Business Communication 1-3

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

SEGMENTS 1-3
Segment: Basic Principles of Communication
Topic: Meaning and Process of Communication

Topic: Introduction
Meaning and Process of Communication

Table of Contents
1. Communication – Meaning ............................................................................................................. 5

2. Communication Process.................................................................................................................. 6
3. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 9
4. Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 9
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©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Introduction
Communication is an important component of success in our personal and professional lives. It
is the key to building favourable relationships. It is a part of ‘soft skills’, as opposed to the domain
or technical knowledge, which is a part of ‘hard skills.’ A formal study of business communication
is important since the average business executive today spends a good part of his/her time on
the job communicating in some form or the other.
Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees work from a remote location

usually their homes and communicate with their company using electronic means. It is
flourishing both in Australia and other countries. Telecommuting may significantly decrease
interpersonal communication requirements and is, therefore affecting effective
communication.
Meyers, N., & Hearn, G. of the Queensland University of Technology surveyed about 39
telecommuters working for 12 different Australian organisations. The participants were
working in the following different categories:
• Administrators
• Computer system designers
• Journalists
• Legislative drafters
• Managerial consultants
• Project workers
• Public relations consultants/executives
• Sales-marketing personnel
• Solicitors
About 46% of the participants in the survey were female telecommuters. Meetings were
considered important formal office communication and were conducted based on the
following three situations:
• Complexity of task and required feedback
• Management predictions for contacting their telecommuters
• Need for the currency of information
Thus, the meetings were expected to happen zero times or weekly.
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The satisfaction levels of telecommuters varied across the three situations. For example, the
sales-marketing telecommuters, met with their superiors weekly, to share what they were
doing and set goals for the week.
About 18% of the participants found meetings either difficult to attend or a disturbance to
their work-at-home schedule.
Also, the lack of communication on the meeting schedules made few telecommuters miss the
meetings.
Daily telephone or other forms of contact was the main means of communication for nearly
30% of telecommuters. Daily communication through channels like e-mail, a telephone was
viewed as an important way of communication for sales-marketing telecommuters. Once the
communication patterns were established, the telecommuters began to use two-way
communication.
Other participants of the survey pointed out that co-workers were reluctant to call them at
home. Consequently, they sometimes did not receive critical information on time. Some
participants pointed out that they did receive memos even though they were absent. Memos
were considered an important part of formal communication and could be related to another
interview theme: timeliness of communication. Timeliness of communication is more
important for telecommuters since they lack proximity and a quick referral to co-workers as
well as other information.
(Source: http://www.teleworkaustralia.net.au/doclibrary/public/Research/AJCArticle
MeyersHearnTelecommuting.pdf)
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
• define communication
• describe the characteristics of communication
• describe the key elements in the communication process.
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1. Communication – Meaning
Communication in simple terms is a transfer of information between people, resulting in a
common understanding between them.
Communication has been defined differently by different writers and behavioural theorists.
Some popular definitions are as follows:
• According to Newman and Summer, “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions
or emotions by two or more persons”.
• According to Allen Louis, “It is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to
create an understanding in the mind of another”.
• Bellows, Gilson, and Odirone define communication as “A communion by words, letters,
symbols or messages, and as a way that one organisation member shares meaning with the
other”.
• Hoben defines communication as “The verbal interchange of thoughts or ideas”.
• In the words of Anderson, “Communication is the process by which we understand others
and in turn, endeavour to be understood by them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and
shifting in response to the total situation”.
• According to Berelson and Steiner, “Communication is the transmission of information,
ideas, emotions, skills, etc. by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, etc.”.
• In the words of Fotheringham, “Communication is a process involving the selection,
production, and transmission of signs in such a way as to help a receiver perceive a meaning
similar to that in the mind of the communicator”.
From all these definitions, it is clear that communication has the following characteristics:
• It is unavoidable – It is impossible not to communicate, since we communicate
unintentionally all the time, even without the use of words. Our body language, the way we
dress, the importance we give to arriving on time, our behaviour, and the physical
environment in which we work, all convey certain messages to others.
• It is a two-way exchange of information – Communication is sharing of information between
two or more persons, with continuous feedback.
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• It is a process – Each message is part of a process and does not occur in isolation. This means
that the meaning attached to a message depends on what has happened before and on the
present context. For example, your boss’s response to your request for promotion will
depend on your past relationship with him, as well as his mood at that particular moment.
• It involves a sender and a receiver of information – Any communication starts with a sender
of a message and requires a receiver to attach some meaning to that message.
• It could be verbal or non-verbal – communication could be through the use of words in
spoken or written form, or through the use of body languages such as gestures and facial
expressions.
• It is successful when the receiver interprets the meaning in the same way as that intended
by the sender – The receiver may not always attach the same meaning to a message as the
sender. When the message is wrongly interpreted, communication is a failure. This may be
due to several reasons, which we will examine later in this topic.
• It is a dynamic process – Communication involves sharing of thoughts and experiences in a
meaningful manner while assimilating, processing, and responding to the person one is
talking with. The mode and manner of communication may vary according to the situation.
• It enables understanding – Communication enables people to understand the necessity for
change, the reasons for performing certain things, the method of implementing processes,
and the importance of their actions.
2. Communication Process
Let us now look at communication as a process and discuss its key elements.
Irrespective of the setting in which communication takes place or the number of people that are
involved, all communication consists of certain key elements. The communication model shown
in figure 1 illustrates each of these elements.
Fig. 1: Communication Model
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The elements involved in communication are:

• Sender or encoder – This is the person who transmits a message. For example, a manager
writing a letter to a consultant after a meeting or a sales manager making a presentation to
the sales team. Here the manager is the sender.
• Receiver or decoder – The person who notices and decodes or attaches some meaning to a
message. Decoding may not always be accurate, and a wrong meaning may be attached to a
message. For example, a friendly joke might be taken as an offence, or feedback given to a
subordinate by a superior might be taken in the wrong sense.
• Message – This is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver. Messages may be
intentional (as in the example of the sales presentation by a manager to the sales team) or
unintentional (non-verbal signals such as yawns that convey the message of boredom).
• Channel – This refers to the medium or the method used to deliver the message. As a
business executive, you will often have a choice of channels. For example, you could
communicate with a customer through a letter, email or telephone.
• Feedback – Most communication is two-way. Receivers generally respond to messages. For
example, students may ask questions during a lecture session and an employer may tell an
employee that he has to think about his proposal. This response to a sender’s message is
called feedback. This kind of feedback is oral. Sometimes feedback can also be given in a
written form. For example, a manager can send a written response to a customer’s letter of
complaint. At other times, feedback could be non-verbal, as in smiles and nods of
appreciation during a talk or presentation. Even failure to respond could be considered as
feedback, since it may indicate a lack of interest or indifference to the sender’s message. Due
to the element of feedback, people are simultaneously senders and receivers of information
in face-to-face communication.
• Context – This refers to the setting in which the communication takes place and could
sometimes determine the success or failure of the communication. Context can be classified
as follows:
o Physical context – This refers to the physical surroundings. For example, a work or social
environment, in which the communication takes place. Asking your boss for a promotion
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might be received differently, depending on whether the communication takes place in

your office, your boss’ office, at a company party or over lunch at a restaurant.
o Social context – This refers to the relationship between the sender and the receiver.
Taking the same example, asking for a promotion is likely to be received differently,
depending on how well you get along with your boss and whether you are personal
friends or not.
o Chronological context – This refers to time related factors that could influence
communication. For example, is your request made first thing in the morning or at the
fag end of the day? Is it made during or after work hours? Is it made at a time when the
company is going through problems such as a strike in the factory, or major losses?
o Cultural context – This refers to the similarity of backgrounds between the sender and
the receiver, such as age, language, nationality, religion, and gender. These factors could
influence communication favourably or unfavourably.
Each of these key elements contributes to the success of communication. In other words,
communication can go wrong if any of the following elements go wrong:
• The wrong person sends the message. For example, a junior accountant in a company writing
a letter to a bank, asking for a loan for a project worth several crores, is not likely to get the
bank’s approval.
• The message is unclear or badly worded. There may also be too many messages, leading to
confusion and information overload.
• The wrong channel of communication is chosen. Placing an advertisement for a liquor
product in a religious magazine, for example, is not likely to be received favourably.
• The message is wrongly interpreted, i.e., the receiver attaches the wrong meaning to the
message.
• The feedback is not adequate to ensure understanding.
• Physical, physiological, or psychological noise distorts the message.
• The communication takes place in the wrong physical, social, chronological, or cultural
context.
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3. Summary
Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far:
• Communication in simple terms is a transfer of information between people, resulting in a
common understanding between them.
• Communication has been defined differently by different writers and behavioural theorists.
• From all the definitions, it is clear that communication has the following characteristics:
o It is unavoidable
o It is a two-way exchange of information
o It is a process
o It involves a sender and a receiver of information
o It could be verbal or non-verbal
o It is successful when the receiver interprets the meaning in the same way as that intended
by the sender
o It is a dynamic process and
o It enables understanding
• The elements involved in communication are:
o Sender or encoder
o Receiver or decoder
o Message
o Channel
o Feedback and
o Context
4. Glossary
Telecommuting A work arrangement in which an employee works from home for a business
and communicates through the use of a personal computer equipped with
modem and communications software.
Decoder A device or a person undoing the encoding to retrieve the original message.
Encoder A device or a person which converts the message into some chunks of
messages known only to it.
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Topic: Barriers to Communication
Topic: Introduction
Barriers to Communication
Table of Contents
1. Barriers to Communication ............................................................................................................. 4

1.1 Overcoming the Barriers to Communication ........................................................................... 8
2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 10
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Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed certain key elements of the communication process. Each of
the key elements contributes to the success of communication. In other words, communication
can go wrong if any of the key elements go wrong.
In this topic, we will examine some of the general problems that come in the way of smooth
communication and ways of overcoming these problems.
Learning Objectives
• list the barriers to communication
• identify the ways to overcome the barriers to communication.
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1. Barriers to Communication
Communication fails when the message received is not identical to the message that is sent.
Several factors could interfere with the exchange of messages.
‘Noise’ refers to all these factors that disrupt communication and can be classified under the
following types:
• Physical noise – Distracting sounds, poor acoustics, or just information overload could
interfere with the listening process.
• Physiological noise – Hearing or other disabilities, fatigue, or physical illness could come in
the way of both speaking and listening.
• Psychological noise – Sometimes emotions within the sender, or receiver such as
preoccupations, hostility, fear or lack of interest could interfere with the speaking or listening
process.
There are many other barriers to communication, an understanding, and analysis of these are
needed before coming up with ways to eliminate or minimise them. Figure 1 depicts the barriers
to communication.
Fig. 1.: Barriers to Communication

As shown in figure 1, the barriers to communication may be classified as follows:
• Environmental barriers – An environmental barrier is the same as physical noise, which could
be in the form of distracting sounds, an overcrowded room, poor facilities, and acoustics, all
of which may hinder the ability to listen and understand the message.
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• Individual barriers – A major barrier to interpersonal communication is a tendency to judge,

evaluate, approve, or disapprove the views of another person. This happens particularly in
situations where we have strong feelings about something. In such cases, we tend to block
out the communication and form our viewpoints.
• Organisational barriers – In organisations that are too hierarchical, that is, where there are
multiple ‘layers’, messages may have to pass through many levels before they finally reach
the receiver. Each level may add to, modify or completely change the message, so much so
that it becomes distorted by the time it reaches the intended receiver. In other words, there
is likely to be loss of meaning and the message may not reach the receiver in the same way
as it was intended by the sender.
The following example illustrates an organisational barrier to communication. By the time
the message is passed down from the Chief to the lower level executives, it is distorted
completely, to the extent that the original message is interpreted differently by each level
in the organisation.
The Chief of the Space Centre gets to know about the possibility of seeing Halley’s Comet
and decides that the entire organisation should witness this spectacle. He sends the
following memo to the Director.
Tomorrow evening, at 20:00 hours, we will be able to see Halley’s Comet in the sky
through the naked eye. Since this is not an everyday event, everyone at the Centre should
assemble outside in their best clothes to watch it. If it rains, we will not be able to see it
very well, in which case everyone should assemble in the Canteen.
To Director By order of the Chief
The Director then sends the following memo to various Executive Directors:
By order of the Chief, we will be able to see ‘Halley’s Comet’ at 20:00 hrs, tomorrow
evening. If it is raining, we shall not be able to see it very well on site, in our best clothes.
In that case, the disappearance of the Comet will be followed through in the Canteen.
This is something which we cannot see happening every day.
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To Director
Executive Directors
The Executive Director sends out memos to the Heads of Departments as follows:
By order of the Chief, we shall follow through, in our best clothes, the disappearance of
the Comet in the Canteen at 20:00 hrs, tomorrow evening. The Chief will tell us whether
it is going to rain. This is something which we cannot see happening every day.
To Executive Director
Heads of Departments
The Heads of Departments send the following message to their Managers:

If it is raining in the Canteen tomorrow evening, which is something we cannot see
happening every day, our Chief in his best clothes will disappear at 20:00 hrs.
To Head of Department
All Managers
Finally, each Manager sends the following notice to their Executives:

Tomorrow evening, at 20:00 hrs. our Chief will disappear. It is a pity that we cannot see
this happening every day.
Another type of organisational barrier is a ‘departmental barrier’. This means that each
department in an organisation functions in isolation and there is no co-ordination or
communication between them.
• Channel barriers – In the previous topic, it was pointed out that communication can fail due
to any of the different elements going wrong. Wrong choice of channel is one of the main
barriers to communication. Using a wrong medium of advertising or conveying a message
orally when a written letter would be more appropriate, are examples. The written channel
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is more appropriate when the communication is more formal or for keeping things on record,
while emotional messages such as feelings about co-workers are better conveyed orally.
• Linguistic and cultural barriers – When the sender of the message uses a language that the
receiver does not understand, the communication will not succeed. Either the sender may be
using a different or foreign language, or the language used may be too highly technical for
the receiver to understand.
Linguistic barriers may also occur in cross-cultural advertising and distort communication,
when translating campaigns or slogans literally from one language to another. For example,
Pepsi’s slogan “Come Alive with Pepsi”, when translated into Chinese, read “Pepsi brings your
ancestors back from the grave!”. Many accidents have happened in air because the pilot, who
is of foreign origin, has not followed properly the directions given by the Air Traffic Controller
who speaks Indianised English.
Cultural differences refer to differences in values and perceptions, which may affect the
interpretation of the message by the receiver. For example, a joke about women may be
taken in the wrong sense if the receiver belongs to a culture in which women are highly
respected.
• Semantic barriers – The word ‘semantics’ refers to the meaning of words and how they are
used. For example, different words may have different meanings in different cultures. Failure
to consider this could lead to serious blunders.
Example – Saying ‘The new product launch went like a bomb’ in British English would mean
that the new product launch was a success.
On the other hand, saying ‘The product launch bombed’ in American English would mean that
the new product was a disaster.
• Non-verbal barriers – This refers to the non-verbal communication that goes with a particular
message. Non-verbal communication includes tone of voice, body language such as gestures
and facial expressions, etc. If the tone of voice and body language are negative, the
communication will fail, however positive is the spoken and written message.
For example, if you happen to meet a long lost friend and say, “I am delighted to meet you”,
but in a sad tone of voice, the exact opposite message will be conveyed!
Therefore, it is important to avoid giving conflicting signals, through the use of non-verbal
communication.
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1.1 Overcoming the Barriers to Communication

Certain steps can be taken, both at the organisational level, as well as at the individual level, to
effectively deal with the barriers to communication trying to minimise them, if not eliminate
them.
Organisational action: Employees of an organisation accomplish workplace communication
through several communication channels. One of the commonly cited problems in organisations
is the poor workplace communication. Hence, organisations need to take few steps to ensure
effective communication. Some of the steps which an organisation can take to overcome the
barriers to effective communication are as follows:
• Encourage feedback – Organisations should try to improve the communication system by
getting feedback for the messages already sent. Feedback can tell the managers whether the
message has reached the receiver in the intended way or not.
• Create a climate of openness – A climate of trust and openness can go a long way in removing
organisational barriers to communication. All subordinates or junior employees should be
allowed to air their opinions and differences without fear of being penalised.
• Use multiple channels of communication – Organisations should encourage the use of
multiple channels of communication, to make sure that messages reach the intended
receivers without fail. This means using a combination of both oral and written channels, as
well as formal (official) and informal (unofficial) channels of communication. The types of
channels will be discussed in detail later, in segment 2.
Individual action: An individual can take certain actions to overcome the communication
barriers. These actions will help to improve interpersonal relationships with others both in one’s
personal and business life. Some of the actions that an individual can take are:
• Active listening – This means listening to the meaning of the speaker’s words, rather than
listening without hearing, or ‘passive listening’. Passive listening is a barrier to
communication, whereas real communication takes place when we listen actively, with
understanding. Listening is a skill which can be developed through proper training.
• Careful wording of messages – Messages should be worded clearly and without ambiguity,
to make sure that the message that is received is the same as the message that is sent.
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• Selection of appropriate channels – Individuals should be competent enough to choose the

right communication channel, depending on the situation. Channels of communication and
the criteria for selection of channels will be discussed in detail in segment 2
• Avoidance of technical language – The language used in communication must be as clear as
possible. Usage of unnecessary technical terms can lead to misunderstandings. Hence, an
individual has to use technical words only when necessary.
• Right feedback – Feedback is an important communication skill. The correct feedback can
elicit the correct action. The feedback given must be a proper combination of criticism and
information sharing.
2. Summary
• ‘Noise’ refers to all the factors that disrupt communication and can be classified under the
following types:
o Physical noise
o Physiological noise
o Psychological noise
• The barriers to communication may be classified as:
o Environmental barriers
o Individual barriers
o Organisational barriers
o Channel barriers
o Linguistic and cultural barriers
o Semantic barriers and
o Non-verbal barriers
• There are a number of barriers or obstacles to smooth communication. These may be
categorised as:
o External or physical barriers
o Individual barriers
o Organisational barriers
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o Linguistic or cultural barriers

o Semantic barriers
o Channel barriers and
o Non-verbal barriers
• Some of the steps which an organisation can take to overcome the barriers to effective
communication are :
o Encourage feedback
o Create a climate of openness and
o Use multiple channels of communication
• Some of the actions that an individual can take to overcome the barriers to effective
communication are
o Active listening
o Careful wording of messages
o Selection of appropriate channels
o Avoidance of technical language and
o Right feedback
3. Glossary
Semantics The study of meanings, changes in meanings, and the principles that govern
the relationship between sentences or words and their meanings
Linguistics The scientific study of the structure and semantics of a language
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Topic: Classification of Communication
Topic: Introduction
Classification of Communication
Table of Contents
1. Classification of Communication .................................................................................................... 4

2. Importance of Communication in the Workplace .......................................................................... 6
3. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 8
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Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed some of the general problems that come in the way of
smooth communication and ways of overcoming these problems.
In this topic, we shall discuss the different categories of communication and the importance of
communication in the workplace.
Learning Objectives
• explain the various types of communication
• recognise how good communication contributes to managerial success.
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1. Classification of Communication
Experts categorise communication into different types based on the following factors:
• Number of people involved in the communication
• The physical proximity of the communicators
• The immediacy of the communication
• The context of the communication
The various types of communication are:
• Interpersonal communication
• Intrapersonal communication
• Group communication
• Mass communication
Let us now discuss the features of these classes of communication.
• Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication usually involves direct face-to-
face contact between the sender and the receiver. It can be both in a verbal and non-verbal
form. Feedback is an important concept of interpersonal communication. We can classify
interpersonal communication, based on the number of people involved as:
o Dyadic communication – This involves two people.
o Group communication – This involves three or more persons. The communication takes
place usually for problem solving or decision making.
o Public communication – This involves a large number of people. The communication takes
place usually for information sharing and persuasion.
Mediated interpersonal communication makes use of technology for sending and receiving
messages. For example, two business colleagues communicate using a telephone or e-mail. By
using mediated communication, we can communicate over large distances or in different time
spans. Mediated communication can be formal or informal in nature.
• Intrapersonal communication: Intrapersonal communication is self-communication. This is

the most basic form of communication. It occurs for clarifying ideas or for analysing a
situation. It involves the following activities:
o Internal discourse – This involves analysis, concentration, and contemplation.
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o Vocal communication – This involves talking aloud to oneself and is done for clarifying or
rehearsing messages.
o Written communication – This involves making entries in journals or diaries.
We can thus use intrapersonal communication to process data, to encode data before sending
a message, and to decode data when we receive messages.
• Group communication: Group communication usually takes place between three to twenty
individuals. The basic resource of any group is its members. Hence, communication is very
important for a group to achieve its goals. Group communication can be achieved in any of
the following forms:
o Verbal
o Non-verbal
o Written
o Electronic
The factors that affect group communication are:
o The nature of the task
o The personalities and abilities of the group members
o Environmental factors
Communication is very essential for creating and sustaining groups. Generally, groups need a
facilitator to ensure that the group achieves its goals. The facilitator establishes rules and
guidelines for communication within the group. Facilitators can provide feedback to the group
members and make suggestions to remedy problems in group communication.
The advances in electronic and digital technology have influenced the way in which groups
function in contemporary organisations. The group communication processes result in a group
outcome like a decision or a plan.
• Mass communication: Mass communication is the communication that employs some form
of media like the television, radio or the Internet to communicate to a very large audience.
The characteristics that distinguish mass communication are:
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o Source – The source is generally a person or a group (like a news editor or a reporter)
operating in an organisational setting. The message communicated is the result of the
work of many persons (such as writers, directors, editors, graphic designers).
o Message – The messages conveyed are complex and elaborate. For example, a magazine
article, a television programme or a billboard advertisement.
o Channel – The channel employed involves more than one technology. For example, the
radio makes use of microphones, transmitters, tape machines, and receivers.
o Audience – The audience are self-elected people who tune in to the radio programme or
who read a magazine. Mass audiences are from a diverse background and have dissimilar
socio-political characteristics. They are spread over a large geographical area.
o Feedback – As the message flow is usually one-way, the feedback is minimal and delayed.
o Noise – The noise can be caused due to semantic, mechanical, or environmental reasons.
Businesses employ mass communication to send out a company-wide message, messages to
other companies, or the general public. Memos and e-mails are used to send company-wide
mass messages. Mass communication messages are sent to other companies to persuade them
to use the company’s products or services. Mass communication messages are sent to the
general public to inform them of the company’s policies or goals and for marketing purposes.
2. Importance of Communication in the Workplace

Communication is the nerve centre of business today. As you go up the corporate ladder, you
will find that communication skills are required, more than technical skills. Communication
research has revealed that among the factors most important for managerial success,
communication skills rank above technical skills. According to the survey conducted by National
Commission on writing, American businesses spend $3.1 billion per year to provide training for
people on writing skills-a type of communication. Several surveys conducted among people who
have been successful in their professions have indicated that communication skills are more vital
to job success than subjects taken in college.
Communication is also required all the more in this age of information and technology. Without
communication and human skills, technology will overwhelm an organisation. Communication
helps to make sense of technology and to manage all this information. For example,
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communication is required to explain a new computer program or software. While computers

can perform routine tasks, jobs like responding to customers’ needs require a high degree of
communication skills.
Effective communication serves the following specific purposes in an organisation:
o Greater awareness of organisational goals and teamwork – When there is open

communication between superiors, co-workers, and subordinates, there is a smooth flow of
information regarding the goals of the organisation. Coordination between the different
departments, in particular, leads to greater motivation to work together towards achieving
a common organisational goal, rather than working in isolation.
o Better employer-employee relationships – By listening to employees, showing empathy, and
giving them the freedom to express their opinions without fear of being repressed, a
manager can create a climate of openness that leads to better work relationships. Employees
will then feel more comfortable in approaching their superiors and discussing any matter
with them.
o Problem solving – Effective communication can help resolve conflicts between co-workers,
work related, and performance related problems. Face-to-face communication is especially
suited for achieving this task since it is one to one and highly personalised in nature.
o Improved performance – Effective communication by managers at the time of appraising the
performance of their employees can point out areas for improvement. A constructive review
of performance, through which a manager gives positive feedback and counsels the
employee, instead of criticising him for poor performance, can motivate the employee to
perform better.
o A Stronger link between managers and the external environment – Apart from internal
communication within the organisation, effective communication by managers with external
audiences such as customers, government, bankers, media and suppliers lead to a better
rapport with them. A manager will be able to understand the needs of his customers, be
aware of the presence of quality suppliers of material, of government regulations, and of the
expectations of the community at large, only through proper communication.
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Communication has assumed even greater importance today since the new model of business
is based on teamwork, rather than on individual action. Teamwork requires greater coordination
and communication.
Common mistakes made in communication:

• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Grammar
For example, if Meena sends the following e-mail to Sheela:
Thanks Sheela, I have received your massage. Let us have the meeting next weak.
Sheela, on receiving the message, will get a wrong impression about Meena. Hence it is always
better to check the spelling, grammar and punctuations in a message.
3. Summary
• The various types of communication are:
o Interpersonal communication – Interpersonal communication usually involves direct
face-to-face contact between the sender and the receiver.
o Intrapersonal communication – Intrapersonal communication is self-communication.
o Group communication – Group communication usually takes place between three to
twenty individuals.
o Mass communication – Mass communication is the communication that employs some
form of media like the television, radio or the Internet to communicate to a very large
audience.
• Effective communication serves the following specific purposes in an organisation:
o Greater awareness of organisational goals and teamwork
o Better employer-employee relationships
o Problem solving
o Improved performance
o A Stronger link between managers and the external environment.
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Case Study- Nomura Group's Global communication
Introduction
Nomura Group is one of the largest financial service organisations in Japan. It comprises a
group of companies that includes Nomura Securities Co. Ltd, Nomura Asset Management Co.
Ltd, and Joinvest Securities Co. Ltd. It also has overseas subsidiaries in the U.S, Europe and
Asia.
Issue
Earlier, Nomura group used laptops as a main tool for communication. As the laptops were
not easy to carry and they also required complicated configuration, Nomura was looking for a
secure and convenient mobile solution that would free them from these stresses.
Nomura group required a global communication environment which allowed employees to

access their enterprise network from anywhere in the world and work as if they were in office.
Solution
In October 2006, Nomura Securities started investigating the usage of BlackBerry solution to
solve their issues. In February 2007, it introduced about 50 BlackBerry smartphones, mainly
in Nomura Securities Co., Ltd. In May 2007, it introduced the BlackBerry 8707h smartphone
in full scale. The Information System departments at Nomura Holdings Inc. and Nomura
Securities Co., Ltd. worked jointly to deploy and maintain the BlackBerry Enterprise Server,
which controls the BlackBerry smartphones.
Reasons for selecting BlackBerry Solution

The convenience and high security of the solution made Nomura group to opt for BlackBerry
smartphones.
The overseas subsidiaries of the Nomura Group had already benefited by the usage of
BlackBerry smartphones. The introduction of BlackBerry solution facilitated the daily
communication in the business
The BlackBerry solution is widely used in the financial world and the Nomura group appreciated
the convenience and high security of the BlackBerry solution.
The key functions of BlackBerry that appealed to Nomura were message encryption and
uniform device management. The BlackBerry Enterprise Server default functions allowed
Nomura to adhere to the existing security policy.
Results
Nomura group enhanced their internal device management systems for introducing BlackBerry
8707h smartphone. It set up a user support desk and a network for wireless distribution of
applications. It was able to distribute the Bloomberg application to convey important financial
information to their securities business. Employees were able to get real-time news updates
throughout the business day. The BlackBerry solution allowed employees to check emails, view
attachments, and manage their schedule.
Discussion Questions:
1. What were the issues faced by the Nomura group in their business
communication?
2. Why did the Nomura group opt for a BlackBerry solution?
(Source: http://us.BlackBerry.com/newsroom/ success/ Nomura_E NG_BCS.pdf)
***
Segment: Types and Channels of Communication
Topic: Types of Communication
Topic: Introduction
Types of Communication
Table of Contents
1. Types of Communication ................................................................................................................. 4

1.1 Usage of Verbal Communication ............................................................................................. 5
1.2 Characteristics of Non-Verbal Communication ...................................................................... 7
2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2
Introduction
In the previous topics, we discussed the communication process and the different categories of
communication.
In this topic, we shall focus on two major types of communication i.e. verbal communication
and Non-verbal communication.
A study conducted by an internal analysis of the small business workplace on ten small
businesses located in Melbourne showed that organisational communication is very
important for the success of small businesses. The study was conducted through semi-
structured interviews and questionnaires.
Table 1 shows the results of the study. This result showed that all participants of small
businesses used informal, formal, and active communication both internally and externally to
develop a positive environment in the small business workplace:
Table 1: Internal and External Communication
Communication % Internal % External %
type: Internal comm. comm.
Channels channels
80 Phone 40 Phone 50
Informal meetings (mobile) (mobile)
Formal meetings 20 Email/memos 20 Email 50
After-hours 70 Face-to-Face 100 Face-to-Face 80
discussion networking
Social 50 Phone 20 Education 30
gatherings conferencing
Informal meetings were held more than formal meetings. Many of the small business owners
communicated with staff after the meeting hours and during social gatherings.
Communication with the external environment showed a similar figure. However, half of the
owners used email, face-to-face meetings. These figures show the importance of
internal/external communication.
(Source: http://www.cric.com.au/seaanz/resources/18BurnettMcMurray.pdf)
Learning Objectives
• list the different types of communication
• distinguish clearly between the different types of communication
• describe the characteristics of non-verbal communication.
3
1. Types of Communication
Broadly, communication may be divided into two types, they are:
• Verbal communication
• Non-verbal communication
Let us briefly discuss these two types of communication.
• Verbal communication – This type of communication occurs with the help of words. It
provides the opportunity for personal contact and a two-way flow of information. A large part
of our communication, whether at work or outside, is verbal. Verbal communication may be
divided into two types. They are oral communication and written communication.
o Oral communication – This type of communication may be defined as a process in which a
speaker interacts verbally with one or more listeners, to influence the latter’s behaviour in some
way or the other. Oral communication in a business context can take the form of meetings,
presentations, one-to-one meetings, performance reviews, etc.
Example – In a business context, a manager doing the performance appraisal with an employee
or a sales manager making the sales plan presentation to the sales team. In the first example,
the manager may point out areas for improvement and in the second case, the sales manager
may explain how to achieve new sales targets.
o Written communication – This type of communication is the correspondence made in writing.

It can be handwritten, printed, or typed. For example, a manager writing a letter of apology in
response to a customer’s complaint regarding poor service. Written communication at the
workplace can take several forms such as letters, memos, circulars, notices, reports, and email.
The second type of communication is non-verbal communication.
• Non-verbal communication – This type of communication may be defined as communication

without words. It refers to any way of conveying meanings without the use of verbal language.
The game of ’dumb charades’ is a perfect example. Non-verbal communication is generally
unintentional, unlike verbal communication. All of us tend to communicate silently and
unknowingly send signals and messages by what we do, apart from what we say. Gestures, facial
expressions, posture, and the way we dress, are all part of non-verbal communication.
4
Non-verbal communication can have a greater impact than verbal communication, since ‘how
you say something’ is sometimes more important than ’what you say’. Although non-verbal
communication can affect both our personal and business relationships, it is particularly
important in the workplace. Let us consider the following scenario to understand this:
Your boss has asked you to make a presentation on your suggestions for improving the
organisation. You take him at his word and come prepared with an elaborate presentation
and a list of ideas. However, as you make your presentation, he yawns repeatedly, sits back
casually, looks out of the window, clenches his jaw muscles, and begins to frown. At the end
of your presentation, he rises abruptly from his chair, says ‘thank you for your ideas’ in an
angry voice, and gives you a curt handshake.
In the given scenario, the boss, through his non-verbal behaviour, conveys a message beyond
the spoken words that he does not want to listen to your suggestions.
Therefore, while the spoken or written words may be perfect, the non-verbal aspects could
convey the exact opposite meaning.
1.1 Usage of Verbal Communication

We communicate most of our ideas to others through verbal messages, i.e., through spoken
or written messages. However, verbal messages have some drawbacks such as the message
may not be properly worded, or the message may be misunderstood, or interpreted
differently from its intended meaning.
For example, even a simple statement like ‘let’s discuss this matter tomorrow’ might be
interpreted by one person as ‘let’s meet tomorrow’ and by another as ‘let’s discuss this over
the phone’.
Miscommunication through verbal messages could be avoided by following a few simple
guidelines which are as follows:
• Avoid words with multiple meanings
• Ensure clarity through highly specific statements
• Avoid overuse of jargons
• Avoid biased language and offensive words
5
Let us now discuss these guidelines in detail.
Avoid words with multiple meanings: Words sometimes tend to have different meanings in
different cultures. Therefore, when communicating in a cross-cultural context, it is
particularly important to avoid literal translation of words, since they might have a negative
meaning in another culture.
Example – The advertising campaign for Electrolux vacuum cleaners with the slogan
‘Nothing sucks like an Electrolux’ was introduced without any changes in the American
market. However, the product failed since the word ‘sucks’ which is American slang, has a
negative connotation which means ‘bad’.
Even simple words used in the same cultural context could have multiple meanings and be
interpreted differently.
Example – If I ask you ’What kind of shape are you in?’, you might understand it to mean
what kind of financial position you are in, whereas the intended meaning might have been
‘What kind of mental or physical state are you in?
Therefore, when communicating verbally, it is important to use words that are precise,
unambiguous, and have a single accepted meaning.
Ensure clarity through highly specific statements: Instead of describing an object or idea in
general terms or abstract language, use highly specific language to avoid a variety of
interpretations.
Example – If you are calling the IT support staff in your organisation to fix a problem with
your computer, instead of saying ‘My computer doesn’t work’, it is better to state in more
precise terms that ‘I get a message saying that my computer is not responding’.
Avoid overuse of jargon: Jargon refers to technical terms or specialised vocabulary. Every
profession has its jargon which only experts in that field can understand. For example, IT
experts use terms like ‘computer architecture’ which the layperson may not understand. The
use of jargon depends on the audience with whom you are communicating. A certain amount
6
of jargon may be permissible when writing a technical report but should be avoided when
communicating with a general audience, since the terms may not be understood. Most
importantly, never use jargon just to impress your audience.
Avoid biased language and offensive words: Biased language is the language that makes use
of expressions that humiliate or exclude people based on their age, gender, race, ethnicity,
social class, or specific mental or physical characteristics. Language has the power to arouse
negative feelings if it is not used with care. This can happen when the words used seem to be
objective but contain an intentional or unintentional bias.
Example – Referring to a co-worker as ‘wishy-washy’ if he/she is not quick in making a
decision, could lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Similarly, certain words may have a
‘sexist’ connotation and be taken offensively. For example, referring to a lady receptionist
as ‘that female’.
1.2 Characteristics of Non-Verbal Communication

We have defined non-verbal communication at the beginning of this topic. Let us now discuss
some of its characteristics, which distinguish it from verbal communication. The
characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
• Non-verbal communication cannot be avoided

• Non-verbal communication is powerful
• Non-verbal communication is ambiguous
• Non-verbal communication cannot express all messages
• Non-verbal communication varies across cultures
Let us now discuss more on these characteristics.
Non-verbal communication cannot be avoided: While one can avoid verbal communication
by refusing to speak or write, it is not possible to do the same with non-verbal
communication. That is because non-verbal communication is not always intentional, unlike
7
verbal messages, as pointed out earlier. Sometimes, silence itself may convey a lot of
meaning.
Example – A speaker making a presentation may find that the audience is not very
interactive. Instead, he notices people yawning during his presentation. At the end of the
session, when he asks for some feedback, there is total silence.
From this example, we can say that the audience is bored with the session. The silence
indicates that they have not listened to the session and that the feedback is negative.
Non-verbal communication is powerful: Non-verbal communication helps us to form first

impressions and make judgements of others. First impressions generally tend to be lasting
impressions.
Let us say you go for a job interview fifteen minutes late and dressed in informal attire. When
asked some questions, you avoid eye contact. This immediately reflects on your attitude and
the impression formed of you is that of a person who takes things casually, is insecure, and
lacks knowledge.
Non-verbal communication is ambiguous: While precise words can be used in verbal

communication to ensure that the message is clearly understood, non-verbal communication
is not always clear and easy to understand.
For example, sitting back in a relaxed posture may be a signal of boredom or fatigue. Similarly,
avoiding eye contact with your audience could mean that either you are nervous or guilty of
something.
Therefore, it is not possible to accurately understand the messages conveyed by non-verbal

behaviour.
Non-verbal communication cannot express all messages: Non-verbal behaviour can only
express a person’s feelings, attitudes, level of interest, likes, or dislikes for something. Certain
messages about ideas or concepts can only be expressed through the spoken or written word.
8
Consider the following example to understand this.

A sales manager wanting to report that sales for the current year has exceeded targets, can
only do so through a written report or oral presentation. If he is making an oral
presentation, his non-verbal behaviour can only indicate how pleased he is about the
increase in sales.
Non-verbal communication varies across cultures: While certain types of non-verbal

behaviour are universal, others may be different in different cultures.
Examples – There are different rules regarding the appropriateness of the handshake in
oriental and western cultures. Generally, in oriental cultures like India, any form of physical
contact is not common and is interpreted as being intimate, while it is an accepted thing in
western countries.
Similarly, a nod of the head means yes in some cultures and no in other cultures.
Bowing to your superior is considered a mark of respect in Japan, but is considered

unacceptable in the U.S.A.
Arabic cultures use prolonged eye-contact to show their interest. But, in countries of Latin
America, this is avoided.
Business people stand close together while talking in Latin American countries. But,
western countries find such closeness uncomfortable.
In this age of business communication across cultures, it is important for you to understand
these differences, especially when doing business overseas. Failure to do this could lead to
costly blunders.
2. Summary
• Communication can be divided into two broad areas – verbal and non-verbal
communication.
• Verbal communication occurs with the help of words.
9
• Verbal communication is of 2 types- oral communication and written communication.

• Non-verbal communication may be defined as communication without words. It refers to
any way of conveying meanings without the use of verbal language.
• Miscommunication through verbal messages could be avoided by following a few simple
guidelines which are as follows:
o Avoid words with multiple meanings
o Ensure clarity through highly specific statements
o Avoid overuse of jargons
o Avoid biased language and offensive words
3. Glossary
Active An effective means of communication in which there is congruence
communication between verbal and non-verbal communication and in which feelings are
expressed accurately.
Memo A short message or record used for internal communication in a business.
Performance The process of measuring and analysing the work of an employee.
reviews
10
Topic: Classification of Non-verbal Communication
Topic: Introduction
Classification of Nonverbal Communication
Table of Contents
1. Classification of Non-verbal Communication .................................................................................. 4

2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 9
2
Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed the two major types of communication i.e. Verbal
communication and Non-verbal communication. We know that verbal communication occurs
with the help of words and it provides the opportunity for personal contact and a two-way flow
of information. On the other hand, non-verbal communication is a type of communication
without words.
In this topic, we shall discuss the classification of non-verbal communication.
Learning Objectives
• list the different types of non-verbal communication
• discuss the various aspects of non-verbal communication.
3
1. Classification of Non-verbal Communication

We have discussed how non-verbal communication plays an important role in business
communication. Given its importance, an understanding of the different types of non-verbal
communication is essential.
Non-verbal communication can employ audio and video signals to communicate messages.
The ringing of a telephone, blaring of a siren are examples of audio signals. A blaring siren in
a factory can indicate to workers that their shift has come to an end. By using audio signals,
we can communicate with a vast number of people scattered over a large area. Visual signals
include posters, charts, graphs, and drawings. Visual signals grab the attention of the people.
They can be used to overcome linguistic barriers.
There is a common misconception that non-verbal communication is synonymous with body
language and includes only body language. The fact is that, it is a vast area that has been
widely researched and includes several aspects. Table 1 lists the different types of non-verbal
communication, with the corresponding communication terminology.
Table 1: Types of Non-verbal Communication
Description Communication Terminology
Body language Kinesics
Touching Haptics
Personal space and distance Proxemics
Use of time Chronemics
Tone of voice Paralanguage
Physical environment Physical context
Let us discuss each of the aspects of non-verbal communication listed in table 1.
1. Kinesics: Kinesics is the most often studied and important area of non-verbal communication
and refers to body movements of any kind. Different body movements can express inner
states of emotion. The different body movements are:
• Facial expressions – Facial expressions can convey feelings of surprise, happiness, anger,
and sadness. If you meet a long-lost friend and say, “I am very happy to meet you again”,
but with a sad facial expression, it conveys the exact opposite meaning.
4
• Eye movements – The eye movements such as wide-open pupils express feelings of
surprise, excitement, or even fear. The importance of eye contact with one’s audience
was pointed out earlier. Direct eye contact is an indication of intensity and interest, while
a lack of it can convey feelings of nervousness and guilt. As prolonged eye contact can
intimidate people, it is not a good idea to stare at people. Different cultures perceive eye
contact differently. In Asia, Latin America, and Africa, people avoid direct eye contact to
show respect. Arabs use prolonged eye contact to measure trustworthiness.
• Gestures – The gestures such as the movement of the hands while giving a lecture or
presentation indicates a high level of involvement in what you are saying. On the other
hand, shuffling of the feet is a sign of nervousness, and speaking with one’s hands in one’s
pockets is considered to be casual or even rude.
• Head movements – The head movements like nodding the head can convey interest,
appreciation, agreement, or understanding.
• Posture – Posture, refers to carriage or attitude. Our posture can indicate our feelings. In
formal settings such as job interviews or classroom settings, it is essential that you
maintain an erect posture to convey that you are attentive since slouching or a relaxed
posture conveys a casual attitude. Similarly, crossing your arms and legs can convey that
you are defensive and rigid. Uncrossing your arms and legs can indicate that you are willing
to listen.
• Physical appearance – Our outward appearance, including the way we dress and the
jewellery and make-up that we wear can convey an impression of formality or informality.
Going to a job interview dressed in blue jeans or not sticking to a stipulated dress code at
the workplace can convey that you are a rebel, non-conformist, or a very casual person.
Therefore, it is important to take care of your appearance, so that you convey the right
meaning to others.
2. Haptics: Haptics refers to communication through touch. We can use touch to communicate
affection, assurance, familiarity, comfort, sympathy, and other emotions. Touching can also
be interpreted as an assault. Hence, we must use touch as a communication tool carefully.
Touching is used for the following purposes:
5
• Working – Professionals such as doctors, dentists, hairdressers, and airport security staff
need to touch people in the normal course of their work.
• Greeting – Contact through touch is part of the greeting ritual. We often use handshakes
to greet people. Retaining contact for a greater duration of time can convey feelings of
friendship or domination. In some cultures, people also embrace or rub noses to greet
people.
• Establishing friendships – A friendly pat or a comforting touch can help in establishing
amicable relationships.
• Guiding – A touch on the back, shoulder or arm can help to guide people in the correct
direction.
• Managing interactions – Touching is used to manage interactions. We can gently touch
the shoulder or arm to gain the attention of a person.
The importance given to touch varies with culture. Asian cultures forbid displays of affection.
Hence, touching is not encouraged in such cultures. Cultures, like Germany and England, that
have rigid status structures and stress emotional restraint give lesser importance to touching
when compared to the countries in the Middle East and Latin America.
3. Proxemics: Proxemics is derived from the word ‘proximity’ or closeness and is the
communication term for personal space and distance. Space and distance which we choose
to keep from people is also part of non-verbal communication. Each of us has our own inner
and outer circles, which differ for different people. The different types of spaces are as
follows:
• Intimate space – Our innermost circle is an ‘intimate space’, into which we generally
admit only select people such as family and close friends.
• Personal space – A ‘personal space’ might include other friends and colleagues or co-
workers. The intimate and personal spaces involve the communication of an informal
nature.
• Social and public space – The ’social and public space’ includes official or workplace
relationships, where communication is of a more formal nature.
6
In a business context, it is more relevant to understand the concept of the following spaces:
• Fixed space – Fixed space means that the physical features of the work environment such
as furniture, room size, and seating arrangement are permanent. This conveys an
impression of formality.
• Semi-fixed space – Semi-fixed space means that certain elements of the environment can
be changed. For example, changing the seating arrangement conveys an impression of
informality.
Sometimes, the use of space at the workplace can determine leadership positions. For
example, seating at the head of the table conveys leadership or authority. A round table
meeting, however, conveys the idea of equality, since no one can be seated at the head
of the table. All points of a circle are the same. That is why when heads of state meet (as
in UN Security Council meetings), it is always a round table discussion since all heads are
equal.
Space should, therefore, be used carefully in a work environment, so as to convey the

right impressions.
4. Chronemics: Chronemics refers to the study of the usage of time. This includes our attitudes
towards punctuality and willingness to wait. It also deals with the manner in which we
structure our time and interactions. The perception of importance of time varies between
individuals and cultures.
For example, in most western culture’s punctuality is considered to be important. Arriving

late for a business meeting is inexcusable. In other cultures, it is more relaxed, and time is not
given that much importance.
We convey messages to others through the time we spend on a work-related activity or by

the importance that we give to time. Arriving early at work or for a job interview shows
interest, involvement, and seriousness. Spending time with employees and giving them
suggestions on how to improve their performance shows interest and involvement in their
career growth.
7
5. Paralanguage: Para means ‘like’ or ‘similar to’, therefore paralanguage means ‘like language’.
Of all the forms of non-verbal communication, paralanguage is closest to verbal
communication. It refers to the tone of voice with which something is said. In other words,
it is ‘how’ something is said, and not ‘what’ is said. The tone of voice includes the pitch (high
or low pitch), the pace (slow or fast) the emphasis on words and the volume (soft or loud)
and can convey different moods and emotions.
For example, the statement, “I practice good business communication.” can be understood
in different ways, depending on the emphasis on certain words. When more emphasis is
given to ‘I’ while saying “I practice good business communication.” means that the speaker
alone practices it above anyone else. On the other hand, placing more emphasis on ‘practice
good business communication’ could be interpreted to mean that the speaker
communicates particularly well in a business context, rather than in a general context.
The important point to keep in mind regarding the tone of voice is to avoid mixed signals -
that is, making sure that what you say is consistent with how you say it.
6. Physical context: Physical context refers to the physical environment or surroundings within
which we communicate. This includes the following aspects:
• Colour and layout – Colours are known for their symbolic meaning and have associations
with different feelings. For example, colours like black and grey are associated with death,
mourning, and negative feelings. Yellow and green are associated with more positive
feelings. Of course, these can also vary across cultures. The point to remember is that you
can make the right impressions with the use of the right colours.
Layout in a work environment refers to the size of an office or the arrangement of furniture.
• Design – Design refers to the type of chairs, desks, or carpeting. All these can convey
status, formality, or informality.
• Space management – Space management refers to the arrangement of workspaces of
people who regularly work together. It can influence employee interactions and enable
effective communication. It includes the size and sequence of offices, the length, and width
of hallways, the arrangement of the meeting rooms, etc.
8
• Location – The location in which we communicate influences the manner and nature of
communication. Communication done from a podium to a vast audience needs to be loud.
The same form of communication cannot be done in a meeting room. The actual location of
the office space communicates status. An office located in the business district of a city
conveys greater success in the business when compared to one located in the suburbs.
• Distance – The physical distance between the people communicating influences the nature
of communication. Virtual offices or communicating with long-distance partners require
different forms of communication like telephone messages, videoconferencing, e-mail, etc.
We have discussed how the types of non-verbal communication outnumber the types of
verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is an important supplement to verbal
communication and can enhance verbal communication if used in a positive way. The sender
should use the right non-verbal cues to convey a positive message, while the receiver should
learn to look for unintended messages conveyed by non-verbal communication.
Activity 1
Observe a person with whom you work or interact regularly and note down the messages
(both positive and negative) that he/she conveys through his/her nonverbal behaviour in
terms of
a) Tone of voice
b) Dress
c) Body language and
d) Use of personal space and distance.
2. Summary
9
• The different types of non-verbal communication, are Kinesics (body language),

Haptics (Touching), Proxemics, (Personal space and distance), Chronemics (use of
time), Paralanguage(tone of voice) and Physical context(Physical environment)
• Kinesics is the most often studied and important area of non-verbal
communication and refers to body movements of any kind.
• Haptics refers to communication through touch. We can use touch to
communicate affection, assurance, familiarity, comfort, sympathy, and other
emotions.
• Proxemics is derived from the word ‘proximity’ or closeness and is the
communication term for personal space and distance.
• Chronemics refers to the study of the usage of time.
• Paralanguage refers to the tone of voice with which something is said. In other
words, it is ‘how’ something is said, and not ‘what’ is said.
• Physical context refers to the physical environment or surroundings within which
we communicate.
• Non-verbal communication is an important supplement to verbal communication
and can enhance verbal communication if used in a positive way. The sender
should use the right non-verbal cues to convey a positive message, while the
receiver should learn to look for unintended messages conveyed by non-verbal
communication.
10
Topic: Classification of Communication Channels
Topic: Introduction
Classification of Communication Channels
Table of Contents
1. Classification of Communication Channels...................................................................................... 4

1.1 Two-way, Face-to-face Channels ............................................................................................. 4
1.2 Two-way, but not Face-to-face Channels ............................................................................... 5
1.3 One-way, not Face-to-face Channels ...................................................................................... 6
1.4 Selecting the Appropriate Channel ......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Comparison of Oral and Written Communication Channels .................................................. 8
2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 8
3. Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 9
2
Introduction
In the previous segment, we discussed the communication process in detail and examined each
of the elements of communication. The channel or medium of communication was mentioned
as one of the key elements. It was pointed out that selection of a wrong channel can lead to
communication failure. There is a saying that ‘the medium is the message’. This means that the
choice of a channel itself can speak volumes, without a written or spoken message. For example,
advertising a product in an exclusive magazine conveys the message that the product is of high
quality.
This topic will focus entirely on channels of communication. The relative advantages and
disadvantages of the different types of channels will be explained and guidelines will be offered
on how to choose the right channel in a particular business situation.
Learning Objectives
• list the types of communication channels
• list the advantages and limitations of each type of communication channels
• categorise the different channels of communication
• select which channel to use in different situations, as a business communicator.
3
1. Classification of Communication Channels

We have discussed the two broad types of communication – verbal and non-verbal, in detail.
We will now examine the choice of channels for different business situations.
As a business communicator, within oral and written communication, you will have a choice
of a variety of channels through which to deliver your message. Oral communication could
take place through a face-to-face meeting, telephone, or teleconferencing. Written
communication could take the form of letters, reports, memos, or email. A basic
understanding of the nature of the different channels is required, so as to be able to choose
the right channel in a given situation.
Based on three criteria such as whether the communication is oral, written, or non-verbal,
the level of feedback, and the personal nature of the communication channels could be
classified into the following three types:
• Two-way, face-to-face channels
• Two way, but not face-to-face channels
• One-way, not face-to-face channels
Let us now discuss these channels of communication.
1.1 Two-way, Face-to-face Channels

In this type of communication channel, the communication is oral and non-verbal, immediate
feedback is possible and the communication is of a highly personalised nature.
This type of communication channel could take the form of one-to-one meetings (a superior
doing a performance appraisal with an employee), meetings involving small groups of people
(board meetings), large gatherings (a speaker making a presentation to a large audience) or
video conferences.
Video conferencing requires special rooms equipped with cameras and television screens.
Through this, people can see and interact with each other in real-time even if they are located
far apart. It also enables participants to share files like spreadsheets and presentations.
Organisations use video conferencing to conduct interviews and meetings.
4
The advantages of using this type of communication channel are:

• Non-verbal communication such as gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice can be
used to make the communication more effective.
• Immediate feedback is possible in the form of questions, clarifications, or suggestions.
• The personal quality of communication is enhanced. This is especially true of one-to-one
meetings, where problems and conflicts can be easily resolved.
The disadvantages of this type of communication channel are:

• Difficulty in getting people together and arranging face-to-face meetings.
• Personal meetings are also expensive and time-consuming, especially when people are
separated by distances.
1.2 Two-way, but not Face-to-face Channels

With the advent of new technologies, communication can now be two ways, without being face to
face, when distance makes such meetings impractical. Teleconferencing, telephone, and email
communication are all examples of this type of channel.
In this type, the communication is purely oral, since non-verbal cues cannot be used to enhance
the communication, in the absence of face-to-face contact. Immediate feedback is, however,
possible, as with the face-to-face channel, since the receiver can react immediately to the sender’s
telephone or email message. The communication which happens through this type of
communication channel is impersonal, due to lack of face-to-face contact.
Teleconferencing is almost as good as face-to-face communication since it enables two parties in
different locations to speak to each other. Today, many large Indian organisations make use of this
technology. While teleconferencing has the advantage of saving time and costs involved in travel,
it cannot replace face-to-face meetings completely. Some types of interaction such as
brainstorming, negotiation, persuasion, and problem-solving can be conducted better through
face-to-face meetings.
Telephone communication has the advantage of being able to contact people who would be
impossible to reach in person. It is also relatively inexpensive, compared to face-to-face
communication. The disadvantage is that it is hard to hold the listener’s attention for too long.
5
An Email is another two-way, but not face-to-face channel that allows senders and receivers to send
and respond to one another’s messages almost instantaneously. Within an office, email is used as an
alternative to telephone communication and personal meetings. Email has the advantage of low cost,
speed, and the ability to send messages to several people anywhere in the world. The disadvantages
are its impersonal nature and the lack of confidentiality since the messages can be stored or passed
on to others.
1.3 One-way, not Face-to-face Channels

All forms of written communication mentioned earlier – letters, reports, memos, notices, etc., may
be classified under this type of channel. Written communication is largely one-way communication
since there is usually no instantaneous feedback between the sender and the receiver. It is also
purely verbal, since non-verbal communication is not possible, in the absence of face-to-face contact.
It lacks the personal quality of face-to-face communication, although it could be personalised to an
extent in some forms such as letters.
For example, a sales letter addressed to a customer could be made highly personal, by addressing
the customer by name and customising a product to his needs.
1.4 Selecting the Appropriate Channel

Let us now discuss the appropriateness of each of the channels of business communication for
different business situations. Although there is no hard and fast rule, the following guidelines would
be useful when selecting a channel for a particular situation:
• When trying to solve problems or improve relationships, oral face-to-face communication is
generally the most effective form of communication. This is because of the personal nature of
face-to-face communication, which makes it more suitable than the other channels of
communication.
• When there is a need for visual support in explaining an idea, oral face-to-face communication is
the most appropriate channel. For example, highlighting the unique features of a product may
require actual product demonstration through face-to-face contact. Explaining a concept may
require showing photographs or diagrams through a slide presentation, which is best done face-
to-face.
6
• For making immediate contact, oral face-to-face communication is required. For example, if you
want to have the funds in an account released now, you would have to meet a bank manager
personally. Putting your request in a letter or through a telephone call may not be of much help.
• When you want to command a high degree of control over the receiver, oral face-to-face
communication works best. This is because, as a speaker, you will have greater command over
a listener’s attention than if you write a letter or a report, which may not be read at all.
• When there is a need for immediate feedback, oral communication, either face-to-face or non-
face-to-face, such as telephone, teleconferencing, or email, maybe equally appropriate.
Apart from these, the following criteria would justify the need for a one-way, non-face-to-face, i.e.,
written channel:
• When you want the tone of the communication to be formal, written communication is more
appropriate than oral communication. For example, communication with the government
regarding compliance with tax matters, or with the bank regarding funds for expansion should
always be highly formal, through written letters or reports.
• When you want to explain complicated ideas that require a lot of study and thought by the
receiver, written communication is best. For example, explaining the features of a machine is
best done through a technical report giving details and technical specifications.
• When you want to convey a large amount of information, written communication is most
suitable. It would be difficult to convey this through a lengthy oral presentation, since the
speaker would be unable to command a captive audience for too long. The same is true of
telephone communication, which should be kept brief. On the other hand, it is possible to
include several details in a written report that the receiver can read and re-read, at leisure.
• The written channel is also more appropriate when you wish to keep a permanent record of
happenings. For example, the minutes of a business meeting should always be recorded in
writing. Written appointment letters should be given to new employees at the time of joining an
organisation.
7
1.5 Comparison of Oral and Written Communication Channels

It is evident that oral and written channels both have their relative advantages and
disadvantages. This is summarised in the table 1, which rates each of these channels as ‘high’
or ‘low’ on different dimensions.
Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral and Written Channels
Communication channels should be selected with care, keeping in mind the requirement of
the situation at hand, as well the inherent advantages and disadvantages of each channel. In
some cases, it may be necessary to use a combination of channels, to make sure that the
message reaches the sender. For example, providing a written research report along with a
presentation on findings of a study, or making a follow-up phone call after sending an email
message is bound to have more impact and to ensure that the message is well understood.
2. Summary
• The communication channels could be classified into three types:
o Two-way, face-to-face channels
o Two way, but not face-to-face channels
o One-way, not face-to-face channels
• When trying to solve problems or improve relationships, oral face-to-face communication is
generally the most effective form of communication.
8
• When you want the tone of the communication to be formal, written communication is more
appropriate than oral communication.
• The written channel is also more appropriate when you wish to keep a permanent record of
happenings.
• Communication channels should be selected with care, keeping in mind the requirement of
the situation at hand, as well the inherent advantages and disadvantages of each channel.
3. Glossary
Memo A short message or record used for internal communication in a business.
9
Topic: Types of Business Communication
Topic: Introduction
Types of Business Communication
Table of Contents
1. Types of Business Communication ................................................................................................. 5

1.1 Internal Business Communication ........................................................................................... 6
1.2 External Business Communication .......................................................................................... 9
2. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 15
2
Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed the channels of communication, the relative advantages and
disadvantages of the different types of channels of communication. We also learnt the guidelines
to choose the right channel in a particular business situation.
In this topic, we will discuss the specifics of business communication and what it involves. We
will discuss how a manager has to maintain communication linkages with different entities, both
within and outside the work environment. We will also, explain some of the appropriate
channels for communication with different audiences.
UNISON is the largest trade union in U.K. Internal communication occurs between the
employees of the organisation. External communication occurs between the employees of the
company and external stakeholders.
UNISON makes use of the following types of internal communication:
• Workshops to get people involved
• Project groups to address issues and assist in making a policy come into action.
• An in-house magazine called InsideOut which is distributed to all the staff members
The in-house magazine focuses on the challenges and issues for staff. These include details of
the new headquarters of UNISON, facts on same pay issues for UNISON members and other
details within the organisation.
Internal communications can occur through e-mail, posters, staff-meetings, and documents.
As UNISON has about 1,300 local branches, external communications are also an important
part of the organisation. With such a huge number of local branches, it may need to convey
issues to receivers and other participants. UNISON uses its website as one of the means of
communication with the outside world. It also uses leaflets, booklets, and other information
for the following purposes:
• To handle issues such as collective bargaining, health management, etc.
• To provide legal advice.
(Source: http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/case-study--using-effective-communications--38-
253-2.php)
3
Learning Objectives
• list the types of business communication
• explain the different types of communication in an organisation.
4
1. Types of Business Communication

Business communication is diverse and involves both ‘internal stakeholders’ within the
organisation, as well as ‘external stakeholders’ outside the organisation. A manager has to
constantly communicate with and maintain good relations with each of these stakeholders or
the public. This will enable the organisation to achieve its overall goals and project a favourable
image.
The figure 1 depicts the wheel of business communication.
Bankers Media Superiors
Society Peers
Government Management Subordinates
Suppliers
Shareholders
Intermediaries Customers Employees/Unions
Fig. 1: Wheel of Business Communication

The wheel of business communication reinforces what we discussed in the very first topic –
communication is like breathing, it never stops and is a constant process. Managers have to stay
in continuous touch with their internal stakeholders like their superiors, peers, subordinates,
shareholders, employees, and unions. At the same time managers have to communicate with
external stakeholders such as customers, intermediaries (distributors and retailers), suppliers of
materials and components, government, bankers, society at large, and the media. Effective
business communication, therefore, involves both internal as well as external communication.
We will now look at some of the reasons for communication with internal and external
stakeholders, as well as the appropriate channels to be used in each case.
5
1.1 Internal Business Communication

Internal business communication is the exchange of information within a company. As illustrated
in the figure 1, internal business communication involves interaction with the following
stakeholders:
• Superiors
• Peers
• Subordinates
• Employees/Unions
• Shareholders
Let us now discuss the communication involved with these internal stakeholders.
Superiors: Every organisation has a formal reporting system. Superiors are the higher-ups in the
organisation to whom you report. The frequency of interaction with them will vary, depending
on your position and responsibilities, as well as their need for information. As a salesperson, you
may have to submit daily or weekly reports of sales progress. As a marketing manager, you may
be required to make periodic presentations on marketing strategy for new product launches to
the Vice President, Marketing. Occasionally, you may also approach your superiors to
communicate your feelings about your job, unsolved problems with co-workers, and your
suggestions for improvement of the organisation.
Communication with superiors could be through written channels, such as reports, or through
oral face-to-face channels, such as presentations and one-to-one meetings. When trying to solve
problems or improve relationships, oral face-to-face channels are most effective, as explained
in the previous topic.
Peers: Peers are your co-workers or people at the same level within an organisation. For
example, a marketing manager and an HR manager are peers, since they work at the same level
within different departments. Communication between peers is essential for functional
coordination. An Advertising Manager, for example, will need to communicate with the Finance
Manager regarding approval of the advertising budget for a new product launch. Information
sharing is another reason for communication between peers.
6
The Advertising Manager and the Sales Manager in the Marketing Department may need to
communicate regarding the special features of a product to be highlighted in an advertising
campaign. Regular communication between co-workers in different departments is also
essential to ensure that they work together as a team to achieve the common goals of the
organisation.
The most appropriate channel of communication between peers is the oral face-to-face channel
since it helps to build a good rapport and improves work relationships.
Subordinates: Subordinates are people in the organisation who work below you or report
directly to you. For example, as the Marketing Manager, you may have Assistant Managers
reporting to you, who in turn may have Marketing Executives reporting to them. The most
common reason for communication with subordinates is to convey organisational procedures,
policies, targets, and goals. Other reasons include performance appraisal and feedback, reward
and recognition aspects, and disciplinary issues.
Appropriate channels of communication with subordinates may be both oral and written,
depending on the situation. Communicating about organisational procedures is best done
through written communication. But, performance appraisal and feedback should be done
through an oral one-to-one meeting and discussion.
Employees/Unions: Employees/unions can be quite powerful. Therefore, communication with

them is essential. The reasons for communication include welfare aspects, disciplinary aspects,
and terms of employment. All these should be clearly spelled out and kept on record. Hence
written channels such as written contracts are the most appropriate channels.
Shareholders: Shareholders are very important internal stakeholders since they are the owners
of the company. Therefore, it is essential to be completely transparent with shareholders and to
keep them informed of all developments in the company. It is essential to communicate with
shareholders to keep them informed about the following:
• Company’s progress on different fronts

• Development programmes
• New projects undertaken by the company
7
• New capital issues

• Any major problems faced by the company
• The steps being taken to tackle the major problems
This is part of public relations, through which the company projects a positive image of itself in
the eyes of shareholders.
The appropriate channels of communication with shareholders include oral and written
channels. Communication with the shareholder is done through:
• Meetings
• Conferences
• Letters
• Brochures
• Advertisements
Before we move on to external business communication, let us sum up our discussion on internal
communication. Table 1 highlights the appropriate channel(s) to be used and the primary
objective of communication with each of the internal publics.
Table 1: Selecting Appropriate Channel and Primary Objective of Communication
Stakeholder Channel Overall objective

Superiors Written reports Awareness of progress
Presentations Suggestions and feedback
Meetings Problem solving
Peers Face-to-face meetings Coordination
Teamwork
Information sharing
Subordinates Written communication Compliance with instructions and
Face-to-face meetings policies. Review of work progress
Feedback
Employees/Unions Written communication Employee satisfaction and welfare
Shareholders Meetings Building trust and confidence
Advertisements
Brochures
8
1.2 External Business Communication

Before we discuss the reasons for communication with external stakeholders, it is important that
you understand the overall importance of external business communication. External business
communication is essential to:
• Market successfully
• Build a favourable corporate image
• Increase shareholder value
• Overcome a crisis
• Enhance credit rating
Let us now examine the reasons which make external business communication essential.
Market successfully: For successful marketing, organisations need to inform and create
awareness among consumers about their existing and new products. This is largely done through
advertising, which is a form of mass communication. This is very much a part of external business
communication.
Build a favourable corporate image: Today, organisations need to focus on projecting

themselves as responsible corporate and social citizens. This is known as corporate social
responsibility. For example, they need to communicate the fact that they are involved in social
development or environmental protection. This involves being in touch with various external
stakeholders, especially consumers, media, and the society at large.
Increase shareholder value: When customers have a positive image of the company, the
company’s share value will increase, and the shareholders’ wealth increases, thereby enhancing
shareholder value. Shareholder confidence in the company also drives shareholder value. When
shareholder value increases, they will participate in the company’s expansion and growth.
Overcome a crisis: Sometimes when a company is facing a crisis, a public relations campaign
may be needed to:
• Manage the situation
• Put things in a proper perspective
• Restore the image of the company in the eyes of consumers, the media and society
9
Public relations require effective communication with various external stakeholders.
For example, a few years ago, Reliance was prosecuted by the government for irregularities in
the stock market. Shareholders lost confidence in the company. Reliance then mounted a
counter- campaign against the government, where they told the truth, gave the facts and
figures, and denied the allegations made against them. This helped them to regain lost
confidence and salvage their image.
Similarly, when Coke and Pepsi were accused of pesticides in their soft drinks, they had to
undertake a massive public relations exercise to set right their image in the eyes of the public.
Enhance credit rating: An organisation’s credit rating will also go up if it maintains good external
communication. This way its borrowing ability will increase. The organisation can also raise more
money for expansion and growth.
Having emphasized the importance of external business communication, let us now go into the
reasons for communicating with external stakeholders and the channels used to communicate
with them, just as we did with internal communication.
The wheel of business communication, shown in figure 1, illustrates that external business
communication involves interaction with the following stakeholders:
• Consumers
• Intermediaries
• Suppliers
• Government
• Society
• Bankers
• Media
Let us briefly discuss the business communication done with these stakeholders.
Consumers: Organisations need to communicate with consumers to provide information

about:
• Their products and services
10
• Special promotional offers

• New product developments
Organisations also need to redress consumer complaints, so as to maintain consumer preference

and confidence in their brands.
The written channel is the most appropriate medium for communicating with consumers. This
could take the form of letters or mass media advertising.
Intermediaries: Intermediaries refer to trade – distributors, wholesalers, retailers, franchisees,

etc. It is necessary to communicate with them to provide information about:
• Product availability
• Special offers
• Incentives
• Allowances
• Contractual aspects
• Order processing
• Delivery aspects
• Merchandising or the visual display of products

Keeping intermediaries aware and informed and motivating them to meet targets through
competitions, prizes and incentives is extremely important for the success of any product.
The appropriate channels of communication with intermediaries could be both oral and written
channels. Some examples of written channels are:
• Written contracts
• Advertisements announcing special offers and incentives
• Dealer newsletters inviting dealers to share their experiences
Some examples of oral channels are:
• Periodic review meetings

• Continuous communication through sales staff.
11
Suppliers: These are suppliers of raw material, components, power, water, or other utilities.
Communication with suppliers is essential to give technical specifications, ensure quality and
timely delivery. Today, due to ‘outsourcing’ or relying on outside sources for raw materials and
components, there is a need for more sophisticated and direct communication and a more
continuous, on-going relationship with suppliers. The Internet now plays an important role in
communication with suppliers in ‘Business to Business’ (B2B) communication.
Many organisations today enter into a partnership with their suppliers, whereby there is total
involvement on both sides. For example, a company engineer might train the shop floor
technical staff of a supplier of automotive components, in order to improve the quality of the
components. The supplier may suggest a change in the company’s specification process.
Direct, one-to-one communication is required with suppliers to ensure transparency and clarity,
with respect to specifications. The oral face-to-face channel is most appropriate, although the
online channel is being increasingly used in supplier communication.
Government: Communicating with the government is particularly important in the Indian

context and is a part of public relations. Many Indian companies even appoint a PR officer for
maintaining good relations with the government. The reasons for communicating with the
government include compliance with tax matters and legal aspects, seeking clearances for new
activities such as joint ventures, borrowing from overseas banks, foreign exchange
requirements, etc.
Communication with the government could take place through both oral and written channels.
Periodic meetings may be held with regard to statutory compliances such as licensing. However,
most of the time, written communication through formal letters is more appropriate. This is
because clearances for various activities have to be sought in writing.
Society: As pointed out earlier, organisations need to communicate with the community at large
to project themselves as responsible corporate citizens. ‘Corporate social responsibility’ as it is
called, is the top priority with many organisations today. Some of the ways in which companies
are participating in social development are:
• Supporting women’s education
12
• Building hospitals for the disabled

• Building schools for children
• Encouraging family planning
• Ensuring that they do not pollute the environment
Organisations communicate these measures to society.
The channels of communication with society could be oral and direct – for example, talking to
elders in a village or locality, about family planning or schools for children. Mass media
advertising in the form of ‘public service advertising’ could also be used to spread these social
service messages
For example, United Breweries ran a public service campaign with the caption ‘Drinking and
driving don’t mix’, to spread the message of avoiding drunken driving.
There is a large element of public relations in communication with society.
Bankers: Like shareholders, organisations need to communicate with bankers both in good times
and bad times. The reasons for communicating with bankers are the same as those for
shareholders. In addition, advance notice needs to be given to bankers regarding any dislocation
in repayment schedules and justification has to be provided for any additional fund needs. The
overall purpose is to build rapport with the bank, so as to increase borrowing ability.
Communication with bankers could take place through oral channels – for example, periodic
meetings with the Finance Manager of the company to keep them informed of stock build-up
trends, or future trends that could affect working capital needs. Special meetings may also be
held to keep them posted about expansion, contraction and diversification plans, lockouts,
strikes, and anything else that may affect cash flow.
In addition to oral channels, periodic written reports need to be submitted to the bank on overall
business conditions. Transparency is needed in dealings with the bank and failure to keep them
informed could lead to the company’s collapse.
For example, the Enron Company did not communicate with their shareholders and bankers
about the difficult times that they were going through. This ultimately led to the company’s ruin.
13
Media: Today, the media are becoming more powerful and investigative. They are intruding into
people’s personal lives. If wrongly informed, the media can destroy an institution. Therefore, the
primary reason for an organisation to communicate with the media is to maintain good relations.
If the company projects a favourable image to the media, the media in turn will carry a positive
story about the company for free. This is known as ‘publicity’ and is part of public relations. For
example, a press release in a newspaper may highlight some of the achievements or awards won
by the company. This type of publicity is highly credible and can have a powerful influence on
public opinion.
Communication with the media takes place through both oral channels such as press
conferences, as well as written channels such as letters and news releases.
As we did with internal business communication, let us sum up our discussion on external
business communication as shown in table 2.
Table 2: External Business Communication
Stakeholder Channel Overall Objective

Consumers Advertisements Awareness
Letters Information
Persuasion
Intermediaries Written Contracts Awareness
Newsletters Information
Advertisements Motivation
Review Meetings
Suppliers Direct Oral Communication On-going Relationship
Online Communication Partnership
Government Periodic Meetings Government Cooperation
Formal Letters
Society Direct Oral Communication Corporate Social
Advertisements Responsibility
Bankers Periodic and Special Meetings Good Rapport
Written Reports More borrowing ability
Media News conferences Good Relations
News Releases
14
Activity 1:
Describe the nature of your current job or a job that you would like to take up in the future.
List the primary stakeholders that you have to communicate with and the reasons for
communication with each stakeholder.
2. Summary
• Business communication is diverse and involves both ‘internal stakeholders’ within the
organisation, as well as ‘external stakeholders’ outside the organisation.
• Managers have to stay in continuous touch with their internal stakeholders like their
superiors, peers, subordinates, shareholders, employees, and unions.
• At the same time managers have to communicate with external stakeholders such as
customers, intermediaries (distributors and retailers), suppliers of materials and
components, government, bankers, society at large, and the media.
15
Topic: Communication Network in Organisations
Topic: Introduction
Communication Network in Organisations
Table of Contents
1. Communication Network in Organisations ..................................................................................... 4

1.1 Formal Communication Network............................................................................................ 4
1.2 Informal Communication Network ......................................................................................... 9
2. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 11
2
Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed the specifics of business communication and what it involves.
We also discussed how a manager has to maintain communication linkages with different
entities, both within and outside the work environment.
In this topic, we will examine how communication flows within an organisation, both through
official and unofficial channels.
Learning Objectives

• describe how information flows within an organisation
• discuss the advantages and limitations of formal and informal communication networks.
3
1. Communication Network in Organisations

A communication network refers to how information flows within the organisation. Information
within an organisation generally flows through a system, rather than being a free flow. In the
words of Adler, ‘Communication networks are regular patterns of person-to-person
relationships through which information flows in an organisation.’ This means that the flow of
information is managed, regulated, and structured.
Communication networks may be formal or informal. We will deal with each of these in some
detail.
1.1 Formal Communication Network

A formal communication network is one that is created by management and described with the
help of an organisational chart. An organisational chart specifies the hierarchy and the reporting
system in the organisation. Therefore, in a formal network, information is passed on only
through official channels such as memos, bulletins, and intranet (email within the organisation).
Figure 1 depicts a sample organisation chart.
Fig. 1: Sample organisation chart
4
In the organisation chart of figure 1, the Chief Executive reports to the Board of Directors, the
Managing Director reports to the Chief Executive. The Finance Manager, Travel Manager, and
the Marketing Manager report to the Managing Director. The supervisors of each department
report to their respective managers and the employees of the department report to their
supervisors. The organisational chart implies that information can flow in any of two directions
– vertically (upward or downward) and horizontally.
Let us now discuss the different flows of communication in an organisation.
Upward communication: Upward communication may be defined as information that flows

from subordinates to superiors. In figure 1, the arrows 1 and 2 indicate some upward
communication. Arrow 1 indicates the upward communication from the Finance Manager to the
Managing Director. Arrow 2 indicates the upward communication from the employees of the
Finance Department to their Supervisor. Some of the reasons for upward communication
include:
• Discussing work-related problems

• Giving suggestions for improvement
• Sharing feelings about the job and co-workers
This type of communication has both benefits and disadvantages. The benefits are as follows:
• Problem-solving is one of the biggest benefits of this type of communication. Once a

subordinate has brought a problem to his superior’s notice, chances are that the problem
will not recur, since the subordinates learn from their superior how to tackle it the next time.
Thus, the subordinates’ ability to solve new problems and therefore their managerial ability,
improves.
• Valuable ideas and suggestions may sometimes come from lower-level employees.
Therefore, organisations should encourage this kind of communication.
• Employees learn to accept the decisions of management and thereby work as a team.
The biggest problem associated with this type of communication is that it may lead to ‘handing
down’ of decisions by superiors. When subordinates frequently seek the superior’s guidance,
5
the latter may adopt an authoritarian approach and merely give instructions, disregarding the
subordinate’s opinion completely.
Downward communication: Downward communication may be defined as information that

flows from superiors to subordinates. In figure 1, the arrows 3 and 4 indicate some downward
communication. Arrow 3 indicates the downward communication from the Managing Director
to the Travel Manager. Arrow 4 indicates downward communication from the Supervisor of the
Travel Department to the employees. The most common reasons for downward communication
are:
• For giving job instructions

• Explaining company rules, policies, and procedures
• Giving feedback regarding job performance
A number of studies have indicated that regular downward communication in the form of the
feedback given to employees is the most important factor affecting job satisfaction. Therefore,
organisations today are trying to encourage more of this type of communication.
There are both benefits and disadvantages associated with this type of
communication. The benefits are as follows:
• Downward communication that provides regular feedback will be beneficial if the
feedback or review of performance is constructive. A constructive review is one where a
manager ‘counsels’ an employee or advises him/her on how to improve performance. On
the other hand, a destructive review can destroy employee morale and confidence.
• Regular downward communication also creates a climate of transparency or openness,
where information is passed on through official channels, rather than through rumours.
• Downward communication boosts employee morale since it indicates that

management is involved in their progress.
The problems with this type of communication are the danger of doing destructive reviews, as
mentioned, and that of ‘message overload.’ This means that superiors may sometimes burden
their subordinates with too many instructions, leading to confusion.
6
Horizontal communication: Horizontal communication is also known as ‘lateral’ communication.

It may be defined as communication that takes place between co-workers in the same
department, or in different departments, with different areas of responsibility. For example,
Sales Managers and Advertising Managers in the Marketing department, or Marketing Managers
and Finance Managers. In figure 1, the arrows 5 and 6 indicate some lateral communication.
Arrow 5 indicates the lateral communication from the Marketing Manager to the Travel
Manager. Arrow 6 indicates the lateral communication from the employees of the Marketing
Department to the employees of the Travel Department.
The reasons for this type of communication are for coordination of tasks, sharing of information
regarding goals of the organisation, resolving interpersonal or work-related problems, and
building rapport.
The biggest potential benefit of horizontal communication is the sense of teamwork that is
created. Regular communication of this type ensures that all co-workers work together towards
achieving a common goal in the overall interest of the organisation.
The biggest potential problem is that conflicts such as ego clashes are bound to arise when co-
workers at the same level communicate on a regular basis.
The biggest potential problem is that conflicts such as ego clashes are bound to arise when co-
workers at the same level communicate on a regular basis.
In spite of these problems, horizontal or lateral communication has become more important in
today’s business scenario than upward or downward communication. This is because the
‘organisational pyramid’ indicating the different hierarchies or levels in an organisation has
flattened. This is illustrated by the figures 2 (a) and 2 (b).
Figure 2 (a) depicts the multi-layer organisational pyramid.
7
Fig. 2 (a): Multi-layer Organisational Pyramid
Figure 2 (b) depicts the compressed organisational pyramid.
Fig. 2 (b): Compressed Organisational Pyramid
Figure 2 (a) illustrates the previous organisational pyramid which was a ‘multi-layer’ pyramid. In this
type of pyramid, vertical, i.e., upward and downward communication still plays an important role.
This is still the case in many traditionally run organisations today.
However, this has been replaced by a ‘compressed’ or flattened pyramid where the hierarchy has
diminished, as shown in figure 2 (b). Thanks to technology and computers which help in faster
decision making, a manager today have a larger span of control. He or she can supervise and control
a greater number of people than before. This in turn has led to greater ‘empowerment’, which means
that even lower- level employees are now being given decision making authority. Therefore, in the
absence of several layers, there is greater lateral communication than before.
8
1.2 Informal Communication Network

Another name for informal networks is the ‘grapevine’. In this type of network, the information does
not flow in a particular direction, as we have seen with formal networks. The information is also not
passed on through official channels such as memos, notices, or bulletin boards. The information need
not be circulated within the organisation, but could be passed on outside the work environment,
wherever co-workers or colleagues meet socially. Thus, informal networks are based more on
friendship, shared personal or career interests.
For example, co-workers may meet outside the work environment at a company picnic, party, or a
carpool and discuss areas of common interest that may or may not be work-related. Information may
then be passed on to each other about happenings in the company, such as layoffs, the company’s
plans for acquisitions, etc. Such communication is free from any formalities.
This type of informal network is not just for idle rumours and may be useful in many ways. First of
all, it sometimes fills in the ‘transparency gaps’ left by formal networks. Such gaps usually occur
during times of crisis such as strikes or layoffs. The strikes and layoffs may not be officially announced.
Secondly, it may help to confirm important information, such as the fact that the company is going
in for a major acquisition. Thirdly, the grapevine can be used for a constructive purpose by the
organisation.
For example, the government could get the press to publish news in the local paper that there is
going to be a petrol price hike soon, just to test the reactions of the general public. If the reaction is
negative, then the news may be withdrawn on the basis that it is just a rumour. Similarly,
organisations could deliberately plant proposals in the minds of their employees, just to test their
reactions.
Given that informal communication networks have their advantages, they should not be suppressed
as rumours. On the contrary, competent managers should accept the informal network. At the same
time, they should make efforts to counter false rumours and to ensure transparency through the
formal network. This means making all types of information - both positive and negative, available to
everyone in the organisation through official channels.
9
The advantages of the grapevine communication are:
• Information spreads through the grapevine rapidly as it bypasses the formal communication
channels.
• The management can use the grapevine to quickly communicate information informally.
• Managers and employees can use the grapevine to verify the accuracy of the information that
they receive.
• It is inexpensive.
• It gives employees a channel to express their anxieties and opinions without any fear.
Managers must ensure that they do not use the grapevine to threaten employees.
To conclude, it should be remembered that both formal and informal networks should be cultivated
and allowed to co-exist, so that information of all types flows freely to all levels in the organisation.
Common mistakes made in communication:

Double negatives: A double negative occurs when two negatives are used in the same
sentence such that they cancel each other and imply a positive meaning. Double negatives are
considered to be grammatical mistakes.
For example, “You cannot be trusted with the job as you do not have no experience”. This
implies that “You cannot be trusted with the job as you have experience”. This does not make
any sense. You should instead say, “You cannot be trusted with the job as you do not have any
experience.”
Activity:
Correct the double negatives in the following sentences
1. I couldn't hardly understand what she said.
2. This attitude will not get you nowhere.
3. The new financial initiatives may not last hardly a month.
(Identify the two negatives in the sentences)
10
2. Summary
• A communication network refers to how information flows within the organisation.

• A formal communication network is one that is created by management and described with
the help of an organisational chart.
• An organisational chart specifies the hierarchy and the reporting system in the organisation.
• Upward communication may be defined as information that flows from subordinates to
superiors.
• Downward communication may be defined as information that flows from superiors to
subordinates.
• Horizontal communication may be defined as communication that takes place between co-
workers in the same department, or in different departments, with different areas of
responsibility.
• Informal network is a type of network, based more on friendship, shared personal or career
interests.
11
Case Study - Improving Dells’ Corporate Communication
Many of Dell's participants consider Dell as very good example of how a company should
manage its functionalities and communicate with its participants. Corporate communication
must be closely related to a company's overall vision and strategy.
Issue
Dell has to align its identity with its image and become independent of technology. If a company
depends more on technology, along with bridging the gap between image and identity, it needs
to be attentive to technology changes.
Michael Dell, the founder of Dell computers initiated a primary work environment which
depends on e-mail. E-mail can be an effective communication type across time zones. E-mail
also helps managers and employees communicate effectively and thereby increase the
productivity.
However, Dell's increasing dependence on technology based communication may negatively

impact the relational development. If Dell's management does not improve the ways of
communication existing in the company, the company may not grow in a changing corporate
environment.
Solution
To improve its communications, Dell's upper management can work more effectively with the
departments which communicate with marketing constituencies and create a stronger
corporate mission.
The publicity of any product depends on how a marketing department communicates with
customers and deals with customers' activities. Increased e-mail dependence can cause
information overload for employees. As e-mail is an informal channel of communication, it
isolates employees and prevents them from interacting with others. This issue can be solved
by adopting face-to-face communications through meetings, team building activities, and
company outings.
Dell should communicate closely with the entities that deal with marketing and involve face-to-
face communications within the company. Increased internal and external communication can
help Dell to align its image with identity and help to improve relationships to become a
successful company in the changing corporate environment.
Discussion Questions:
1. What is Dell’s issue regarding communication?
2. What is the advantage and disadvantages of communication through E-mail?
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HMueller11/dell-case-study)
Segment: Business Communication Skills
Topic: Listening and Types of Listening
Topic: Introduction
Listening & Types of Listening
Table of Contents
1. Listening – Overview ........................................................................................................... 5

2. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 8
2
Introduction
In the previous segment, we discussed the channels of communication, the relative advantages
and disadvantages of the different types of channels, and guidelines on how to choose the right
channel in a particular business situation.
Listening is the most important of all aspects of communication. In fact, listening precedes
communication. It occurs more frequently on the job than even speaking, reading, or writing.
The new model of business, based on teamwork, requires more effective listening skills than
before for greater coordination.
A survey conducted on about 400 project managers showed that nearly 80% of the manager's
time is spent in face-to-face interpersonal communication with employees. The survey was
conducted through interviews and questionnaires. It was found that although the content of
the oral message is important, the way in which the message is conveyed, and its credibility is
the key to the impact of the message on the receiver.
Another survey conducted on more than 300 members of the Academy of Certified
Administrative Managers identified 20 important managerial skills which the managers
consider for 20:80 rule. Among the 20 skills, the participants rated four as 'supercritical', seven
as 'highly critical’, and nine as 'critical'. The four 'supercritical' skills are:
• Active listening
• Providing clear effective instructions
• Managing individual's responsibility
• Identifying the actual problem
The interesting factor of these skills is that all the skills are co-related with communication and
listening is given much importance in all these skills.
(Source: http://www.accel-team.com/communications/busComms_02.html)
In this topic, we will discuss the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ and also explore the
different types of listening.
3
Learning Objectives
• distinguish clearly between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’
• explain the different types of listening.
4
1. Listening – Overview
Listening is hard work and is more than just sitting passively and absorbing a speaker’s words.
According to Lundsteen, “Listening is a highly complex process by which spoken language is
converted to meaning in the mind”.
Listening has been identified by Stephen Covey as one of the ‘seven habits of highly effective
people’, in his book with the same title. This definition implies that listening is a skill that can be
cultivated and developed, just like speaking, reading, or writing. Listening involves the following
four steps:
1. Hearing – In this step, you need to pay attention to ensure that you hear the message clearly.
2. Interpreting – In this step, you try to analyse the speaker’s words based on your experience,
attitude, knowledge, and background. You also give meaning to the words based on the
gestures and expressions of the speaker.
3. Evaluating – In this step, you evaluate the information received and make decisions
accordingly.
4. Responding – In this step, you let the speaker know whether you have understood the
message and respond to it.
Listening is often thought to be synonymous with hearing. The difference is that while hearing
is a passive process, listening is active. It means being alert to and understanding the meaning
behind the speaker’s words. While listening, one is engaged in processing the information,
reconstructing the information and also giving meaning to the information.
This brings us to a discussion on the different types of listening.
Types of listening: There are seven types of listening.
Figure 1 depicts the seven types of listening.
5
Fig. 1: Types of Listening

Let us now briefly discuss each of the types of listening shown in figure 1.
Discriminative listening: This is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between
the sounds is identified. Unless the differences between the sounds are identified, the meaning
expressed by such differences cannot be grasped.
Once we learn to distinguish between sounds in our language, we can do the same in other
languages. One reason why people belonging to one country find it difficult to speak the
language of another country is that they find the sounds similar and cannot understand the
subtle differences.
Comprehension listening: Once we have learnt to discriminate between the different sounds,
the next step is to try to comprehend the meaning of these sounds. To do this, we require a
dictionary of words, along with the rules of grammar and syntax. Apart from the verbal
communication, we also need to understand the meaning conveyed by the speaker’s non-verbal
behaviour. This can be achieved by closely observing various aspects of the speaker’s body
language and tone of voice.
Evaluative listening: This type of listening involves making judgements about what the speaker
is saying. We listen critically and try to assess what is being said as good, bad, worthy, or
unworthy. We generally resort to this kind of listening when the other person is trying to
persuade us, change our behaviour or convictions. The tendency then is to question what the
speaker is trying to say.
6
Appreciative listening: This type of listening could be in the form of paying selective attention to
certain kinds of information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs
and goals. The tendency is to appreciate such information better. Appreciative listening is also
used when listening to good music, poetry, or a powerful speech.
Empathetic listening: In this type of listening, we try to put ourselves in the other person’s place
and understand the moods, beliefs, goals, and feelings behind the speaker’s words. It requires
excellent discrimination and paying attention to the nuances of emotional signals. It also
requires a high degree of sensitivity and tactful probing on the part of the listener.
Empathetic listening is most often needed at the workplace when dealing with customer
complaints, employee feedback, and problems. A manager doing a performance appraisal with
an employee, for example, should listen to the employee’s point of view and understand the
real reasons for lack of performance.
Therapeutic listening: In this type of listening, the listener goes beyond merely empathising with
the speaker and tries to help the speaker to change or develop in some way. In other words, the
listener plays the role of a therapist, by diagnosing the problem at hand and offering a remedy
or solution. This type of listening is common in social situations, where family and personal
problems are resolved through counselling.
It is also important in job situations, where managers try to solve the problems of employees.
Taking the same example of a manager doing a performance appraisal, the manager should not
only understand the employee’s problems but should also ‘counsel’ the employee by suggesting
what measures the employee could take to improve his/her performance in the future.
Dialogic listening: As the name suggests, this type of listening involves listening and learning
through dialogue. This implies that listening is a two-way, rather than a one-way process. It
involves the interchange of ideas and information between the speaker and the listener. This
type of listening is active listening, whereby the listener continuously seeks clarifications, gives
feedback, and engages in conversation with the speaker. Another name for this is ‘relational’
listening since a relationship is established through the exchange of ideas.
7
2. Summary
• According to Lundsteen, “Listening is a highly complex process by which spoken language is

converted to meaning in the mind”.
• Listening involves four steps: Hearing, Interpreting, Evaluating and Responding
• There are seven types of listening
o Discriminative listening
o Comprehension listening
o Evaluative listening
o Appreciative listening
o Empathetic listening
o Therapeutic listening
o Dialogic listening
• Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between
the sounds is identified.
• Comprehension listening can be achieved by closely observing various aspects of the
speaker’s body language and tone of voice.
• Evaluative listening involves making judgements about what the speaker is saying.
• Appreciative listening is in the form of paying selective attention to certain kinds of
information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs and goals.
• Empathetic listening is most often needed at the workplace when dealing with customer
complaints, employee feedback, and problems.
• In Therapeutic listening, the listener goes beyond merely empathising with the speaker and
tries to help the speaker to change or develop in some way.
• Dialogic type of listening involves listening and learning through dialogue.
8
Topic: Barriers to Listening
Topic: Introduction
Barriers to Listening
Table of Contents
1. Barriers to Listening......................................................................................................................... 4
2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 6
3. Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 7
2
Introduction
Listening is the most important of all aspects of communication. In fact, listening precedes
communication. It occurs more frequently on the job than even speaking, reading, or writing.
The new model of business, based on teamwork, requires more effective listening skills than
before for greater coordination.
In the previous topic, we discussed the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ and also
looked into different types of listening.
In this topic, we will examine the barriers to listening.
Learning Objectives
• identify the barriers to listening
• discuss the barriers to listening.
3
1. Barriers to Listening
As discussed in the previous topic, listening is not easy and there are a number of obstacles that
stand in the way of effective listening, both within and outside the workplace. These barriers
may be categorised as follows:
• Physiological barriers
• Physical barriers
• Attitudinal barriers
• Wrong assumptions
• Cultural barriers
• Gender barriers
• Lack of training
• Bad listening habits
Let us now briefly discuss these barriers.
Physiological barriers: This was discussed earlier under the barriers to communication. Some
people may have genuine hearing problems or deficiencies that prevent them from listening
properly. Once detected, they can generally be treated. Other people may have difficulty in
processing information or memory-related problems which make them poor listeners. Another
physiological barrier is rapid thought. Listeners have the ability to process information at the
rate of approximately 500 words per minute, whereas speakers talk at around 125 words per
minute. Since listeners are left with a lot of spare time, their attention may not be focused on
what the speaker is saying but may wander elsewhere.
Physical barriers: These refer to distractions in the environment such as the sound of an air
conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an overheated room, which interferes with the listening
process. They could also be in the form of information overload. For example, if you are in a
meeting with your manager and the phone rings and your mobile beeps at the same time to let
you know that you have a message; it is very hard to listen carefully to what is being said.
Attitudinal barriers: Pre-occupation with personal or work-related problems can make it difficult
to focus one’s attention completely on what a speaker is saying, even if what is being said is of
prime importance. Another common attitudinal barrier is egocentrism or the belief that you are
4
more knowledgeable than the speaker and that you have nothing new to learn from the
speaker’s ideas. People with this kind of closed-minded attitude make very poor listeners.
Wrong assumptions: The success of communication depends on both the sender and the
receiver, as we have seen in segment 1. It is wrong to assume that communication is the sole
responsibility of the sender or the speaker and listeners have no role to play. Such an assumption
can be a big barrier to listening. For example, a brilliant speech or presentation, however well
delivered, is wasted if the receiver is not listening at the other end. Listeners have as much
responsibility as speakers to make the communication successful, by paying attention, seeking
clarifications, and giving feedback. Another wrong assumption is to think that listening is a
passive activity, in which a listener merely absorbs the thoughts of the speaker. On the contrary,
real listening or active listening is hard work – it requires you to ask questions sometimes, agree
or disagree with the speaker, give feedback, etc.
Yet another barrier of this type is to assume that speakers are more powerful than listeners.
Speakers are seen as being in command of things, whereas listeners are seen to be a weak and
lacking authority. According to communication experts, however, the reverse is true. Listeners
are as important and as powerful as speakers. David J. Schwartz, writer, and management
professor emphasises the importance of listening in his book ‘The Magic of Thinking Big’ by
saying “Big people monopolise the listening. Small people monopolise the talking.”
Cultural barriers: Accents can be barriers to listening since they interfere with the ability to
understand the meaning of words that are pronounced differently. The problem of different
accents arises not only between cultures but also within a culture. For example, in a country like
India where there is enormous cultural diversity, accents may differ even between different
regions and states.
Another type of cultural barrier is the differing cultural values. The importance attached to
listening and speaking differs in western and oriental cultures. Generally, Orientals regard
listening and silence as almost a virtue, whereas Westerners attach greater importance to
speaking. Therefore, this would interfere with the listening process, when two people from these
two different cultures communicate.
Gender barriers: Communication research has shown that gender can be a barrier to listening.
Studies have revealed that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes.
5
Women are more likely to listen for the emotions behind a speaker’s words, while men listen
more for the facts and the content.
Example – A salesperson giving a demonstration of a new type of office equipment may be asked
by two colleagues if the equipment will work without any problems and respond by saying ‘Sure.’
A male user may take the salesperson’s answer at face value, whereas a female user may detect
some hesitation in the salesperson’s voice. This is because the male user listens for the content
of the message, whereas the female user listens for the tone of the message.
Lack of training: Listening is not an inborn skill. People are not born good listeners. They have to
develop the art of listening through practice and training. Lack of training in listening skills is an
important barrier to listening, especially in the Indian context. Lee Iacocca, former Chairman of
the Chrysler Corporation in the US, was one of the first to recognise the need for organised
training programs in listening skills. Today, many organisations both in India and abroad
incorporate listening skills in their training programs.
Bad listening habits: Most people are very average listeners who have developed poor listening
habits that are hard to shed and that act as barriers to listening. For example, some people have
the habit of ‘faking’ attention or trying to look like a listener, to impress the speaker, and to
assure the speaker that they are paying attention. Others may tend to listen to every fact. This
may result in them not understanding the main point. Yet another habit is to avoid difficult
listening and to tune off deliberately if the subject is too technical or difficult to understand.
Sometimes, the subject itself may be dismissed as uninteresting, because the listener does not
want to listen.
Research conducted many years ago found that the organisational level comprehension rating
of 100% of listening at the board level is reduced to 20% at the worker’s level. Poor listening can
distort the original message.
2. Summary
• The barriers to listening are categorised as
o Physiological barriers
o Physical barriers
o Attitudinal barriers
6
o Wrong assumptions
o Cultural barriers
o Gender barriers
o Lack of training
o Bad listening habits
• Some people may have genuine hearing problems or deficiencies that prevent them from
listening properly.
• Physical barriers refer to distractions in the environment such as the sound of an air
conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an overheated room, which interferes with the listening
process.
• Pre-occupation with personal or work-related problems can make it difficult to focus one’s
attention completely on what a speaker is saying, even if what is being said is of prime
importance.
• It is wrong to assume that communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or the
speaker and listeners have no role to play. Such an assumption can be a big barrier to
listening.
• Accents can be barriers to listening since they interfere with the ability to understand the
meaning of words that are pronounced differently.
• Studies have revealed that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes.
• Lack of training in listening skills is an important barrier to listening, especially in the Indian
context.
• Most people are very average listeners who have developed poor listening habits that are
hard to shed and that act as barriers to listening
3. Glossary
Egocentrism The state or quality of being self-centred.
7
Topic: Strategies for Effective Listening
Topic: Introduction
Strategies for Effective Listening
Table of Contents
1. Strategies for Effective Listening ..................................................................................................... 4

2. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 7
3. Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 8
2
Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed the various categories of barriers to listening: Physiological
barriers, physical barriers, attitudinal barriers, wrong assumptions, cultural barriers, gender
barriers, lack of training and bad listening habits. Although a number of barriers stand in the way
of effective listening, these can be overcome through conscious efforts, training, and practice.
In this topic, we will discuss the strategies to be followed for effective listening.
Learning Objectives
• improve your listening skills by adopting specific strategies.
3
1. Strategies for Effective Listening

Some of the suggested methods to overcome barriers of effective listening are as follows:
• Create a conducive environment
• Select face-to-face channels
• Be open-minded and avoid distractions
• Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening
• Use verbal communication to indicate active listening
• Listen first before responding
• Use the speaker-listener gap constructively
• Do not be judgemental
Let us discuss each of these briefly.
Create a conducive environment: To an extent, you can try to control the environment in which
communication takes place, so that listening can take place without any distractions. The
physical barriers to listening can be overcome by:
• Ensuring a proper sound system and acoustics so that the speaker is audible.
• Avoiding places with high levels of activity, loud noises from the outside environment and
poor air conditioning systems.
• Shutting off mobile phones and telephones.
Select face-to-face channels: Listening is less accurate in the absence of face-to-face

communication. For example, listening to and understanding ideas correctly over the telephone
is much harder than through a face-to-face meeting. Take the case of calling a restaurant and
placing orders over the telephone for home delivery of a meal. The chances are that your orders
may not be understood correctly. Therefore, as far as possible, arrange face-to-face contact to
ensure more accurate listening.
Be open-minded and avoid distractions: Listening is an exhausting activity that requires the right
attitude and mindset. You have to focus your attention completely on what the speaker is saying,
without letting your mind wander. This kind of concentration can be developed through various
techniques and through constant practice. In addition, it is also important to rid yourself of the
4
notion that you have nothing new to learn from the other person. Even if it is a subject about
which you may be knowledgeable, the speaker may offer a different perspective or point of view.
Therefore, it is important to listen actively.
Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening: It is important to communicate to the speaker
that you are listening actively to what he/she is saying. This can be done even without verbal
communication. All the different aspects of non-verbal communication discussed earlier should
be used for maximum effect. For example, maintaining steady eye contact with the speaker,
sitting up with an erect posture, nodding now and then to show appreciation and understanding,
and appropriate facial expressions are some of the ways in which your non-verbal
communication can indicate that you are involved in what the speaker is saying.
Use verbal communication to indicate active listening: While non-verbal behaviour by itself can
communicate that you are an active listener, it is also important to engage in verbal
communication with the speaker. Silence is often interpreted as lack of understanding or
attention. In order to convey that you have understood the speaker’s message you need to:
• seek clarifications.
• give feedback and suggestions.
• paraphrase in your own words what the speaker has said.
Listen first before responding: Always let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak.
Avoid the tendency to formulate your response, even before you have listened completely to
the speaker’s words. If you are too busy thinking about what to say next, you may miss the main
point that the speaker is trying to make. This also gives the speaker the impression that you are
pre-occupied or rude.
Use the speaker-listener gap constructively: It was pointed out earlier that listeners can absorb
information faster than the speakers’ rate of speech. This spare time available to listeners is
often misused by letting the mind wander and is one of the physiological barriers to listening.
One way of overcoming this barrier is to try to use this spare time to note down what the speaker
has said, review what has been said so far and anticipate what the speaker may say next.
Thinking ahead of the speaker and trying to guess where his/her talk is leading is a good strategy
for effective listening. This is not easy but can be learnt through proper training.
5
Focus on the verbal and non-verbal message: Listening involves not only hearing and
understanding the meaning behind the words, but also being alert to the non-verbal behaviour
of the speaker. The importance of non-verbal cues has been emphasised throughout this
subject. It is important to watch for any positive or negative messages that may be conveyed
through the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and outward appearance.
Focus on the content, rather than the delivery: To grasp the true meaning of what the speaker
is saying, it is important to concentrate on the content of the message, rather than on how the
message is delivered. For example, looking at the power point slides during a speaker’s
presentation may distract your attention from the main point that the speaker is trying to
convey. Similarly, being over critical of the speaker’s accent or mannerisms may make you miss
the essence of the message.
Ask questions of yourself and make notes: To engage in active listening, you also need to ask
certain questions to yourself while listening. For example, “What is the key idea that the speaker
is trying to convey?”, “How does this fit in with I already know on the subject?” or “How is this
presentation organised?” are some possible questions that you could jot down along with the
answers.
Do not be judgemental: Judgemental listening can destroy empathy. You can listen non-
judgementally by the following measures:
• Adopt a non-confrontational approach – This will make the other person feel secure and
open up.
• Identify common interests – Common interests help in bonding with the speaker and create
an atmosphere of trust.
• Avoid leading questions – Leading questions can be confrontational and create frustration
and anger.
• Avoid minimising the problem – When you minimise a problem, you appear to be
judgemental.
6
The table 1 sums up some of the characteristics of good listeners, based on studies carried out
on perceptions of listening behaviour.
Table 1: Characteristics of Good Listeners
• Considers all evidence before jumping to a conclusion.
• Takes notes when listening, to recall information or understand a difficult idea.
• Concentrates on what the speaker is saying and not on unrelated thoughts.
• Is willing to consider the opinions of others.
• Listens openly when others disagree with him.
• Encourages others to express their ideas, instead of occupying centre stage.
• Can grasp the main idea from others’ comments.
• Is curious about other people and their ideas.
• Does not interrupt others or change the topic to suit his/her purpose.
• Makes the speaker feel comfortable while talking.
• Remembers important ideas given by others, even when he is busy.
• Does not pretend to understand, when he is confused.
• Recognises that people may change over time and have something new to offer.
• Tries to find solutions to others’ problems.
• Knows when to speak and when to listen.
Activity 1:
Request a professor or a friend to give you a session on career counselling. Assess your
listening skills by questioning the speaker and paraphrasing (i.e., restating what the speaker
says in your own words) what the speaker says during the session.
2. Summary
• Some of the suggested methods to overcome barriers of effective listening are as follows:
o Create a conducive environment
7
o Select face-to-face channels

o Be open-minded and avoid distractions
o Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening
o Use verbal communication to indicate active listening
o Listen first before responding
o Use the speaker-listener gap constructively
o Do not be judgemental
• The physical barriers to listening can be overcome by:
o Ensuring a proper sound system and acoustics so that the speaker is audible.
o Avoiding places with high levels of activity, loud noises from the outside environment
and poor air conditioning systems.
o Shutting off mobile phones and telephones.
• Listening is less accurate in the absence of face-to-face communication. Therefore, as far as
possible, arrange face-to-face contact to ensure more accurate listening.
• Judgemental listening can destroy empathy. You can listen non-judgementally by the
following measures:
o Adopt a non-confrontational approach – This will make the other person feel secure
and open.
o Identify common interests – Common interests help in bonding with the speaker and
create an atmosphere of trust.
o Avoid leading questions – Leading questions can be confrontational and create frustration
and anger.
o Avoid minimising the problem – When you minimise a problem, you appear to be
judgemental.
3. Glossary
Paraphrasing Restating a text using different words that convey the same meaning.
8
Topic: Listening in a Business Context
Topic: Introduction
Listening in a Business Context
Table of Contents
1. Listening in a Business Context ....................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Listening to Customers ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Listening to Employees ........................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Listening during Job Interviews .............................................................................................. 6
2. Effective Questioning ...................................................................................................................... 6
3. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 10
4. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2
Introduction
Effective listening is one of the essential qualities of a successful manager. Studies conducted on
the skills considered most crucial for managerial ability has indicated that ‘active listening’ is
rated as the most important. According to the University of Missouri, in business, people spend
about 70%-80% of their time in some form of communication. Another study conducted on
about 800 people working in hospitals, universities, businesses, the military, and government
agencies found that virtually all of the people believed that their communication is as or more
effective than their colleagues. In other studies where business people were asked to describe
the communication skills that they considered most important and that they wished they had
been taught in college, listening figured on top of the list.
Listening is therefore crucial in a business environment. It can boost quality, profits, and,
productivity, whereas poor listening has the exact opposite effect. Listening mistakes can lead
to costly errors such as retyping of important documents, rescheduling of important meetings,
etc.
Learning Objectives
• explain the importance of listening in a business context
• ask the right questions while listening.
3
1. Listening in a Business Context

Good listening skills can help you locate job openings, do well in job interviews, and be selected
for the job. Once you are on the job, listening becomes even more important. As a manager, you
will have to listen to superiors, subordinates, customers, and other stakeholders. Listening is
particularly important in certain professions and industries. The service industry, which is a fast
growing industry both in India and abroad, is one such example. In the insurance industry, it has
been found that good listening has led to career advancement. In the banking sector, good
listening skills have been found to distinguish a good bank manager from a bad one. In the
healthcare industry, listening to patients has been useful in gathering more accurate information
about them. According to a Judi Brownwell a professor at Cornell, one of the top universities in
the U.S., “Good service, in many respects, is good listening. To thrive in highly competitive,
rapidly changing environments, service employees must learn to listen well.”
Tom Peters, business consultant and co-author of the book “In Search of Excellence”,
emphasises the importance of listening to customers. He says “Find out what the customers
really care about and then act. Listening– that’s the key.” Let us discuss the importance of
listening to customers.
1.1 Listening to Customers

Organisations today are beginning to recognise the importance of being customer oriented.
Customer orientation means identifying and then satisfying customer needs, which in turn
involves listening to what the customer really wants. When measuring customer satisfaction, it
is also important to listen to and respond to customer complaints.
This is because a dissatisfied customer can create negative word-of-mouth publicity for your
product and company. Therefore, it is important to satisfy and retain your existing customers,
so that they remain loyal to your company.
We will discuss some approaches for handling customer complaints and listening to customers.
The different approaches are as follows:
• Believe the customer – There is a saying that “The customer is the king.” Therefore, it is
important to take the customers at their word, even though they may not be telling the truth,
rather than doubt what they are saying. Even if the customers’ complaints may not be justified,
it is important to make an attempt to solve their problems.
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• Listen actively – Make your customers feel that you are showing empathy, or putting yourself
in their place. When a customer starts to complain, it is important to hear out the complaint
completely, before responding or offering a solution. Sometimes a customer may be rude, angry,
and frustrated, but he/she needs to be handled tactfully. Once he/she has vented his/her
feelings, it would be a good strategy to repeat the problem accurately, to show that you have
heard and understood clearly. Consider the following example of how a sales assistant in a
medical shop deals with an angry customer: “What you are saying is that you entered the shop,
asked for, and paid for 20 headache pills. When you got home, you discovered that you had been
given only 10, is that correct?” This is the best way to show the customer that you have listened
to and registered the complaint.
• Apologise – Even if the customer and not the company are at fault, it is always a good idea to
apologise to your complaining customer. From the customer’s perspective, he/she is right and
therefore expects an apology. A sincere apology will go a long way in calming down an angry
customer. A general statement of apology such as “We are sorry for the inconvenience caused
to you” will be sufficient in such a situation. A written letter of apology would also be effective
in regaining the customer’s trust and confidence in the company.
• Satisfy – There is a saying that “A satisfied customer is the best advertisement for your
product.” This is because such a customer will spread positive word-of-mouth publicity about
your product to others. Therefore, it is important to identify your most valuable customers, listen
to them, and make efforts to retain them, by offering them special privileges from time to time.
• Thank – Even if the customer has launched a complaint, it is important to thank the customer
for bringing it to your attention, so that a solution can be found. A customer complaint should
be looked at positively - as an opportunity to solve a problem that did not exist earlier. In the
absence of the complaint, you may not have been aware of the problem in the first place and
this could have damaged the reputation of the organisation.
1.2 Listening to Employees

Earlier we discussed the importance of upward communication through which subordinates give
feedback and suggestions to their superiors. This type of communication should be encouraged
and not suppressed, since valuable suggestions may sometimes come from employees.
Superiors need to be open to the suggestions and complaints of employees. This is an indication
5
that they are listening to their employees. Listening also means inviting suggestions and personal
opinions of employees through regular downward communication.
Another situation where listening to employees is of prime importance is during a performance
appraisal. This is also part of downward communication. A manager doing a performance review
of a subordinate should take care not to do a destructive review, where the subordinate is
criticised for poor performance. On the other hand, a constructive review, through which a
manager hears out the employee’s problems and reasons for lack of performance, is an
indication of listening to the employee. In this case, he/she listens with empathy and
understanding, which we defined earlier as ‘empathetic listening’. In such a situation, the
manager should also practice ‘therapeutic listening’, whereby the manager counsels the
employee on how to improve performance.
1.3 Listening during Job Interviews

Listening is also a skill that is needed by both job interviewers and interviewees, in order to make
the interview a success. Ideally, listening should take up half the interviewing time, although this
rarely happens in reality, since one person or the other fails to listen for some reason or the
other. We have discussed the barriers to listening in detail.
The relative importance of listening may vary, depending on the type of interview. In an
employment interview where the purpose is to assess how well an applicant will perform on the
job through discussion, listening will be equally important for both the interviewer and the
interviewee. On the other hand, in an ‘exit’ interview, where the purpose is to gather feedback
from the employee regarding the reasons for leaving the organisation, the interviewer may have
to do more of the listening.
2. Effective Questioning
Effective Questioning facilitates effective listening. Asking the right questions enables us to
understand the subject better. Effective questioning can help in uncovering needs and analysing
problems. It can also help you in negotiating.
The different forms of questions that help in effective questioning are:
• Open questions
• Closed questions
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• Probing questions
• Leading questions
• Hypothetical questions
Let us now discuss these types of questions in greater detail.
Open questions: Open questions help in obtaining detailed answers. They discourage ‘yes’ or
‘no’ kind of answers. These questions help you to gather a lot of information. They usually begin
with any of the following:
• What
• Why
• When
• Where
• Who
• How
Some examples of open-ended questions are:
• What are your areas of responsibilities?

• What are your plans for the coming month?
• Why do you think you are a good candidate for this position?
• How will you integrate Process A with Process B?
Open questions have the following advantages:
• They help a person to open up.

• They are a powerful negotiating tool.
• They help in obtaining additional information.
• They make you a better communicator.
Open questions have the following disadvantages:
• The answers obtained are not very specific or reliable.

• The answers cannot be used exclusively.
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Closed questions: Closed questions are those questions that can be answered in one or two
words. They yield quick but incomplete information. They are often used in surveys as they limit
the respondent’s answers. Closed ended questions usually begin with one of the following verbs:
• Are
• Did
• Will
• Won’t
• Didn’t
• Aren’t
Some examples of closed questions are:
• Are you evaluating different suppliers?

• Can you deliver the product by the end of the month?
• Will you accept an annual salary of Rs 4,50,000?
Closed questions have the following advantages:
• They can be easily analysed.

• They are more specific.
• They take less time to answer.
• They help in obtaining definite answers.
• They narrow the focus of the conversation.
Closed questions have the following disadvantages:
• As they result in very short answers, they are not very reliable.
• Many questions are required to obtain complete information.
Closed questions are usually asked at the end of the negotiation or conversation.
Probing questions: Probing questions are follow-up questions that seek additional information.
You can use probing questions to elicit more information and explore an issue in greater detail.
These questions help in filling the gaps identified by the initial questions. You can use probing
8
questions to understand the needs of your prospects. They help to reduce misunderstandings.
You can use the word ‘exactly’ to probe further. Some examples of probing questions are:
• When exactly will you submit the report?

• You say that you cannot complete the project by the end of the month. Why is that?
• What did you best like about this training programme?
Probing questions have the following advantages:
• They help you to obtain clarification and understand an issue thoroughly.

• They help you to obtain information from people who do not want to reveal it completely.
Leading questions: A leading question is a question that implies an answer. You can use a leading
question to indicate an answer and make the other person agree with you.
The disadvantage of leading questions is that it discourages the respondents from thinking on
their own. Leading questions can be implicit or explicit, verbal, or non-verbal. Some examples of
leading questions are:
• I assume you liked the presentation?

• How great was the service provided by our customer service department?
• We can offer a discount of 5 percent if you purchase more than 1000 units. I am sure this is
O.K. with you?
You can use leading questions to:
• get the answer you desire.

• close a sale.
Leading questions must be used with care. If you use it for your own self-interests you may
appear to be dishonest and manipulative.
Hypothetical questions: Hypothetical questions describe a fictitious situation and seek your
response to it. You can use a hypothetical question to gauge response and to determine the
position of your negotiating partner. Interviewers can use hypothetical questions to identify key
competencies.
Some examples of hypothetical questions are:
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• If you had a conflict with your manager, how would you resolve it?
• Imagine you are approaching a deadline, but the work is only 70 percent complete. What
would you do?
• Assume that I am giving you two more weeks to complete the order. Can you assure me that
you can deliver quality products?
Hypothetical questions have the following advantages:
• They help you to explore possibilities.

• They help you in making a choice when you have many options to solve a problem.
• They help you in testing your suppositions and hunches.
3. Summary
• Effective listening is one of the essential qualities of a successful manager.
• Customer orientation means identifying and then satisfying customer needs, which in turn
involves listening to what the customer really wants.
• Listening is also a skill that is needed by both job interviewers and interviewees, in order to
make the interview a success.
• Effective Questioning facilitates effective listening. Asking the right questions enables us to
understand the subject better.
• The different forms of questions that help in effective questioning are: Open questions,
closed questions, probing questions, leading questions and hypothetical questions
4. Glossary
Hypothetical Based on a surmise
Performance It is a process which involves reviewing and discussing an employee's
appraisal performance of assigned tasks and responsibilities. The review is done
depending on results performance of the employee in his/her job, not on
the physical characteristics.
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Topic: General Principles of Writing
Topic: Introduction
General Principles of Writing
Table of Contents
1. General Principles of Writing........................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Writing Methodology .............................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Tips on Writing Style ............................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Active vs. Passive Voice ......................................................................................................... 13
1.4 Spelling and Punctuation ...................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Common Errors in English ..................................................................................................... 16
2. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 18
3. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 19
2
Introduction
In the previous topics, we discussed the meaning of listening, some obstacles to listening and
methods that can be adopted for better listening in the workplace. Writing skills are equally
crucial and critical similar to listening skills in business communication. Errors in grammar,
spelling, punctuation and typing can affect the business communication significantly. Any
inconsistency in writing the message might lead to misunderstanding or miscommunication.
Therefore, in business communication, clarity and concreteness of the message are very vital.
You might lose your customer if you fail to communicate the information correctly and
completely. At the same time, you must remember that general writing is very different from
business writing in terms of tone, language, and degree of formality of the communication. Some
of the do’s and don’ts of business writing will be highlighted in this topic. This will lay the
foundation for writing business letters and reports which will be discussed in the later topics.
We cannot say that all business communications are positive. Some experts have noticed that
technological advancements have made communication simpler and more efficient. This has
gradually reduced the formal writing skills of business people. Marty Blalock, in his article 'Why
Good Communication is Good Business' has pointed out that ineffective communication is
expensive. According to the National Commission on Writing, American businesses spend
about $3.1 billion a year to train their employees on writing.
Blalock has also pointed out that the Commission supports the requirement of effective
business communication skills in employers.
About two-thirds of jobs in large American companies are based on writing duties. Many
American companies have involved 'assessment of writing skills of job seekers' as part of their
hiring process.
(Source:http://www.ehow.com/list_7440247_trends-business-communication-
today.html#ixzz1dl0YlibM)
3
Learning Objectives
• evaluate your writing style
• identify common errors in English usage
• recognise the appropriate use of active and passive voice, grammar and punctuation.
4
1. General Principles of Writing

Written messages must be made as readable as possible. We need to make them uncomplicated
and easy so that even an average person can understand their meaning. Readability in turn is
largely determined by the length of words, sentences, and paragraphs. A common mistake made
by writers, especially Indian writers, is to try to impress the reader by using flowery language
and an oratory style of writing. Two broad principles of writing are” Write to express, not to
impress” and “Keep it short and sweet.” A good writer is one who follows these principles and
asks himself/herself even before framing a sentence “What am I trying to say? What words will
express it?”
Let us try to understand these principles first by discussing the different stages of writing. We
will then become familiar with some tips on writing style, followed by some specific rules
regarding English language usage, spelling, and punctuation.
1.1 Writing Methodology

Writing methodology comprises of three stages:
• Prewriting
• Writing
• Reviewing
Figure 1 depicts the three stages of writing.
Fig.1: Stages of Writing Methodology
(Source: Reproduced from Guffey, M. E., and Loewy, D. (2011). Business Communication: Process
and Product, 7th ed. USA: South-Western Cengage Learning)
5
Let us now discuss them in brief.

Prewriting: Prewriting is a structured thinking process that helps you to explore and understand
what you have to write. The techniques of prewriting help you to determine the approach to
choose and plan to implement it. Usually, a prewriting plan enables you to explore a topic from
different perspectives. It also helps you to discover new and original ideas for writing the topic.
In the pre-writing stage, you analyse your audience to determine your audience’s requirements,
anticipate the audience’s knowledge, and design the strategy that can be adapted to
communicate. For example, what language you have to use to convey the message to the
audience, whether it will be formal or conversational?
Writing: After knowing the audience and developing strategies you can research the topic and
gather essential data. Once you gather the required data, you can organise your content i.e.,
decide the flow, group similar facts, identify the important facts to be mentioned, etc. Later, you
begin to compose or write i.e., construct sentences and paragraphs. First you write a draft. While
drafting, you write the information that you have researched in your own words. You build
sentences and paragraphs even though they are not 100 percent perfect. You read what you
have written and check whether what you have written is what you mean. You then get the
document reviewed by others and ask for suggestions to improve the content.
Reviewing: In this stage, you revise, proofread, and evaluate the message. You check whether
the sentences are complete and if your content is correct. You check for spelling, capitalisation,
punctuation, grammar, and parallelism. You will check for clarity of the content written and
ensure that no errors are present in the content. Figure 2 depicts the inverted pyramid of review
steps.
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Fig. 2: Review Steps
The four steps shown in figure 2 can help you to make your review process effective. The four
steps can be explained as follows:
1. Review for strategy – Review whether the document adheres to the design strategy. For
example, whether objectives are accomplished, the main idea is conveyed first or last, the
technicalities are defined as per target audience requirements, the language style used is as per
audience requirement, credibility is established, logical flow, etc.
2. Review for macro issues – Review the document as a whole before reviewing sentence by
sentence. For example, document design, the connection between sections and subsection, the
effectiveness of paragraphs or sections, etc.
3. Review for micro issues – Review the sentences and words, for example, check for wordiness,
long sentences, complex and incomplete sentences, clarity of sentences, etc.
4. Review for correctness – Review for the correctness of the content with respect to grammar
and punctuation, for example, parts of speech, parallelism, incorrect use of a comma, etc.
1.2 Tips on Writing Style

You can improve your writing style by choosing the right words for conveying the meaning. Some
of the common problems include the use of complicated words, the use of jargon, slang, and
colourful language and mistakes in using the parts-of-speech.
7
Simple vs. complex words: As far as possible, the sender should select words that are within the
receiver’s vocabulary. If the words used are outside the vocabulary of the receiver, the latter
may not get the message at all, or get the wrong message by guessing the meaning incorrectly
or wonder whether the sender intentionally selected a complicated word for making an
impression. Therefore, it is important to consider the educational level and the knowledge of
the reader.
Hence, it is better to rely on plain, simple words, such as the ones shown in the first column,
rather than in the second column of table 1, even though they mean the same thing.
Table 1: Some Simple Word Equivalents for Complex Words
Simple word equivalent Complex word
About Approximately
Do Accomplish
Improve Ameliorate
Show Demonstrate
Change Modify
Ask Interrogate
This is because short and simple words convey ideas more effectively and require less time and
space. They also invite the sender to concentrate on ideas, rather than calling attention to the
words themselves.
Jargon, slang and metaphors: ‘Jargon’ refers to technical terms that belong to a particular
subject area or discipline. For example, medical jargon would include terms that only medical
practitioners can understand. These terms cannot be understood by the common man. Some of
the terms in the medical jargon are, ’agonal’ meaning a major negative change in a patient’s
condition, FX for fracture, and IM for intramuscular. Such terms are to be avoided in general
writing since they would be out of context. The only instance where jargon can be used and
might be essential is in highly technical reports, where the reader is in a position to understand
these terms. For example, computer jargon such as browser, bus, cache, chip, cookie, CPU,
crash, database, dot pitch, download, driver, and file can be used only while writing reports
related to computer technology.
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‘Slang’ refers to casual words that are not accepted and recognised in a standard English
dictionary. For example, ’ace’ means very good, ’action’ means excitement, ’blown away’ means
greatly impressed, ’flip out’ means losing control, and ’glitch’ means defect. While they could be
used in a limited way in general or informal writing, they are to be avoided in business writing,
which needs to be formal in nature.
A ‘metaphor’ is a figure of speech and refers to colourful comparisons that evoke visual images.
For example, consider the following sentences:
1. He is ‘rock solid’ in his support.
2. We provide an ‘umbrella of insurance’ product for your security.
While such comparisons may be used in informal writing or in the language of advertising, they
are to be avoided in business communication which has to be objective and formal.
Parts of speech: In the same way that use of big, complicated words may result in receipt of the
wrong message, use of small words in the wrong way grammatically could have the same result.
Such problems exist in all parts-of-speech categories. Some of the parts of speech which we will
be discussing in this topic are:
• Nouns
• Pronouns
• Verbs
• Adjectives
• Adverbs
Let us now briefly discuss each of these parts of speech.
Nouns: Just as the main actor in a film is the most important character, the subject in a sentence
is the most important noun. There are two categories of nouns – ‘abstract nouns’ or nouns that
cannot be visualised and ‘concrete nouns’ or nouns that can be visualised. A message will be
understood more clearly if concrete nouns are used as subjects in a sentence, rather than
abstract nouns. For example, consider the following two sentences:
1. ‘Cancellation’ of the contract will be done in March. (Use of abstract noun as subject)
2. The ‘contract’ will be cancelled in March. (Use of concrete noun as subject)
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In this example, the second sentence, using ‘contract’ as the subject, is likely to be understood
more clearly by the receiver. Not only is ‘contract’ something which can be visualised, it also
emphasises the main idea in the sentence.
Let us consider another example.
1. That ‘decision’ can be made only by the supervisor. (Abstract noun as subject)
2. Only the ‘supervisor’ can make that decision. (Concrete noun as subject)
Pronouns: Sometimes, using the masculine form of a pronoun might be taken in an offensive
way by the receiver, especially if the receiver happens to be a woman. Even if the receiver is not
a woman, the use of a masculine pronoun may convey the impression of being sexist. For
example, consider the following sentence: “You need to consult your professor on that subject,
but he has to be a specialist in the area of Finance”. In this sentence, the use of the masculine
pronoun ‘he’ conveys the unintentional message that professors can only be men and not
women, which could be taken as an offense. Such offensive pronouns can be avoided in the
following ways:
1. Avoid the usage of pronouns completely
For example, “you need to consult your professor on that subject, but a specialist in the area of
Finance is required.”
2. Repeat the noun
For example, “you need to consult your professor on that subject, but the professor has to be a
specialist in the area of Finance.”
3. Use a plural noun
For example, “you need to consult some of your professors on that subject, but they have to be
specialists in the area of Finance.”
(The use of ‘they’ avoids implying that professors can be only men).
4. Use pronouns from both genders
For example, you need to consult your professor on that subject, but he or she has to be a
specialist in the area of Finance.
Another principle regarding use of pronouns is to avoid excessive use of the first-person pronoun
‘I’, since this gives the impression that one is always talking about oneself. Never sound too
pleased with yourself or boast of your own achievements. This is especially true of business
writing, where it is important to be objective, rather than subjective.
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The second person pronoun ‘you’ also needs to be used with care. A rule of thumb is to use the
second person pronoun when emphasising a positive idea or message and to avoid the second
person when presenting a negative idea.
The following two sentences illustrate the usage of second person pronoun:
1. ‘You’ made a good presentation.
2. ‘You’ made a number of mistakes in the report.
The first sentence contains a positive idea. Therefore, the second person pronoun should be
used, since it gives credit to the person who made the presentation. But, the second sentence
contains a negative idea and emphasises that ‘you’ are responsible. This should be avoided by
framing the sentence differently, such as “The report contained a number of mistakes.”
Verbs: Since verbs are action words and action is an essential part of a sentence, correct use of
verbs is important. Senders of messages must use verbs that agree in number with the subjects
of the sentence.
The following sentences illustrate the misuse and the correct use of verbs in sentences:
1. Only one of the students ‘are’ present. (Wrong usage) Only one of the students ‘is’ present.
(Right usage)
2. Each of the following reports ‘have’ been modified. (Wrong usage) Each of the following
reports ‘has’ been modified. (Right usage)
Note that the singular form of the verb and not the plural should be used in both the above
sentences, to agree with the subject, which is in singular form (‘Only one’ and ‘Each’).
Verbs must also agree in person. The most common errors are made in agreement with the third
person and the second person. For example, the following two sentences illustrate the usage of
verbs in agreement with person:
1. He ‘don’t’ like to work late. (Wrong) He ‘doesn’t’ like to work late. (Correct)
2. You ‘was’ informed that the exams begin next week. (Wrong) You ‘were’ informed that the
exams begin next week. (Correct)
Thirdly, since verbs indicate the time of action – past, present or future, they should be used in
the correct tenses. The tenses should also be used consistently.
The following sentences illustrate the misuse of tenses:
1. He ‘listens’ to the presentation and ‘gave’ his feedback.
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2. The manager ‘spoke’ to the customer, but ‘does not respond’ to his complaint.
In both the sentences, it is not clear whether the event is past or present, since the tenses are
not used uniformly. It is better to use two present tense verbs or two past tense verbs, but not
one of each in the same sentence.
Thus, sentences 1 and 2 can be written as follows:
1. He ‘listens’ to the presentation and ‘gives’ his feedback.
2. The manager ‘spoke’ to the customer but ‘did not respond’ to his complaint.
Adjectives: Adjectives give information about or describe nouns. Although they play a less
important role in a sentence compared to verbs and nouns, they must be used with care. A
common tendency is to use very strong adjectives, too many adjectives, or superlatives.
The following sentences illustrate the misuse of adjectives:
1. Sales this year have been absolutely ‘incredible’.
2. That is the most ‘wonderful’, ‘powerful’, and ‘moving’ speech that I have heard in a long time.
3. Ours is the ‘best’ product in the market today.
In the first sentence, if a sales report is being written or presented, it would be better to give
details about sales figures, rather than describe sales as ‘incredible’. In the second sentence, a
single adjective could have been used in place of three adjectives, which are too many. The third
example is a claim that needs to be defined (i.e., best in what way?), or supported with adequate
proof.
Adverbs: In the same way that adjectives describe nouns, adverbs describe or modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs. Therefore, the same principles apply when using adverbs – i.e.,
avoid the use of adverbs that are too strong, or are superlatives. For example, consider the
following sentences:
1. Sales have been ‘fantastically’ high this year.
The adverb ‘fantastically’ describes the adjective ‘high’ and is too strong to be credible.
2. This secretary types the ‘fastest’.
Here, the adverb ‘fastest’ describes the verb ‘types’ and is a superlative, which is to be avoided,
unless it can be defined or supported with proof.
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1.3 Active vs. Passive Voice

In the previous section, we studied the correct usage of verbs. Verbs may also be classified as
‘active verbs’ and ‘passive verbs.’ Using the ‘active voice’ means that the subject is the doer of
the action and that the verb is active. On the other hand, a sentence in ‘passive voice’ means
that the subject is the receiver of the action and that the verb is passive. For example, consider
the following sentences:
1. John ‘wrote’ the report. (Active voice)

2. The report ‘was written’ by John. (Passive voice)
Note that in the first sentence, the use of the active voice draws attention to the doer of the
action namely ‘John’. This gives a sharper picture to the receiver of the message. In the second
sentence, the subject, i.e., the ‘report’, is emphasised more than the doer of the action, giving a
less clear picture to the receiver.
In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive, since it conveys ideas more vividly.
However, there are instances when the use of the passive voice is more appropriate. They are
as follows:
• When the doer of the action has to be subordinated, rather than highlighted – For example,
this is the case when writing research reports. It is more important to emphasise what has
been done, rather than who has done it. Therefore, it would be better to say, “A
questionnaire was prepared, and interviews were conducted among a small sample.” rather
than saying “I prepared a questionnaire and conducted interviews among a small sample”
This makes the report more objective, rather than subjective.
• When an unpleasant or negative idea has to be subordinated – Generally, negative thoughts
should be de-emphasised and not highlighted. The passive voice is useful in such cases, as
illustrated in the following sentences:
o The corrections in the report have not been carried out. (Passive voice)
o You have not carried out the corrections in the report. (Active voice)
The first sentence downplays a negative idea – the fact that the changes in the report have not
been included and are, therefore less annoying to the receiver than the second. Expressing the
13
same idea in an active voice may seem like pointing fingers at the doer of the action and is likely
to upset human relations.
1.4 Spelling and Punctuation
The important point to remember concerning spelling is the difference between British English
and American English. Certain words are spelt differently in British and American English. Table
2 illustrates some of these differences.
Table 2: Some Differences in Spellings between British and American English
British American
Humour Humor
Colour Color
Analyse Analyze
Organisation Organization
Programme Program
Centre Center
Cheque Check
Generally British spellings should be used, unless you are addressing an American audience. In
any case, either British or American spellings should be uniformly used and not mixed, to ensure
greater readability.
Another common mistake made with spellings is to confuse the noun form with the verb form.
Table 3 shows the differences in spellings of the noun and verb form of some words.
Table 3: Differences in Spellings of Noun and Verb Form
Noun Verb
Licence License
Advice Advise
Practice Practise
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Some words may sound the same but have different meanings when spelt differently. Some
words may include a single vowel that makes them sound different and have very different
meanings. It is important not to get confused with the spellings of such words.
For example,
1. ‘Compliment’ means to praise someone, whereas ‘complement’ means to go with (for

example, “your jewellery complements your outfit”).
2. ‘Stationery’ refers to paper, pencils, etc., whereas ‘stationary’ means ‘still or not moving’.
Punctuation: Correct use of punctuation is important in both general writing and business
writing. Let us now discuss the main categories of punctuation and their uses.
Apostrophe: Apostrophe is used to form the possessive singular form of words. For example,
‘the Company’s profits’.
• It is used to form the possessive plural of words ending in ‘s’. For example, ‘the dealers’
margin’.
• It is used in expressions that indicate ownership. For example, ‘last year’s record’.
Parentheses or Brackets: Parentheses or brackets can be used to separate a phrase from the
main section of a sentence when it is not related to it grammatically. For example, “The Indian
team tried their best (God knows it) but lost in the finals.”
Colon: Colon is used to suggest that a list will follow a statement in sentence form. For example,
“For three reasons, we have decided to expand our market: 1) 2) 3).”
Comma: Comma is used for the following purposes:
• To separate words in a series. For example, “The main punctuation categories are the full
stop, the comma, the colon, the semicolon, and the apostrophe.”
• To separate two adjectives that modify the same noun. For example, “The MBA exam is a
long, difficult, and objective type exam.”
Dash: Dash is used to separate the words in a sentence that are not necessary for its structure.
For example, “His answer – the correct answer – was supported by examples drawn from his
own experience.”
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Full stop or period: Full stop or period is used:
• at the end of a sentence.

• after abbreviations. For example, Dr., No., Jr., etc.
Quotation marks: Quotation marks are used for the following purposes:
• To enclose what is stated by others, verbatim. For example, the manager said, “I will review
your progress every month.”
• To enclose titles of magazine and newspaper articles. For example, “Progress in Stem Cell
Research.”
Semicolon: Semicolon is used to express a pause that is longer than that expressed by a comma
and is used to separate clauses of a compound sentence when they have a comma.
For example, “We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours, but before 5 pm
will also be convenient.” (Without using semicolon)
“We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours; but if this is not possible for
you before 5 pm will also be convenient.” (Using semicolon)
1.5 Common Errors in English

‘Indian English’ tends to be prone to some common mistakes which should be avoided, to make
the communication clear and easily understood by the receiver. Some of these mistakes include
‘redundancies’, ‘cliches’, and ‘frequently misused words’. We will discuss each of these briefly.
Redundancies: Redundancies refer to phrases that contain repetitive or unnecessary words to

express the same meaning. This is a common mistake that occurs across the world and must be
avoided.
Consider the following sentences:
1. In the first class, the professor taught the ‘basic fundamentals’ of Marketing.
2. I have to ‘return back’ home before midnight.
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The phrases ‘basic fundamentals’ and ‘return back’ are redundancies. In the first sentence,
‘basic’ is an unnecessary word, since fundamentals themselves are basic; in the second sentence,
it is sufficient to say, ‘return home’ and ‘back’ is an unnecessary word.
A few more examples are:
• True facts
• Past history
• Exactly identical
• Personal opinion
• Other alternative
Redundancy does not serve any purpose and is a mistake since it wastes words.
Cliches: Cliches are phrases that are overused and should be avoided since they make reading
monotonous. They should be substituted with more original expressions.
Some commonly used clichés are:
1. ‘Last but not least’, I would like to thank all the students for attending this session.
2. ‘Thanking you in advance’, I remain ….
3. Looking forward to meeting and discussing this with you ‘at an early date’.
4. ‘No problem’.
In the first sentence, ‘last but not least’, which is a worn expression, could be substituted by
‘finally’. The cliché ‘thanking you in advance’ is presumptuous, since it assumes that the reader
will do whatever has been asked. It seems to say that instead of thanking later, you will save
time by expressing your thanks now. Therefore, it is better to say, ‘I shall appreciate your
(action)’ or ‘If you will (action), I shall be grateful.’ In the third example, the expression ‘at an
early date’ is too vague and should be substituted with ‘soon’ or with a specific date. The fourth
example ‘No problem’ is a cliché used commonly by Indians. Although it denies that there is a
problem, the problem exists. You might have said for example, that you did not have enough
cash to pay for something, in response to which the shopkeeper may have said ‘No problem, we
accept credit cards’. Therefore, this expression is avoidable.
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Frequently misused words

Certain words which sound similar or are spelt slightly different, tend to be used in the wrong
context. Some examples are as follows:
1. ‘All together’ and ‘altogether’ – ‘All together’ means ‘in one group’, whereas ‘altogether’
means ‘completely’.
For example,
The answer is ‘altogether’ wrong.
The students were ‘all together’.
2. ‘Already’ and ‘all ready’ – ‘Already’ means ‘at a previous time’, whereas ‘all ready’ means
‘everything is ready’.
For example,
He had ‘already’ left when I called.
The computers are ‘al ready’ to be used.
3. ‘Eminent’ and ‘imminent’ – ‘Eminent’ means ‘well known’, ‘imminent’ means ‘about to
happen’.
For example,
An ‘eminent’ lawyer will handle the matter. A midterm election is ‘imminent’.
4. ‘Lose’ and ‘loose’ – ‘Lose’ means ‘to fail to keep carefully’, ‘loose’ means ‘not tight’.
For example,
Don’t ‘lose’ the money.
The shirt is too ‘loose’ for him.
5. ‘Principal’ and ‘principle’ – ‘Principal’ means ‘main or primary’, ‘principle’ means ‘rule.’
For example
The ‘principal’ reason for leaving early is the peak hour traffic. One of the subjects studied in
the first semester of MBA is
‘Principles’ of Management.
2. Summary
• Writing methodology comprises of three stages: Prewriting, Writing and Reviewing
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• Prewriting is a structured thinking process that helps you to explore and understand what
you have to write.
• You can improve your writing style by choosing the right words for conveying the meaning.
• Some of the common problems include the use of complicated words, the use of jargon,
slang, and colourful language and mistakes in using the parts-of-speech.
• Jargon’ refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area or discipline.
• Adjectives give information about or describe nouns.
• Redundancies refer to phrases that contain repetitive or unnecessary words to express the
same meaning.
• Cliches are phrases that are overused and should be avoided since they make reading
monotonous.
3. Glossary
Parallelism Similarity of construction or meaning of clauses placed side by side.
Phrase Two or more words in sequence that form a syntactic unit that is less than
a complete sentence.
Presumptuous Going beyond what is right or proper.
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Topic: Principles of Business Writing
Topic: Introduction
Principles of Business Writing
Table of Contents
1. Principles of Business Writing ..........................................................................................................4

1.1 Tone .........................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Emphasis and Subordination ...................................................................................................5
1.3 Write at an Appropriate Level of Readability ...........................................................................7
2. Summary ..........................................................................................................................................8
3. Glossary ...........................................................................................................................................9
2
Introduction
In the previous topic, we discussed the general principles of writing. We understood these
principles first by discussing the different stages of writing. We also discussed some specific rules
regarding English language usage, spelling, and punctuation.
In this topic, we shall discuss the specifics of business writing. As pointed out earlier, the
language, style, and tone of business writing are very different from general writing. Therefore,
we will examine these aspects in detail.
Learning Objectives
• distinguish between general and business writing
• compose a piece of business communication confidently.
3
1. Principles of Business Writing

Having dealt with writing in general, we will now discuss the specifics of business writing. As
pointed out earlier, the language, style, and tone of business writing are very different from
general writing. Therefore, we will examine these aspects in detail.
1.1 Tone
We discussed the tone of voice or ‘paralanguage’, in segment 2. You learnt that the spoken
words, however perfect, can convey a negative message if the tone of voice is not consistent
with what is said. The tone is equally important in conveying written messages, particularly
business- related messages.
In written communication, tone refers to the way a statement sounds, which in turn, depends
on the choice of words. A sentence or statement may be grammatically perfect but may convey
a negative message if the choice of words is wrong.
For example, “You failed to meet the sales target”.
This statement has a negative tone since it emphasises what could not be achieved. The same
idea could be expressed in a more positive tone, by emphasising what could have been done
instead.
For example, “With a little extra effort, you could have achieved the target”.
This example shows that even a negative idea can be expressed in positive language through the
use of appropriate words.
The tone of business communication should also be confident. You should avoid language that
makes you sound unsure of yourself.
For example, “I hope you will agree that my qualifications match your job profile”.
Beginning the sentence with ‘I hope’ creates the impression that you lack confidence in yourself.
It might be better to say “On reviewing my bio-data, you will find that my qualifications match
your job needs in the following respects…”
While it is important to be self-assured, avoid sounding overconfident and pompous.
For example, “I am sure you will agree that our Company has the best reputation for quality and
service”.
Instead, you can write the same as “We shall try to live up to our reputation for quality and
service.”
4
Another aspect of tone is to sound courteous and sincere. This builds goodwill and good relations
and increases the likelihood of a message achieving its objectives. Avoid statements such as the
following:
You sent your complaint to the wrong department. You should have sent it to the shipping
department.
This sounds very discourteous and rude when responding to a customer complaint. Instead, it
might be better to say, “We have sent your complaint to the concerned department, which will
be contacting you shortly.”
Sincerity also means avoiding exaggeration and flattery, especially when communicating with
customers. Consider the following examples:
1. We are more interested in your satisfaction than in making profits.
2. You are such a valued customer that we shall go to any lengths to earn your satisfaction.
The first sentence sounds insincere since the main objective of any organisation is to make
profits. The second sentence is exaggerated and unduly flatters the customer. It should be toned
down by saying something such as “We value your goodwill and will make quick efforts to ensure
your satisfaction.”
Finally, the tone of business writing should be non-discriminatory. This means that the language
that is used should not be offensive, irrespective of gender, religion, or race.
One way of ensuring this is to avoid ‘sexist language’ by using neutral job titles, or titles that do
not imply that a job is held only by a man.
For example,
‘Chairperson’, instead of ‘Chairman.’
‘Salesperson’, instead of ‘Salesman.’
If the reader’s gender is not known, use a non-sexist salutation such as ‘Dear Customer, Investor,
or Advertiser’, instead of ‘Dear Sir or Madam.’
Personal titles and salutations such as ‘Dr.’, ‘Professor’, etc., should be used wherever
appropriate.
1.2 Emphasis and Subordination

A business writer can be compared to an artist or a musician. Just like an artist or a musician, a
business writer too tries to make certain elements stand out and others to get little attention.
An important principle of business writing is to emphasise important ideas and to downplay
5
unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand what you consider to be significant.
Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are emphasised, while unpleasant and insignificant
thoughts are subordinated or de-emphasised.
The techniques that a business writer can use for emphasis are:
• Place the idea in the first paragraph or in the last paragraph, in order to get attention.
• Put the word that you wish to emphasise first or last in the sentence.
For example, ‘Success’ comes through sincere efforts. ‘Failure’ will result without them.
Or, the event was a ‘success’. Without your efforts, it would have been a ‘failure’.
• Use the active voice to emphasise the doer of the action and the passive voice to emphasise
the receiver of the action.
For example, ‘John’ made the presentation. (Active) ‘The presentation’ was made by John.
(Passive)
• Use words such as ‘primary’, ‘major’, and ‘significant’ to lay emphasis.
For example, “Cost is a ‘significant’ factor to be taken into consideration.”
• Use repetition.
For example, “The Tata Nano is an ‘inexpensive’ car. It is ‘inexpensive’ to purchase and
‘inexpensive’ to maintain.”
• Number the ideas, so as to rank them in the order of importance.
For example, the main reasons for his poor performance are – 1) Lack of training 2) Lack of team
skills and 3) Lack of motivation.
• Use visual elements such as bold type, capital letters, bigger font size, and underlined words
to emphasise key ideas.
For example, “The Reva electric car is ‘25% LESS POLLUTING’ than other cars”.
• Use compare and contrast to convey the similarities and differences.
For example, “Although oranges and apples grow in trees, oranges are citric fruits”.
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• Use parallelism, where a noun is listed with other nouns, an -ing form with other -ing forms,
etc.
For example,
Sentence 1: Tom plays the piano.
Sentence 2: Tom plays the violin.
Parallelism: Tom plays the piano and the violin.
Another point to be remembered regarding emphasis in business writing is to stress what is

known as the ‘you attitude’, rather than the ‘me attitude.’ This means explaining the benefits to
the reader, understanding his situation, and answering his unspoken question ‘How is it relevant
to me?’
For example, instead of saying, ‘Our bank will be open 24 hours’, say ‘You will be able to avail
round-the-clock banking service.
1.3 Write at an Appropriate Level of Readability

The third very important rule of business writing is to tailor your writing to your audience and to
make it simple enough for even a layperson to read and understand.
As pointed out in an earlier section, readability is determined by the length of words and
sentences. Robert Gunning developed what is known as the ‘Fog Index’ or a readability formula
to measure the readability of a piece of writing. According to this formula, the appropriate
reading level in business writing should be between 8 and 11.
Calculation of the Fog Index involves the following steps:
1. Select a written passage of approximately 100 words.
2. Calculate the average length of a sentence by dividing the total number of words in the
passage by the number of sentences.
3. Find the number of difficult words. A word may be defined as difficult if it contains three or
more syllables (example, ‘communication’). Determine the number of difficult words per
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hundred, by dividing the total number of words in the passage into the number of difficult words,
then by multiplying this figure by 100.
4. Add the number of difficult words per hundred and the average sentence length.
5. Multiply the figure obtained in step 4 by 0.4, to calculate the reading grade level for which
the passage was written or the Fog Index.
Ideally, the Fog Index should be between 8 and 11 for most business writing, indicating that a
reader between the eighth grade and the eleventh grade should be able to understand it without
difficulty.
Activity 1:
Select an article from any business publication and measure its readability by calculating the
Fog Index. Is the level of readability appropriate for the audience?
Common parallelism mistakes made:

1. We often forget to complete the second construction.
For example, “Sheela likes to run and swim”. The correct sentence is “Sheela likes to run and
to swim”.
2. We do not maintain consistency in the pronouns and verbs used.
For example, “Raju wanted a cookie, but the last one was eaten by Ram”. The correct sentence
is “Raju wanted a cookie, but Ram ate the last one”.
2. Summary
• Tone is equally important in conveying written messages, particularly business related
messages.
• An important principle of business writing is to emphasise important ideas and to downplay
unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand what you consider to be significant.
Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are emphasised, while unpleasant and
insignificant thoughts are subordinated or de-emphasised.
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• The third very important rule of business writing is to tailor your writing to your audience
and to make it simple enough for even a layperson to read and understand.
3. Glossary
Courteous Exhibiting courtesy and politeness.
Parallelism Similarity of construction or meaning of clauses placed side by side.
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Topic: Developing Oral Business Communication Skills
Topic: Introduction
Developing Oral Business Communication Skills
Table of Contents
1. Types of Oral Communication ......................................................................................................... 5

2. Oral Business Presentations ............................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Steps in Making Oral Presentations ......................................................................................... 7
2.2 Using Visual Aids to Support Presentations ........................................................................... 15
3. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 22
4. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 22
2
Introduction
In the previous topics, you learnt the general principle of writing and principles of business
writing. Irrespective of your field or the type of job that you choose to take up, you must develop
good oral communication skills along with written skills. Oral communication is an important
part of communication, whether it is in the form of a speech or proposal, both within and outside
the organisation. Oral skills are needed for making effective presentations, participating in and
conducting meetings, dealing with customers, and interacting on a day-to-day basis with your
superiors, peers, and subordinates within the organisation. Your oral communication skills often
reveal your personality. Speaking effectively also gives you great visibility and confidence and
can contribute to your career success.
Kerka, S. in his book Job related basic skills (1990) writes, "The importance of workplace
literacy has been underscored by the link between basic skills and productivity." Oral
communication, listening, group effectiveness, interpersonal skills, negotiation and teamwork
are identified among six job related basic skills sought by employers.
Maes, J. D., Weldy, T. G. & Icenogle, M. L. in their report A Managerial Perspective: Oral
Communication Competency is Most Important for Business Students in the Workplace.
Journal of Business Communication, 34, p67-80. states that "Results of two studies show that
oral communication is the most important competency for college graduates entering the
workforce." Their report identifies the oral skills most important for entry level graduates as:
following instructions, listening, conversing, and giving feedback. In the first study, 354
managers identified and ranked the competencies and characteristics they consider when
hiring college graduates for entry level positions. Findings revealed that the top three
competencies are oral communication, problem solving, and self-motivation. Based on the
first study, the second study revealed that the most important functions graduates perform
are associated with oral communication competency such as handling customer complaints
and meeting skills.
(Source: MORREALE, S.P., OSBORN, M.M., PEARSON, J.C. (2000). Why Communication is Important: A
Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication. Journal of the Association for
Communication Administration, 15, 16)
3
Learning Objectives
• explain the two types of oral communication skills
• list the types of presentation and its target audience
• list the steps for developing oral presentation
• select visual and other presentation aids for maximum effect.
4
1. Types of Oral Communication

We learnt that oral communication has some advantages compared to written communication.
The advantages include personal quality, high interactivity, the possibility of making immediate
contact, and obtaining instantaneous feedback and control over the receiver’s attention.
Oral communication is classified into two types, oral face-to-face communication (for example,
meetings and presentations) and oral non-face-to-face communication (for example,
teleconferencing, telephone and voice mail). While face-to-face meetings are more effective
than non-face-to-face communication in most ways, they are expensive and impractical
sometimes, due to the distance factor. Thanks to advances in technology, meetings today can
still take place without being face-to-face, through teleconferencing. Teleconferencing allows
participants at distant locations to speak and sometimes to see each other. Apart from the high
cost and the difficulty in setting it up, teleconferencing has the same advantages as oral face-to-
face communication.
For example, Wal-Mart, the world’s largest retailer, makes use of teleconferencing to keep its
US headquarters in touch with the store managers worldwide. Some head-hunters also make
use of the facility to conduct preliminary interviews and shortlist candidates based in other
countries, before inviting them for a face-to-face interview.
Many multi-national corporations and large Indian organisations also use this facility extensively.
In spite of its advantages, teleconferencing will not replace face-to-face meetings completely,
since it is unsuitable for certain types of communication that involve brainstorming,
negotiations, persuasion and problem solving.
Telephone communication, another form of non-face-to-face communication, has the biggest
advantage of being able to contact a receiver who would be impossible to reach in person.
Today, mobile phones have made it even easier to contact people who are on the move.
Telephone communication also has a personal quality and permits the use of some non-verbal
cues such as tone of voice, to enhance communication.
Voice mail is a type of telephone communication and is similar to an answering machine.
Although it is generally inferior to speaking in person to the other party, it has some advantages.
When you leave a recorded message, you can make your point felt and save time that might be
wasted in exchanging pleasantries. Invitations can also be declined without having to give an
5
explanation or reason or having the other person talk back. Thus, there is greater control over
how the message is composed and delivered. Besides, voice mail also makes it possible to keep
a permanent record of the communication, unlike other types of oral communication. In spite
of these advantages, however, voice mail has not caught on in India.
2. Oral Business Presentations

Oral business presentations are a powerful way of presenting your ideas to others and are
usually called for when a written memo or report is not sufficient to do the job. A written report
tends to be less persuasive and may also be set aside without being read, whereas an oral
presentation commands attention and fetches immediate feedback. Besides, approval for
important ideas is rarely given without a face-to-face explanation.
Presentations may be made to both internal audiences – superiors, peers, and subordinates, as
well as to external audiences – consumers, intermediaries, bankers, suppliers, etc. Presentations
may also be of different types, each with a different purpose. Some of the most common types
of presentations and the audiences to whom they are addressed are mentioned in table 1.
Table 1: Types of Presentation and Target Audience

Type/Purpose of Example Audience
Presentation
Briefing and Information New online leave application Employees
procedure
Orientation Orientation to new joinees Employees
Training How to operate a new Employees
Reporting Research Findings Consumer satisfaction Superiors
Reporting Progress Report of weekly sales Superiors
Highlighting Company’s Reporting awards won by the Media
Achievements Company
TV and Radio Interviews to Describing company’s Society at large
describe Company position on environmental
Viewpoints issues
Introduction Overview of the company New employees
6
Product Presentation Highlighting features of a new Consumers, intermediaries

product
Project Proposal New project undertaken by Bankers
the company
Policy Proposal New mobile phone expense Superiors
reimbursement policy
Marking Special Presentation at company Internal and external
Occasions anniversary celebrations audiences
2.1 Steps in Making Oral Presentations
Table 1 indicates that oral presentations can range from simple to more complex ones, each
with a different purpose. Irrespective of the nature of the presentation, the steps shown in figure
1 can be followed for planning and preparing an oral presentation.
Fig. 1: Steps for Creating Oral Presentation
7
Let us now study each of these steps in detail.
1. Definition of the purpose of the presentation: Before preparing for the presentation, it is
important to be clear on the goal of the presentation. A ’statement of purpose’, expressing what
you want to achieve through the presentation must be framed so that it becomes easy to
measure whether the goal has been accomplished or not.
The purpose of the presentation may be stated in broad or general terms or in more specific
terms. A ‘general statement of purpose’ could be expressed in terms of one of the following:
• To inform – A presentation that seeks to inform would merely create awareness about
developments and progress on specific fronts or try to spread knowledge about something new.
In table 1, the first eight types of presentations are aimed at informing different audiences about
something or the other – new procedures, new terminology, new software, findings of a study,
sales progress, company achievements, viewpoints, and background.
• To persuade – A presentation that aims to persuade would try to change the attitude or
behaviour of the audience. It usually involves selling either a product or an idea. In table 1, the
product presentation, project proposal, and policy proposal are all persuasive presentations. The
product presentation seeks to persuade consumers to try a new product, the project proposal
tries to persuade bankers to provide funds for a new project and the policy proposal tries to
persuade top management to adopt a new policy of reimbursing mobile expenses.
• To entertain – A presentation with this purpose is meant to make the audience relax and have
a good time. In table 1, presentations marking special occasions such as the company
anniversary, may merely focus on making people feel good about themselves.
Although it is useful to define the general purpose of a presentation, it is more important to

frame a ‘specific statement of purpose’, which spells out the answers to the following questions:
• Whom do I want to influence?
• What do I want them to do at the end of the presentation?
• How do I want them to do it?
• When do I want them to do it?
• Where do I want them to do it?
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For example, “I want 50% of my prospective customers to be convinced enough to walk in to the
store and try out the new product on a trial basis, within the next one week.”
The statement of purpose in the previous example describes the reaction that you are seeking
from your audience and also describes the goal in measurable terms. The number of customers
who walk into the store and sample the product during the one-week period would indicate
whether the goal has been achieved or not. As far as possible, the goal must be quantified, so
that it is measurable.
Presentation goals must be realistic, keeping in mind the limitations of time, the topic of the
presentation, and the nature of the audience. For example, a presentation that aims to train
employees on the use of complicated software must not expect them to become experts at the
end of the session.
2. Development of the key idea: The ‘key idea’ of a presentation is a statement that expresses
the main message to be conveyed to the audience. It is different from a statement of purpose,
which is generally meant for the presenter. The key idea is for the audience and it is stated at
the beginning of the presentation.
For example, if the purpose is to persuade a prospective customer to try out your company’s
brand of vacuum cleaner, the key idea or message may be to explain how your brand is superior
to other brands, feature for feature.
Once the key idea is clearly stated, it becomes easy to develop the rest of the presentation.
3. Audience analysis: Making a good presentation alone is not enough. It also has to be tailored
to your listeners in such a way that they understand and appreciate it. The following
‘information’ must be ‘gathered about your audience’, even before you begin preparing for the
presentation:
• Job designations and areas of expertise – You need to find out whether the audience
comprises of specialists in a particular area such as information technology or generalists. If they
are specialists, your presentation could include technical aspects and jargon, which they would
be able to understand. If not, you may have to make the presentation simpler or explain some
of the terms elaborately.
9
• Preferred style of presentation – It would also be relevant to know the personal preferences
of your audience, concerning the style of presentation that they are most comfortable with.
Some people may prefer a more informal or conversational style with some humour than a more
formal style. Others may like the presentation to be made at a slower pace or they may prefer
the presentation to be formal. However, you have to remember that humour must be used with
care so that it is relevant and does not offend the audience. Analysing all this in advance would
help in determining how the presentation must be delivered.
• Demographic characteristics of the audience – The gender, age, cultural background, and
economic status of the audience also need to be studied in advance, so that the presentation
may be tailored to appeal to that particular audience. For example, a financial planner
addressing an audience comprising of senior citizens is likely to suggest investment options that
would be different from those that might be suggested for a younger audience.
• Size of the audience – The size of the audience would determine your presentation style, the
time set aside for questions and answers, the size of visuals, etc. With a smaller group, the
presentation could be made less formal, the time for questions and answers could be reduced
and the visuals could be made smaller, than for a larger group.
• Level of knowledge on the subject – You need to know how familiar your audience is with the
subject of the presentation. If the audience comprises of experts in that particular area, basic
explanations may not be needed. On the other hand, if the level of familiarity is not so high, a
lot of background information and explanation is required.
• Attitude of the audience – The attitude of your listeners, both towards you as a speaker and
towards the topic of the presentation, needs to be studied in advance. If the audience is
prejudiced towards you for some reason, you may have to alter your style of presentation
considerably. If the presentation happens to be on a sensitive topic, you may have to proceed
very tactfully. This is especially true of presentations that aim to persuade.
4. Analysis of yourself as a speaker: Apart from analysing your audience, you also need to do a
self-analysis to determine your purpose of making the presentation, your level of knowledge on
the subject and your feelings about the subject. As explained earlier, a clear statement of the
specific purpose of the presentation must be developed. If you have a choice of subject, it is
10
always better to speak on a subject on which you are an authority. If the choice is not given to
you and you are less knowledgeable, then it is important to research the subject thoroughly, so
that you are in a position to anticipate and answer any questions. Finally, you need to assess
your feelings about the subject and make sure that you are convinced enough to be able to
persuade others as well. This is similar to a salesperson being convinced about a product to be
sold.
5. Analysis of the circumstances: This includes taking into consideration any limitations of
infrastructure, time and context that might affect your presentation. For example, if you will be
speaking in a small room where the lighting and acoustics are insufficient, you may have to
overcome the limitations by altering the seating arrangement, using brighter visuals and
speaking loudly. If the presentation is to be made after lunch, you can include many attention
grabbers in the presentation, to keep the audience alert. If you are making a presentation as
part of a team, your style of presentation has to be consistent with that of your team members.
6. Preparation of outline: Once the initial groundwork is done, you must develop an outline of
your presentation. Irrespective of the nature and purpose of the presentation, a standard format
is generally followed. This includes the following:
• Introduction – This must include an ’attention getter’ to get the audience involved and
interested in the presentation. Several techniques may be used to command attention, which
will be discussed later. The key idea or main message must be conveyed to the audience during
the introduction.
• Body or main section – This is where the main points will be presented and elaborated upon.
It is best to limit the number of main points to five, so as not to overload the listeners with too
much information.
• Conclusion – A summary of the presentation, along with concluding remarks would be

included in this section. The conclusion must have as much ’punch’ as the attention getter in the
introduction.
11
7. Collection of information and material: Once the outline of the presentation is developed,
you can start gathering the relevant material. This is a time-consuming process and requires a
fair amount of research. The information can generally be gathered from existing sources such
as company resources or data, magazines, newspapers, and the Internet. Sometimes, you may
need to do original research in the form of a survey to gather fresh data. For example, if you are
making a presentation on a new product, you may have to conduct a survey to find out how
consumers feel about that product concept and also about similar, competing products.
8. Organisation of the body: The body of the presentation must always be prepared before the
introduction. Organising the body consists in identifying the key points that support your main
idea and then selecting an organisational plan to develop these key points.
Let us take our earlier example of a sales presentation on a vacuum cleaner to prospective
customers, where the key idea is to highlight that it is superior to competing brands. The main
points, in this case, can be:
• It has greater cleaning power than other brands.
• It is more affordable.
• It is easier to use than other brands.
Once the main points are determined, sub-points can be developed to expand on each of
these.
The next step is to choose an organisational plan to present these main and sub points.
For example, in the case of a sales presentation a ’problem-solution’ pattern or plan may be
followed, where the customer is confronted with a problem, and the product is offered as a
solution to the problem.
9. Planning the introduction: Since the introduction is where you make the first impression, it
must be planned with care. It must take up between 10 and 15 percent of your total speaking
time. At the outset, you need to try and establish your credibility, by showing that you are
qualified to speak on the subject of the presentation. An attention getting opener must be
developed, using techniques such as humour, dramatic questions, an interesting story, a
quotation, or a startling statement. For example, do you know that the number of road accidents
last year touched the 100,000 mark?
12
Once audience attention is captured, the main idea must be stated clearly, followed by a preview
of the entire presentation, so that people know what to expect.
10. Planning the conclusion: The conclusion of a presentation must be shorter than the
introduction and occupy only 5 percent of the entire presentation. You must never introduce a
new topic in the conclusion. Generally, every conclusion must have a review and a closing
statement.
The review is essentially a reinforcement of the key idea and a summary of the main points. The
main points can be enumerated, as in the outline of the presentation. The closing statement
must be as strong as your opening statement so that your audience will remember the
presentation. Therefore, the same techniques used to capture audience attention may also be
used to prepare a good closing statement. In the case of persuasive presentations, the closing
statement can include a call for immediate action.
For example: Now that you have seen what our vacuum cleaner can do, walk into our store today
to place your order and avail an early bird discount!
11. Selection of a delivery style: Once your presentation is adequately prepared in terms of
content, you also need to ensure that it will be delivered effectively, by selecting an appropriate
style of delivery. Figure 2 depicts the five different delivery styles available to speakers.
Fig. 2: Presentation Delivery Styles
13
• Speaking impromptu – In this case, the speaker is called upon to say a few words without any
warning or advance notice. Since there is little or no time given for preparation, it is suited for
only expert speakers. Impromptu speeches must be brief, simple, and direct, compared to
prepared speeches.
• Speaking extemporaneously – This is different from speaking impromptu. While impromptu

speeches are delivered on the spot and not rehearsed, an extemporaneous speech is prepared
and rehearsed in advance. However, the speech is delivered naturally, without the support of
notes or other aids. This is the delivery style used by experienced professionals, who have
sufficient knowledge of the subject to be able to speak without relying on notes.
• Memorising the presentation – This is the least appealing style of delivery, as it comes across
as unnatural and monotonous to the audience. Speakers who memorise and deliver
presentations word for word will also be at a disadvantage if they forget a part of the speech, as
they will be unable to speak naturally.
• Reading from written notes – This involves reading the entire presentation from notes. It is a
method used by government or business officials and may be appropriate when the material to
be presented is highly technical or complex. However, it has some limitations. First, it gives the
impression that the speech is very long and heavy. Secondly, it prevents the presenter from
making eye contact with the audience.
• Speaking from notes – This is generally the most effective style of delivery. It involves jotting
down the main ideas in point form on index cards and then referring to these cards merely as a
trigger while speaking. If the main ideas are put down briefly on the cards, the speakers can
elaborate on these ideas in their own words and speak for any length of time. The presentation
is likely to be more effective since it comes across as natural and permits eye contact with the
audience.
Along with these elements, the speaker must also ensure to maintain good voice quality during
oral communication, as it creates a stage for healthy communication. As a speaker, you must
ensure that you are audible to the listeners. Therefore, you must adjust the pitch and loudness
of your voice accordingly.
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2.2 Using Visual Aids to Support Presentations

The use of visual aids enhances the effectiveness of a presentation and involves the audience
more than a pure oral presentation. As the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words”.
Several studies have indicated that presentations made with visual support have been more
successful in persuading audiences than presentations without visuals. Visuals have also been
found to make the information in presentations more memorable. Also, graphics help speakers
to illustrate ideas and to answer questions. However, visual aids must be used only where it is
relevant and not just for the sake of using it. Since, they may distract the attention of the
audience from the speaker’s main message.
A speaker has a wide variety of visual aids to choose from. Some of the commonly used types of
visual aids are:
• Product demonstrations – Since “seeing believes”, a sales presentation can be more

effective and convince a prospective customer to try a product, if the product is shown in actual
use.
• Photographs – Photographs are true to life and are an effective way of illustrating products.
They are highly credible and can be used as proof to support facts.
• Diagrams – These are two dimensional drawings which can convey information about size,
shape and structure – for example, floor plans.
• Lists and tables – These are an effective way of highlighting facts and figures and of making
comparisons – for example, comparing last year’s profits with this year’s profits.
• Pie charts and graphs – Pie charts help to illustrate percentages of a single item – for
example, the percentage of the total students in each area of specialisation of an MBA
programme. Graphs are good for illustrating trends or growth in sales and profits over time.
Once the type of visual aid has been decided, the medium for presenting the visual aid needs to
be selected. Again, a variety of media are available to the presenter. They are:
• Flip chart
• Transparencies
• PowerPoint slides
15
• Handouts
• Computerised displays
• Videotapes
Let us now discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of each of these media and some
guidelines for using them.
Flip chart: Flip chart consists of a large pad of thick chart paper attached to an easel, where
different pictures are shown on separate charts one at a time, by turning the pages. At the end
of the presentation, the charts can be flipped over to recap the session, hence the name ’flip
chart’. Flip charts are commonly used during sales presentations and business meetings. They
are easy to prepare, use, carry and set up. However, they are not suited for making a
presentation to a large audience. They are also clumsy and can become worn out after repeated
use. Figure 3 depicts a flip chart.
Fig. 3: A Flip Chart
Transparencies: Transparencies are clear sheets used with an overhead projector to project an
image on the screen. It is possible to transfer text or visuals from other sources on to
transparency by using a copy machine. It is also possible to write directly on the transparency
with special marker pens, during the presentation.
Transparencies have a number of advantages. Unlike flip charts, they are better suited for large
audiences. Unlike other visual aids, they are also easier and quicker to produce, since you can
copy visuals from other sources, instead of creating them from scratch. You can also write on
them as you speak and later erase what you have written and re-use them.
16
The disadvantage of using transparencies is that they are unmanageable and require an
overhead projector. The speakers also have to position themselves in such a way that the
projector does not block anyone’s view.
Figure 4: Transparency sheet
PowerPoint slides: PowerPoint slides are an effective visual aid as they lend a touch of
sophistication and professionalism to the presentation. It is ideal for presentations where
technical pictures and elaborate diagrams are needed to illustrate ideas to the audience.
PowerPoint slides are easy to store since they are less cumbersome than flip charts and
transparencies. It is also possible to transfer photographs, logos, and other visuals directly on to
the slide.
The use of laptop computer and presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint has made
the creation of presentation very easy. You can easily add a screen, produce dramatic visuals,
animation, and simulations to your presentation. Computer-based visuals created using
PowerPoint has become a standard for most technical, educational and business presentations.
It can be used effectively for the large and small audiences to convey simple as well as complex
information.
The disadvantage of PowerPoint is that it tends to be overused for the sake of technology,
’gimmickry’, and special effects. This tends to distract the attention of the audience from what
the speaker is saying. Therefore, PowerPoint slides must be prepared carefully and used
judiciously.
Figure 5 depicts a PowerPoint slide on Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation Window.
17
Fig. 5: Microsoft Office PowerPoint Slide
Table 2 lists some dos and don’ts of preparing and using PowerPoint slides for presentations.
Table 2: Checkpoints for Using Power Point Slides
1. Do not make the layout of the PowerPoint slides too cluttered or crowded.
2. Do not prepare too many or too few slides. Around 12 slides are sufficient for a one-hour
presentation.
3. Plan to spend about 2 – 3 minutes talking on each slide, excluding the title and outline of
the presentation.
4. Pay attention to the font size, number of words, and number of lines on a slide. Seven
words per sentence and Seven lines per slide is a general rule of thumb.
5. Make the slides look sober and dignified and do not make the background too flashy.
6. Ensure that the style and format used in the slides are consistent.
7. Make the text on the slide crisp, avoiding unnecessary articles and prepositions.
Choose keywords and phrases, instead of long sentences.
8. Add value to what is on the slide, by explaining key points. Avoid reading directly from the
slide.
9. Balance the time spent on each slide. Do not spend too much time on some slides and rush
through the rest.
10. Coordinate your explanation with the slide numbers.
11. Focus on the main points mentioned in the slides. Avoid needless frills and trivialities.
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Handouts: Handouts are printed details on the topic of the presentation that is distributed to
the audience. They have the advantage of providing a permanent record of your ideas. They also
provide extra information that you may not be able to cover during your oral presentation. For
example, if you are making a presentation on a new product, the technical features of the
product, along with some illustrations, could be included in the handout for the audience to
study later. Handouts can also reduce the need for listeners to take notes during your
presentation. This way, their attention will be completely focused on what you are saying.
One problem with handouts is that the audience may read them during your presentation,
instead of listening to your presentation. You can avoid this by asking them to read the handouts
later or by distributing the handouts at the end of the session.
Fig. 6: Sample Handouts
Computerised displays: Computerised displays are images stored on your computer screen or
laptop, which can be shown to the audience to illustrate your ideas. This is an inexpensive and
convenient type of visual aid and requires little effort or preparation. However, it is suitable only
for small audiences, due to its small size. You can use a computerised display to make a
presentation to a large audience by using a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector to project the
images onto a big screen. Figure 7 depicts a computerised display using a LCD.
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Fig. 7: Computerised Display
CDs and DVDs: Initially, videotapes were used as audio-visual aids to exploit the attention-
grabbing properties of television for maximum impact. Compact Discs (CDs) and Digitally
Versatile Discs (DVDs) are used instead of videotapes nowadays for the same. Using CDs and
DVDs for a presentation can add value when you wish to illustrate action – for example, to show
a sportsperson in action, a product demonstration in a TV commercial, or a speaker’s gestures.
However, like other visual aids, they must not be used for the sake of entertainment. Attention
must also be paid to produce them carefully, to make sure that the quality is of a high standard.
Figure 8 depicts CDs and videotapes.
Fig. 8: CDs and Videotape
No matter what type of visual aid you choose to support your presentation, some basic rules
need to be followed when using them. They are:
• Use visual aids only if they add value – Make sure that you have a reason to use a visual,
rather than using it for its own sake. If your ideas are better explained through words, avoid the
visual since this will only distract the attention of the audience.
• Match your visuals with the level of the audience – Your visual aid’s level of sophistication
must depend on your audience. For example, if you are making a presentation to top
20
management, the graphics must be extremely polished. For less formal presentations, simple
graphics created on your own computer or laptop may be sufficient.
• Make the visuals clear and large enough – Avoid creating visuals that are so small that they
have to be described. It is better to use no visual support than to use visuals that cannot be seen.
• Make the visuals simple – When creating visuals, avoid making them too complicated and
detailed, so that the audience can understand them without difficulty.
• Avoid too much text with visuals – Visuals must have short captions, using only keywords and
simple typefaces, so that attention is drawn to the visual alone.
• Give each visual a title and number – For the sake of easy identification, make sure that each
visual is given an appropriate caption, and is numbered.
• Show a visual, only when you discuss it – Revealing a visual before you are ready to describe
it will only distract the attention of the audience from what you are presently saying.
• Remove visuals after use – Similarly, blank out, erase or turn off visuals soon after you have
explained them so that the audience can focus on what you are saying next.
• Check if visuals will work beforehand – Remember to check all the facilities in the
presentation room before the session, to ensure that the visuals can be shown without any
problem.
• Rehearse setting up visuals – Practise using the visuals before the presentation, so that you
are familiar with the sequence when to show, and remove them, without any confusion.
• The use of visual aids such as product demonstrations, photographs, diagrams, lists and
tables, and pie charts and graphs increases the effectiveness of the presentation.
• A wide variety of media such as a flip chart, transparencies, PowerPoint, handouts,

computerised displays, and videotapes are used by the speakers for presentation.
21
3. Summary
• There are two types of oral communication: oral face-to-face communication
and oral non-face-to-face communication.
• Oral presentation is a powerful way of conveying information and ideas in
business communication.
• The type of presentation is chosen based on the purpose of the presentation
and audience.
• The steps to develop an effective presentation are as follows:
o Definition of the purpose of the presentation
o Development of the key idea
o Audience analysis
o Analysis of yourself as a speaker
o Analysis of the circumstances
o Preparation of outline
o Collection of information and material
o Organisation of the body
o Planning the introduction
o Planning the conclusion
o Selection of a delivery style
4. Glossary
Compact Disc An optical disc used to store digital data.
(CD)
Digital Versatile A small plastic disc used for the storage of digital data. It has very high
Disc (DVD) storage memory compared to CDs.
Easel An upright frame for displaying or supporting something, such as an artist's
canvas.
Impromptu Totally unprepared.
22
Liquid Crystal It is a type of video projector for displaying video, images or computer data
Display (LCD) on a screen or other flat surface.
projector
Overhead It is a machine that displays images onto a screen with a light and mirror
Projector system.
Teleconference It is a telephone or video meeting between participants in two or more
locations.
Typefaces It is the artistic representation or interpretation of characters or symbols.
23
Topic: Reading Skills
Topic: Introduction
Reading Skills
Table of Contents
1. Reading – Overview ......................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Purposes of Reading ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Reading as a Skill .......................................................................................................................... 7
2. Types of Reading ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Skimming ................................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Scanning .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Extensive Reading.................................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Intensive Reading .................................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Loud and Silent Reading .......................................................................................................... 9
3. SQ3R Technique of Reading ............................................................................................................ 9
4. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 11
5. Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 12
2
Reading Skills
Introduction
In the previous topic, we studied the advantages of oral communication. We also became
familiar with the steps to follow for creating an effective presentation and the significance of
using visual aids in a presentation. Oral communication plays a significantly important role in
business communication along with listening and written skills. At the same time, business
executives also need to equip themselves with reading skills, in order to succeed in the
workplace. The types of reading that you will have to do at the workplace will be varied –
sometimes you may have to do extensive reading of professional books, magazines, and
journals; at other times you may be required to study research reports in an intensive manner.
Often, business executives are also asked to scan newspapers and magazines to collect
information or to read and condense business-related articles for their busy superiors. Unless
you familiarize yourself with the different techniques of reading, you will not be successful.
Sticht, in 1975 found that a significant amount of time is spent in schools on teaching how to
read and interpret novels, short stories, dramas and poetry. However, very less attention is
given to teaching technical reading skills needed in the workplace. The report released in 1991
by Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) mentioned that reading of
technical material as a basic skill is needed by all workers. Reading at workplace usually
comprises of the ability to understand and interpret various documents such as diagrams,
directories, correspondence, manuals, records, charts, graphs, tables and specifications.
Based on the research of Ross and Salzman, in 1987, Schmidt reported that the reading
materials for enhancing technical reading skills must be developed using office documents.
About 121 documents were collected from ten businesses and were analysed for reading
level. The average reading grade levels for the documents ranged from 11.3 for those
collected from a bank to 13.4 for those collected from a university continuing education
centre office. Other businesses that provided documents and their average reading grade
levels included 11.4 for a space industry manufacturer, 11.8 for a town administration office,
12.0 for a hospital, 12.0 for an insurance company, 12.1 for a chemical industry manufacturer,
12.8 for a railroad, 13.1 for a country administration office and 13.1 for a school division office.
3
Reading Skills
Thus, the reading grade level of typical office documents is considerably higher than general
interest reading materials. Further, most reading done by adults is technical and job-related
reading. It is not the type of reading emphasised in schools.
(Source: http://www.enotes.com/business-finance-encyclopedia/reading-skills-business)
Learning Objectives
• define reading
• explain the purpose of reading
• select different types of reading for different purposes
• describe the steps of SQ3R reading technique.
4
Reading Skills
1. Reading – Overview
Reading has been defined variously as follows:
• “Reading is thinking under the stimulus of the printed page” (Webster,1982:30)
• “Reading is a psycho-linguistic guessing game” (Webster, 1982:19)
• “Reading comprehension means understanding a written text. Under-standing a written text
is extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible”. (Francoise Grellet
1991:3)
The above definitions/descriptions suggest that when we read any piece of text, we understand
the given text at the below three levels:
1. Pure, literal response to the familiar words on the page – In this level, there is no in-
depth understanding.
2. Recognition of the writer’s meaning - In this level, we read and recognise the intention
of the author in writing the given text.
3. Personal experience, - In this level, we relate our understanding to our personal
experiences.
Therefore, when you read, you read the lines, read between the lines and also read beyond the
lines. So, reading is nothing but a decoding process. Figure 1 depicts the decoding process.
Fig. 1: Decoding Process

As shown in figure 1, a typical decoding or reading process involves a message that is written
(encoded) by a writer in a particular language. The message written by the writer is read
(decoded) by the reader.
5
Reading Skills
1.1 Purposes of Reading

We read many things in our day-to-day lives. Some of them include:
• Newspapers and magazines
• Advertisements, leaflets and pamphlets
• Textbooks, novels and short stories
• Letters
• Email
• Recipes, puzzles, menus
• Articles, reports, legal documents
• Dictionaries, telephone directories
• Cartoons, comic strips
• Timetables, maps, statistical graphs and diagrams
The above items are read either for knowledge, personal interest, pleasure or to gather
information. For you, as students, the purpose of reading is either for interest, pleasure or to
acquire information and knowledge. Reading for interest or pleasure is usually fulfilled through
reading fiction while reading to learn is achieved by reading informative articles. Reading for
information may be both internal and external. When you read for necessary background
information about what is going on within the company where you work or within your group,
it is called ‘reading for internal information’. Reading for information about what is going on in
your field, but outside your own company, is called ‘reading for external information’.
Professional reading’ is done when you need to continue learning and studying, so that you
develop your thinking and skills. However, you must bear in mind that a text is not written strictly
for any one purpose. For instance, a biography or an autobiography may be read by one person
for personal interest, to understand the life story of an individual. The same book may also be
read by a research scholar, for research purposes. People’s interest in reading is so varied that
any text could meet any purpose.
6
Reading Skills
1.2 Reading as a Skill

Similar to listening, reading for many of us, is a ’passive’ process, where we sit down, relax, and
run our eyes through the words on the page. However, meaningful reading or reading with
understanding is considered as an ’active’ process. Readers can understand a text only when
they actively use their mental faculties. Therefore, to read efficiently, one has to have:
• Knowledge of the writing system of the language.

• Knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language.
• Ability to interpret.
• A reason for reading.
• An appropriate method of reading.
• Knowledge of the world (experience/background knowledge).
When all these requirements are used efficiently while reading, understanding will be effective
and meaningful. Thus, reading is a skill, which has to be acquired through constant
experimentation.
2. Types of Reading
As discussed earlier, we read in different ways, depending on the purpose for which we are
reading a text. Let us discuss some of the different types of reading. Figure 2 depicts the different
types of reading which we will discuss in the following sub-sections.
Fig. 2: Reading Types
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Reading Skills
2.1 Skimming
Let us say that you are a student of management and as suggested by your professor, you need
to buy a reference textbook for writing a paper on Investment Management or Quality
Management. You go to a book store and see a rack full of books, with the same title, but
different authors. You do not have time to read the pages before deciding on buying the book.
Therefore, you quickly go through the contents, title page, and blurb. By now, you have decided
to buy one book. This type of reading that you do in the book store is known as ’skimming’. Thus,
skimming may be defined as “looking over a text/book quickly, to get a general or superficial
idea of the content”. Skimming is usually done to grasp main ideas and to review the material
by skipping the details.
2.2 Scanning
Scanning is a kind of reading where the reading is done for a very specific purpose. For example,
as you read a text, editorial, or an article, you may suddenly come across a word that is not
familiar to you. Naturally, you would like to know the meaning of the word, for your own benefit.
So, you get the dictionary and carefully find the word. You see the spelling, pronunciation,
meaning, and also the various uses of the same word (if any). This type of careful reading to find
out the specific, clear details is known as ’scanning’. In this case, you do not just run your eyes
across the page, but look into the information for specific details.
2.3 Extensive Reading

As we have already mentioned, our way of reading is influenced by the purpose of our reading.
Most of us have the habit of reading especially when we are free or have a lot of leisure time.
We might get hold of a novel, a comic strip, or a magazine. When we read for the pure pleasure
of reading, it is known as “extensive” reading. However, it must not be given less priority,
because it is extensive reading. It is enjoyable, as well as informative. Here, we practice rapid
reading to get a global/overall understanding of the matter.
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Reading Skills
2.4 Intensive Reading

When we read shorter texts like a research paper for getting specific details or information, we
read slowly with a lot of concentration. This is known as intensive reading. Intensive reading
includes reading accurately to extract specific information. You can use intensive reading to
understand each word, number, or fact. For example, you do intensive reading when reading a
bookkeeping report, an insurance claim, a contract, etc.
2.5 Loud and Silent Reading

Most of our day-to-day reading is done silently. When we read an article or advertisement, we
are engaged in the process of deriving meaning from the passage. Actually, when we read
aloud, our concentration is divided between reading and speaking. This makes reading difficult
and may cause problems in understanding the matter. However, there are situations when we
may have to read things aloud when others do not have access to them – for example, notices
and circulars. We need to read the instructions aloud to students or employees so that there
is no confusion later. Apart from these extraordinary situations, most of the time the natural
way of reading is silent reading, which is ideal and helps comprehension.
3. SQ3R Technique of Reading

SQ3R technique of reading was developed by Robinson in his book "Effective Study" (1970).
SQ3R stands for the initial letters of the five steps shown in table 1.
Table 1: Steps of SQ3R
Steps Expansion Abbreviation
Step 1 Survey S
Step 2 Question Q
Step 3 Read R
Step 4 Recall R
Step 5 Review R
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Reading Skills
Let us briefly go through these steps in the given order mentioned in table 1.
1. Survey – Survey refers to a quick glance through the title page, preface, and chapter headings
of a text. By surveying, you will be able to gauge the main ideas of the text. Besides, the author’s
name, date, place of publication, and title page can give you an idea of the general subject area.
The table of contents, preface or foreword in a book would give you an idea of the themes and
how they are organised. A survey of the index or bibliography tells you immediately whether the
book contains what you need.
2. Question – The second step in the SQ3R technique of reading is ‘question’. A survey of the
text will surely raise a few questions in your mind regarding the text. Some of the questions
could be:
• Is the book useful or relevant to my study?
• Does it provide some guidelines/information on the subject at hand?
However, as you go through the individual chapters, you might have specific questions regarding
the topic. This will surely help you to gain some insights into the text, topic, and the author's
comments. You will be surprised to see how your questions are answered in the process of
reading and understanding the text. Therefore, don't treat reading as an automatic process. It
has to be conscious and deliberate, with a definite purpose, where you interact with the topic
and the author.
3. Reading – After surveying and questioning, you begin the actual reading. You need to develop
a critical approach to reading anything for that matter. Read the text over and over again, each
time with a different question and a different purpose in mind. "I read it once and understand
everything" kind of attitude is nothing but a myth. Hence, while reading for the first time, you
must just focus on the main points or ideas and supporting details. Make a note of the important
points that you have read.
4. Recall – Recalling or reciting follows the reading level. In this level, the reader recalls or recites
the content after reading some portion of the text. This is done by checking and amending notes.
This is done because every reading exercise increases your background knowledge and you must
be able to connect the information gained with the existing knowledge. Thus, recalling whatever
you have read enables you to connect and relate the content with the previous and future
learning of the subject. You can recite aloud, silently, or by writing down the key points that sum
10
Reading Skills
up the major points. It is a good practice to put across the points in your own words when you
recall.
5. Review – Reviewing is the process of checking whether we have followed the earlier stages
promptly and efficiently. Have we surveyed the book, article, or magazine properly? Have we
asked the appropriate questions relating to the content? Have we read it critically and have we
recalled the most significant details or information required for our study? These are questions
that must be asked in the final stage of reading. The review will sharpen your critical ability,
enable you to form your own opinions on the topic, and express them to others.
Try to practice these stages consciously in your reading and research and you will find this to be
a highly rewarding experience.
4. Summary
• Reading is defined as "thinking under the stimulus of the printed page” or "psycho-
linguistic guessing game”.
• Reading can happen for obtaining both internal and external information.
• When you need to continue learning and studying, so that you develop your own thinking
and skills, you read professionally.
• Reading can be classified into following types:
o Skimming
o Scanning
o Extensive reading
o Intensive reading
o Loud and silent reading
• Robinson developed SQ3R technique and published it in his book "Effective Study".
• The following are the five steps of SQ3R technique:
1. Survey
2. Question
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Reading Skills
3. Read
4. Recall
5. Review
5. Glossary
Apprenticeship A system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill.
Bibliography The history, identification or description of writings or publications.
Blurb A short piece of writing on the cover of a book that reviews and promotes
the book.
Gauge A measurement (as of linear dimension) according to some standard or

system.
12

Business Communication 1-3

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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1. Communication – Meaning ............................................................................................................. 5

Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees work from a remote location

Fig. 1: Communication Model

The elements involved in communication are:

might be received differently, depending on whether the communication takes place in

1. Barriers to Communication ............................................................................................................. 4

Fig. 1.: Barriers to Communication

• Individual barriers – A major barrier to interpersonal communication is a tendency to judge,

To Director By order of the Chief

The Heads of Departments send the following message to their Managers:

Finally, each Manager sends the following notice to their Executives:

1.1 Overcoming the Barriers to Communication

• Selection of appropriate channels – Individuals should be competent enough to choose the

o Linguistic or cultural barriers

1. Classification of Communication .................................................................................................... 4

• Intrapersonal communication: Intrapersonal communication is self-communication. This is

2. Importance of Communication in the Workplace

communication is required to explain a new computer program or software. While computers

Effective communication serves the following specific purposes in an organisation:

o Greater awareness of organisational goals and teamwork – When there is open

Common mistakes made in communication:

Nomura group required a global communication environment which allowed employees to

Reasons for selecting BlackBerry Solution

1. Types of Communication ................................................................................................................. 4

o Written communication – This type of communication is the correspondence made in writing.

• Non-verbal communication – This type of communication may be defined as communication

1.1 Usage of Verbal Communication

Let us now discuss these guidelines in detail.

1.2 Characteristics of Non-Verbal Communication

• Non-verbal communication cannot be avoided

Non-verbal communication is powerful: Non-verbal communication helps us to form first

Non-verbal communication is ambiguous: While precise words can be used in verbal

Therefore, it is not possible to accurately understand the messages conveyed by non-verbal

Consider the following example to understand this.

Non-verbal communication varies across cultures: While certain types of non-verbal

Bowing to your superior is considered a mark of respect in Japan, but is considered

• Verbal communication is of 2 types- oral communication and written communication.

1. Classification of Non-verbal Communication .................................................................................. 4

In this topic, we shall discuss the classification of non-verbal communication.

1. Classification of Non-verbal Communication

Let us discuss each of the aspects of non-verbal communication listed in table 1.

Space should, therefore, be used carefully in a work environment, so as to convey the

For example, in most western culture’s punctuality is considered to be important. Arriving

We convey messages to others through the time we spend on a work-related activity or by

Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far:

• The different types of non-verbal communication, are Kinesics (body language),

1. Classification of Communication Channels...................................................................................... 4

1. Classification of Communication Channels

1.1 Two-way, Face-to-face Channels

The advantages of using this type of communication channel are:

The disadvantages of this type of communication channel are:

1.2 Two-way, but not Face-to-face Channels

1.3 One-way, not Face-to-face Channels

1.4 Selecting the Appropriate Channel

1.5 Comparison of Oral and Written Communication Channels

1. Types of Business Communication ................................................................................................. 5

1. Types of Business Communication

The figure 1 depicts the wheel of business communication.

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