Charlotte B.

Consigo November 20, 2022

BS Geological Engineering 1102 Activity 3

Metals

1.0 OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS

Metals - is a naturally occurring substance with a range of chemical composition.

Ore - A mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow economic recovery of a desired metal.

Thus, an ore is a deposit in Earth’s crust of one or more valuable minerals.

Manganese nodules - are combinations of rock on the sea bottom which is composed of

concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core.

o The most abundant metals which exists as minerals in the Earth’s crust are: Aluminum,

iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium and manganese.

o Metals having low reactivity show little affinity for air, moisture, carbon dioxide or other

non-metals present in nature. Such metals may remain in elemental or native (free) state

in nature. Such metals are called "noble metals" as they show the least chemical

reactivity. For example gold, silver, mercury and platinum occur in free state.

o On the other hand, most of the metals are active and combine with air, moisture, carbon

dioxide and non-metals like oxygen, sulphur, halogens, etc. to form their compounds, like

oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides and silicates. i.e., they occur in nature in a

combined state.
 To convert an alkali metal ion into an alkali metal atom, it undergoes reduction.

 Sodium and potassium are isolated primarily from brines (solutions of NaCl and KCl).

Potassium was the first alkali metal to be prepared by electrolysis.

 Lithium is obtained mostly from the mineral spodumene, LiAl(SiO3)2.

 Commercial production of tungsten: WO3 (s) + 3 H2 (g) à W (s) + 3 H2O (g)

Metallic Bonding

● Metallic bond, force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance. Such a solid consists of

closely packed atoms.

● A metallic bond is a type of chemical bond formed between positively charged atoms in which

the free electrons are shared among a lattice of cations.

● Metallic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction between metal cations and delocalized

electrons. The nature of metallic bonding accounts for many of the physical properties of metals,

such as conductivity and malleability.

2.0 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES

Metallurgical process - the science and technology of separating metals from their ores and of

compounding alloys.

Alloys - is a solid solution either of two or more metals, or of a metal or metals with one or more

nonmetals.

Three principal steps in the recovery of a metal from its ore are:

(1) Preparation of the ore

Gangue - in ore prior treatment, the desired mineral is separated from waste materials that is

usually clay and silicate minerals.

Methods used:

●Flotation - is a very useful process for carrying out this separation.

●Electromagnetism (ex.: magnetite and Cobalt)

●Amalgamation (ex. Gold and Silver)

Ferromagnetic metals - are strongly attracted to magnets. The mineral magnetite (Fe3O4), in

particular, can be separated from the gangue by using a strong electromagnet.

Amalgam - is an alloy of mercury with another metal or metals. Mercury can therefore be used

to extract metal from ore.

o Mercury forms amalgams with a number of metals. Mercury dissolves the silver and gold

in an ore to form a liquid amalgam, which is easily separated from the remaining ore. The

gold or silver is recovered by distilling off mercury.

(2) Production of the metal

- The production of a free metal is a reduction process. It is because metals in their combined

forms always have positive oxidation numbers.

o Preliminary operations may be necessary to convert the ore to a chemical state more

suitable for reduction.

For example, an ore may be roasted to drive off volatile impurities and at the same time to

convert the carbonates and sulfides to the corresponding oxides, which can be reduced more

conveniently to yield the pure metals:

CaCO2(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2Pb(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)

This last equation points out the fact that the conversion of sulfides to oxides is a major source of

sulfur dioxide, a notorious air pollutant.. Most major metallurgical processes now in use involve

pyrometallurgy, procedures carried out at high temperatures.

Types of reduction that can be used in the production of metals:

1. Chemical Reduction

-We can use a more electropositive metal as a reducing agent to separate a less electropositive

metal from its compound at high temperatures, even molecular hydrogen can be used as a
reducing agent, as in the preparation of tungsten (used as filaments in lightbulbs) from

tungsten(VI) oxide.

2. Electrolytic Reduction

- is suitable for very electropositive metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum.

(3) Purification of the metal

-Metals prepared by reduction usually need further treatment to remove impurities. The extent of

purification, of course, depends on how the metal will be used.

Three common purification procedures are:

1. Distillation - Metals that have low boiling points, such as mercury, magnesium, and zinc,

can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation.

2. Electrolysis - The more electropositive metals are removed by an electrolysis process in which

the impure copper acts as the anode and pure copper acts as the cathode in a sulfuric acid

solution containing Cu2+ ions.

1. Zone refining - In zone refining, the liquid metal acts as the solvent and the impurities as

the solutes.) When the molten zone carrying the impurities, now at increased

concentration, reaches the end of the rod, it is allowed to cool and is then cut off.

Metallurgical Process
The Metallurgy of Iron

Raw Materials :

●Iron Ore - Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron, depending on grade (hematite is

almost 70% iron).

●Coke - Supplies heat for chemical reactions and produces carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce iron

ore

●Limestone - Used as a flux to react with and remove impurities in molten iron

●Hot gases (CO, H2, CO2, H2O, N2, O2, and fuels) - Used to burn coke.

Slag - A mixture of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate that remains molten at the furnace

temperature.

Blast Furnace Process – a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30 to

35 ft) at its widest and a height of 40 m (125 ft).

Pig iron – product of blast furnace. It contains over 4% C, plus other impurities: 0.3-1.3% Si,

0.5-2.0% Mn, 0.1-1.0% P, and 0.02-0.08% S.

Steel - It is an alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11% carbon by weight. It often

includes other alloying elements: manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.

Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:

1. Plain carbon steels

2. Low alloy steels

3. Stainless steels

4. Tool steels

-Steels produced by BOF or electric furnace are solidified for subsequent processing either as

cast ingots or by continuous casting.

o Casting of ingots – a discrete production process .Molds made of high carbon iron,

tapered at top or bottom for removal of solid casting. The mold is placed on a platform

called a stool. After solidification the mold is lifted, leaving the casting on the stool. 12

hrs. may be required for casting to solidify.

o Continuous casting –a semi-continuous process. Continuous casting is widely applied in

aluminum and copper production, but its most noteworthy application is in steel-making.

Dramatic productivity increases over ingot casting. Continuous casting reduces

solidification time by an order of magnitude. Steel is poured into tundish and flows into a

water-cooled continuous mold; it solidifies as it travels down in mold

Steel Making

●A furnace called a cupola is commonly used for converting pig iron into gray cast iron.

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3

P4O10(l) + 6CaO(s) → 2Ca3(PO4)2(l)
MnO(s) + SiO2(s) → MnSiO3(l)

●Pig iron is the iron obtained from the blast furnace and it contains about 4% of carbon as

impurity. Along with carbon, Si, P and Mn are also present in pig iron as impurity. Pig iron is

malleable and can be molded into a variety of shapes.

●Cast iron is the iron obtained by melting of the mixture of pig iron and scrap iron and coke by

hot air blast. It has around 3% of carbon content. So, it is more pure than pig iron. Cast iron is

extremely hard and brittle. Cast iron has lower carbon content (3%) as compared to pig iron (4%)

and is extremely hard and brittle.

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)

o Accounts for 70% of steel production in U.S

o Adaptation of the Bessemer converter

o Bessemer process used air blown up through the molten pig iron to burn off impurities

o BOF uses pure oxygen

o Typical BOF vessel is 5 m (16 ft) inside diameter and can process 150 to 200 tons per

heat

o Entire cycle time (tap-to-tap time) takes 45 min.

Four Categories of Steel

o Plain carbon steels. Carbon is the principal alloying element, only small amounts of

other elements (.5% manganese is normal); strength increases with carbon content, but

ductility is reduced; high carbon steels can be heat treated to form martensite, making the

steel very hard and strong.

o Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C, used in automobile sheet-metal

parts, plate steel for fabrication, railroad rails

o Medium carbon steels - range between 0.20% and 0.50% C, used in machinery

components and engine parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods

o High carbon steels - contain carbon in amounts greater than 0.50%, used in

springs, cutting tools and blades, wear-resistant parts.

Low alloy steels - Iron-carbon alloys that contain additional alloying elements in amounts

totaling less than 5% wt.

Stainless steels - Highly alloyed steels (typically with Cr and/or Ni) designed for corrosion

resistance. Several additional high alloy steels have been developed and are also classified as

stainless steels:

o Precipitation hardening stainless – typical composition = 17% Cr and 7%Ni, with

additional small amounts of alloying elements such as Al, Cu, Ti, and Mo.

o Duplex stainless - mixture of austenite and ferrite in roughly equal amounts

Tool steels – is a class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as industrial cutting

tools, dies, and molds.

3.0 Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity

- It states that delocalized electrons move freely through ―bands‖ formed by overlapping

molecular orbitals.
-In a metallic crystal, the atoms are packed closely together, so the energy levels of each atom

are affected by the immediate neighbors of the atom as a result of orbital overlaps. The

interaction between two atomic orbitals leads to the formation of a bonding and an antibonding

molecular orbital.

4.0 The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals

Periodic Trends in Metallic Process

Electronegativity

o Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons when the

atom is part of a compound. Electronegativity values generally increase from left to right

across the periodic table. Electronegativities generally decrease from top to bottom of a

group. The highest electronegativity value is for fluorine (4.0) and Cesium the lowest

(EN = 0.79).

o This indicates that fluorine has a high tendency to gain electrons from other elements

with lower electronegativities. We can use these values to predict what happens when

certain elements combine.

o Since metals have few valence electrons, they tend to increase their stability by losing

electrons to become cations. Consequently, the electronegativities of metals are generally

low.

Metallic Property

o The metallic character of an element can be defined as how readily an atom can lose an

electron. There are trends in metallic character as you move across and down the periodic
table. Metallic character decreases as you move across a period in the periodic table from

left to right. This occurs as atoms more readily accept electrons to fill a valence shell than

lose them to remove the unfilled shell.

o Metallic character increases as you move down an element group in the periodic table.

This is because electrons become easier to lose as the atomic radius increases, where

there is less attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons because of the

increased distance between them.

Atomic Radius

o Atomic radius is determined as the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms

bonded together. The atomic radius of atoms generally decreases from left to right across

a period. The atomic radius of atoms generally increases from top to bottom within a

group.

o The smaller the atomic radius, the more influence the nucleus has on reactivity. Since the

nucleus of an atom contains positively charged protons, it also attracts electrons. Halogen
atoms already want to gain electrons, so the added force of nuclear pull makes them more

reactive.

o From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because atomic

number increases down a group, and thus there is an increased distance between the

valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.

Electron Affinity

o Electron Affinity is the degree to which an atom or molecule attracts additional electrons;

the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a negative ion to produce a

neutral atom or molecule.

o Electron affinity increases upward across periods of a periodic table for the groups and

from left to right, because the electrons added to the energy levels get closer to the

nucleus, making the nucleus and its electrons more attractive.

o Electronegativity refers to the ability of the atoms to attract the electrons from the other

elements. Electron affinity refers to the amount of energy that is liberated whenever a

molecule or a neutral atom tends to acquire an electron from the other elements.
Physical Properties of Metals

● Shiny appearance. Metals show a metallic luster. Due to their shiny appearance they can be

used in jewelry and decorations. Particularly gold and silver are widely used for jewelry. In the

old days, mirrors were made of shiny metals like silver. Silver is a very good reflector. It reflects

about 90% of the light falling on it. All modern mirrors contain a thin coating of metals.

● Hardness. Metals are mostly harder to cut. Their hardness varies from one metal to another.

Some metals like sodium, potassium and magnesium are easy to cut.

● Malleability. Metals can be hammered into thin sheets. Most metals are malleable. Gold and

Silver metals are the most malleable metals. They can be hammered into very fine sheets. Thin

aluminium foils are widely used for safe wrapping of medicines, chocolates and food material.

● Ductility. Metals can be drawn into thin wires. Wires are made from copper, aluminium, iron

and magnesium.

● Electrical conductivity. Electric wires in our homes are made of aluminium and copper. They

are good conductor of electricity. Electricity flows most easily through gold, silver, copper and
aluminium. Gold and silver are used for electrical contacts in computers. Copper wires are used

in electrical appliances while aluminium is generally used for making electrical cables.

●No two metals are absolutely identical.

●When metals are burned with the presence of oxygen, they combine with oxygen to form

metallic oxides.

●Water reactivity. Different metals react differently with water. Sodium reacts violently with

water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. Magnesium reacts mildly with water but

vigorously with steam. Zinc and iron react mildly with steam. Copper, gold and silver do not

react with water at all. Most metals, on reacting with water produce hydroxide.

●Acid reactivity. Most metals react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen.

●Metal displacement reactions. Metals displace other metals in a metallic compound when they

have higher reactivity.

Corrosion

-Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by an electrochemical process like rusting of iron and

tarnishing of silver.

Corrosion Protection

●Passivation – the surface of the iron metal is made inactive by treating it with a strong

oxidizing agent such as nitric acid to form a thin oxide layer at the surface. Sodium chromate is

used for radiators and cooling systems.

●Alloys – combining the metal with other metals to reduce its tendency to oxidize.
●Plating- applying a thin layer of other metals like tin or zinc on the surface of the iron.

●Cathodic protection - a process in which metal that is to be protected from corrosion is made

the cathode in what amounts to a galvanic cell.

Designation Schemes for Steels

-Specified by a 4-digit number system YYXX, the first two numbers YY represent the alloying

elements and the last two numbers XX represent the carbon % in hundredths of percentage

points.

Nonferrous Metals

– metal elements and alloys not based on iron. Most important engineering metals in nonferrous

group are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys.

Alkali Metals

-The most electropositive or the least electronegative elements. These metals have a body

centered crystal structure with low packing efficiency. They are also known because of their low

melting point and soft enough to be sliced with a knife.

o The alkaline earth metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and

radium) are the second most reactive metals in the periodic table, and, like the Group 1

metals, have increasing reactivity in the higher periods.

5.0 Aluminum

o High electrical and thermal conductivity

o Corrosion resistance is excellent due to formation of a hard thin oxide surface film

o Very ductile metal, noted for its formability

o Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can be alloyed and heat treated to

compete with some steels, especially when weight is taken into consideration.

o Properties of Al alloys are influenced by work hardening and heat treatment, so temper

must be designated in addition to composition. This designation is attached to the 4-digit

code, separated by a hyphen, to indicate treatment or no treatment.

6.0 Transition Metals

Copper

o Low electrical resistivity - commercially pure copper is widely used as an electrical

conductor excellent thermal conductor.

Properties of Copper:

●Strength and hardness of copper is relatively low; to improve strength, copper is frequently

alloyed.

●Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typically ~90% Cu, 10% Sn), widely used today and in

ancient times (i.e., the Bronze Age). Additional bronzes include aluminum bronzes and silicon

bronzes.

●Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typically ~65% Cu, 35% Zn).
●Highest strength alloy is beryllium-copper (only about 2% Be), which can be heat treated to

high strengths and used for springs

Nickel and Its Alloys

o Magnetic

o Modulus of elasticity is approximately same for iron and steel

o Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as (1) an alloying element in steel, e.g.,

stainless steel, and (2) as a plating metal on metals such as plain carbon steel

o High temperature properties of alloys are superior

o Alloys of nickel are commercially important and are noted for corrosion resistance and

high temperature performance

o In addition, a number of super alloys are based on nickel.

Titanium and Its Alloys

o density of Ti is between aluminum and iron

o light weight and good strength-to-weight ratio (thus used in aerospace applications)

Properties of Titanium:

●Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low among metals

●Stiffer and stronger than Al

●Retains good strength at elevated temperatures

●Pure Ti is reactive, which presents problems in processing, especially in molten state

●At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent oxide coating (TiO2) that provides excellent

corrosion resistance.

Zinc and Its Alloys

●Low melting point makes it attractive as a casting metal, especially die casting

●Also provides corrosion protection when coated onto steel or iron

●The term galvanized steel refers to steel coated with zinc

●Widely used as alloy with copper (brass)

Lead and Tin

- Often considered together because of their low melting temperatures and use as soldering

alloys.

Lead - dense, low melting point; low strength, low hardness, high ductility, good corrosion

resistance.

●Applications: solder, plumbing pipes, bearings, ammunition, type metals, x-ray shielding,

storage batteries, and vibration damping.

Tin - even lower melting point than lead; low strength, low hardness, good ductility.

●Applications: solder, bronze, "tin cans" for storing food.

Refractory Metals

 Molybdenum
●Used as a pure metal (99.9+% Mo) and alloyed

●Properties: high melting point, stiff, strong, good high temperature strength

●Applications: heat shields, heating elements, electrodes for resistance welding, dies for high

temperature work (e.g., die casting molds), and parts for rocket and jet engines. Also widely used

as an alloying ingredient in steels and superalloys.

 Tungsten

●Properties: highest melting point among metals, one of the densest, also the stiffest (highest

modulus of elasticity) and hardest of all pure metals

●Applications typically characterized by high operating temperatures: filament wire in

incandescent light bulbs, parts for rocket and jet engines, and electrodes for arc welding. Also

widely used as an element in tool steels, heat resistant alloys, and tungsten carbide

 Columbium

 Tantalum

Superalloys

- High-performance alloys designed to meet demanding requirements for strength and resistance

to surface degradation at high service temperatures.

Three Groups of Superalloys:

1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is less than 50% of total composition
2. Nickel-based alloys - better high temperature strength than alloy steels. Other elements: Cr,

Co; also: Al, Ti, Mo, and Fe .

3. Cobalt-based alloys ≈40% Co and ≈20% chromium .Other alloying elements include Ni, Mo,

and W.

Shaping, Assembly and Finishing Processes for Metals

o Metals are shaped by all of the basic processes: casting, powder metallurgy, deformation,

and material removal

o Metal parts are joined to form assemblies by welding, brazing and soldering, and

mechanical fastening

o Heat treating is performed to enhance properties

o Finishing processes (e.g., electroplating and painting) are commonly used to improve

appearance of metal parts and/or to provide corrosion protection

Methods to Enhance Mechanical Properties in Metals

o Alloying - important technique to strengthen metals

o Cold working - strain hardening during deformation to increase strength (also reduces

ductility). Strengthening of the metal occurs as a byproduct of the forming operation

o Heat treatment - heating and cooling cycles performed on a metal to beneficially change

its mechanical properties. They operate by altering the microstructure of the metal, which

in turn determines properties.

Types of Heat Treatments to improve quality:

 Normalizing - The material is heated to between 750-980 °C then cooled at room

temperature; product: high strength and high ductility, tougher than annealed steel.

 Annealing – heating above the critical temperature then controlled cooling inside a

furnace.

During normalizing, thinner pieces will cool faster in the air and become harder than thicker

pieces. But, with annealing and its furnace cooling, the hardness of both thick and thin parts will

be comparable.

 Quenching – heating then rapid cooling in water or oil, for hardening steel.

 Tempering – reheating below critical temperature, holding the temperature for a specific

period, then then slowly cooling in still air.

Polymers

1.0 Properties and Structures of Polymers and Common Polymeric Materials

Properties and Characterization of Polymers

-A polymer is a molecular compound that can be distinguished by a high molar mass, ranging

into thousands and even millions of mass and they are made up of many repeating units.
-Synthetic (man-made) polymers were first developed in the early 20th century, and these

polymers remarkably transformed our world as different materials can be created with properties

that are ideal for different applications. Synthetic polymers can be made from many different

starting materials which usually come from crude oil (raw material). Presently, crude oil is the

starting material for many plastics, pharmaceuticals, fabrics, and other carbon-based products.

-Natural polymers have been around since life itself began. Cellulose, starch, and other

complex carbohydrates are examples of natural polymers. Natural rubber is a polymer obtained

from rubber trees and even the code for life itself, DNA, is a natural polymer.

-Monomers (mono meaning ―one‖; meros meaning ―unit‖) are the small molecules that are used

for synthesizing polymers and each monomer is analogous to a link in a chain. Monomers,

simple repeating units, and this type of composition markedly restricts the number of possible

isomers.

-Polymers (poly means ―many‖) can be created from one monomer, of from a combination of

two or more different monomers.

-Homopolymer if a polymer is made up of only type of monomer (e.g. polyethylene).

Polymer Molecules

o The molecules in polymers are gigantic and because of their size they are often referred

to as macromolecules.

o The backbone of each of a carbon-chain polymer is a string of carbon atoms and within

each molecule, the atoms are bound together by covalent interatomic bonds.

o Each of the two remaining valence electrons for every carbon atom may be involved in

side bonding with atoms or radicals that are positioned adjacent to the chain. Of course,

both chain and side double bonds are also possible.

The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

o The hydrocarbon ethylene (C2H4) is a gas at ambient temperature and pressure

o Under appropriate conditions, ethylene gas reacted and it will transform to polyethylene

(PE) which is a solid polymeric material. This process begins when an active center is
formed by the reaction between an initiator or catalyst species (R·) and the ethylene

monomer.

o Next, the polymer chain forms by the sequential addition of monomer units to this

actively growing chain molecule.

o Polytetrafluoroethylene (having the trade name Teflon) belongs to a family of polymers

called the fluorocarbons.

o The vinyl chloride monomer (CH2=CHCl) is a slight variant of that for ethylene, in

which one of the four H atoms is replaced with a Cl atom.

Molecular Structures of Polymers

-Molecular weight and shape of a polymer is not the only basis of its physical characteristics, the

difference in the structure of the molecular chains must also be considered.

o Linear polymers - Long chained linear polymers resemble spaghetti. Van der Waals or

hydrogen bonds, which are weaker, are frequently used to hold together large chains. The

majority of linear polymers are thermoplastic because these bonding types are generally

simple to break with heat. Long chains can flow past one another when the links between

them are broken by heat, allowing the material to be remolded. The lengthy chains' bonds

reform as a result of cooling, which causes the polymer to harden.

o Branched Polymers - Branching adds shorter chains that dangle from the spaghetti-like

backbone, giving branched polymers a similar appearance to linear polymers. Branched

polymers typically have a lower density than comparable linear polymers because these

shorter chains may prevent the polymers from being packed efficiently. Although there

are some very complex branched polymers that resist this'melting' and break up

(becoming hard in the process) before softening, i.e., they are thermosetting, heat

typically breaks the bonds between the branched polymer chains because the short chains

do not bridge from one longer backbone to another.

o Crosslinked Polymers - Ladders are how crosslinked polymers look. From one

backbone to another, the chains connect. Crosslinked polymers are therefore bound

together by covalent bonding as opposed to linear polymers, which are held together by

weaker van der Waals forces. With just a few exceptions—crosslinked polymers that

happen to break their crosslinks at relatively low temperatures—the majority of

crosslinked polymers are thermosetting due to this significantly stronger bond.

o Network Polumers - Complex polymers that have been intricately connected together to

create a complex web of three-dimensional links are known as networked polymers.

These polymers are thermosetting polymers because it is virtually impossible to soften

them when heated without impairing the underlying polymer structure. Monomers do not

have have to have a single type of atom, but when one is mentioned, it is assumed to have

the same composition structure. Copolymers are the result of combining two different

monomers to form a polymer. The classification of copolymers will be discussed after

that.

Common Polymeric Material

The “Chasing Arrows” Symbol

- The ―chasing arrows‖ symbol we see on plastic containers and products does not

necessarily mean the product is recyclable. The little number inside the triangle is there to

help us identify the type of plastic used for the product. By understanding the number

classifications, we can then determine the appropriate disposal route for our plastic

products.

Symbol 1: PETG or PETE

Also known as PETE, this symbol represents polyethylene terephthalate, which is commonly

used for soft drink bottles, mineral water containers, and fruit juice containers, and cooking oil
containers. The plastic is easily recyclable so it’s often part of curbside recycling programs. It

can be reused to make containers, carpet, and furniture.

Symbol 2: HDPE

HDPE indicates one of the most commonly used plastics in the United States, HDPE (which

stands for high-density polyethylene). HDPE plastic is used for a number of different purposes

but is widely considered the plastic of choice for containers for items like cleaning agents, milk,

detergents, and washing soap thanks to its low weight and high strength.

Symbol 3: PVC or Vinyl

Plastic material that exhibit symbol 3 with the letter ―V‖ represent PVC plastic or polyvinyl

chloride. You may come across this plastic in bubble foils, and trays for sweets and fruit.

Additionally, expanded PVC foam board is used for a wide variety of commercial applications.

Thanks to its lightweight and rigid properties, PVC plastic can be easily stamped, sawed,

punched, nailed, riveted, or bonded using PVC adhesive.

Symbol 4: LDPE

LDPE indicates that the plastic is made from LDPE plastic, which stands for low-density

polyethylene. This plastic comes in the form of shopping bags, highly-resistant sacks, and

crushed bottles. This type of plastic is not usually recycled, but it can be converted into floor tiles

and shipping envelopes.

Symbol 5: PP

PP is appropriately marked by the number five symbol including the acronym PP. Thanks to its

durability, strength, and low weight, this plastic is utilized in furniture, luggage, toys, and the

lining and external borders of cars. This is one of the safer types of plastic making it ideal for

ketchup bottles and medicine bottles. It is also increasingly being accepted in curbside recycling

programs.

Symbol 6: Styrene, or PS
Styrene plastic, also known as polystyrene, is marked with symbol 6 that includes the acronym

PS. This plastic is commonly used in toys, hard packing, refrigerator trays, cosmetic bags,

costume jewelry, CD cases, and vending cups. Although not accepted in many curbside recycling

programs, it can be recycled to make egg cartons, take-out containers, and rulers.

Symbol 7: Other

Symbol 7 including the word ―OTHER‖ stands for ―other plastics,‖ which include, but are not

limited to, acrylic plastic, polycarbonate plastic, polylactic fibers, nylon, and fiberglass. Not

every plastic can be recycled. However, both acrylic and polycarbonate can be recycled and can

be repurposed for future projects. Since they are both thermoplastics, they can be reheated

without a loss in quality. For symbol 7 plastics, be sure to confirm with your local recycling

program.

2.0 Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization

o Polymers with very long chains has extremely large molecular weights but during

polymerization process, not all polymer chains will grow to the same length and this

results in a distribution of chain lengths or molecular weights.

o Usually, an average molecular weight is specified, which can be determined by the

measurement of various physical properties such as viscosity and osmotic pressure.

o There are several ways of defining average molecular weight. The number-average

molecular weight Mn is obtained by dividing the chains into a series of size ranges

and then determining the number fraction of chains within each size range.

Hypothetical polymer molecule size distributions on the basis of : (a) number and (b) weight

fractions of molecules

 The number- average molecular weight is expressed as:

where Mi represents the mean (middle) molecular weight of size range i, and Xi is the fraction of

the total number of chains within the corresponding size range.

A weight-average molecular weight Mw is based on the weight fraction of molecules within the

various size ranges. It is calculated according to:

where, again, Mi is the mean molecular weight within a size range, whereas Wi denotes the

weight fraction of molecules within the same size interval.

o The length of polymer chains has affected many polymer properties. For example, as

molecular weight (about 100,000 g/mol) of a polymer increases, its melting or softening

temperature also increases.

o But for polymers with very short chains or having a molecular weights on the order of

100 g/mol, will usually exist as liquids at room temperature.

o Those with molecular weights of approximately 1000 g/mol exist as waxy solids (e.g.

paraffin wax) and soft resins.

o For polymers with molecular weights ranging between 10,000 and several million g/mol

exist as solid, they are sometimes termed as high polymers.

o Therefore, the same polymer material can acquire various properties if it is produced with

different molecular weight.

Degree of Polymerization

Degree of Polymerization (DP) is an alternative way of expressing average chain size of a

polymer. DP represents the average number of repeat units in a chain and it is related to the

number-average molecular weight Mn by the equation: where m is the repeat unit molecular

weight.

3.0 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers

Molecular structure has a great effect on how polymers react to mechanical forces at elevated

temperatures. Indeed, one classification for these materials is according to behavior with rising

temperature.

o Thermoplastics (or thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets (or thermosetting polymers)

are the two subdivisions. Thermoplastics soften upon heating and later liquefy, then it

hardens when cooled. This process is reversible and can be repeated.

- Exposure of a molten thermoplastic polymer to a very high temperature results to an

irreversible degradation. Examples of common thermoplastic polymers are

polyethylenpe, polystyrene, poly(ethylene terephthalate), and poly (vinyl chloride).

o Thermosetting polymers are network polymers, they do not soften upon heating and

they become permanently hard during their formation. Network polymers have covalent

crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains.

- During heat treatment, the bonds fasten the chains together to resist the vibrational and

rotational chain motions at high temperatures. Therefore, the materials do not soften

when heated.

4.0 Copolymers

A copolymer is composed of two repeat units as represented in Table 3. It is possible that there

are different sequencing arrangements along the polymer chains which depends on the

polymerization process and the relative fractions of these repeat unit types. Synthetic rubbers are

usually copolymers.
Classification of Copolymers

o Random – two different Units are randomly dispersed along the chain.

o Alternating – two repeat units alternate chain position.

o Block – identical repeat units are clustered in blocks along the chain.

o Graft – homopolymer of side branches of one type may be grafted to homopolymer main

chains that are composed of a different repeat units.

5.0 Polymer Crystallinity

Polymer crystallinity is the packing of molecular chains to produce an ordered atomic array.

Crystal structures may be specified in terms of unit cells, which are often quite complex.

o In crystalline state, the atomic arrangement in polymer materials is more complex as

compared to metals and ceramics because in polymers it involves molecules instead of

just atoms or ions.

o Polymer molecules are often partially crystalline (or semicrystalline), having crystalline

regions dispersed within the remaining amorphous material.

o An amorphous region is the result of any chain disorder or misalignment, a case that is

quite common, because twisting, kinking, and coiling of the chains hinder the strict

ordering of every segment of every chain.

o The extent of crystallinity may range from completely amorphous to almost entirely (up

to about 95%) crystalline. If compared to metal specimens (almost always entirely

crystalline) and many ceramics (either totally crystalline or totally noncrystalline)

polymeric materials behave differently.