.771 = -0.319V
Eocell is negative and ΔG is positive and hence the cell reaction is nonspondaneous. Fe3+ cannot oxidise
Br- into Br2.
1. Describe the construction of Daniel Cell. Write the cell reaction.
Oxidation half cell: Zn(metal strip) + aqueous ZnSO4 solution
Reaction: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction half cell: Cu (metal strip + aqueous CuSO4 solution
Reaction: Cu2+ +2e- → Cu↓
Joining the half cells: The electrolyte present in two half cells are connected using a salt bridge. Salt bridge
is non-reactive electrolyte KCl, Na2SO4 with agar-agar gel paste through which ions migrate.
Completion of circuit: Electron flow from the negatively charged zinc anode into the positively charged copper
cathode through the external wire, at the same time, anions move towards anode and cations are move
towards the cathode compartment. This completes the circuit.
Consumption of electrode: Metal atom (Zn) losses electrons and released as ions from the anode, the mass
of the zinc electrode gradually decreases.
2. Explain Leclanche cell.
Anode: Zinc container
Cathode: Graphite rod in contact with MnO2
Electrolyte: ammonium chloride and zinc chloride in water
Emf of the cell is about 1.5V
Cell reaction: Oxidation at anode Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction at cathode 2NH4 + 2e- → 2NH3 + H2
+
MnO2, oxidises H2 as H2O.

Over all reaction: Zn + 2NH4+ + MnO2 → Zn2+ +Mn2O3 + H2O + 2NH3
3. Explain lead storage battery.
Anode: spongy lead
Cathode: lead plate bearing PbO2
Electrolyte: 38% by mass of H2SO4
Emf of the cell is about 12V
Cell reaction: Anode Pb → Pb2+ + 2e- and Pb2+ + SO42- → PbSO4↓
Cathode PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e- → Pb2+ + 2H2O and Pb2+ + SO42- → PbSO4↓
Overall reaction Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42- → 2PbSO4 +2H2O
When the cell potential falls to about 1.8V, the cell has to be recharged.
4. Describe the construction of mercury button cell.
Anode: Zinc amalgamated with mercury
Cathode: HgO mixed with graphite
Electrolyte: Paste of KOH and ZnO
Cell reaction: Anode Zn + 2OH- → ZnO + H2O + 2e-
36
Cathode: HgO + H2O + 2e- → Hg + 2OH-
Overall reaction: HgO + Zn → ZnO + Hg
Cell emf: 1.35V
5. Describe the construction of Lithium ion battery.
Anode: Porous graphite
Cathode: transition metal oxide such as CoO2
Electrolyte: Lithium salt in an organic solvent
Cell reaction:
Anode: Li → Li+ + e-
Cathode: Li+ + CoO2 + e- → LiCoO2
Overall reaction: Li + CoO2 → LiCoO2
Both the electrodes allow Li+ ions to move in and out of their structures. During the dischare, the Li+ ions
produced at the anode move towards cathode through the non-aqueous electrolyte. During the charge, the
Li+ ions move from cathode to anode.
6. Describe the construction of H2 – O2 fuel cell.
The combustion of hydrogen is converted into electrical energy. For this hydrogen has to be supplied
continuously.
Fuel cell: Fuel | Electrode | Electrolyte | Electrode | Oxidant
Fuel = Hydrogen. Oxidant: Oxygen Electrolyte: aqueous KOH maintained at 200oC and 20-40 atm.
Electrode: Porous graphite electrode containing Ni and NiO serves as the inert electrodes.
Hydrogen and oxygen gases are bubbled through the anode and cathode, respectively.
Cell reaction:
Anode: 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-
Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e -
→ 4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e -
→ 4OH-
Other fuel cells like propane – O2 and methane – O2 have also been developed.
7. Explain the methods of protecting metals from corrosion.
1. Coating of metal surface by paint. 2. Galvanising
3. Cathodic protection: Metals such as Mg or Zn which is corroded more easily can be used as sacrificial
anode. Mg and Zn corroded. Fe protected.
4. Passivation: The metal is treated with con.HNO3 and a protective oxide layer is formed on the surface.
5. Alloy formation.
8. Explain the factors affecting electrolytic conductance.
1. Solvent of higher dielectric constant show high conductance in solution.
2. Conductance is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the medium.
3. If the temperature of the electrolytic solution increases, conductance also increases.
4. Molar conductance of a solution increases with increase in dilution.
9. Explain Standard Hydrogen Electrode(SHE).
Standard Hydrogen Electrode is used as the reference electrode. Its emf has been assigned as zero
volt. It consists of a platinum electrode in contact with 1M HCl solution and 1atm hydrogen gas. The hydrogen
gas is bubbled through the solution at 25oC. SHE can act as a cathode as well as an anode.
The half cell reactions are,
If SHE is used as a cathode, the reduction reaction is
2H+ (aq,1M) + 2e- → H2 (g, 1atm) Eo = 0 volt
If SHE is used as an anode, the oxidation reaction is
H2 (g, 1atm) → 2H+ (aq,1M) + 2e- Eo = 0 volt
10. Describe the electrolysis of molten NaCl using inert electrodes.
1. The electrolytic cell consists of two iron electrodes dipped in molten NaCl and they are connected to an
external DC power supply via a key.
2.The electrode which is attached to the negative and end of power supply is called the cathode and the one
which is attached to the positive end is called the anode.
3. Once the key is closed, the external DC power supply drives the electrons to the cathode and at the same
time pull the electrons from the anode.
Cell reaction:
Cathode (reduction) : Na+(l) + e- → Na (l) Eo = -2.71 V
Anode (oxidation) : 2Cl- (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e- Eo = -1.36 V
The overall reaction is : 2Na (l) + 2Cl (l) → 2Na(l) + Cl2 (g)
+ -
Eo = -4.07 V
The negative Eo value shows that the above reaction is a non spontaneous one. Hence, we have to supply
a voltage greater than 4.07V to cause the electrolysis of molten NaCl.
37
Formulas / Equation / Derivation:
1. Derive Nernst equation.
For a reversible cell reaction
xA + yB ⇌ lC + mD
reaction quotient Q = [C]l[D]m
[A]x[B]y
ΔG = ΔG + RTlnQ
o
ΔG = - nFEcell ; ΔGo = - nFEocell
o l m
- nFEcell = - nFE cell + RT ln[C] [D]
[A]x[B]y
Ecell = Eocell - RT ln[C]l[D]m
nF [A]x[B]y
Ecell = E cell – 2.303 RT log[C]l[D]m
o
nF [A]x[B]y
This equation is called Nernst equation.
2. Derive the relationship between G, E and Keq.
If n is the number of moles of electrons exchanged between the oxidising and reducing agent in the
overall cell reaction, then the electrical energy produced by the cell is,
Electrical energy = nFEcell
This energy is used to do the electric work. Therefore the maximum work that can be obtained by the cell is
(Wmax)cell = - nFEcell
We know that Wmax = ΔG and therefore ΔG = - nFEcell
When all the cell components are in their standard state the above equation becomes ΔGo = - nFEocell
We know that the standard free energy change is related to the equilibrium constant as per the following
equation. ΔGo = - RTlnKeq
And so nFEocell = RTlnKeq
o
E cell = 2.303 RT logKeq
nF
1. Give Faraday’s first law.
The mass of the substance (m) liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to
the quantity of charge (Q) passed through the cell. i.e. m α Q
2. Give Faraday’s second law.
When the same quantity of charge is passed through the solutions of different electrolytes, the amount
of substances liberated at the respective electrodes are directly proportional to their electrochemical
equivalents.
3. Give Kohlrausch’s law.
At infinite dilution, the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte is equal to the sum of the limiting
molar conductivities of its constituent ions.
4. Define : Anode and Cathode.
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation occurs Cathode: The electrode at which reduction occur.
5. State ohm’s law.
At constant temperature, the current flowing throgh the cell (l) is directly proportional to the voltage
across the cell(V). i.e., I α V (or) I = V/R (or) V = IR
6. Define Specific resistance or resistivity(ρ).
The resistivity is defined as the resistance of an electrolyte confined between to electrodes having unit
cross sectional area and are separated by a unit distance.
7. Define Specific conductance or conductivity(k).
It is defined as the conductance of unit volume of electrolytic solution or the reciprocal of the specific
resistance (1⁄𝜌) . It is represented by the symbol kappa (k)
Problems / Calculations:
1. Calculate the standard emf of the cell Cd|Cd2+║Cu2+|Cu. The standard reduction po-tential of
Cu2+|Cu and Cd2+|Cd are 0.34V and – 0.40V respectively. Find the feasibility of cell reaction.
Oxidation in anode: Cd → Cd2+ + 2e- (Eooxi)Cd|Cd2+ = 0.4v
Reduction in cathode: Cu + 2e → 2+ -
Cu o
(E red)Cu2+|Cu = 0.34v
Overall reaction: Cd + Cu → 2+ 2+
Cd + Cu
Eocell = (Eooxi)anode + (Eored)cathode = 0.4 + 0.34 = 0.74V
Eocell has positive sign and so ΔG is negative. Hence the cell reaction is feasible.
38
2. If conductivity cell has two platinum electrodes separated by a distance of 1.5 cm and the cross
sectional area of each electrode is 4.5 sq.cm. using this cell, the resistance of 0.5 N electrolytic
solution was measured as 15 ohms. Find the specific conductance of the solution.
3. Ionic conductance at infinite dilution of Al3+ and SO42- are 189 and 160 mho cm2 equiv-1. Calculate
the equivalent and molar conductance of the electrolyte Al2(SO4)3 at infinite dilution.
Equivalent conductance of .
mho cm2 equiv-1
Molar conductance of .
= 858 mho cm2 mol-1.
4. A solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed for 20 minutes with a current of 2 amperes. Calculate the
mass of silver deposited at the cathode.
Unit 10. Surface Chemistry

Short questions
1. What is peptisation?
By the addition of suitable electrolytes, the precipitated particles can be brought into colloidal state
and this process is called peptisation.eg. AgCl precipitate dispersed by the addition of HCl.
2. What is catalyst poison?
Certain substances when added to a catalysed reaction decreases or completely destroys the activity
of catalyst and they are known as catalytic poisons. Eg. In the Haber’s process H2S acts as catalyst poison
to the catalyst iron.
3. What is promoters?
In a catalysed reaction the presence of a certain substances increases the activity of a catalyst which
is called promoters. Eg. In the Haber’s process molybdenum acts as promoter to Iron catalyst.
4. What is electrophoresis?
The migration of sol particles under the influence of electric field is called electrophoresis.
5. What is electro osmosis?
The movement of dispersion medium under the influence of electric potential is called electro osmosis.
6. What is tanning of leather?
Skin and hides are protein containing positively charged particles which are coagulated by adding
tannin to give hardened leather for further application. Chromium salts are used instead of tannin.
7. What is coagulation (precipitation)? Give various method of coagulation.
The flocculation and settling down of the sol particles is called coagulation. Various method of
coagulation is 1. Addition of electrolyte, 2. Electrophoresis, 3. Mixing of oppositively charged sols, 4. Boiling.
8. What is active centres?
The surface of a catalyst is not smooth. It bears steps, cracks and corners. Hence the atoms on such
locations of the surface are co-ordinatively unsaturated. So, they have much residual force of attraction. Such
sites are called active centres.
9. What is Tyndall effect?
When light passes through colloidal solution, it is scattered in all directions. This effect is called
Tyndall effect.
10. What is Brownian movement? Give the reason for it.
The zigzag movement of colloidal particle when viewed through ultra microscope is known as
Brownian movement. This happened due to continuous bombardment of molecule of dispersion medium on
colloidal particle.
39
11. What is ultrafiltration?
The colloidal solution passes through an ordinary filter paper. In ultrafiltration, the membranes are
made by using collodion cellophane or visiking. The separation of sol particles from electrolyte by filtration
through an ultrafilter is called ultrafiltration.
12. What is collodion?
Collodion is 4% solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and water.
13. Give Freundlich adsorption equation
𝑥 1
log𝑚 = log k + 𝑛 log p
x = amount of adsorbate m = weight of adsorbent p = pressure k and n = Freundlich constants
14. What is the role of adsorption in heterogeneous catalysis?
The adsorption of reactants on the surface decreases its activation energy and increases the rate of
reaction.
15.What is Helmholtz electrical double layer?
The surface of colloidal particle adsorbs one type of ion due to preferential adsorption. This layer
attracts the oppositely charged ions in the medium and hence at the boundary separating the two electrical
double layers are setup. This is called as Helmholtz electrical double layer.
16. What is emulsification?
The process of preparation of emulsion by the dispersal of one liquid in another liquid is called
Emulsification.
17. What is deemulsification?
Emulsion can be separated into two separate layers. This process is known as Deemulsification.
18. What is nano catalysis? Give example.
The reaction in which the catalyst used are metallic nano particles, metal oxides, etc. is known as
nano catalysis.
19. Give two examples for enzyme catalysis.

1. The peptide glycyl L-glutamyl L-lyrosin is hydrolysed by an enzyme called pepsin.
2. The enzyme diastase hydrolysis starch into maltose. 2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O → nC12H22O11
20. What is flocculation value?
The precipitation power of electrolyte is determined by finding the minimum concentration required to
cause precipitation of a sol in 2 hours. This value is called flocculation value. The smaller the value greater
will be precipitation.
21. Write the dispersed phase and dispersion medium of butter.
Dispersed phase = liquid Dispersion medium = solid
22. Mention the shapes of the following colloidal particles. 1. As 2S3 2. Blue gold sol 3. Tungstic acid
sol.
1. As2S3 = Sperical 2. Blue gold sol = Disc or plate like shape 3. Tungstic acid = Rod like shape.
23. What is inversion of phase?Give an example.
The change of W/O emulsion into O/W emulsion is called inversion of phase.eg. An oil in water
emulsion containing potassium soap as emulsifying agent can be converted into water in oil emulsion by
adding CaCl2 or AlCl3.
24. Identify autocatalyst in the following reaction.
A) CH3COOC2H5 + H2O → CH3COOH + C2H5OH B) 2AsH3 → 2As + 3H2
A) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) B) Arsenic (As)
25. What is gold number?
Gold number is a measure of protecting power. It is defined as the number of milligrams of hydrophilic
colloids that will just prevent the precipitation of 10ml of 10% NaCl solution. Smaller the gold number greater
the protective power.
26. What is Homogeneous and Heterogeneous catalysis? Give example.
Homogeneous catalysis: The reactants, products and catalyst are present in same phase.
eg. 2SO2 + O2 + [NO] → 2SO3 + [NO] In this reaction all are in gaseous state only.
Heterogeneous catalysis: The catalyst present in a different phase i.e., it is not present in the same phase as
that of reactant or products.
eg. 2SO2 + O2 Pt or V2O5→ 2SO3 In this reaction catalyst in solid phase and others in gaseous phase.
40
27. What happens when a colloidal sol of Fe(OH)3 and As2O3 are mixed?
Fe(OH)3 is a positive sol and As2O3 is a negative sol are mixed with each other mutual precipitation
takes place.
28. What are enzymes? Write a brief note on mechanism of enzyme catalyst?
Enzymes are complex protein molecules with three dimensional structures. They catalyse the chemical
reaction in living organism.
Mechanism:
Here E is the enzyme, S the substrate(reactant), ES represent the activated complex and P the product.
29. What do you mean by activity and selectivity of catalyst?
Acitivity:
The ability to increase the rate of a particular reaction.
Selectivity:
The ability of the catalyst to direct a reaction to yield a particular product.
30. Comment on the statement: Colloid is not a substance but it is a state of substance.
This statement is true. Because some substance which are crystalloids under certain conditions can
be colloids under the other conditions.
eg. NaCl is a crystalloid in aqueous medium, but when mixed with benzen, it behaves as a colloid.
31. How colloids are used in Rubber industry?
Latex is the emulsion of natural rubber with negative particles. By heating rubber with sulphur,
vulcanised rubbers are produced for tyres, tubes, etc.
1. List the application of colloids in medicine
1. penicillin and streptomycin are produced in colloidal form for suitable injections.
2. Colloidal gold and colloidal calcium are used as tonics
3. Milk of magnesia is used for stomach troubles
4. silver sol protected by gelatine is used as eye lotion in the name Argyrol
2. List some uses of adsorption
1. Activated charcoal used adsorbent in gas masks
2. In the separation of rare gases charcoal used as adsorbent.
3. In the process of softening of hard water
4. Animal charcoal is used to decolourise sugar
5. In the Haber’s process reaction occurs on the surface of iron catalyst
6. In the refining of petroleum and vegetable oil Fuller’s earth and silica gel used as adsorbent
3. What are the importance of Brownian movement?
1. to calculate Avogadro number
2. could be confirmed the increase in movement of particle with increase in temperature (Kinetic theory)
3. it does not allow the particles to be acted on by force of gravity.
4. Give three uses of emulsions.
1. It is used in pharmaceutical industry.
2. Cleansing action of soaps is based on the formation of emulsions.
3. Antiseptics and disinfectants when added to water form emulsions
1. Distinguish physical adsorption and chemical adsorption
Sl. no. Chemical adsorption or Chemisorption or Physical adsorption or Physisorption or vander
Activated adsorption waals adsorption
1 It is very slow It is instantaneous
2 Very specific Non- specific
3 Adsorption will not increase on increasing Adsorption increased by increasing pressure
pressure
4 On increase of temperature adsorption first Adsorption decreases on increase of
increase and then decrease temperature
5 Electron transfer involved between adsorbent No transfer of electrons
and adsorbate
6 Heat of adsorption is high Heat of adsorption is low
7 Monolayer of adsorbate is formed Multilayer of adsorbate is formed
8 Occurs at fixed sites called active centres. Occurs on all sides
9 Involves the formation of activated complex with Activation energy is insignificant
appreciable activation energy
41
2. Differentiate homogeneous catalysis and heterogeneous catalysis
Sl.no. Homogeneous catalysis Heterogeneous catalysis
1 In a homogeneous catalysed reaction, the In a reaction, the catalyst is present in a
reactant, products and catalyst are present in different phase i.e. it is not present in the same
the same phase phase as that of reactants or products
2 e.g., 2SO2 + O2 +[NO] → 2SO3 + [NO] e.g., 2SO2 + O2 + Pt → 2SO3 + Pt
3. What is the difference between a sol and a gel?
S.No Sol Gel
1 The liquid state of colloidal solution. The solid (or) semisolid stage of a colloidal solution
2 Very low viscosity Very high viscosity
3 It does not have definite structure. It possesses definite structure.
Reasons/ give reason
1. In case of chemisorption, why adsorption first increases and then decreases with temperature?
Heat of chemisorption is more and hence initially adsorption increases with increase in temperature.
On further increase in temperature leads to desorption and so adsorption decreased.
2. What happened when hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through arsenic oxide? Give the name of
this chemical process.
Double decomposition: When H2S gas is passing through As2O3 solution, yellow colloid of As2S3 is formed.
As2O+ + 3H2S → As2S3 + 3H2O
3. Which will be adsorbed more readily on the surface of charcoal and why? NH3 or CO2.
NH3 will be more readily adsorbed on the surface of the charcoal. Because it is easilyliquefiable gas
i.e., easily liquefiable gases will be adsorbed more readily.
4. Heat of adsorption is greater for chemisorption than physisorption. why?
In chemisorption gaseous molecules are adsorped on the surface by the formation strong chemical
bond and so its heat adsoption is more. In physisorption physical forces like vanderwaals force, dipole dipole
interaction exist between adsopent and adsorbed substance and so its heat of adsorption is low.
5. Addition of Alum purifies water. Why?
We add alum to purify water as alum coagulates the colloidal impurities present in water so that these
impurities settle down and get removed by decantation or filteration.
6. Why does bleeding stop by rubbing moist alum?
Blood is a colloidal sol, when we rub the injured part with moist alum then coagulation of blood takes
place, which stops the bleeding.
7. Why is desorption important for a substance to act as a good catalyst?
1. After the completion of reaction, the products formed on the surface separates out to create free surface
again for other reactant molecules.
2. If desorption does not occur then other reactants are left with no space on the catalyst’s surface for
desorption and reaction will stop.
8. Why are lyophilic colloidal sols are more stable than the lyophobic colloidal sols?
In lyophilic colloidal sols definite attractive force exists between dispersion medium and dispersed
phase and so they are more stable than the lyophobic colloidal sols.
9. Powdered CaCO3 reacts much faster with dil.HCl than with the same mass of CaCO3 as marble.
Give reason.
When compared to CaCO3 as marble, the powdered CaCO3 possess more surface and so react much
faster with dil.HCl.
1. List out the factors affecting adsorption.
1. Nature of adsorbent: higher the surface area, higher is the amount adsorped.
2. Nature of adsorbate: Gases is like SO2, NH3, HCl and CO2 are easily liquefiable which are easily adsorbed
But the permanent gases like H2, O2, He are adsorbed slowly.
3. Effect of temperature: Chemisorption increases first and then decreases on increase of temperature. But
Physisorption decreases on increase of temperature.
4. Effect of Pressure: In Chemisorption the amount of adsorption will not be altered with increase of pressure.
In physisorption the extent of adsorption increases with increase in pressure.
2. Explain briefly the Adsorption theory (of catalysis) for the rate of reaction.
This theory is suitable for the heterogeneous catalysed reaction. This process occurs in 5 steps.
1. Reactant molecules diffuse from bulk to the catalyst surface.
2. The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst.
42
3. The adsorbed reactant molecules are activated and form activated complex which is decomposed to form
the products.
4. The product molecules are adsorbed.
5. The product diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst.
3. Explain briefly the intermediate compound formation theory of catalysis.

In homogeneous catalysed reactions a catalyst may combine with one or more reactant to form an
intermediate which reacts with other reactant or decompose to give products and the catalyst is regenerated.
Consider the reactions: A + B C→ AB Where C is the catalyst.
A + C → AC (Intermediate) AC + B → AB + C
Eg. 2SO2 + O2 NO
→ 2SO3
2NO(catalyst) + O2 → 2NO2(Intermediate)
NO2 + SO2 → SO3 (product) + NO (catalyst)
4. Explain any one method for coagulation.
When colloidal sols with opposite charges are mixed mutual coagulation takes place. It is due to
migration of ions from the surface of the particles.
1. What are the characteristics of catalyst?
1. Catalyst is needed in very small quantity.
2. It remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition.
3. It can not initiate a reaction, but it can alter the rate of existing reaction.
4. It will be more effective if it is taken in a finely divided form.
5. They are specific in nature.
6. In equilibrium, it fastens the reaction to attain the equilibrium, but does not affect the position of equilibrium
7. It generally does not change the nature of products.
2. What are the characteristics of adsorption?
1. Adsorption can occur in all interfacial surfaces.
2. It is a spontaneous process.
3. When the molecules are adsorbed, there is always a decrease in randomness of the molecules.
4. It is an exothermic process.
5. It is a quick process.
3. Describe some feature of catalysis by Zeolites.
1.Reactant selectivity: When bulkier molecules in a reactant mixture are prevented from reaching the active
sites within the zeolite crystal, this selectivity is called reactant shape selectivity.
2. Transition state selectivity: If the transition state of a reaction is large compared to the pore size of the
zeolite, then no product will be formed.
3. Product selectivity: It is encountered when certain product molecules one two big to diffuse out of the
zeolite pores.
Limitations:
1. What are the limitation of Freundlich isotherm?
1. This equation is purely empirical and valid over a limited pressure range.
2. The values of constant k and n also found vary with temperature. No theoretical explanations were given.
Preparation:
1. Preparation of colloids by chemical method (condensation method)
(i) Oxidation: HIO3 + 5HI → 3H2O + I2 (sol) ; H2Se + O2 → 2H2O + Se (sol)
(ii) Reduction: AuCl3 + 3HCHO + 3H2O → 2Au (sol) + 6HCl + 3HCOOH
(iii) Hydrolysis: FeCl3 + 3H2O → Fe(OH)3 (sol) + 3HCl
(iv) Double decomposition: As2O3 + 3H2O → As2S3 + 3H2O
(v) Decomposition: S2O32- + 2H+ → S (sol) + H2O + SO2
2. Preparation of colloids by Mechanical dispersion and Electro dispersion
i. Mechanical Dispersion: Using a colloid mill, the solid is ground to colloidal dimension. The colloid mill consist
of two metal plates rotating in opposite direction at very high speed of nearly 7000 revolution / min. The
colloidal particles of required colloidal size is obtained by adjusting the distance between two plates. By this
method, colloidal solutions of ink and graphite are prepared.
43
ii. Electro Dispersion: An electrical arc is struck between electrodes dispersed in water surrounded by ice.
When a current of 1 amp/100V is passed an arc produced forms vapours of metal which immediately
condense to form colloidal solution. By this method colloidal solution of many metals like copper, silver, gold,
platinum,etc., can be prepared. Alkali hydroxide is added as an stabilising agent foe the colloidal solution.
1. Give the test to identify the types of emulsion.
A small amount of dye soluble in oil is added to the emulsion. The emulsion is shaken well. The
aqueous emulsion will not take the colour whereas oily emulsion will take up the colour of the dye.
Unit 11. Hydroxy Derivatives and Ethers

Short questions
1. What is metamerism?
Compounds having similar molecular formula but differs by the alkyl group attached to a oxygen atom
in ether is known as metamerism. Eg. Molecular formula C4H10O and structural formula are
CH3CH2OCH2CH3, CH3OCH2CH2CH3, CH3OCH(CH3)CH3
2. What is saponification?
The alkaline hydrolysis of fats or edible oils gives glycerol and soap. The reaction is known as
saponification.
3. What is Bayer’s reagent? Using this how will you convert ethen into ethane-1,2-diol?
Bayer’s reagent = cold alkaline KMnO4.
4. Give any two method for the preparation of diethyl ether.
Williamson synthesis:
1. Write the uses of glycerol
1. as sweetening agent in confectionary and beverages
2. in the manufacture of cosmetics and transparent soaps
3. in making printing inks and stamp pad ink and lubricant for watches and clock
4. in the manufacture of explosive like dynamite and cordite by mixing it with china clay.
2. Write the uses of ethanol
1. in the preparation of Paints and varnishes
2. in the preparation of organic compounds like ether, chloroform, iodoform, etc.
3. in the preparation of dyes, transparent soaps
4. substituent for petrol under the name power alcohol used as fuel for aeroplane
5. as preservatives for biological specimen
3. List the uses of diethyl ether
1. as a surgical anaesthetic agent in surgery 2. good solvent for organic reactions and extraction
3. as a volatile starting fluid for diesel and gasoline engine 4. as a refrigerant
4. List the uses of phenol
1. used in preparation of phenol-formaldehyde resin(bakelite)
2. in preparation of drugs such as phenacetin, salol, aspirin,etc
3. in the preparation of phenolphthalein 4. in the preparation of explosives like picric acid
5. as an antiseptic-carbolic lotion and carbolic soaps
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5. Give the uses of methanol.
1. It is used as a solvent for paints, varnishes, shellac, gums, cement,etc.
2. In the manufacture of dyes, drugs, perfumes and formaldehyde.
6. What are the uses of ethylene glycol?
1. It is used as an antifreeze in automobile radiator
2. Its dinitrate is used as an explosive with TNG.
7. What are the uses of methoxy benzene(anisole)?
1. It is precursor to the synthesis of perfumes and insectiside pheromones.
2. as a pharmaceutical agent.
1. Is it possible to oxidise t-butyl alcohol using acidified dichromate to form a carbonyl compound?
Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction under normal conditions, but at elevated
temperatures, under strong oxidising agent cleavage of C-C bond takes place to gives first acetone and on
further oxidation gives mixture of carboxylic acid.
2. Why is C-O-C bond angle in ether silghtly greater than the tetrahedral bond angle?
Due to the repulsive interaction between the two bulkier alkyl groups (or) due to steric effect (or) interaction.
1. Explain the Saytzeff’s rule with example.
Rule: During intramolecular dehydration, if there is a possibility to form a carbon-carbon double bond at
different locations, the preferred location is the one that gives the more (highly) substituted alkene i.e. the
stable alkene. E.g., dehydration of 3,3-dimethylbutan-2-ol gives 2,3-dimethylbut-2-ene as major product.
2. Explain autooxidation of ethers.
They are explosive in nature. The spontaneous oxidation of ethers by atmospheric oxygen is called
autooxidation.
Naming Reaction:
1. Swern Oxidation
2. Dows process
3. Schotten Baumann reaction
4.Williamsons ether synthesis
5. Kolbe’s or Kolbe’s Schmit reaction
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6. Riemer – Tiemann reaction (phenol → salicylaldehyde)
7. Coupling reaction
1. Hydroboration (How will you prepare alcohol from diborane?)
2. How will you prepare the following by using Grignard reagent? 1. Propan-1-ol 2. Propan-2-ol.
1. HCHO + CH3CH2MgBr → CH3CH2CH2OMgBr + H-OH → CH3CH2CH2OH + Mg(OH)Br
2. CH3MgBr + CH3CHO → CH3CH(OMgBr)CH3 + H-OH → CH3CH(OH)CH3 + Mg(OH)Br
1. How do you differentiate three types of alcohol by Lucas test?
2. Give Victor Meyer’s test to differentiate 3 types of alcohols
46
3. Give the tests to differentiate alcohol and phenols.
1. phenol react with benzene diazonium chloride to form a red orange dye, but ethanol has no reaction with
it.
2. phenol gives purple coulouration with neutral ferric chloride solution, alcohol do not give such colouration
with FeCl3.
3. phenol reacts with NaOH to give sodium phenoxide. Ethyl alcohol does not react with NaOH.
How do you convert the following?
1. Ethylene Ethylene glycol
2. Glycerol ; Acrolein( Give the dehydration reaction of glycerol)
3. Glycerol 1,2,3 – Tri nitroglycerin
4. Cumene Phenol
5. Phenol Picric acid
6. Phenol Phenolpthalein
7. Glycol 1,4 – dioxane
47
Organic Problems.
1. Ether (A) with molecular formula C5H12O gives two alkyl halides when heated with con.HI. And on
hydrolysis gives compounds (B) and (C). On oxidation of (B), acid (D) is formed. On oxidation of (C)
, ketone (E) is formed. Identify A,B,C,D and E and write the reaction.
A = CH3CH2OCH(CH3)2 = 2 – ethoxy propane
B = CH3CH2OH = ethanol
C = CH3CHOHCH3 = 2- propanol
D = CH3COOH = ethanoic acid
E = CH3COCH3 = propanone
CH3CH2OCH(CH3)2 + 2HI → CH3CH2I + CH3CHICH3 CH3CH2OH + CH3CHOHCH3
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3
2. Organic compound (A) C3H8O3 used as sweetening agent. When (A) is oxidised by Fanton’s
reagent gives mixture of compounds (B) and (C). Identify A,B and C. Give the reactions involved.
A = Glycerol B = Glyceraldehyde C = Dihydroxy acetone

3. Organic compound C2H6O(A) when heated with con.H2SO4 at 443K gives unsaturated hydrocarbon
C2H4(B). On further reaction with Bayers reagent it gives compound C2H6O2 (C), it is used as
antifreezing agent in radiators of automatic machines. On distillation of (C) with con.H2SO4 gives
cyclic compound (C4H8O2) (D). Compound (A) on heating with con.H2SO4 at 413K gives compound
C4H10O (E). Identify the compounds from A to E and write the reaction involved.
A = CH3CH2OH = Ethanol
B = CH2=CH2 = Ethylene
C = HOCH2-CH2OH = Ethylene glycol
D= = 1,4-dioxane
E = CH3CH2OCH2CH3 = diethyl ether
4. Compound [A] of molecular formula C6H6O gives purple colouration with neutral FeCl3. Compound
[A] reacts with ammonia to give compound [B] and it also reacts with Zn dust give compound [C].
Identify the compounds A, B, C and write down the equations.
A = C6H5OH (Phenol) B = C6H5NH2 (Aniline) C = C6H6 (Benzene)
C6H5OH + NH3 C6H5NH2
C6H5OH + Zn C6H6 + ZnO
48
Write the reactions
1. Write the oxidation reaction of ethylene glycol with periodic acid.
2. Identify compounds A, B and C.

Anisole t-butylchloride/AlCl3→
A = 4-t-butyl-1-anisole B = 2-chloro-4-t-butyl-1-anisole C= 2-chloro-4-t-butyl-1-phenol

3. How will you prepare 2-methylhexan-2-ol from Grignard reagent?
4. write the mechanism of the reaction, ethanol gives ethene by the dehydration under acid catalyst.
5. Write the IUPAC names for the following compounds.

1. C6H5-O-CH2-CH-CH3 2. CH2=CH-CH2-CH2OH 3. Neo pentyl alcohol 4. Glycerol
|
CH3
1. 2-methylpropoxybenzene 2. 2-but-3-en-1-ol 3. 2,2-dimethylpropan-1-ol 4.propan-1,2,3-triol
6. Find out the major product formed when 1-ethoxyprop-1-ene react with one mole of HI
CH3CH2OCH=CHCH3 + HI Δ→ CH3CH2I + CH3CH=CHOH → CH3CH2CHO + CH3CH2I
7. What happens when 1-phenylethanol react with acidic KMnO4?
1-phenylethanol acetophenone benzoic acid

8. Write the bromination reaction of anisole.
9. Give the reaction mechanism of the following reaction.

a) Reaction of 1 mole HI with methoxy ethane,
b) reaction of 1 mole of HI with 2-methoxy-2-methylpropane.
a)
b)
2-methoxy-2-methylpropane 2-methylpropan-2-ol
49
Unit 12. Carbonyl Compounds
Short questions
1. What are the names of the ester which gives odour in the following.
1. Odour of banana 2. Odour of orange 3. Odour of pine apple 4. Odour of apricot.
Sl.No. Ester Flavour
1 Amyl acetate Banana
2 Ethyl butyrate Pine apple
3 Octyl acetate Orange
4 Isobutyl formate Raspberry
5 Amyl butyrate Apricot
2. Name the catalyst used in Rosenmund reduction and state its importance.
Catalyst used = Pd/BaSO4; BaSO4 acting as catalytic poison and prevent further reduction to alocohol.
3. What is Formalin? What is its use?
40% aqueous solution of formaldehyde is known as Formalin.
Use: It is used for preserving biological speciments.
4. Arrange the following in the increasing order of relative reactivity of acid derivatives and mention
the reason alone. CH3COOC2H5, CH3COCl, CH3CONH2, CH3COOCOCH3.
Increasing order of reactivity : CH3CONH2 < CH3COOC2H5 < CH3COOCOCH3 < CH3COCl
Reason : 1. Basicity of the leaving group 2. Resonance effect
1. Give the uses of formic acid(methanoic acid)
1. for the dehydration of hides
2. as coagulating agent for rubber latex
3. in medicine for treatment of gout
4. as an antiseptic in the preservation of fruit juice
2. Write the uses of formaldehyde(methanal)
1. formalin used for preserving biological specimen
2. formalin has hardening effect, hence it is used for tanning
3. formaldehyde – phenol in the production of plastic bakelite.
1. How do you distinguish formic acid from other acid? Or Write note about reducing property of
formic acid.
Formic acid contains both an aldehyde as well as an acid group. Since it has aldehyde group, reduces
Tollens reagent.
Aldehyde group Carboxylic group

HCOO- + 2Ag+ + 3OH- → 2Ag + CO32- + 2H2O
(Tollens reagent) Silver mirror
2. Why acetic acid does reduce Tollens reagent while formic acid reduces it?
Formic acid contains both an aldehyde as well as an acid group. Since it has aldehyde group, reduces
Tollens reagent. Other carboxylic acid like acetic acid don’t has aldehyde group and so it don’t reduce the
Tollens reagent.
Aldehyde group Carboxylic group

1. Describe mechanism of Aldol condensation.
Mechanism:
Step 1:
50
Step 2:
Step 3:
2. Describe the mechanism of Cannizaro reaction.
2C6H5CHO C6H5CH2OH + C6H5COONa
Mechanism:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
3. Describe the mechanism of esterification reaction. ( What happens when ethanoic acid treated with
ethanol in the presence of con. Sulphuric acid. Give mechanism.)
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Mechanism:

1. Give Popoff’s rule.
It states that during the oxidation of an unsymmetrical ketone, a (C-CO) bond is cleaved in such a
way that the keto group stays with the smallest alkyl group.
Naming Reaction:
1. Rosenmund reduction
Barium sulphate act as catalytic poison to catalyst palladium (further reduction to alcohol is restricted)
2. Stephen’s reaction
3. Gattermann – Koch reaction
51
4. Etard reaction
5. Friedel – Crafts acylation (benzene → acetophenone)
6. Friedel – Crafts Benzylation
7. Clemmensen Reduction
8. Wolf Kishner Reduction
9. Haloform Reaction
10. Claisen – Schmidt Condensation
11. Cannizaro Reaction
12. Benzoin Condensation
13. Perkins’ Reaction
52
14. Knoevenagal Reaction
15. HVZ (Hell – Volhard – Zelinsky Reaction)
16. Aldol Condensation
17. Crossed Aldol Condensation
18.Crossed Cannizaro reaction
1. Esterification
This reaction carried out in presence of con. Sulphuric acid.

2. Preparation of Urotropine (What is urotropine? How is it prepared? Give its uses.)
Urotropine is Hexamethylene tetramine.
6HCHO + 4NH3 → (CH2)6N4 + 6H2O
Urotropine
Uses: 1. It is used as a medicine to treat urinary infection.
2. Nitration of urotropine under controlled condition gives an explosive RDX. It is also called
cyclonite or cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine.
Structure:
3. Trans esterification
4. How is benzoic acid prepared from toluene?
53
5. How are acetyl chloride and acetic anhydride prepared from acetic acid?
(x)
(y)
7. Identify the product x and A in the following reaction.
X= A=
8. What happened when 1 – phenyl ethanol is treated with acidic KmnO4?
1-phenylethanol benzoic acid

9. How will you prepare acetic acid from Grignard reagent?
1. Give the tests for carboxylic acid group.
1. aqueous solution of carboxylic acid turn blue litmus into red.
2. gives brisk effervescence with sodium bicarbonate due to the evolution of carbondioxide.
3. when it is warmed with alcohol and con H2SO4 ester is formed, which is detected by its fruity odour.
2. Give the tests for aldehyde.
1. Aldehyde reduces tollen’s reagent. This test is known silver mirror test.
CH3CHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3OH- → CH3COO- + 4NH3 + 2Ag + 2H2O
2. It reduces Fehlings solution(aqueous CuSO4 and alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate
(Rochelle salt)). Deep blue colour solution is changed to red precipitate of cuprous oxide.
CH3CHO + 2Cu2+ + 5OH- → CH3COO- + Cu2O ↓ + 3H2O
(Give Benedict’s test)
3. Aldehydes reduces Benedict’s solution(mixture of CuSO4 + sodium citrate + NaOH). Deep blue colour
changed to red precipitate.
CH3CHO + 2Cu2+ + 5OH- → CH3COO- + Cu2O ↓ + 3H2O
4. when it is added to schiffs’ reagent yields red colour.
54
1. Benzaldehyde Malachite green dye (triphenyl methane dye)
2. Methyl acetate Ethyl acetate (trans esterification reaction)

O O
║ ║
CH3C-OCH3 + C2H5OH CH3-C-OC2H5 + CH3OH
3.Acetone pinacol (2,3 – dimethyl butane -2,3-diol)
4. Acetaldehyd lactic acid

CN OH
| |
H+/H2O
CH3CH=O + HCN CH3CH-OH CH3CHCOOH
Acetaldehyde Hydrogen cyanohydrin lactic acid
Cyanide
5. Hex-3-yne → Hex-3-one
CH3CH2CΞCCH2CH3 + H-OH CH3CH2COCH2CH2CH3

6. Benzaldehyde → 2-hydroxy phenylacetic acid
2-hydroxy phenylacetic acid

7.Benzaldehyd → Hydrobenzamide
8. How will you convert ethyl acetate into ethyl acetoacetate? (Claisen condensation)
Organic Problem:
1. Carbonyl compound (A) with molecular formula C5H10O gives solid precipitate on reaction with
sodium bisulphite. Compound (A) undergoes iodoform reaction. Compound (A) will not reduces
Fehling solution. If so identify (A).
CH3COCH2CH2CH3 = 2- pentanone.
2. Organic compoun C3H4 (A) on hydration with Hg2+/H2SO4 gives compound B. B undergoes Iodoform
test. Compound B reacts with NH2-NH2/C2H5Ona gives hydrocarbon C. B in presence of dil.NaOH
reacts with HCHO gives compound D. Identify A,B,C and D. Write the reactions.
A = CH3CΞCH =prop-1-yne
B = CH3COCH3 = acetone or propanone
55
C = CH3CH2CH3 = propane
D = HOCH2CH2COCH3 = 4-hydroxybutane-2-one
3. Organic compound C2H4O (A) undergoes tallen’s and Fehling’s solution test. compound (A) on
reaction with methanol and HCl gives compound (B) C4H10O2. Compound (A) in presence of dil.NaOH
on reaction with methanol gives (C). If so identify A,B and C, write the equations.
A = CH3CHO =Acetaldehyde
B = CH3CH(OCH3)2 =1,1- dimethoxy ethane
C = HOCH2CH2CHO =3-hydroxy propanal
4. Organic compound A (C3H5Br) reacts with Mg in dry ether gives compound (B). By reacting this
compound with CO2 and on acidified gives compound (C). If so identify A,B and C, write the reaction.
A = cyclo propyl bromide

B = cyclopropyl magnesium bromide
C = cyclopropyl methanoic acid
5. Compound A with molecular formula C7H6O reduces tollen’s reagent. A on reaction with 50% NaOH
gives compound B with molecular formula C7H8O and compound C with molecular formula C7H5O2Na.
Compound C react with dil.HCl gives compound D with molecular formula C7H6O2. Compound D on
heating with sodalime gives compound E. Identify A,B,C,D and E, write the reaction involved.
A = C6H5CHO = Benzaldehyde
B = C6H5CH2OH = Benzyl alcohol
C = C6H5COONa = Sodium benzoate
D = C6H5COOH = Benzoic acid
E = C6H6 = Benzene
C6H5CHO + C6H5CHO 50% NaOH → C6H5CH2OH + C6H5COONa
C6H5COONa + HCl → C6H5COOH + NaCl
CaO/NaOH
C6H5COOH → C6H6
6. Find out A and B. (by bond line structure)
Unit 13. Organic Nitrogen Compounds

Short questions
1. Arrange the following.
a) decreasing order of pKb value C2H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH, CH3NH2
b) increasing order of basic strength C2H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH, CH3NH2
a) C6H5N(CH3)2 > CH3NH2 > C2H5NH2 > (C2H5)2NH
b) C6H5NH2 < C6H5N(CH3)2 < CH3NH2 < (C2H5)2NH
56
2. Identify A and B. 1) A + 4[H] CH3CH2NH2 2) B + 4[H] CH3NHCH3

1. CH3CN + 4[H] CH3CH2NH2 (A = CH3CN = methyl cyanide)
2. CH3NC + 4[H] CH3NHCH3 (B = CH3NC = methyl iso cyanide)
3. Give the reducing agents to reduce nitrobenzene into the following compounds. 1. Aniline,
2. Phenyl hydrazine, 3. Nitrasobenzene , 4. Hydrazobenzene.
1. Sn/HCl, 2. Zn/NH4Cl 3. Fe/H2O(steam) 4. Zn/NaOH
4. Write a note on bromination reaction of aniline.

1. List the uses of nitroalkane
1. as a fuel for cars
2. chloropicrin is used as an insecticide
3. as fuel additive and precursor to explosive and they are good solvents for polymers, cellulose ester,
synthetic rubber and dyes etc.,
4. 4% solution of ethyl nitrite in alcohol is known as sweet spirit of nitre and is used as diuretic
1. Distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary amine
Sl.no. Primary amine Secondary amine Tertiary amine
1 Gives alcohol with nitrous acid N-nitroso amine obtained Salt obtained
2 Gives carbylamines with CHCl3/KOH No reaction No reaction
3 Gives N- alkyl acetamide with acetyl chloride Gives N,N- dialkyl acetamide No reaction
4 Gives alkyl isothio cyanate with CS2/HgCl2 No reaction No reaction
5 Gives solid dialkyl oxamide with ethyl oxalate Gives liquid N,N-dialkyl No reaction
at room temperature oxamic ester
6 Gives quaternary ammonium salt with 3 Gives quaternary ammonium Gives quaternary
molecules of RX salt with two molecules of RX ammonium salt
with 1 molecule of
RX
2. The formula CH3NO2 has two isomers. How could you differentiate them? (Differentiate Nitro form
and Aci- form.
S.No. Nitro form Aci - form
1 Less acidic More acidic and also called pseudoacids (or) nitronic acids
2 Dissolves in NaOH slowly Dissolved in NaOH instantly
3 Decolourises FeCl3 solution With FeCl3 gives reddish brown colour
4 Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high
1. Amines are more basic than amide why?
In amines, +I groups like -CH3 is attached to the nitrogen increases the electron density on nitrogen
which makes the electron pair readily available for protonation.
In amides, the lone pair electron on an amide are delocalised between nitrogen and the oxygen (-
CONH2) through resonance. This makes amides much less basic compared to alkyl amine.
2. Why aniline does not undergo Friedel-Craft’s reaction?
Aniline is basic in nature and it donates its lone pair to the lewis acid AlCl3 to form an adduct which
inhibits further the electrophilic substitution reaction.
3. Ethylamine dissolves in water while aniline will not dissolve in water. Why?
When ethylamine added to water forms intermolecular H-bonds with water but aniline does not form
H-bond with water to a large extent due to the presence of a large hydrophobic (-C6H5) group. Hence aniline
is insoluble in water.
1. Explain reduction reactions of nitrobenzene.
57
Naming Reaction:
1. Hoff mann’s degradation
2. Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
3. Schotten – Baumann reaction
4. Carbylamine Reaction
5. Mustard Oil Reaction(Write the reaction of primary amine with carbon di sulphide)
6. Sandmeyer reaction(How will you prepare aryl halide using Cu2Cl2/HCl (or) Cu2Br2/HBr)
7. Gattermann reaction
8. Gomberg reaction
58
9. Thorpe nitrile condensation
10. Levine and Hauser acetylation
11. Sabatier – Mailhe method
Instead of Al2O3; W2O5 or Silica can be used. Required temperature is 400oC

1. How is chloropicrin prepared?
CH3NO2 + 3Cl2 → CCl3NO2 + 3HCl
2. What happened when acetone oxime is oxidized by trifluro acetic acid?
(CH3)2C=NOH CH3CH(NO2)CH3
Acetone oxime 2-nitro propane
1. Give the tests to identify primary amine.
1. Primary amine gives carbylamines with chloroform and KOH
2. Primary amine gives alcohol with nitrous acid.
3. It react with CS2 and HgCl2 gives alkyl iso cyanate.
1. How could you convert the following changes
1)Nitrobenzene → Nphenyl hydroxylamine
2)Propanamide → Propan-1-amine
3) Aniline → p-Nitro aniline
1)
2) CH3CH2CONH2 + 4(H) LiAlH4 CH3CH2CH2NH2
3)
2. How the following changes carried out.
Hex-4-enenitrile → Hex – 4 – enal
DIBAL-H/H2O→
CH3CH=CHCH2CH2CN CH3CH=CHCH2CH2CHO
Hex-4-enenitrile Hex-4-enal
DIHAL-H = Diisobutyl Aluminium Hydroxide = reduces cyanide to give imine. Imine on hydrolysis gives
aldehyde.
3. Identify A and B in the following reaction.
A = CH3CH2NH2 (ethanamine): B = CH3CH2NHCOCH3 (N-acetyl ethanamine)

Organic Problem:
1. Organic compound A gives compound (B) on reduction. B on reaction with CHCl3 and alcoholic
KOH gives compound (C). Further C reduced in presence of catalyst gives N-methyl aniline. If so
identify A,B and C, write the reactions.
A = C6H5NO2 = Nitrobenzene
B = C6H5NH2 = Aniline
C = C6H5NC = phenyl isocyanide
59
C6H5NH2 + CHCl3 + KOH → C6H5NC + 3KCl + 3H2O

2. Organic compound (A) with molecular formula C7H7NO reacts with Br2 and KOH gives (B). (B)
undergoes carbylamine reaction. (B) on diazotisation gives (C). C undergoes coupling reaction with
p-cresol gives (D). Identify A,B,C and D, write the reactions.
A = C6H5CONH2 = Benzylamide
B = C6H5NH2 = Aniline
C = C6H5N2Cl = Benzene diazonium chloride
D= = 2-phenylazo-4-methylphenol
C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH Δ→ C6H5NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O
C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + 2HCl 273K→ C6H5N2Cl + NaCl + 2H2O
3. Organic compound (A) with molecular formula CNCl reacts with methyl megnesium bromide gives
compound B-(C2H3N). B on reduced into compound C-(C2H7N) in presence of catalyst. C undergoes
carbylamine reaction. If so identify A,B and C, write the reactions.
A = CNCl = cyanogen chloride
B = CH3CN = methyl cyanide
C = CH3CH2NH2 = ethanamine
CNCl + CH3MgBr → CH3CN + Mg(Br)Cl
4. Organic nitro compound (A) reduced with Sn/HCl gives compound (B) C6H7N. Compound (B) in the
presence of pyridine reacts with benzoyl chloride gives compound (C). Compound (B) gives
compound (D) on reaction with CH3Br and on further reaction with NaNO2/HCl gives yellow coloured
oily compound (E). Identify compound A to E, write the reactions.
A = C6H5NO2 = nitrobenzene
B = C6H5NH2 = aniline
C = C6H5NH-CO-C6H5 = N-phenyl benzamide
D = C6H5NHCH3 = N-methyl aniline
E = C6H5N-N=O = N – nitrasomethyl phenyl amine;
CH3
5. Identify the compounds A,B,C in the following reaction series.
A = CH3CH2N=C=O = ethyl isocyanate

B = CH3CH2NH2 = ethanamine
C = CH3CH2OH = ethanol
60
6. Identify the compounds A,B,C in the following reaction series.
A = C6H5NH2 = aniline
B = C6H5N2Cl = benzene diazonium chloride
C = C6H5OH = phenol
7. A compound ‘A’ of molecular formula C2H3N on reduction with Na(Hg) / C2H5OH gives ‘B’ of
molecular formula C2H7N which undergoes carbylamine test. Compound ‘B’ on reaction with nitrous
acid gives compound ‘C’ of molecular formula C2H6O by liberating nitrogen. Identify A,B and C and
write the reactions involved.
A = CH3CN = methyl cyanide

B = CH3CH2NH2 = ethyl amine
C = CH3CH2OH = ethanol
8. Identify A and B in the following sequence of reactions. CH3 – Br NaN3→ A LiAlH4→ B + N2
A = CH3 – N3 = methyl azide B = CH3NH2 = methyl amine
Unit 14. Biomolecules

Short questions
1. What is anomers?
One of the hydroxyl group in glucose reacts with aldehyde group to form cyclic structure. This results
in the conversion of the achiral aldehyde carbon into a chiral one leading to the possibility of two isomers.
These two isomers differ only in the configuration of C1 carbon. These isomers are called anomers.
2. What is mutarotation?
The specific rotation of pure α- and β- (D) glucose are 1120 and 18.70 respectively. However when a
pure form any one of these sugars is dissolved in water, slowly interconversion of α-D glucose and β-D
glucose via open chain form occurs until equilibrium is established giving a constant specific rotation +530.
This phenomenon is called mutarotation.
3. What are epimers? and What is epimerisation?
Sugar differing configuration at an asymmetric centre is known as epimers. The process by which one
epimer is converted into other is called epimerisation.
4. What is invert sugar?
On hydrolysis sucrose yields equal amount of glucose and fructose units. Sucrose(+66.60) and
glucose(+52.50) are dextrorotatory compounds while fructose is levo rotatory(-92.40). During hydrolysis of
sucrose the optical rotation of the reaction mixture changes from dextro to levo. Hence, sucrose is also called
as invert sugar.
5. What is peptide bond?
The carbonyl group of the first amino acid react with the amino group of second amino acid to give
an amide linkage between these amino acids. This amide linkage is called peptide bond.
6. What is zwitter ion?

In aqueous solution the proton from carbonyl group can be transferred to the amino group of an amino
acid leaving these groups with opposite charges. These ions with both charges is known as zwitter ions.
Eg. zwitter ion.(Alanin)

7. What is isoelectric point?
The carboxyl group can lose a proton and become negatively charged or the amino group can accept
a proton to become positively charged depending upon the pH of the solution. At a specific pH the net charge
of an amino acid is neutral and this pH is called isoelectric point.
61
8. What is denaturation of proteins?
Each protein has a unique three-dimensional structure formed by interactions such as disulphide
bond, hydrogen bond, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. These interactions can be disturbed when
the protein is exposed to a higher temperature, certain chemicals such as urea, alteration of pH, ionic strength
etc., It leads to the loss of three-dimensional structure partially or completely. The process of a losing its
higher order structure without losing the primary structure is called denaturation.
9. How are hormones are classified according to they act as?
1. Endocrine hormones: acts on cells distant from the site of their release. Eg. Insulin
2. Paracrine hormones: act only on cells close to the cell that released them. Eg. Interleukin-I
3. Autocrine hormones: act on the same cell that released them. Eg. Interleukin-2
10. What is enzyme?
In all living systems, the biochemical reactions are catalysed by enzyme.
11. Indicate the vitamin causes the deficiency diseases of the following.
1. Pellagra 2. Beri-Beri 3. Night blindedness 4. Rickets 5. Scurvy
1. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) 2. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) 3. Vitamin A (Retinol)
4. Vitamin D 5. Vitamin C(Ascorbic acid)
12. What is glycosidic linkage?
In disaccharides or in oligosaccharide or in polysaccharides two monosaccharide’s are linked by oxide
linkage called glycosidic linkage.
13. Draw any one zwitter ion structure. [Give the structure of zwitter ion of alanin (group with opposite
charges)]
Zwitter ion of Alanine

14. What is harmones? Give two examples.
Harmone is an organic substance that is secreted by one tissue into the blood stream and induces
physiological response in other tissues. This cannot be stored in body but produces continuously. E.g.,
Peptide (insulin) and steroids (testerostone).
1. What are the importance of carbohydrate
1. widely distributed in plants and animals, act mainly as energy sources and structural polymers
2. stored in the body as glycogen and in plant as starch
3. cellulose is a primary components of plant cell wall, used to make paper, furniture and cloths
4. glucose serves as an instant source of energy
5. ribose sugar is the component of nucleic acids.
6. Hyaluronate act as shock absorber and lubricant
2. What are the importance of proteins
1. All biochemical reactions occur in living systems are catalysed by catalytic proteins called enzymes
2. Keratin, collagen act as structural back bones
3. Haemoglobin as transporting molecules
4. Antibodies help the body to fight various diseases
5. Insulin and glucagon control the glucose level in the blood
6. protein act as receptors
7. to store metals such as iron(Ferritin)
3. What are the biological importance of lipids
1. Lipids are the integral component of cell membrane. They are necessary of structural integrity of cell
2. The main function of triglycerides in animals is an energy reserve
3. act as protective coating in aquatic organisms
4. connective tissue give protection to internal organs
5. help in the absorption and transport of fat soluble vitamins
6. essential for activation of enzymes such as lipases
7. act as emulsifier in fat metabolism
1. Distinguish DNA and RNA
Sl.no. DNA RNA
1 Present in nucleus, mitochondria and Present in cytoplasm, nucleolus and ribosomes
chloroplast
2 Contains Deoxyribose sugars Contains ribose sugar
3 Base pair A=T, GΞC Bse pair A=U, CΞG
62
4 Double stranded molecule Single stranded molecule

5 Life time is high Short lived
6 Stable and not hydrolysed easily by alkalis Unstable and hydrolysed easily by alkalis
7 It can replicate itself It cannot replicate itself. It is formed from DNA
2. Distinguish vitamin and hormones
Sl.no. Hormone Vitamin
1 It is an organic substance that is secreted by These are small organic compounds that
one tissue, it limits the blood stream and cannot be synthesised by our body but are
induces a physiological response in other essential for certain functions
tissues.
2 Cannot stored in the body. But produced These are stored in the body and act against
continuously the diseases
3. What are the differences between Fibrous proteins and Globular proteins?
Sl.No. Fibrous Protein Globular Proteins
1 Linear structure Spherical shape
2 Insoluble in water Soluble in water
3 Used as structural protein Possess many functions including catalysis
4 Eg Keratin, collagen Eg. Myoglobin, insulin
1. What happened when fructose is partially reduced with sodium amalgam and water?
Fructose on partial reduction with sodium amalgam and water gives epimers of sorbitol and mannitol.
That is new asymmetric carbon formed at C-2. This reaction is to confirm the presence of keto group in
fructose.
1. Determine the structure of glucose.
1. According to the analysis the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6.
2. Glucose on heating with con.HI and red phosphorus at 373K, reduced to give n-hexane and 2-iodohexane.
This indicating that 6 carbon atoms bonded linearly.
3. The aqueous solution of glucose is neutral. Hence there is no -COOH group.
4. It gives oxime with hydroxylamine and cyanohydrin with HCN. Hence it contains carbonyl group.
5. It gives gluconic acid with bromine water, glucaric (saccharic) acid with con.HNO3. So it possess an
aldehyde group.
6. It reduces tollens reagent and Fehling solution. So it has aldehydic group and it is called reduced sugar.
7. In the presence of pyridine it gives pentaacetate with acetic anhydride. This indicates that it contain 5
hydroxyl group attached to each of the 5 carbon atoms.
8. The glucose is referred to as D(+) glucose as it has D configuration and is dextrorotatory.
2. Determine the structure of fructose.
1. According to the analysis the molecular formula of fructose is C6H12O6.

2. Fructose on heating with con.HI and red phosphorus at 373K, reduced to give n-hexane and 2-iodohexane.
This indicating that 6 carbon atoms bonded linearly.
3. The aqueous solution of fructose is neutral. Hence there is no -COOH group.
4. It gives oxime with hydroxylamine and cyanohydrin with HCN. Hence it contains carbonyl group.
5. In the presence of pyridine it gives pentaacetate with acetic anhydride. This indicates that it contains 5
hydroxyl group attached to each of the 5 carbon atoms.
6. It does not react with bromine water, hence there is no aldehyde group.
63
7. It reduced into epimers of mannitol and sorbitol with sodium amalgam and water. It confirms keto group in
second carbon.
8. It gives glycolic acid and tartoric acid by reacting with con. HNO3. This shows that it contains keto group
in the second carbon atom.
3. Discuss briefly on double strand helix structure of DNA.
1. Two antiparallel helical DNA chains wound around the same axis to form a right-handed double helix.
2. The hydrophilic backbones of alternating deoxyribose and phosphate groups are on the outside of the
double helix, facing the surrounding water.
3. The purines and pyrimidine bases of both strands are stacked inside the double helix.
4. The hydrophobic and ring structures very close together and perpendicular to the axis, thereby reducing
the repulsion between the charged phosphate groups.
5. The offset pairing of the two strands creates a major groove and minor groove on the surface of the duplex.
6. Each base is hydrogen bonded to a base in opposite strand to form a planar base pair.
7. Two hydrogen bonds are formed between adenine and thymine and three hydrogen bonds are formed
between quinine and cytosine.
8. Two forces which held together the duplex are 1. Hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs
and 2. Base-staking interaction.
4. Explain the mechanism of enzyme catalysed reaction.
E = enzyme, S = the substrate(reactant), ES = activated complex and P = the products.

5. Explain the various structures of proteins.
Primary structure: 1. It represents the relative arrangements of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
2. It represents which amino acid linked with which amino acid in the other chain by the hydrogen bonding.
Secondary Structure: 1. It represents how amino acid are related to one another to form α – helix and β-helix.
2. The amino acids in the polypeptide chain forms highly regular shapes through the hydrogen bond between
the carbonyl oxygen and the neighbouring amine of the main chain.
Tertiary structure: 1. The secondary structure elements further folds to form the three dimensional
arrangement.
2. It is stabilized by the interaction between the side chains of the amino acids.
3. These interaction include the disulphide bridges between cysteine residues, electrostatic, hydrophobic,
hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions.
Quaternary structure: 1. In these proteins the individual polypeptide chains interacts with each other to form
the multimeric structure.
2. The interactions that stabilises the tertiary structures also stabilises the quaternary structures.
6. How is protein classified based on their structures?
1. Fibrous proteins: These are linear molecules similar to fibres. These are generally insoluble in water. Eg.
Keratin, Collagen, etc.,
2. Globular proteins: They have an overall spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water. Eg. enzymes,
myoglobin, Inssulin.
7. How are RNA molecules classified? Explain.
i. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) : mainly found in cytoplasm and ribosome.Protein synthesis takes place at
ribosomes.
ii. Transfer RNA (tRNA) : These have lowest molecular weight of all nucleic acids. Its function is to carry
amino acid to the sites of protein synthesis of ribosomes.
iii. Messenger RNA (mRNA) : It is present in small quantity and very short lived. The synthesis of mRNA from
DNA strand is called transcription. mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein
synthesis. This process is known as translation.
64
1. Cyclic strctures of Glucose
2. Cyclic structures of Fructose
3. Cyclic structures of Sucrose
4. Cyclic structures of lactose
5. Cyclic structures of Maltose
Unit 15. Chemistry in action

Short questions
1. What is vulcanization (cross linking) of rubber?
Natural rubber is mixed with 3-5% sulphur and heated at 100-150oC causes cross linking of the cis-
1,4-polyisoprene chains through disulphide (-S-S-) bonds. In sulphur rubber made with about 1 to 3% sulphur
is soft and stretchy. When 3 to 10% sulphur is used the resultant rubber is somewhat harder but flexible.
2. What is Analgesics(non-narcotic)? Give example.
Analgesics reduce the pain without causing impairment of consciousness. Eg. Paracetamol, Aspirin
3. What is Opioids(Narcotic Analgesics)?give example.
The drug which relieve pain and produce sleep is known as Opioids. Eg. Morphine, codeine
65
4. What is Anaesthetics? Give its classification with examble.
It cause loss of sensation temporarily. 1. Local anaesthetics: It causes loss of sensation in the area
in which it is applied without losing counsciousness. Eg. Proacaine 2. General anaesthetics: cause a
controlled and reversible loss of consciousness. Eg. Propofol
5. What is antacids? Give example.
Neutralise the acid in the stomach that causes acidity. Eg. Milk of magnesia, sodium bicarbonate,
Aluminium hydroxide, calcium bicarbonate, ranitidine.
6. What is antihistamines? Give example.
It provide relief from the allergic effects. Eg. Cetirizine, levocetrizine
7. What is antibiotics (antimicrobials)? Give example.
Bacteria and virus exhibit some chemical which inhibits growth and metabolism of other micro
organism. Such chemical is known as antibiotics. Eg. Pencillins, ampicillin
8. What is antiseptic? Give example.
When it is applied to living tissue it will stop or slowdown the growth of microorganisms. Eg. Hydrogen
Peroxide, providone-iodine
9. What is disinfectants? Give example.
When it is generally used on inanimate objects, stop or slowdown the growth of microorganisms. Eg.
Chlorine compounds, alcohol, hydrogen peroxide.
10. What is antifertility drugs? Give example.
These are synthetic hormones that suppresses ovulation/ fertilisation. Eg. Ethynylestradiol,
menstranol.
11. What is preservatives? Give example.
Preservatives are capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification
or other decomposition of food by growth of microorganisms. Eg. Benzoic acid, sorbic acid, vinegar,
12. What is antioxidant? Give example.
Antioxidants are substances which retard the oxidative deteriorations of food. Food containing fats
and oils is easily oxidised and turn rancid.
Eg. BHT, BHA
13. What is sugar substituents? Give example.
Those compounds that are used like sugars for sweetening, but are metabolised without the influence
of insulin are called sugar substituents.
Eg. Sorbitol, Mannitol
14. What is artificial sweetening agents? Give example.
Synthetic compound which imprint a sweet sensation and possess no or negligible nutritional value
are called artificial sweeteners.
Eg. Saccharin, sucralose,
15. What is TFM(Total Fatty Matter)?
It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter that can be separated from a sample after splitting with
mineral acids. Higher the TFM quantity in the soap better is its quality.
16. What are biodegradable polymer? Give example.
The polymer that are readily decomposed by micro organism in the environment are called
biodegradable polymer. Eg. PHB, PHBV, PGA, PLA, PCL, etc.
17. What is therapeutic index? How it is related to the safety of drug?
The ratio between the maximum tolerated dose of a drug and the minimum curative dose is known
as therapeutic index. Higher the value safer is the drug.
18. How do you classify the following into various class of drugs? A) Milk of Magnesia B) Aspirin
C) Penicillin D) Procaine
A) Milk of Magnesia = Antacids B) Aspirin = Anti-inflammatory drugs
C) Penicillin = Antimicrobials D) Procaine = Anaesthetics.
1. State any three advantages of food additives.
1. Uses of preservatives reduce the product spoilage and extend the shelf-life of food.
2. Addition of vitamins and minerals reduces the mall nutrient.
3. Flavouring agents enhance the aroma of the food.
1. Distinguish antiseptic and disinfectant
Sl.no. Antiseptic Disinfectants
1 It stop or slow down the growth of It stop or slow down the growth of
microorganism applied to living tissue microorganism used on inanimate objects
2 Eg. H2O2, povidone-iodine Eg. Chlorine compounds, alcohol,H2O2
66
2. Distinguish thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics
Sl.no. Thermoplastic Thermosetting plastic
1 Melting on heating and hardened on cooling On heating hardened without melting
2 Soft, stronger, unbreakable Hard, stronger and breakable
3 Eg. Cellulose nitrate, PVC Eg. Phenol-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde
1. How the tranquilizers work in body?
It acts on the central nervous system by blocking the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Eg.
Haloperidol, valium,etc.
1. Explain cleansing action of soap.
1. If sodium palmitate is considered as an example of a soap, the structure of palmitate ion exhibit dual
polarity.
2. The hydrocarbon portion is nonpolar and the carboxyl portion is polar.
3. The nonpolar portion is hydrophobic and is soluble in oils and greases. But the polar end is hydrophilic.
4. When the soap is added to oily or greasy part of the cloth, the hydrocarbon part of the soap dissolve in the
grease, leaving the negatively charged carboxylate end exposed on the grease surface.
5. carboxylate groups are strongly attracted by water, thus leading to the formation of micelles.
6. The grease is floated away from the solid object. When the water is rinsed away the grease goes with it.
1. Preparation of Nylon 6,6 and uses
nHO-CO-(CH2)4-CO-OH + nH2N-(CH2)6-NH2 → HO-(CO-(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH)n-H
Nylon 6,6
Uses: It is used in textiles, manufacture of cards etc
2. Preparation of Nylon 6 and use
3. Preparation of Nylon-2-Nylon-6
4. Preparation and uses of Terylene (Dacron)
Uses: It is used in blending with cotton or wool fibres and as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets.
5. Preparation and uses of Neoprene
6. Preparation and uses of Buna-S
67
Uses: in manufacture of tyres and tubes

7. Preparation and uses of Buna – N
8. Preparation and uses of PHBV (Poly Hydroxy Buterate – co-Hydroxyl valerate
9. Preparation and uses of Orlon (PolyAcriloNitrile- PAN)
10. Preparation and uses of LDPE (Low Density Poly Ethylene)

Reaction carried out under oxygen as a catalyst.
11. Preparation and uses of HDPE(High Density Poly Ethylene)

The polymerisation of ethylene is carried out at 373K and 6 to 7 atm pressure using Zeiglar – Natta
catalyst [TiCl4 + (C2H5)3Al] HDPE has high density and melting point and it is used to make bottles, pipes
etc.,
12. Uses of Bakelite
1. Navolac is used in paints.
2. Soft backlites are used for making glue for binding laminated wooden planks and in varnishes.
3. Hard backelites are used to prepare combs, pens,etc.
13. Preparation and uses of Tefflon
Catalyst : Oxygen or Ammonium persulphate
Uses: for coating articles and preparation of non-stick utensils.
68

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G.ANBUSELVAM, PG ASST (CHEMISTRY), GHSS, POTHUMBU, MADURAI – .

Unit 2. p – block elements – I.

8. AlCl3 behaves like a lewis acid. Substrantiate this statement.

nCO + (2n+1) H2 CnH(2n+2) + nH2O

2. How is Borax prepared?

Drawing the structure:

Unit 3. p – block elements – II

13. List out the uses of sulphur di oxide.

3. Phosphorus tri chloride (PCl3) 4. Phosphine (PH3)

5.Phosphorus acid (H3PO3) 6.Phosphorus penta chloride (PCl5)

7. Iodine hepta fluoride (IF7) 8. Bromine penta flouride (BrF5)

9. Bromine tri fluoride (BrF3)

Unit 4. Transition and Inner transition elements

6. What are inner transition elements?

3. Explain the variation in 3d series.

Unit 5. Coordination Chemistry

2. Draw the picture of crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes.

3. Draw the picture of crystal field splitting in octahedral complexes.

Unit 6. Solid state

2. Describe Frenkel defect with example.

3. Write note on Metal excess defect.

4. Calculate the packing efficiency in simple cubic arrangements and derive.

= 4 x 60/(4 x 10-8)3 x 6.023 x 1023= 60/16 x 6.023 x 10-1

Unit 7. Chemical Kinetics

3. Derive the half life period for zero order reaction.

Unit 8. Ionic Equilibrium

The dissociation of acetic acid can be represented as CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+

= - (log10[H3O+] + log10[OH-]) = - log10[H3O+][OH-] = - log10Kw

MnO2, oxidises H2 as H2O.

Unit 10. Surface Chemistry

19. Give two examples for enzyme catalysis.

3. Explain briefly the intermediate compound formation theory of catalysis.

Unit 11. Hydroxy Derivatives and Ethers

4. Give any two method for the preparation of diethyl ether.

3. Schotten Baumann reaction

4.Williamsons ether synthesis

5. Kolbe’s or Kolbe’s Schmit reaction

2. Give Victor Meyer’s test to differentiate 3 types of alcohols

2. Glycerol ; Acrolein( Give the dehydration reaction of glycerol)

3. Glycerol 1,2,3 – Tri nitroglycerin

5. Phenol Picric acid

7. Glycol 1,4 – dioxane

A = Glycerol B = Glyceraldehyde C = Dihydroxy acetone

2. Identify compounds A, B and C.

A = 4-t-butyl-1-anisole B = 2-chloro-4-t-butyl-1-anisole C= 2-chloro-4-t-butyl-1-phenol

5. Write the IUPAC names for the following compounds.

1-phenylethanol acetophenone benzoic acid

9. Give the reaction mechanism of the following reaction.

Aldehyde group Carboxylic group

Aldehyde group Carboxylic group

Rules / Statements / Laws:

3. Gattermann – Koch reaction

5. Friedel – Crafts acylation (benzene → acetophenone)

6. Friedel – Crafts Benzylation

8. Wolf Kishner Reduction

10. Claisen – Schmidt Condensation

11. Cannizaro Reaction

12. Benzoin Condensation

13. Perkins’ Reaction