Communication General

SELF LEARNING MATERIAL

B.Com. – BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

COURSE : B.Com - 101
B.Com. (1st Semester)

Directorate of Distance Education

DIBRUGARH UNIVERSITY
DIBRUGARH - 786 004
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B.COM 101: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1: BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
UNIT 2: MODELS AND PROCESSES IN COMMUNICATION
UNIT 3: THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION
BLOCK 2 : CORPORATE COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1: FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT 2: PREVALENT PRACTICES IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
UNIT 3: PRESENTATION AND REPORT WRITING
BLOCK 3 : WRITING SKILLS
UNIT 1: STAGES IN WRITING AND RELATED SKILLS
UNIT 2: BUSINESS LETTERS AND MEMOS
BLOCK 4 : REPORT WRITING
UNIT 1: REPORTS AND ITS TYPES
UNIT 2: ORAL PRESENTATION – PRINCIPLES, FACTORS AND SKILLS
UNIT 3: SOME COMMON PRESENTATIONS IN BUSINESS
COMMMUNICATION
BLOCK 5: NON-VERBAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1: BODY LANGUAGE
UNIT 2: LISTENING SKILLS AND EXERCISES
UNIT 3: INTERVIEW SKILLS – INTERVIEWER AND INTERVIEWEE
UNIT 4: CONTEMPORARY COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
UNIT 5: INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
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BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1: BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
Structure of this unit
1.1. Learning Objectives
1.2. Unit Introduction
1.3. Definition of communication
1.4. Importance of communication in business
1.5. The process of communication and its components
1.6. Forms of communication
1.7. Barriers to communication
1.8. Let us sum up
1.9. Terminal Questions
1.10. Suggested readings
This Unit is aimed at:
• Making you understand the basics in communication

• Sensitizing the importance of language
• Introducing the reader to Verbal and Non-Verbal skills in communication
• Providing the importance of reading and listening skills in communication
• Making the reader aware of taking notes and reporting for communication
This Unit introduces the reader to the basics of communication without digging deeper into
the concept. There is step wise transition in conceptual delivery for easy comprehension of
the concept by the readers. The process of communication is a gradually evolving concept.
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The original pillars of the process however, has remained the same. We have to understand
the importance of language, the verbal and non-verbal aspects of communication, the art of
reading, the art of listening and much more before we embark on our journey to understand
communication.
1.3. Definition of communication
Human beings are accepted as social beings and hence the need to connect, to transfer
information, to comprehend that and to act becomes an inevitable activity in daily life.
Often ideas emerge in us, and we start thinking of an effective way to express that. We
don’t bother to look into the complexity of the process as long as it is functional. The word
communication is indeed hold much deeper meaning inside. Keith Davis has defined
communication as information transfer between persons. The transfer could be of ideas,
factual information, moral values, thoughts etc. The whole process works as soon as the
two parties on either side is convinced of the transfer of information and the subsequent
understanding of the information. As long as a person wants to keep his thoughts, ideas,
facts and information to himself or herself, the need to communicate does not arise.
However, it is almost impossible to make the ideas, thoughts and information known to
others without communication.
1.4. Importance of communication in business
Communication assumes many a role in the human society. As we observe from day to day
use, communication is used for passing instructions and information, teaching and learning
etc. Under the purview of business, communication plays some specific roles more
importantly than others in general. The following uses of communication can be considered
as being important for business.
• For training exercises- Communication is vital for imparting effective

training to new recruits as well as refreshing skills of employees.
• Flow of information-The understanding of the process of communication
proves important for controlling and administering flow of information
across an organization in horizontal as well as vertical direction. The
information about assignment of tasks, policy changes, notifications need
to flow effectively throughout.
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• Performance evaluation- Communication acts as a tool for evaluating the
contribution of individuals and teams to the fulfilment of organizational
goals.
• Directing employees- The individual employees or departments as a whole
are directed through communication. The successful implementation of
event he minute objectives need effective communication of directions.
• Motivation- Effective motivation can be provided through right
communication. Monetary and non-monetary incentives need to be
explained properly for achieving intended motivational objectives.
• Branding and public image- The importance of corporate sustainability and
the long-lasting effect of branding on consumer loyalty has been
established by multiple research studies. Thus communication is an
important element in branding be it a virtual intangible image, or an
attractive poster put up in a city.
Check your progress

1. Why is communication important for business?
2. What is communication?
1.5. The process of communication and its components

Everything complex can be broken down into simpler parts that can be placed in a logical
sequence for understanding the process of how it happens. The process of communication
is no different. We shall introduce you to the components of the communication process
simultaneously laying out the concept of the process. The various components of the
communication process are:
• Sender: Also known as the transmitter, is the one component who starts the
process.
• The Message: The very idea, concept, fact, information, thought, instruction
etc. that the sender wants to transmit, convey, express or dispatch is known
as the message.
• Encoding: This is the part where the sender arranges the information that
he/she wants to transmit in a form that is presumably comprehensible for
the receiver of the message.
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• The Channel: Every communication requires a medium for transfer of a
message. You may refer it to be the road that connects the sender and the
receiver.
• Receiver: This is quite simply the receiver of the message. The message in
intended for the receiver. Thus, it is very important to understand the
receiver and to frame the message in a way that the receiver understands.
• Decoding: As every person is different in their own way, messages received
are received, analyzed and understood in different ways by different people.
The way a person rearranges the information contained in a message for
his/her own understanding is called decoding.
• Feedback mechanism: Feedback is also significant without which it is
difficult to conclude if the receiver has understood the message in the way
that the sender intended. The reactions and responses of receivers are known
as feedback in the communication process.
Channel
Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver

Channel
Feedback
Fig.1: Process of communication
1.6. Forms of communication
We shall, for the most part of this book, look at communication from business perspective
only. From this standpoint, we may bifurcate communication into external and internal.
The internal communication is the one that happens inside the organization structure of the
business. The external communication is the one connects the business with the outside
world. We may consider the examples of liaising, branding, promotion, branding, corporate
social responsibilities, public relations and the like. Internal communication should be our
primary concern at this point although external communication is significant too. It is not
necessary that the internal communication be formal all the time. Some of us might have
heard of the grapevine communication i.e. the communication that we usually refer to as
socializing and networking happening between peers. Formal communication flows
through pre-determined channels in stipulated times that are usually determined by the
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management. Information passed through formal channels are reliable and trusted by
receivers. Informal communications are not prescribed by business, hence follows random
patterns of flow in the organization. Feedback is a problem in formal communications as it
is downward in nature most of the time. Information passed in informal communication is
often critically accepted by receivers that seek validity of the information in alternate
sources. Informal communication lacks uniformity in distribution of information.
1.7. Barriers to communication
Obstacles are in everything. Communication is no exception. Effectiveness in

communicating messages is under continuous research. Barriers take many form to disrupt
the process of communication. Some of the notable ones are mentioned as follows:
• Environmental barriers: Noise is the most common barrier to
communication alongside interference in electronic medium of
communication. Many scholars have also stated that noise could alos means
anything that that degrades the quality of effective expression
• Semantic barriers: Whether we blame the richness of a language or the
comprehension capacity of an individual, it is accepted that every other
person understands a message in a different way. There is only the
probability that everyone in a group understood the same. Thus, feedback
becomes essential.
• Choice of medium: Will it be written or oral? Do we need an interpreter?
Is digital medium more effective than issued instruction? What language
should we write it in? Should I call him or should I send an email?...Such
questions bother the sender who is conflicted in the choice of medium. A
wrong medium could lead to misinformation or misinterpretation or the loss
of the entire information.
1.8. Let us sum up
Communication is the successful transfer of intended message from the sender to the
receiver. Business sustenance needs good communication as it helps integrate the various
departments and functions, build a public image, establish a brand and pass information
across the organization. The important parts of a communication process are sender,
receiver, message, channel, feedback, encoding and decoding. There are various ways in
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which communication can be done. Some of these fall under formal and some others fall
under informal communication. Although both have merits and demerits respectively, each
one has a purpose of existence important for the business. Successful communication is
often obstructed by various barriers that may take the form of semantic, physical,
sociological, psychological and environmental barriers.
1. What do you mean by communication?
2. Why is communication important for business?
3. Explain the components of communication process?/ Explain the process of

communication?
4. What are common forms of communication?
5. What are barriers to communication?
Hargie, O.D.W., Dickson, D., and Tourish, D. (1999). Communication in Management.
Mohan, T., McGregor, H., Saunders, S. and Archee, R. (1997). Communicating: Theory
and Practice, 4th edition. Sydney: Harcourt Brace.
Hartley, Peter & Bruckmann, Clive G. (2002). Business Communication. Routledge (New
York).
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UNIT 2: MODELS AND PROCESSES IN COMMUNICATION
2.3. Models of communication and their types
2.4. Aristotle’s model of communication
2.5. Harold Lasswell Model of Communication (1948)
2.6. Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication (1949)
2.7. Theodore M Newcomb’s model of communication (1953)
2.8. Wilbur Schramm & Osgood Model of Communication (1954)
2.9. George Gerbner Model of Communication (1956)
2.10. Westley & Maclean’s Model (1957)
2.11. David Berlo Model of Communication (1960)
2.12. Dance’s Helix Model (1967)
2.13. Davis Foulger (2004)
2.14. Let us sum up
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2.1. Learning objectives
This Unit is aimed at:

• Making you understand the meaning of models
• Introducing readers to the various notable models in the field of communication
• Stating the various types of models in communication
This unit specifically states the various models in communication as proposed by scholars
in an evolutionary manner. The models of communication help us understand the process
of communication from multiple perspectives. As the models evolve they move from being
only linear to complex designs that ultimately aim at effective communication. The impact
of factors and the sub processes inside need a deeper understanding before we move
towards the types of communication.
2.3. Models of communication and their types
A model is a schematic representation of a proposed or established theory. Models are more

graphical in nature than written literature. As introduced in unit 1, the components of
communication process interplay to produce varied results. Hence, an understanding of the
dynamics of communication is necessary. Models in communication are of different types
viz. linear, interactive and transactional. The linear models explain communication as a
straight line process that lacks an immediate feedback mechanism. According to such
models communication is on-way only. In later years, interactive models were proposed to
define the communication process. Feedback was incorporated into these models leading
to interactions between senders and receivers. The interactive models also had a drawback
of confirmation based feedbacks. The dynamic nature of communication could not be
defined by such models. The transactional models are the latest in line that define
communication processes as being continuous. The relation between various process
elements are well explained in transactional models. A notable addition in such models is
the study of individual factors of people that influence the entire process. These factors are
previous experiences, perception, attitude, beliefs and values of people involved in
communication. We shall now attempt to understand the various models presented in an
evolutionary manner in the following sections.
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2.4. Aristotle’s model of communication
The models of communication can be traced back to the time of Aristotle. Aristotle’s model
primarily laid emphasis on mass communication than between peers. This model served
the purpose of influencing the receiver of the message. As the matter is of influencing,
hence it was utterly important to organize a message that was attractive as well as
convincing at the same time. The active sender is dominant over the passive receivers in
this model. Aristotle’s model consisted of the Speaker, the Speech and the Audience. The
proponent had a belief that messages must undergo modification as per the concerned
audience, its presumed effect and the time of delivery.
2.5. Harold Lasswell Model of Communication (1948)
Lasswell introduced the concept of channel or medium into the already existing and
accepted model of Aristotle. While Aristotle paid greater attention to the speaker (now
referred to as a sender), Lasswell thought of messages as being more important. Lasswell
defined the process of communication by answering a few specific questions framed by
himself, viz. Who? Says What? In which channel? To whom? With what effect?. The
model so proposed has be presented in fig. 2 below:
Who? Says what? In which To whom? With what

channel? effect?
Communicator Message Receiver
Medium Effect
Fig. 2: Laswell’s Model of Communication
2.6. Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication (1949)

Calude Shannon and Warren Weaver are well known for this model. Just like the
predecessors, this model was also a linear model. This was the first model to include some
technical information developing communication models further. This model holds that
messages are identified easily but interpretation is not that simple. The concept of noise as
a disruptive agent was introduced in this model. Contemporary experts believe that
applicability of Shannon and Weaver model is limited to specific cases than in universal
situations. The one directional flow of message in a channel proposed by this model along
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with the assumption of information being intact, is in contrast to practical real world
scenario.
Information Transmitter Receiver Destination

source Signal Signal
Message Received Message
Noise
Source
Fig.3: Shannon & Weaver’s Model of Communication
2.7. Theodore M. Newcomb’s model of communication (1953)

Theodore looked at communication as a social system that helps maintain relationship in
the society. The concept of message has been absorbed in the flow of communication and
not defined as a separate entity. This model is also referred to as an A-B-X model owing to
its structure as given below:
X
TOPIC
B A
MESSAGE MESSAGE
RECEIVER SENDER
Fig. 4: Newcomb’s model of communication

The social purpose for communication is highly emphasized in this model.
2.8. Wilbur Schramm & Osgood Model of Communication (1954)

Schramm and Osgood came up with a different conceptual understanding of the process of
communication. They suggested communication to be a dynamic and circular process
without any end-point. In this model, sender and receiver have not been distinguished as
being separate. Instead, it explains that the sender and receiver acts as interpreter that
interchanging roles with one another as feedback is continuous in such a system. Similarly,
the functions of encoding and decoding are also practiced by both parties communicating
as and when needed. The model also mentions that the interpretation of messages could be
different considering culture, background, education, values and social differences from
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individual to individual. In addition to simple flow of information, some explanations are
offered for the process of interpretation of messages.
Message
Encoder Decoder
Interpreter Interpreter
Decoder Encoder
Message
Fig.5: Schramm & Osgood Model of Communication
Check your progress

1. What was the contribution of Schramm & Osgood Model of
Communication?
2. Who explained the first model of communication?
3. How did Laswell contribute to the process of
communication?
2.9. George Gerbner Model of Communication (1956)

The focus of this model is the continuously changing nature of communication and the
factors that affect its reliability. The proposed model was aimed at generalization all kinds
of communication without concentrating on specific situations. Gerbner refers to an event
(E) as the primary source of information. M is any man or machine that observes the event
(E). The entire event is not understood by M in most cases. So, M will try to derive an
essential part of the event as E1, based on his/her perceptual dimension (perception, context
and availability). M is now ready to transmit. M chooses a channel (means) to transmit a
newly organized message (E2) meant for others. The transmitting of message E2 from M
depends on M’s means and control dimension (i.e. skills and control over the use of the
channel). The next audience becomes M1 and hence the process continues.
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M Perceptual dimension
E1 Selection, context, availability E
Means & control
Channels media
dimension
control
S E2
Fig.6: Gerbner Model of Communication
2.10. Westley & Maclean’s Model (1957)
The model proposed by Westley and Maclean says that communication is not essentially
initiated by someone’s talk. Communication starts as soon as the need arises to do so upon
any kind of change in the environment. The response to change in surroundings is also
selective in nature.
2.11. David Berlo Model of Communication (1960)
The relationship between the sender and the receiver is explored in this model. Encoding
and decoding depends highly on the skills of the sender and receiver. Commonly referred
to as the SMCR model, the Berlo model consists of four major parts with respective sub
parts. S stands for source, the originator of the message. The source consists of
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, culture and encoding skills as
sub parts. M stands for Message, the information or matter to be transferred. Message in
turn comprises of content, structure, elements, treatment and code. C stands for Channel
and it includes the hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and seeing as an individual medium
or a combination of these. R stands for Receiver, who decodes and receives the message.
The same sub elements as mentioned for Sender is also necessary for the receiver for
effective communication to take place. The drawbacks of the SCMR model includes the
lack of feedback and noise barriers. The use of sixth sense as a medium is ignored in this
model.
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Source Message Channel Receiver
Communication Content Hearing Communication

skill Elements Seeing skill
Attitudes Treatment Touching Attitudes
Knowledge Knowledge
Structure Smelling
Social system Social system
culture Code Tasting culture
Fig.7: Berlo Model of Communication

2.12. Dance’s Helix Model (1967)
Frank Dance explains the process of communication through a three dimensional helical
shape that looks like a funnel. The bottom of the helix is smaller when compared to the top.
The bottom represents the starting of the process. As it moves upward, it forms bigger
circles and moves in a helical fashion with the expansion of audience. There is greater
sharing of information in the upper levels. The element of time in communication is
mentioned for the first time in this model.
Check your progress

1. What were the limitations of Berlo Model of
Communication?
2. What is unique about the Helix model of communication?
3. Name some general models of communication that do not
explain specific situations?
2.13. Davis Foulger’s Model (2004)

This model is an elaboration of Lasswell’s linear communication process. Drawing from
the earlier essence of relationships, some general relationships are established between
people, messages, language and media. Communicating people are referred as creators and
consumers in this model. The use of language for constructing messages are specified. A
total of ten relationships are summarized in the model. However, further derivation of
relationships is possible by newer intersections. Quite simply, communication is a process
that happens between creators and consumers where messages built using languages are
transferred within media.
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Messages
Observe,
Imagine Using Attribute &
Creators Consumers
& Create Languages Interpret
Within
Media
Fig.8: Davis Foulger’s Model
2.14. Let us sum up
The process of communication can be better understood by learning the models developed
to describe the process. The models can be categorized as being linear, interactive and
transactional in nature depending on the flow inside the process. Aristotle was the first to
propose a model for the process of communication. As time passed by newer elements like
noise, relationships, medium, purpose, social system, senses, individual personality etc.
were added to the linear simple model involving sender, message and receiver.

1. What are the types of models proposed to describe the process of communication?
2. State and explain any five significant models of communication.
3. What are interactive models in communication?
4. Explain the Lasswell’s model of communication.
5. Explain the Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication.
6. Explain Schramm’s model of communication.
7. Explain Foulger’s model of communication.
8. Explain Gerbner’s model of communication.
9. Explain Berlo’s model of communication.
10. Which model introduced the concept of feedback in communication?
11. Which are the primary components of communication commonly found in
most models?
Griffin, E., & Langan, E. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory, [web page], 3
November, 2013.
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Emory A Griffin, (1997) A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Robert, Craig T. (2006) Communication. Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, OUP, London, 2001
(Print). Published Online.
Sandra D. Collins, (2009) Interpersonal Communication: Listening and Responding, 2nd
ed. South-Western
Katz, E. (1957). The Two-Step Flow of Communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 21, p.
61-78.
Wood, J. T. (2002). Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters.
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
UNIT 3: THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

3.3. Propaganda theory
3.4. Cognitive Dissonance theory
3.5. Hypodermic needle theory
3.6. Personal influence theory
3.7. Two-step theory
3.8. Multi-step theory
3.9. Categories of communication theory
3.10. Let us sum up
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This unit is aimed at the following:
• It states the popular theories of communication
• It introduces readers to the categories of communication theories
3.2. Unit introduction
Theories of communication explain how the process of communication happens. Apart
from this, communication theories try to explain why communication occurs along with its
purpose. Some theories concentrate on the process, some focus on the degree of successful
communication while others explore the socio-cultural impact on communication.
Communication theories have developed alongside the development of information
technologies. As theory progressed, models were developed to produce greater
understanding of the communication process.
3.3. Propaganda theory
This is a conceptual theory meant to interpret media communication for political economy.
It was put forth by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky. This theory explains that media
is used for political and economic gains by manipulating release and containing information
to masses. Public consent is secured by government and large scale enterprises by exerting
pressure tactics on media to maintain a public image. According to Herman and Chomsky,
mass media communication is dependent on five factors, viz. Ownership, Sourcing,
Advertising, Flak and Anti-communism. These factors act as filters between media and the
masses. This model establishes that media is a part of the market system that operates inside
a political economy.
3.4. Cognitive Dissonance theory
This theory focusses on individual dynamics in thoughts and actions. The theory was
proposed by Leon Festinger. It explains how an individual performs an action in spite of
having negative belief towards its performance. The person rationalizes his/her own action
by altering his/her attitude to create harmony in their mind. The real world is filled with
concepts that cause conflict in our thoughts or simply disharmony/dissonance. This creates
tension. To relieve our self of tension, we tend to alter our attitudes so that we can balance
our perception and attitude when combating such a situation.
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3.5. Hypodermic needle theory
This theory explores the impact of mass media in communication. Mass media has been
referred to as a hypodermic needle owning to its immediate effect on the receiver. This
theory considers masses is being passive audience that are affected immediately by
messages of the media. This theory was flawed by the fact that a hypodermic needle affects
different patients differently, while the theory considered the receivers as being
undifferentiated where each individual unit acts exactly identical to one another. Later
studies confirmed that media has selective influence on individuals.
Check your progress

1. What do you understand by cognitive dissonance?
2. Which communication theory was proposed by Edward S.
Herman and Noam Chomsky?
3.How realistic is the hypodermic needle theory?
3.6. Personal influence theory
Constructing public opinion during elections was the theme of this theory. Proponents of
the theory found that individual opinion of leaders had more impact on masses than that of
mass media. However, a study conducted by Lazarsfeld during the election of Franklin D.
Roosevelt in 1940 contradicted this theory. He stated that voting patterns were unaffected
by propaganda. Neither media was influential in this regard. It was also proved that the
public filters message according to their own preferences. Interpersonal communication is
far more effective for creating public opinions during polls.
3.7. Two-step theory
Information flow for effective communication is a two-step process. First, the information
must flow from political leaders to party workers. As party representatives are in direct
contact with the masses, information flows in this successive step. This theory contradicted
the earlier mass media theories that gave undue attention to media influence during
elections.
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3.8. Multi-step theory
This is an extended version of the two-step theory. The political leaders communicate to
the masses through two channels, the direct contact and through party workers. The party
workers procure precious feedback from masses that in turn mold campaign agenda. Mass
media is not a sole channel but an additive medium in effective communication. Exclusion
of mass media would be a bad idea as it is also a powerful medium shaping thoughts and
opinions of the masses. Besides, reach of the mass media is faster and greater as a tool for
building public opinion.
Check your progress

1. What are the theories on public opinion?
2. What are the misconceptions on mass media while shaping
public opinion?
3.9. Categories of communication theory
Robert T Craig observed that although many communication theories were being proposed,
there was no convergence of idea in the field. In his pioneering article “Communication
theory as a field” 1999, categorizing the various theories on the traditions of
communication. Craig reported the following categories of communication theories,
Rhetorical theory: Corax credited for the “Art of the Rhetoric” was produced for those
engaged in land disputes. Corax stated that in the absence of actual facts, a person should
argue from general probabilities to establish connections. Rhetoric theorists study all kinds
visual and non-verbal elements. E.g. city planning, design of buildings, architecture, sports,
apparels etc. The rhetorical perspective looks all expressions of human symbol. These
theorists believe that whatever we communicate effects the people around us.
Semiotic theory: John Locke in 1690 introduced “semiotics” to the English language. It
means “Doctrine of signs”. Subjects in semiotics include literature, environment, social
structures, visual arts, traditions, pedagogy and non-verbal communication. Semiotic
theories explain how people understand anything and how people construct messages for
transferring to others. Semiotics centre around knowledge, intention, meaning and action.
Phenomenological theory: Phenomenological theories attempt explaining how an

individual interprets and understands. Scholars have also criticized phenomenological
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theories for ignoring heredity characteristics, biological processes, social systems,
motivation and situational influences that shape individual personality. These attributes are
very important to understand the reception process. Carl Roger’s self theory states that
actualization is significant in motivating human behavior. Abraham Maslow has added to
this theory by stating that self-actualization is not simply a human capacity but more
importantly a human need. These are some of the popular phenomenological theories that
explore human understanding at different periods of one’s lifetime.
Cybernetic theory: Norber Wiener proposed a theory in 1948 stating that a person
transmits messages urged by the need to control his/her surroundings. Wiener thus defines
the purpose of communication as being to control the environment of the communicator.
The theory considers people as being complex machines that transmit messages by use of
languages and other techniques seeking control of its environment. He introduced the
concepts of entropy and feedback to communication.
Socio-psychological theory: Such theories study people from socio-cultural perspective.

They rely on the psychological research that boost understanding of human behavior in
society. The social exchange theory explains that social action happens to maximize
benefits and to minimize costs. Sociological theories are different from economic theories
in the point that they predict relationships between persons without the evaluation of goods.
Socio-cultural theory: These theories look at the impact of society and culture on
individuals. The involvement of parents and peers are given importance in individual
behavior. The cultural beliefs and traditions are not ignored in these theories. Their effects
on instruction and learning have been properly studied. Socio-cultural theorists believe that
an individual by himself/herself is unable to learn all the essential communication skills if
excluded from society and culture. Hence the contribution of society and culture in
individual development and understanding must be studied for effective communication.
Check your progress

1. What do you understand by semiotics?
2. What does the rhetorical theory deal in?
3. What did Norber Wiener propose about communication
process?
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Critical theory: Max Horkheimer proposed the critical theory which is aimed at changing
society. This theory contrasts the socio-cultural theories explain the society and culture.
This theory always questions problems and situations focusing to solve them. Thus critical
theory is the theory that critically examines communication to make it more effective.
3.10. Let us sum up
Communication theories have evolved along with the advancement of information

technologies. These theories explain how the process of communication happens. The
initial theories of communication were very simple in nature. In following years, scholars
went on to add to the complexity of the process by exploring factors affecting the process
like the society, culture and even individual behavior in communication. Communication
is very important in shaping public opinion. Mass media was thought to be the most
powerful tool for securing public consent considering masses as being passive. It was later
found out that people filter information as per requirement and preference. Direct channels
have even greater impact when used in addition to mass media. Although different
communication theories are not in consensus, yet they can be categorized according to their
perspectives as provided by Craig.

1. Why are communication theories important for business?
2. What is two-step theory of communication?
3. What are the types of communication theories?
4. What is cognitive dissonance theory?
5. What is propaganda theory?
6. Explain any five communication theories.

Emory A Griffin, (1997). A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Handa, C. (2004) Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin's.
Littlejohn, S. W. (2002). Theories of human communication. 7th edition, Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
22
Miller, K., (2005) Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 2nd
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Robert, Craig T. (2006) Communication. Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, OUP, London, 2001
(Print). Published Online.
Wiener, N. (1954) Cybernetics in History. In The human use of human beings:
Cybernetics and society (pp.15-27). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
23
BLOCK 2 : CORPORATE COMMUNICATION
1.3. Corporate communication
1.4. Types of networks in corporate communication
1.5. Formal communication networks
1.6. Informal communication networks
1.7. Let us sum up

This unit is aimed at:
• Introducing the readers to various networks existing in corporate communication
• To make readers understand the types of formal communication networks
• To acquaint readers to the various types of informal communication
• Presenting the features of grapevine communication in corporate communication
24
While the previous block presented communication as a general topic of discussion, we
shall look specifically look at business communication in throughout Block 2. This unit
lays emphasis on corporate communication. Readers need to understand that inside an
organization it is no longer the usual chat that goes on every day. There are what we call
protocols that need to be observed while conveying messages and passing information.
There are rules that ban flow of information in specific directions. This does not mean that
people inside organizations behave as though performing various theatrical roles. There
exist certain networks inside an organization that operate without administrative control.
Socializing, chatting, canteen gossips, unofficial texts etc. are other communication that
goes on beyond the radar. We shall take up all those types of communication and study the
way they connect individual employees inside and out of the organization.
1.3. Corporate communication
Before we understand what is corporate communication, it is quite advisable that readers

are sensitized about the communicating elements in corporate communication. For a
business, employees of all levels on direct employment or contract payrolls, suppliers,
distributors, consumers of the business, people providing supportive services, the
government, community surrounding the business, stakeholders, shareholders, investors,
competitors of the business, advisors to the business etc. are a few elements that are
commonly involved in corporate communication. We may have an idea now, that corporate
communication does not just happen within but to the environment related to the business
concerned. Now, the question comes as to what is communicated. Corporate
communication could involve the issuance of orders, instructions, advertisements,
announcements, information on strategy decisions, administrative information, operating
guidelines, press releases, reports, statistical figures and an infinite number of items that
are required for the smooth functioning of business operations. Our primary focus in this
unit is to understand the pattern in which the communication process flows for the business.
1.4. Types of communication networks
We have stated in Block I that corporate communication can be broadly classified into two,
depending on the scope of communication being done. Sometimes, the communication
stays inside the organization, i.e. all communicating elements are affiliated to the
organization. Such a communication is known as internal corporate communication. For
25
example, meetings, conferences, presentations, internal promotion interviews, orders,
manuals, guides, confidential reports, official emails etc. Corporate communication can
also happen with an element/s that does not belong to the organization. Companies often
need to publish mandatory reports to government, sustainability reports for public,
corporate social responsibility information etc. Besides these, companies advertise their
products, organize marketing events, promotional activities, broadcast advertisements,
place newspaper ads etc. All such communication can be referred to as external corporate
communication.
However, if we are trying to understand the patterns of flow of communication, there are
two other types of communication i.e. the formal communication and informal
communication. Both of these can be explained in terms of the directions of information
flow and the structure they possess.
1.5. Formal communication networks
Formal communication networks are networking patterns of communication that are

recommended and monitored by the organization. Formal communications are
communicated through formal channels. For example, communication in a meeting, in a
conference, in a presentation are all formal communication. Even a phone call concerning
an official issue that is carried out in formal tone is considered formal communication. Most
communication in a formal channel is transparent and the information that flows through it
is relied upon by the people concerned. The flow of formal communication is pre-
determined hence, the information between sender and receiver can be traced for
discrepancies as it involves accountability. There are a few drawbacks to formal
communication networks. Although confidentiality can be maintained, the speed of
movement in formal channels is slow as information has to move from along designated
levels. Formal communication networks can take up the following forms as necessitated by
purpose:
A. Vertical communication network: This type of communication happens in vertical

direction. Now, there could be two directions of vertical communication, viz. downward
communication and upward communication.
• Downward communication: Downward communication are the ones that

convey orders, instructions, programme, messages, and policies from higher
to lower levels in a business organization. Downward communication
26
network helps the higher levels transmit information for functioning of
various business activities. Downward communication should be receiver
oriented so that the message is rightly delivered.
• Upward communication: This communication goes from subordinates to
their respective managers or higher levels. This network is often used to
provide feedback and address grievances. Bypass of hierarchical levels in
this type of communication often leads to disharmony. This channel is less
used than its downward counterpart. Personal interactions, debrief
sessions, feedback systems etc. are examples of upward communication.
B. Horizontal communication network: Horizontal communication is also known as

lateral communication. This communication happens between individuals at the same rank,
position or status in the same department or other departments. People with similar roles,
functions and responsibilities but different designations need to discuss issues that
encompass organizational concern and operation. For example, communication that
happens between finance, marketing, production, human resources, stores and sales is
definitely horizontal communication. Individual departments can thus put forth their own
views from effective coordination and collective achievement of objectives. Distortion in
this communication could be due to departmental favoritism, societal features, personality
etc. Horizontal communication could be in the form of departmental meetings, email
communication, co-sanctions, direct discussions and telephonic conferences.
C. Consensus communication network
Although similarities can be drawn to between this and horizontal communication, it is

very different in its nature and functioning. Consensus communications are also featured
by meetings and conferences for decision-making. But, it has a rigid format that needs to
be adhered to. Consensus communication network can be participated by diverse
representatives but the decision making powers rest on a person, usually a presiding head
or a nominal head, who calls up the meeting. Specific problems are taken up as pre-
determined to be discussed. The head is supported with information collected by assigned
subordinates. The problems are transparently discussed and opinions are invited from
representatives towards specific problem solving or decision-making exercises. Finally, a
consensus is drawn, noted and accepted for execution or record. Although members in such
a network offer opinions, they may be considered passive compared to the policy adhering
27
decisions taken by the end of such meetings. It does create harmony among members who
have the privilege to be a part of the decision-making process.
Check your progress

1. What are formal communication networks?
2. Which networks are used to communicate feedback and
complaints?
3. When is horizontal communication used?
1.6. Informal communication networks
Many of us might have come across the word “grapevine” being used in relation to
communication. All sorts of informal communications are summarily referred as grapevine,
due to the undefined pattern that play out by probability. The information transmitted does
not follow a designated path. It could reach anyone who is participating or is already a part
of the grapevine. Grapevine communications can occur anytime but they are also triggered
by some situations. In times of uncertainty, employees lack direction. The need for
interpretation of complex formal information necessitates peer communication and
exploration of informal channels. By such communication, people boost their confidence
regarding the knowledge of crucial information. Information travels very fast in a
grapevine. This channel is frequently used for reliable feedback that is not biased by
insecurity of identity revelation. People use a grapevine to derive emotional security for
things that they don’t understand by themselves. Grapevines can also carry rumors that can
compromise integrity cause chaos. Grapevine communication/informal communication are
often seen to take the following forms:
A. Single chain: In this form, communication flows between two persons at a time and in
a straight line. The communication is done with an intention of maintaining low
participation which does not happen in the end. Thus this communication flows from one
person to another with an attempt for maintaining secrecy in information.
B. Star chain: Here, the source of information to others in the chain is a single individual
i.e. the other members get the information from the same source. The type of information
in this chain is mostly unofficial but intriguing for the members interested. This sort of
communication can also be called a gossip.
28
C. Cluster chain: In a cluster form of grapevine, a person passes information to a few
favoured individuals. These individuals later transmit information to other selective
individuals. The chain goes on spreading in this manner with a secondary source at each
branch. There is much distortion of information in such a chain as it frequent hands
frequently.
D. Probability chain: This form of informal communication involves transfer of

information from individual to individual at random. Every other person in the probable
chain has an equal opportunity of getting the information without any guarantee. The
information travels in random with a lot of distortion which does not serve anyone’s
intended purpose.
Check your progress

1. What happens in a cluster chain of communication?
2. How many sources of information exist in a star chain
network?
3. What does a consensus network operate?
1.7. Let us sum up
Communication strictly defined by business is known as corporate communication.

Corporate communication could be of two types, internal and external. Corporate
communication can be further subdivided into formal and informal communication
networks from the patterns of flow of communication. Formal networks help the
organization maintain its daily operations and provides an authorized and reliable channel
for passing various information. Informal networks, also known as grapevines are much
faster, but the information traveling in those channels is questionable. Rumours are often
noticed to traverse informal channels causing disruption in operations. Informal channels
are helpful for providing emotional relief when there is lack of adequate information or
uncertainty in direction.
1.8. Terminal questions
1. What do you understand by corporate communication?
2. What are formal communication networks?
29
3. When does informal communication happen?
4. What is a star type communication network?
5. How does communication happen in a cluster network?
6. What are the features of formal communication networks?
Davis, K. (1953). Management communication and the grapevine. Harvard Business

Review, 31, 43–49.
Porterfield, D. F. (1974). Organizational Communication Developments from 1960 to the

Present. The Journal of Business Communication: pp 18-23
Duck, S. (1976), ``Interpersonal communication in developing acquaintance'', in Miller, G.

(Ed.), Explorations in Interpersonal Communication, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Goldhaber, G. M. (1993). Organizational communication (5th ed.). Madison, WI: Brown

& Benchmark.
HaÊ kansson, H. and Snehota, I. (Eds) (1995), Developing Relationships in Business

Networks, Routledge, London.
Miller, K. (2012). Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes (6th edn.).

USA, Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
30
2.3. Practices in employment communication
2.4. Practices in use of ICT
2.5. Practices in oral communication
2.6. Practices in written communication
2.7. Practices in group communication/interpersonal communication
2.8. Let us sum up
This unit shall introduce readers to

• Broad areas of business communication
• Prevalent practices in oral communication
• Practices in written communication
• Practices in use of ICT in business communication
• Practices in group communication
Communication is a wide topic. From the standpoint of business its scope of applications
till date are definable. The term prevalent practices cover all practices of business
communication that are in present use. Practices in turn means the specific tools and
methods used for business communication. Listing these practices in a random order is time
consuming and has the risk of omission of significant practices. There is a better way to
31
look at these practices if we identify the broader areas of business communication. Some
of these areas have been discussed and a majority of them shall be introduced to readers in
later units. The concerning areas are written communication, oral communication, group
communication, use of ICT and employment communication. Oral communication
employs presentations and talks. Written communication includes reports, memos and
allied written communication tools. Use of ICT includes audio visual aids, software
applications, interactive aids etc. Group communication consists of meetings, seminars,
workshops, conferences and other forms of interpersonal communication. The prevalent
practices of business communication are distributed in the mentioned areas. The following
sections shall introduce them to the readers with respect the areas they exist in.
2.3. Practices in employment communication
Resume: Resumes are also known as Course Vitae (C.V.). Resumes are written
documents created by job applicants and professionals to summarily inform about
academic qualifications, achievements, employments and career plans. These
documents accompany candidates to interviews and serve as an document for initial
screening. Resumes contain contact information of the candidate, residential
address, interests and declarations.
References: References are obtained by a candidate from those persons who are
willing to support the claims of the candidate in his/her resume. They can be
previous employers, peers, educational institution heads, faculty members,
managers and other professional acquaintances etc. Employers may communicate
with the referees to validate information before selection of a candidate.
Group discussions: Group discussions are common recruitment techniques for

testing communication abilities of candidates. Candidates are divided into groups,
that have to interact and discuss on a selected topic for a limited time while being
monitored on articulation skills, initiative, competitive spirit, member coordination
and listening ability. Many qualities can be assessed through this tool. The
willingness to communicate and the capacity to do so are tested under the pressure
of competition to impress the evaluators.
Interviews: Interviews are the core tools in employment communication. The setup
of interviews along with formal invitation calls for candidates, scheduling dates for
interviews, selection of interview/interview panel and related affairs are only some
32
components of interviews. Interviews are done for promotions, appraisals,
recruitment, information, job exits etc. In employment communication, interviews
mostly refer to the personal interview of candidates for recruitment & selection.
These interviews could be stress interviews, telephonic interviews, task based
interviews, psychometric interviews, panel interviews, in depth interviews etc.
2.4. Practices in use of ICT
Communication networks: Usually communication networks mean informal and

formal networks at work between people. With the use of Information &
Communication Technology (ICT), networks mean the ones that connect people at
workplaces through ICT. These networks refer to two kinds i.e. the intranet and the
internet. The former one connects computer systems within the organization where
communication networks are established within a restricted corporate group. The
information flows within the organization in such networks. These networks are
hosted by use of Local Area Networks (LAN) in most cases. The latter one connects
the computer systems of an organization with all other computers in the world
having access to internet. There is communication flow in numerous directions. It
has the risk of data interception.
Instant messaging: The instant messaging services are popular due to their mobile
nature. The devices serving for this communication tool are portable and can be
carried as personal digital assistants. Messages can be transmitted at any time saving
cost and time in doing so. Such communication is only limited by availability of
service networks. Examples of such services are Short Messaging Service, Hike,
WhatsApp messenger, Hangout, Facebook messenger etc. Services provided in
these are evolving every moment leading to service diversity.
Teleconferencing: Messages communicated through short messaging services can

be misinterpreted. Teleconferencing allows people in different locations to
communicate in audio using this technique. It is a favoured technique in
communication through ICT as the verbal messages are superior to instant message
that compromise on explanations.
Videoconferencing: When communication is limited by distance, obstruction in

transportation and lack of time, this technique is referred. This is true to the
condition of equipment availability at all ends of communication. It needs the
33
senders and receivers to be stationary to a point to make communication convenient.
The limitation of absence of non-verbal communication is eliminated here. The only
demerits are the technical faults in communication, network availability and
communication equipment availability.
Check your progress

1. What is the use of references in employee communication?
2. Give two examples of instant messaging services
prevalent in business communication?
3. Which are the flaws of teleconferencing?
2.5. Practices in oral communication
Presentations: This is the most widely used practice in oral communications. Let
us not be judgmental in the limited variety of practices here. Presentations
themselves can be of diverse forms. They can be of the following types:
• Informational presentations
• Training presentations
• Persuasive presentations
• Interactive presentations
Induction presentations, presentations about organizational changes, evaluative
presentations for organizations etc. are a common sight in oral communication.
Whenever there is a need to sensitize employees about anything that can be
considered as generic for the audience, presentations are used.
2.6. Practices in written communication
Business letters: Business letters are a common formal communication practice

within business organizations that also connects the outside world. There is a wide
variety of these written documents in use. They can conveniently be identified as
groups of official letters, demi-official letters, memos and forms. The official letters
are addressed to government offices. The second group i.e. Demi-official letters are
addressed with specific attention markers to offices concerned. Memos are short
communication documents of reminders circulated internally. They are preferred as
a swift mode of communication as a follow up reminder to accepted decisions.
34
Forms are those business letters that are routinely circulated at specific intervals of
time. Their format can be standardized due to the routine nature of the purpose.
Reports: Reports are comprehensive statements on selected topics prepared with a

deadline for submission. Reports are formal mostly formal in nature. They can be
categorized as statutory and non-statutory, periodic and special, individual or
committee reports, technical or informative etc. They contain facts, figures and
arguments put up are supported by validation. Cover, acknowledgement,
declarations, certificates, executive summary, table of contents, introduction,
methodology, analysis, findings, conclusion, references and appendices are
standard parts of a report.
Memos: Memos are for internal reminders and are very direct in nature. They
contain reference numbers for record and tracking but no salutation or closing
remarks. Signature of sending authority is essential to authenticate such a
communication. They are convenient, quick, saves cost and hold capacity for future
reference.
Check your progress

1. Why are memos preferred in business?
2. What are the essential parts of a report?
3. Do business letters circulate for outside communication?
2.7. Practices in group communication/interpersonal communication
Corporate meetings: The most prevalent practice in corporate houses are

meetings. It is a common interactive communication technique. The features of this
technique are the agenda for discussion that directs the discussion; the recording of
significant proceedings as minutes of meeting; and the subsequent communication
of a brief report to communicate to higher levels of hierarchy. There is a flexible
exchange of ideas in meetings through verbal words and non-verbal
communication. The objectives of meetings are to inform, to discuss problems, to
obtain feedback, to resolve issues and to make decisions. Meetings can be
structured, semi structured with informal post meeting networking or completely
unstructured. The usual sequence of events for meetings followed is publish of
notice informing about the scheduled meeting to concerned members, preparation
35
of agenda for the meeting, recording the proceedings along with details of members
present (as minutes of the meeting) and post meeting communication.
Press releases & Press conferences: Important developments that the business
wants to share to the public can be done by press releases. The news piece so
developed must be simple, precise and comprehensible in first reading. The content
must be true, newsworthy and brief. Press conferences are used when the business
house needs a greater discussion and provide explanation on the news to be
released. The press is invited for an interactive session. Press conferences allow
answering multiple questions for clarification of the news which are alter released
as formal statements. Like any other conference, a structured programme is created
and it is followed to manage the conference.
Workshops: Workshops differ in nature from symposia, meetings, conferences etc.

Workshops are more of technical content with trainings delivered by specialists that
include demonstrations, task based exercises and hands on training. These are more
focused on applications than in theoretical discussions. There is noticeably greater
involvement of audience in workshops than other forms of group communication.
Seminars: Seminars are informative communications in groups of small members.

The content communicated in seminars is composed of results from research and
review of research that relates to predetermined subject areas for the seminar. The
aim of seminars is to share contributions in knowledge. Resource persons are
technically said “to chair” or supervise a session with necessary feedback after
evaluation of individual presentations. Proceedings from seminars are sometimes
published as an edited book for further sharing of knowledge.
Conferences: Conferences are featured by larger gathering of people than

seminars. Participants are expected from a similar field that are identified by a
selected theme of discussion. It is not necessary that the participants affiliate from
the host organization. Interested participants from homogenous organizations can
participate and exchange information. There are guest speakers, a guest of honor
and a key note speaker, conventionally invited for a conference. The discussions so
taken place are not bound for action after a conference. As it is a closed group
interaction, there is no compulsory need to publish proceedings or other forms of
36
written communication. This increases the physical participation of a conference
discussing a burning issue.
2.8. Let us sum up
Evaluating and listing of prevalent practices in business communication is a difficult task.

Identification of those practices is possible by identification of broad areas in this field.
Presentations are widely used for oral communication, group communication employs
seminars, conventional meetings, seminars, conferences etc. apart from press releases &
press conferences. Written communication is done primarily through reports, memos and
business letters. Employment communication has world-wide use of resumes, group
discussions, interviews and references for assurance.
1. What are the areas of business communication?

2. What are the practices in written communication?
3. What are the prevailing practices in group communication?
4. What practices are still practiced in the use of ICT in business communications?
5. What is employment communication? What are the practices involved in employment
communication?
6. How are the most widespread practices in business communication?

Tropman, J.E. (1996) Making Meetings Work: Achieving High Quality Group Decisions.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Turk, C. and Kirkman, J. (1989) Effective Writing: Improving Scientific, Technical and
Business Communication, 2nd edition. London: E&F Spon.
Bell, A.H. and Smith, D.M. (1999) Management Communication. New York: John
Wiley.
Taylor, S. (1998) Gartside’s Model Business Letters and Other Business Documents, 5th
edition. London: Pitman.
Sparks, S.D. (1999) The Manager’s Guide to Business Writing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Honey, P. (1988) Face to Face: A Practical Guide to Interactive Skills, 2nd edition.
Aldershot: Gower.
Bitner, J. (1996) Mass Communication: An Introduction (6th ed.) Boston: Alyn and Bacon
37
3.3. What is presentation?
3.4. Elements of a presentation
3.5. Preparing for a presentation
3.6. Standard structure of a presentation
3.7. Report writing….purpose and features
3.8. Types of reports in business
3.9. Standard format of a business report
3.10. Preparing a good business report
3.11. Let us sum up

This unit exclusively deals with:
• Important elements of a presentation
• Preparing a presentation and preparing for a presentation
• Principles of a good presentation
• Purpose of business reports
• Standard structure of business reports and its types
• Rules for preparing a good business report
38
There are a few tools that we need almost every day while doing business. The need for
presentations arise without warning. There is however some predictability as to the need
for some business reports. While ad-hoc and interim reports are now being demanded
higher than consolidated and refined statements, the need to upgrade oneself on report-
writing skills is on the rise as well. It is no longer a formality in business but rather a
survival skill too. Reports are of diverse nature owning to their purpose. Although
preparation time available may vary and efforts are mostly appreciated in business, there
are certain standards that need to be met while giving presentations or submitting business
reports. As sole trading concerns are a rarity compared to risk averse partnerships and
company registrations, presentation and report writing skills have become mandatory for
average operation of a business.
3.3. What is presentation?
A presentation is a rehearsed delivery of one’s perspective on a selected topic. Presentations

are for a precisely limited amount of available time and are given before an interested group
of people. The purpose of presentation could vary. Oration skill, body language, persona,
information technology skills etc. are under constant scrutiny during presentations.
Presentations are commonly followed by queries from the audience that require further
clarification or even for the simple purpose of testing the preparedness of the presenter.
Presentation is a very formal way of communication although innovativeness is encouraged
in specific promotional events, closing of business deals and related matter.
3.4. Elements of a presentation
By elements, we mean the individual parts that make a presentation whole. These elements
are as follows:
• Venue/place: The place where the presentation is going to be given is important. A

presenter feels at home in places that he/she is acquainted with. This increases the
confidence and chances of better delivery. Presenters visit the venue to familiarize
themselves with the surroundings as well as the equipment that they need to work
with.
• Organizer details: Information about the organizer, the host or affiliating
organization has to be handy for the presenter to use when necessary. Ignoring such
39
details have evidently led presenters to use great many fillers thus spoiling the
presentation.
• Occasion: Apart from focusing on the content to deliver, the presenter has to be
aware of the occasion where his/her presentation stands.
• Time: Time pursues a presenter intermittently when on stage. Respecting time
limits to start and end a presentation never escape attention. It simply shows the
level of preparedness and practice of the presenter. As time is precious for everyone,
a presentation must not extend beyond tolerable limits.
• Audience: Many good presenters rarely leave a great memory. This is because the
most presenters are so focused on impressing the audience, that they cannot
modulate their level of communication according to the suitability of the audience.
This does come by experience in presentation. A presenter has to be careful as not
to hurt feelings of any member of the audience through a careless comment or
overlooked phrase in his/her slide.
• Presentation aid: A presenter must be equally well-versed with ICT tools as with
his/her verbal skills. Use of audio animations, attractive slide designs, interactive
tools etc. have advanced presentations to a new level. Even the basic technical
operation of mikes and speakers are now considered a desirable skill for presenters.
3.5. Preparation for a presentation
Presentation lacking preparation is evident during delivery. Sufficient time has to be

allotted to preparing for a presentation. Systematically approaching preparation increases
the chances of successful presentation. The following sequence can be followed for
preparing a presentation:
• Content development: The topic of presentation assigned or selected sometimes

favours the expertise of the presenter. New topics need to be familiarized before
conducting deeper study. A diligent research on the topic yields fruitful information
that the audience might anticipate in the presentation. Beginners face the problem
of overwhelming information while preparing presentations. The initial step in
content development is to collect relevant information on first sight that are easily
accessible. Once the domain is understood, more specific studies previously done,
published reports, on-going projects etc. can be explored to extract crucial
information. Filtering out irrelevant information from initial collection leads to
40
workable content. The content so finalized need to be categorically placed in a
logical sequence to converge towards clarification on the topic. The information
contained in the presentation should be simple and indicative in nature only. The
content provided in a presentation is not self- explanatory but requires
supplementary clarification from the presenter.
• Use of audio visual aids: Once the important categories of information have been
defined, the headings of the main body for the presentation surface. Depending on
the level of audience and the availability of resources, audio visual aids are selected
for use. Commonly used audio visual aids are flip screens, white boards,
presentation slides, overhead projectors, LED screens, collar mikes and speakers.
Projectors are used in some presentations where multiple projection screens are put
up in different places among a larger audience for obstruction free engagement.
• Presentation time:
Presentation times are usually pre-determined and implied for adherence. The
presenter must keep maximum time for the main body of the presentation, sparring
limited time for introductions and conclusions. Experienced presenters also time
their slides for changes or progression. This can be achieved through intensive
rehearsals.
• Rehearsals
Repeat practices simulating real time presentations help the presenters identify
flaws beforehand and adopt correction measures. Presenters have typical body
languages that are undesirable sometimes. This can be revealed by rehearsals before
a dummy audience and taking feedback for improvement from experts. The time
switches during a presentation or perfect handovers in case of a group presentation
can be achieved solely be rehearsals.
• Presenter appearance
Formal attires are preferred for presentations. The colours worn by the presenter are
not supposed to divert the attention of the audience from the presentation. Good
colour contrast in formal dressing is appreciated. Body posture of a presenter
attracts audience attraction as it tells about the involvement of the presenter.
• Post presentation interaction
When queries following a presentation are well answered, it completes an effective
presentation. There could be certain facts and information that few members of the
41
audience could not comprehend due to the time adherence of a presentation. These
need to be settled for impactful presentation.
Check your progress

1. Why is organizer information important for a
presentation?
2. Name the elements of a presentation.
3. How do you develop good content for a presentation?
3.6. Standard structure of a presentation

A presentation could be for introducing a new product, presenting the financial status of a
company, progress of sales in the year, trend analysis of consumer preferences etc. The
structure of a presentation varies for different purposes. However, a standard format for
any presentation is acceptable that has parts common to different occasions. Such a format
has been provided below.
A. Introduction: The speaker/presenter gives an introduction of himself/herself in
brief in this part. It is customary to introduce the topic for the presentation after this.
Some presenters also display a roadmap as to how the presentation is going to
proceed. The purpose of the presentation is also stated in this section along with a
title (if any).
B. Body: This section follows the first diving into detailed information and pointing
out important markers. The central idea for the presentation is divided into logically
placed parts that are explained in consecutively. The presenter brings in supportive
materials to assist the information placed in this section to convince the audience
on facts and numbers stated therein. live researches, project reports, corporate data
and analogies are drawn to substantiate the content. Technical details may be
included in this part.
C. Conclusion: Complex derivations from the body are explained by the presenter
and critical points are highlighted as take away from the presentation. Conclusions
are given in simple language and in points that can be retained by the audience.
D. Interaction session: It is better to follow up a presentation with an interaction
session for resolving queries. The criticism of the audience if provided, must be
taken positively and queries addressed to satisfaction. Listening skill is necessary
in this part.
42
Check your progress
1. How can rehearsals improve presentations?
2. What is the importance of post presentation interaction?
3.What are the introductory information in a presentation?
3.7. Report writing…..purpose and features
Reports are written statements of prescribed formats that serve varied purposes as needed
in bunisess. These may include information that is qualitative in nature, quantitative in
nature or both. Reports are meant to assist in better decision making. Reports are always
accompanied by a strict or else approximate deadline for submission. Although reports
could be oral as well as written, the latter is more in use than the first.
3.8. Types of reports
Reports can be categorized according to their nature, frequency of use, number of people
involved and topic.
A. Formal reports: These reports follow standard formats established by

respective authorities that are prepared according to a definite procedure. Formal
reports are the ones that are mandatory in business operations. Formal reports could
be of two more types. i.e. statutory reports those prepared according to directions
of law in format and procedure ; and non-statutory reports that are not directed by
law but by management policies and practices of a business. Formal reports are
mandatory for submission as and when assigned.
B. Informal reports: Informal reports do not follow an established format or

procedure. Management decisions require information on ad-hoc basis for quick
consultation of business issues. These reports are demanded where the information
contained is given more importance than the procedure followed to make them.
C. Routine reports: These reports are submitted or demanded in regular intervals

that have been pre-determined through consensus. Such reports could be on daily
basis, in quarterly intervals, half-yearly periods or annual.
D. Special reports: Businesses work on predictability, assumptions and calculated

risks. However careful the operation, businesses often face unforeseen
43
circumstances such as surprise product launches, innovative competitor strategies,
technological changes, political imbalances etc. that test their survival tactics.
Special reports are asked for in such scenarios to make informed decisions that help
overcome unfavourable situations.
E. Status reports: Quite opposed to the one stated above, status reports are periodic
reports that are submitted for a typical function of the business. They serve as
surveillance on possible anomalous behavior of business operation so that counter
measures could be devised in time. Examples of these are the annual financial
reports, business growth statistics, market competition, technological
advancements etc.
F. Project reports: The reports that are related to the factors concerning the
operation of an on-going project or details of a completed project are project reports.
In most offices, “DPR” or Detailed Project Report is a commonly used term. Such
reports cover all angles from human resources, to project budget utilizations, to
material purchases, to technology transfer, to time management in project
operations.
3.9. Standard format of a business report
When we say a business report, we visualize a long from of a report with segregated parts
inside that is contained in a well presented cover for the report. Although reports include
informal reports, memos and statistics reports, we shall provide here, the structure of a long
business report that is meant to provide a comprehensive view of a situation or topic. The
format of such a report is as follows:
A. Introductory part: Please note that this part is very different from another part called
“Introduction” explained later.
Cover page: The over page serves as a protective cover apart from containing
reference details of the report such as report reference number, title, date, source
information and the type of report.
Preface: This part contains a brief information on the content of the report.
44
Acknowledgement: Any help or assistance received for preparation of the report
can be acknowledged in this part keeping with formal tone. It is considered to be a
courteous gesture to do so.
Declarations: This part is used to declare the sincerity in preparation of the report
with respect to the ethical and corporate policies of the business.
Certificates: Some reports have to be certified by concerned authorities before

being submitted for necessary clearance.
List/table of contents: This is an indicative roadmap of what is contained in the

report with information being categorically placed in sequence.
List of figures/diagrams and illustrations: A list is also on the figures/diagrams

and illustrations contained in the report along with their location in the report.
Executive summary/abstract: This is a very important part of a report. Normally,
it is created at the completion of a report but placed for quick glance of readers at
the beginning of a report. It contains the summary of the entire report highlighting
significant parts that a person might be looking for at the very start.
B. Main body
Introduction: This part begins the main content by building a background

information on the topic which necessary to understand the technical aspects of the
report. It familiarizes the reader on the background information. The scope of the
report is also mentioned here. Possible limitations after completion of any study
could be included in this part.
Methods and techniques: There are a few technical reports where the methods and
techniques employed for carrying out a study needs to be mentioned. If a study
involves people and surveys were carried out, we might need to explain how have
we derived a sample scientifically. These parts make a report stronger and more
convincing for better decision-making.
C. Description, discussion and analysis: We come down to the facts and figures in this
part. Sales figures, financial ratios, investor position, review of marketing strategies etc. are
placed here. The information is presented using tools that are comprehensible for the
audience. Commonly used tools here are, cross tabulations, trend lines, bar diagrams,
45
histograms, pareto diagrams, run charts, maps etc. The data presented is also analyzed to
point out specific variations from ideal figures or deviation in policy implementations.
D. Findings, conclusion & recommendations: The complex technical data is generalized

and summarized as findings for general understanding. The findings could be multiple in
number, each representing a particular section of a greater study. The conclusion is drawn
from the findings and is of more simplified in nature. Although abstract the conclusions
have to be concrete in business that can provide convincing recommendations. Findings,
conclusion and recommendations can be included under a single chapter since they are
comparatively smaller in spatial terms than the rest of the report.
E. Ending parts
References: Most reports must take the assistance of information contained in

studies that were done previously, newspaper articles, books, archive data, on-going
project reports, statistical information in order to be complete. A list of all
references from which information has been used to draw ideas, figures, statements
etc. must be scientifically listed and arranged according to an accepted guide (for
example the APA style, the MLA style of referencing, the Chicago style of
referencing)
Glossary of terms: Complex technical terms and jargons used in the report may be
included for reader support.
Acronym list: All abbreviations used in a report should be separately listed along
with their full forms, either towards the end or at the beginning of the report.
Appendices: Any format, company statement or list that need to be attached with
a report can be attached towards the end of a report.
Indexing: In case, a report is so large, that searching of specific details may prove
difficult, an indexing can be done towards the very end that can solve the problem.
Check your progress

1. What does a project report inform?
2. What is included in the ending parts of a report?
3. Name two styles of referencing in reports?
46
3.10. Preparing a good business report
Business report quality can deteriorate due to urgency in submission, lack of revision or
proof readings, unauthentic sources of information, human errors etc. The following
principles can be followed for writing good business reports.
Intensive research on topic: A sincere fat-finding research can build up a very

strong report. This will also ensure that no significant sources of information have
been overlooked. If permitted, a reasonable amount of time must be requested for
quality report preparation.
Organization of data: If data is organized simultaneously upon collection, it

reduces data loss and reduces work. As information is not in shortage these days,
there are infinite chances of collecting redundant data. Hence, filtering of data using
scientific parameters can lead to quality data generation. Using flags, markers,
highlighting information etc. can be of great help in spite of being a small work
desk tool.
Upgrading domain skills: Under normal circumstances, reports preparation is

always assigned to people skilled in a specific domain. Keeping up with
development is very necessary to make a good report. Relevant analogies, technical
expertise and analytical skills are top priority for impressive report writing skills.
Upgrading writing skills: Some people do have good writing skills as a natural.
But lack of practice always ends in a ditch. Any small piece of writing should be
done as an improvement exercise for daily upgrade of this skill. Vocabulary can be
developed by inculcating reading habits while composition can be improved by
practicing to write original pieces of information taking up however small an
opportunity one may come across, every day.
Tone: Even with written reports, the tone in which it is written matters. A report
can live up to be aggressive in tone, biased in nature and inconsistent in parts. The
tone in which reports are written should be neutral in nature leaving decision
making and opinion to people who are reading it.
Proof reading, revision and feedback: Proof reading reports is mandatory to

prevent human typing errors. Revision can help reduce unnecessary content and
thus making report precise. Feedbacks are advisable but it depends on time
47
availability. A non-confidential report may be reviewed for improvement from a
person without any possible benefit from disclosing the information before
submission. Sensitive data must be handled carefully.
3.11. Let us sum up
Presentations are a common communication tool used in today’s business. Venue, content,
organizers, occasion, time, audience and technology used are important elements of a
presentation. Good presentations depend on a many thing such as content development,
technology used, oral skills, rehearsals, time management, feedback, preparation for
interaction etc. Reports are another corporate communication tool that is inevitable in
business. Reports may come in the form of project reports, financial reports, statutory
reports, ad-hoc reports, informal reports, business statistics reports etc. Although different
forms of reports have different structures, a standard report format is acceptable throughout
every other business. A standard report consists of an introductory part, a main body and
ending parts. All such parts contain many sub elements that should be looked at to present
a complete report that follows standard format.
1. What is a presentation?
2. How can we make a presentation successful?
3. How do you prepare for a presentation?
4. What is a business reports?
5. What are the various types of business reports?
6. Explain the format for a standard business report?
7. What are the rules for preparing a good business report?

Bowman, L. with Crofts, A. (1991) High Impact Business Presentations: How to Speak
Like an Expert and Sound Like a Statesman. London: Business Books.
Tropman, J.E. (1996) Making Meetings Work: Achieving High Quality Group Decisions.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Turk, C. (1985) Effective Speaking: Communicating in Speech. London: E. & F.N. Spon.
48
Schriver, K.A. (1997) Dynamics in Document Design: Creating Text for Readers. New
York: John Wiley.
Sharples, M. (1999) How We Write: Writing as Creative Design. London: Routledge.
Minto, B. (1991) The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Writing and Thinking. London:
Pitman.
Turk, C. and Kirkman, J. (1989) Effective Writing: Improving Scientific, Technical and
Business Communication, 2nd edition. London: E&F Spon.
Cutts, M. (1995) The Plain English Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tufte, E.R. (1990) Envisioning Information, Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Wiley.
49
BLOCK 3 : WRITING SKILLS
1.3. Introduction to stages in writing
1.4. Prewriting
1.5. Planning
1.6. Drafting
1.7. Reading and revising
1.8. Editing and proofreading
1.9. Communicating/presenting/publishing
1.10. Skills related to writing
1.11. Let us sum up
50
This unit is aimed at
• Making readers understand the stages in writing
• Telling readers how to plan their writing
• Explaining the processes of drafting and revising
• Explaining the processes of editing and proofreading
Writing is not a random process without any system involved. Writing requires sound
understanding of the sub processes that make a good writing. Writing develops from a crude
initial writing by constant revisions and improvements. Planning increases the probability
of writing better. Follow up steps of organizing a writing, revising, editing, rewriting and
proofreading are followed by good writers to deliver great pieces of writing. Writing skills
develop over time and practice. Increasing one’s vocabulary and drawing composition
ideas by reading good literature can improve writing in time.
1.3. Introduction to stages in writing
Opinions differ when reporting the stages of writing. Different writers follow different
sequences while writing. Thus, writings on similar topic may differ from person to person.
The primary stages are always part of the process. Out of some models on the process of
writing, a notable model was proposed by Williams in 2003. This model classified the
process of writing into components as follows:
A. Prewriting
B. Planning
C. Drafting
D. Pausing
E. Reading
F. Revising
G. Editing
H. Publishing
51
The most significant parts of a writing process are prewriting, planning, drafting, reading,
revising, editing and publishing. Publishing is also used synonymously to presenting and
communicating, in this regard.
1.4. Prewriting
Prewriting is an activity that a writer undertakes before actually sitting down to write the
piece of work. It involves activities such as discussions, free writing, journaling etc. These
activities aim at generating ideas, gathering preliminary information and input for planning
a written document. A writer comes out with outlines for a document through prewriting.
Freewriting, outlining, talk-writing and listing can be found as sub process at this stage.
Free writing is not bound by any rules and hence allows a writer to scribble his/her own
ideas. Outlining help a writer have a rough plan for writing the document placing the
important parts together to bring out an initial structure.
1.5. Planning
Planning works on the output of prewriting bringing clarity by framing the aim of the
writing. This stage allows the writer to plan ahead what he/she wants in the document and
how are they going to be placed. The boundaries of information are marked at this stage.
The groups of information are organized so that they successfully connect to the aim of the
document. The writer’s claims must be supported by arguments placed in correct position
in the text. This is also achieved through planning.
1.6. Drafting
A draft is the first completed version of any document. A writer tries to put in all of his
ideas in a draft giving it shape for the first time. It is as much as one can get it right at the
first time. The concentration at this stage is mostly to develop content rather than the
mechanical aspects of writing i.e. grammar and punctuation. A draft should be complete in
itself containing a proper introduction, main body and conclusion. The paragraphs denote
a change in idea. A draft is not a document fit for publishing. It is the document that goes
through a lot of necessary revisions and corrections before final communication or
submission.
52
1.7. Reading and revising
A good writer pauses in between writing to read the content being developed. It leads to
identification of overlooked areas or a necessary modification. Reading helps the writer to
evaluate if the material is expressing the views correctly or not. Revisions make sure that
errors have been corrected improving the document at every repetition. While writing the
first draft, a writer uses words that come at random or the closest catch. While revising, the
suitability of the words used can be tested and replaced if required.
Check your progress

1. What is prewriting?
2. What is a draft?
3. Why is “revising”, a step in writing?
1.8. Editing and proofreading
Although editing and revising sound very similar, they are quite different in essence.
Revisions improves content by leading to addition or deletion of information. Editing looks
at the technical aspects of writing. Rephrasing, replacing synonyms, joining sentences,
slicing long sentences into shorter more comprehensible ones, repositioning ideas,
modifying document structure etc. are some common exercises at these stages. This stage
requires careful observation of the use of language to convey meaning. Capitalization,
punctuation, numbering, using abbreviations, citation styles, sentence construction etc. are
some areas of editing. When the document is completed, a proofreading is necessary to
identify the minute mistakes that might have been overlooked even in editing. Proofreading
is a final reading or multiple readings that are done with careful observation to remove any
flaws in order to make a document ready for submission.
1.9. Publishing/presenting/communicating
This stage is included in the process of writing but happens at the completion of the writing
exercise. Only a document that is whole in content, language, punctuation, citations,
abbreviations and supported by sound arguments, is considered ready for publishing,
presenting or else simply communicating. A published, presented or communicated
document later becomes a referable document that is used as a secondary source of
information by other writers in the field.
53
1.10. Skills related to writing
Writing is not a solitary skill. It is complimented by many other skills in its domain. To
write well, a person must also be equipped to read well, speak well, and do good research.
In addition to that, the universal use of computers and the advent of internet resources have
brought in the compulsory use of technological wonders that make writing so much easier.
People well versed with computers can draft well with technologies assisting simultaneous
proof reading and language improvement. Referencing and citations is easier too with
search engines identifying and presenting relevant sources of information.
Some of the important skills related to writing are:
A. Communication skills: With growing connectivity in work, apart from writing,

a writer must also be good in communicating with others. Be it in seeking
collaborations, asking permissions, providing updates or negotiating deadlines, one
must understand that the post writing stages require good communication for
publishing.
B. Organizing skills: A well-organized idea is well communicated. Personality is

reflected in writing. A person who is not organized has a high chance of losing
important notes and drafts that could have made noticeable impact on his/her
writing. A lengthy piece of work requires periodic pauses and resumes to
completions. A writer must be able to mark his/her progress so that there is
streamlined flow in the writing.
C. Research skills: Research requires critical observation of everything under

study. Research skills are not only limited to researchers alone with growing need
for preliminary investigations required for writing original and impactful literature.
Thinking like a researcher allows a writer to systematically approach a subject
obtaining information, analyzing data and drawing conclusions that make up valid
written documents.
D. Word processing skills: A great number of applications can assist writers who
have adapted to the present times. Proof reading, editing, referencing, font changes,
document alignment, text manipulations etc. are easily achieved by such writers
with the use of word processing software.
54
Check your progress
1. Why is word processing skills becoming important in
writing?
2. What do you understand by proofreading?
3. How can organizing skills serve in writing?
1.11. Let us sum up

Writing is a process that occurs in stages of development. A writer prewrites his/her
ideas by outlining, free writing, talk writing and listing. Planning the ideas before
actually writing, helps to structure the ideas and arrange them in sequence. A draft
is the first complete written document of the writer. A draft is only meant for the
writer to further edit and revise. Editing looks into the technical alterations of the
document like language changes, rephrasing, punctuation and structural
modifications. Revisions improve content through addition, alteration or
modification of ideas. Reading the document is important for the writer to predict
the document’s impact on reader’s understanding. Proofreading is the last step
before finalizing the written document as ready for publishing or submission.
Writing is assisted by other skills such as research skills, word processing skills,
organizing skills and communication skills.
1. What are the various stages in writing?
2. Explain drafting. Why is it important in writing?
3. Is editing and revising similar?
4. What is proofreading?
5. What are the skills related to writing?
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
Humes, A. (1983). Research on the composing process. Review of Educational Research,

53(2), 201–216.
55
Williams, J. D. (2003). Preparing to teach writing: Research, theory, and practice (3rd
ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stake, R., E. (2010). Qualitative research: How things work. New York, NY: Guilford
Publication Inc.
2.3. Business letters and their types
2.4. Standard structure of a business letter
2.5. Memorandums or Memos
2.6. Format of a business memorandum
2.7. Let us sum up

This unit aims at:
• Defining business letters and memos
• Explaining the types of business letters
• Providing the standard format for a business letter
• Providing the format of a business memo
Businesses have to communicate with the external elements like customers, government
and even competitors. Business communication internally happens with the help of orders,
circulars, notifications, memos etc. All of these written documents are called business
56
letters that serve different purposes. Business letters are more useful than telephones where
important messages have to be retained by the receiver or maintained for record.
Memorandums are instruments to communicate internally. Memorandums are also known
as memos in short. Literally, they mean to short notices to help remember something
important.
2.3. Business letters and their types
Business letters are written documents circulated inside and outside of an organization.
They serve for future record as backtracking of documents is very common in businesses.
Business letters can be considered as a legal document that contains the authorized
signatures and seals of the source. They are a professional tool for written communication.
We understand that letters could be both personal and non-personal. For business, only
formal letters hold good as it is not preferable to indicate relations in business
communication.
There are numerous types of business letters. We come across orders, complaint letters,
status enquiry, bank correspondence, letters of applications, government correspondence,
letters of appointment, resignation letters, press releases, circulars etc. To understand
business letters, it is better to study them in categories according to their purpose and
destinations. The categories of business letters as such can be studied as follows:
A. Official letters: These letters are addressed to government bodies and semi-
government agencies.
B. Demi-Official letters: These letters are never addressed to a person but always
to a designation. Such letters are used for subjects that require urgent attention of a
particular office and which must be treated quickly.
C. Forms: Some tasks in an organization are of routine nature that are required to
be done usually in the same time every year. Owing to the repetitive nature, specific
formats are designed and accepted for use for such communications. Notices,
interview letters, appointment letters, appraisal forms, information requirement,
disclosure form etc.
D. Memos: Memos or memorandums in full are a common instrument circulated

within businesses as well as government offices. Memos are short statements of
reminder for the addressee.
57
2.4. Standard structure of a business letter
Business letters vary in format but there is a standard format or structure followed for
writing a business letter. The standard structure is as given below:
A. Letterhead: The papers used for business letters mostly come printed with the
name, address, telephone number and fax number of the business organization.
Normally, this information is contained within the top margin of the letter.
B. Date: The date is indicated in the top right hand corner below the letterhead
information. The date follows different formats as follows,
19 May, 2020
May 19th, 2020
19th May, 2020
C. Reference information: Referring back to business letters is very common.
Every letter must have a unique identifier. The reference number is a coded
information that is understood by the sender and which indicates the archive
location of the letter once its communication is done. The reference number also
helps the receiver revert back to the sender using the same number. For example, a
letter of appointment for Sales executive recruitment done in May 2020 can be
identified by a Reference no. SE Recruitment/2020/2nd Quarter/Appointment/24.
The position of the reference number is on the top left hand corner below the
letterhead information and on the same line as the date.
D. Addressee information: The complete address of the receiver should be

mentioned after a line space below the date and a line space above the subject or
attention line.
E. Subject indication: The subject matter is written in a very brief statement below
the addressee information. This must not exceed more than two lines as far as
possible.
F. Salutation: The salutation is based on the comparative designation of the sender

and receiver or else on the personal relationship between the two parties. In case,
we send a single business letter to multiple addressees working in the same
organization, it is customary to provide salutation as “Dear Sir’s”. The salutation
“My Dear Sir/Madam” is avoided as it more informal in nature.
58
G. Letter body: A brief self-introduction may start the body if necessary. The
matter must be briefly introduced here to some previous official conversation can
be highlighted to initiate the message. In case of a correspondence, the reference
no. of the previous letter may start the message. The matter should be stated in very
limited but sufficient words. The message can be closed by stating the expected
response or further action of the receiver.
H. Ending: Formally business letters are no different than other letters. They are
also ended with a courteous compliment. For example, Yours faithfully, Yours
truly, Yours sincerely etc. The compliment must be followed by a comma (,).
I. Signature: The sender signs the document between the space provided between
a courteous compliment and the name of the sender typed within parenthesis as
given below.
Yours faithfully
(Donald Cooks)
J. Enclosures: Most business letters have additional documents that are attached as
separate enclosures with the business letter. Such are indicated below the signature
line as shown below:
Yours faithfully
(Donald Cooks)
Elcls: 1. Letter of acceptance as vendor dated 10th May, 2020
2. Pro forma for bank correspondence
Check your progress

1. What are demi-official business letters?
2. Are memos also a type of business letter?
3. What are letterheads in business letters?
59
2.5. Memorandums or Memos
Memos are short notes that are circulated within the organization to convey reminders of
important tasks to be performed or actions to be taken. Memos act as a quick reminder for
scheduled events and periodic reports. Memos also notify temporary handover of
responsibility within an organization. Sometimes to request specific information that does
not require authoritative sanction, memos are used. This is an important feature about
memos. Even though memos are for quick information, they still officially stored to serve
as a future reference. Due to its convenience in use and ability to secure swift responses,
memos are preferred for frequent usage in businesses.
2.6. Format of a business memorandum
A memo is stored for official record. Hence, it must contain the name and designations of
the sender as well as the receiver. All memos have a reference number as well.
Complimentary closing and salutations are not required in memos. But signatures are
mandatory for authenticity. Date is also mentioned in this document. The style of writing
is direct but has a sense of formality involved. The main content is as brief as possible. A
general format for a business memorandum is shown below:
Company’s name
Inter office memo
Date: …………………………
Reference no. ………………………………….
To: ………………………………….
From: ………………………………….
Subject: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Copies to
………………………………..
………………………………..
60
Check your progress
1. How can we identify a business memorandum?
2. Are salutations and closing remarks included in memos?
3. What is the content size for a business memo?
2.7. Let us sum up
Business letters are legal and official written documents for communication inside an
organization as well as to connect with the outside environment. Business letters are
professional way of communication that can be traced from source to destination which
helps future reference. Business letters could be official, demi official, form type or memos.
A standard business letter is written on a letterhead and contains other mandatory parts like
salutation, sender and addressee information, complimentary close, enclosure information,
reference number, date, subject title, main content and signature. Memos are a type of
business letter for quick communication but circulated exclusively within the organization.
They are a convenient way of inter-personnel communication due to their brief content,
traceability and swift transfer. A Memo does not include a salutation or a complimentary
close. Name and designation of the sender and receiver are important information required.
Signature is mandatory to give authentication to the document.
2.8. Terminal communication
1. What is the purpose of business letters?
2. What are the types of business letters?
3. Explain the format for a standard business letter.
4. What are business memorandums?
5. Why is memo more preferred over telephonic or verbal communication?
6. What are the contents of a memo?
61
Bell, A.H. and Smith, D.M. (1999) Management Communication. New York: John Wiley.
Bargiela-Chiappini, F. and Nickerson, C. (eds) (1999) Writing Business: Genres, Media

and Discourses. Harlow: Pearson.
Taylor, S. (1998) Gartside’s Model Business Letters and Other Business Documents, 5th
edition. London: Pitman.
62
BLOCK 4 : REPORT WRITING
UNIT 3: SOME COMMON PRESENTATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMMUNICATION
Structure of the unit

1.3. Reports by legality
1.4. Reports by frequency
1.5. Reports by purpose
1.6. Reports by nature
1.7. Let us sum up

This unit aims at:
• Stating the purpose of reports

• Introducing the different types of reports

Reports are a prevalent practice in written communication. It is a formal way of
communicating information that is circulated for internal use and also for external
communication. The essential features of a report include a formal layout of writing, unique
reference number for future tracking and correspondence, addressed to a specific office or
person, contains subject indication and used for formal communication. Varieties of reports
63
are circulated in different offices. They inform about the status of progress, information of
an organized event or activity, requirement assessment for organizing an event etc. Reports
can be identified by a peculiar nature, or the purpose they serve. An elaboration of such
diversity has been included in this unit.
1.3. Reports by legality

The nature of reports demanded is governed by the source of authority. It is not always the
internal authorities that mandate preparation of reports. Based on this, there are two types
of reports:
A. Statutory reports: There are some reports that have to be mandatorily prepared
for submission by organization following directives of government. Such reports
have to adhere to the formats suggested by the government authority demanding it.
The period of requirement of such reports are also decided by the government.
Examples of such reports are public reports on corporate sustainability, corporate
social responsibility, annual financial reports etc.
B. Non-statutory reports: Such reports are not demanded by the government.

These reports are a mandate of the authorities inside an organization. Even though
they are not monitored by the government, these reports are formal in nature. The
internal authorities may demand routine reports on project progress, employee
performance, resource utilization and budget reports for taking managerial
decisions.
1.4. Reports by frequency

This category of reports are featured by the frequency of requirement. Some reports are
routine in nature and have to be submitted in pre-determined intervals. There are reports
that are of special nature which may be required by the management for a particular purpose
not routinely occurring. Thus, these reports may be of two types,
A. Routine reports: These are the ones that needs to be delivered in fixed intervals.
The frequency of their requirement may range from daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly, half-yearly to annual intervals.
B. Specially prepared reports: Reports that investigate unique situations, collect

and present data on one-time events, are known as special reports. They are not
recurring in nature. Hence, these reports have a unique structure suited to needs of
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the topic. Unseen circumstances call for special reports. For example, reports on
sudden fall in sales, noticeable rise in attrition, report on technical workshop
conducted in year 2020 etc. are special reports.
Check your progress

1. What is the purpose of special reports?
2. Name some routine reports.
3. What are non-statutory reports?
1.5. Reports by purpose

The aim of a report also defines its category. Sometimes reports are made solely to inform.
There are also reports that are investigative in nature to find out the reasons of a problem.
Other reports are prepared to analyze situations that allow improvement in policies. In this
way, reports can be of the following types,
A. Informative: Informative reports collect and present existing information or

researched information for increase in knowledge of the audience only. These
reports present facts, statistical information, manuals of procedure etc.
B. Investigative: An enquiry or investigation is a common thing for businesses.

Such practices can be triggered by unacceptable human behavior, critical change in
business statistics, special issues, labour unrest, variation from policies etc. Such
investigations have to communicate their findings post enquiry along with
necessary recommendations for decisions. Such reports are called investigative
reports.
C. Analytical: All issues may not pose immediate threat to a business existence.
The trend of customer preference, the perception of employees, the effectiveness of
a strategy employed, needs to be analyzed to obtain the real picture in the industry.
These reports do not simply produce collected information. The information so
collected during preparation are analyzed to find crucial observations that are
presented as findings to the decision makers in the form of analytical reports.
D. Solution reports: Problems are a part and parcel for business. A scientific
approach is followed for problem solving in business. This approach includes
definition of underlying problem, devising methods for investigation, analyze
65
situations to find curable problem dimensions and then design problem solving
measures. The entire work is reported as literature for communication as solution
reports. These reports are also called problem-solving reports.
1.6. Reports by number of members

There are two types of reports on the basis of how many members are involved in
preparation of the report.
A. Single reports: Reports that are prepared by single person under the supervision
of a single individual are single reports. Single reports are prepared on topics that
can be investigated by single individuals. Multiple opinions are not required in these
issues.
B. Committee reports: When the topic of report is a broad area that cannot be
handled by the expertise of a single individual, committees are formed to do so.
Committee reports are also preferred when single individual reports have the risk
of biased opinion of domain specific areas.
Check your progress

1. When are committee reports demanded?
2. What are analytical reports?
1.7. Let us sum up:

Reports are of various types. The nature, number of people involved, purpose of the report,
legality of the report and frequency of use defines the classification of reports. Reports
serve as official records of communication. Reports can be sent across organizations as
well as the outside world. Reports typically consists of introduction, analysis and findings.
Statutory reports provide mandatory information requested by governments. The purpose
of reports may be informative, analytical, problem-solving and investigative. Single
member reports as well as committee reports exist. Committee reports are required for
broader topics where different perspectives may be necessary.

1. Why are committee reports required?
2. What are statutory reports? Explain with example.
3. Why are routine reports prepared? What are their features?
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4. What are informative reports? Explain with example.
5. What are the various types of reports?
6. How are investigations communicated in business organizations?
7. How are special situations reported in business?
Williams, J. D. (2003). Preparing to teach writing: Research, theory, and practice (3rd
ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Humes, A. (1983). Research on the composing process. Review of Educational Research,
53(2), 201–216.
Schriver, K.A. (1997) Dynamics in Document Design: Creating Text for Readers. New
York: John Wiley.
Sharples, M. (1999) How We Write: Writing as Creative Design. London: Routledge.
Barker, A. (1999) Writing at Work: How to Create Successful Business Documents.
London: Industrial Society.
Wiley.
67

2.3. Oral presentation and its types
2.4. Principles and factors for effective oral presentation
2.5. Skills in oral presentation
2.6. Let us sum up

This unit shall introduce the readers to
• The different types of oral presentations
• The principles of effective oral presentation
• Factors affecting oral presentation
• Skills required for oral presentation

Oral presentations are formal communication techniques in business. It involves both
verbal and non-verbal communication. These communications are used in organizations to
train employees, instruct employees on policy changes, sensitive people on operating
procedures and simply inform too.
2.3. Oral presentation and its types

Oral presentations take different forms. People introduce speakers using oral presentation.
The communication can be for internal as well as external communication. Both formal
and informal styles of communication are used. The types of communication differ
depending on the delivery types.
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A. Extempore speeches: These are oral presentations that are delivered from notes
and pre created outlines. In case of small audiences, interaction is possible. When
communicating to a larger audience, communication is usually one way. The style
of delivery is natural and allows the speaker flexibility to relate freely with an
audience. Advance preparation time can be availed in such presentations.
B. Impromptu presentations: The name suggests that the speaker has no time to
prepare. The speaker is invited without with an element of surprise in most cases.
There is hardly any room for organizing detail or collecting information. Impromptu
presentations are effectively utilized by speakers without anxiety, who can interact
with an audience on short notice. These presentations have a free structure and can
be improved by regular experiences alone.
C. Content reading: Such presentations are usually one-way. They are rigid as the
primary function is reading developed content to a targeted audience. Such
presentations are often seen from news readers, organizers, advertisements and
narrators. This type doesn’t allow the speaker to adapt to feedback from audience.
Speakers do not encourage break in communication by questions and feedback.
D. Manuscript: Manuscripts readings are presentations where the speaker reads

content from a prepared manuscript. This method is used for mass audiences as in
broadcast media and political campaigns. It involves very less eye contact with the
audience as a lot of concentration has to be given to reading from the manuscript.
Preparation time for manuscripts is much longer than content delivery which takes
a very short time. The content has to be carefully prepared to sound like a
conversation.
2.4. Principles and factors for effective oral presentation

A. Purpose of communication: The content of a presentation must align to the
purpose of the presentation. A presentation could be for information, persuasion,
motivation or justification. The presentation to inform must result in increasing the
knowledge of the participants. A persuasive presentation likewise must be able to
make employees willing to take a suggested action. Motivational presentations must
be able to boost employee morale through organizational changes. A presentation
providing justification for actions taken must sound convincing to the audience.
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B. Collect factual data: A statement alone cannot be relied upon by anybody, even
if it is an impressive statement. Supportive information to strengthen statements is
necessary. These support come in the form of published statistical information,
public records, evidences, and even analogies. Establishing validity of the resources
used for content building background research improve information reliability.
C. Content organization: Filtering information to include in a presentation is a

start. But organizing the information finalized for inclusion in a way to logically
establish the aim of the presentation should be the end goal. Size of the content is
also looked at while organizing. The time allotted for and the transition in topics
must be smooth for the audience to be able to digest it. Many good presenters keep
additional information for a post presentation interaction adding explanation to the
presentation.
D. Presentation aids: People can concentrate only so much to speech. Attention to

detail can be retained by use of multimedia. Use of animations, audio-visual
supplements and moving objects add variety to the presentation. These aids can
emphasize a subject and make it vivid for the audience. Conventional tools are great
but adding these will do no harm. We must be careful though not to overdo it when
using presentation aids and avoid diluting the message.
E. The structure: A good sequence includes an introduction, main body and

closing remarks. The introduction builds up the background and equips the audience
to understand the main body. Historical details, conceptual information and motives
are placed in this part. The main body contains the message. It includes significant
information, evidences, facts, figures etc. The employment of storytelling can break
the monotony of a long main body. The closing remarks must leave a lasting
impression of the findings and suggestions from the presentation. They are precise
details stated in simple language. Usually, the closing part includes an invitation for
interaction from the speaker.
F. Rehearsals: Many people would not rehearse before actually presenting even
when allotted time to do so. Rehearsals smoothen topic transition and makes a
presentation streamlined. The speaker can familiarize with the equipment and the
audio-visual aids to be used beforehand. Group presentation handovers can be
practiced for relieving stage anxiety and increasing coordination. Time
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management is a very critical element in oral presentations. Presentation
performance reflects rehearsal quality when seen.
Check your progress

1. What are manuscript presentations?
2. Where are content reading presentations used?
3. What are extempore speeches?
2.5. Skills in oral presentation

Oral presentation weighs heavily on the speaker and his/her skills. An effective oral
presentation can have a lasting impact on the actions of the audience to whom it reaches.
Misconceptions about technological aids making an oral presentations impressive are
widespread. The ability to control the pace, voice, pitch and vocal quality is one component.
A presenter must be skilled in tuning these elements to suit a presentation. A presenter must
also adapt to present upgrades in technology used for this purpose. Some of the important
skillset required for making oral presentations effective are as follows:
A. Vocal skills: There are components of a person’s voice that are inherited while
there are certain other parts that can be controlled. Pitch means the level of one’s
voice being high or low. In general, women have a low pitch voice in contrast to a
high pitched male voice. Adjusting the pitch for a pleasing voice is an appreciated
skill. Volume is another component. Regulation of volume is necessary at various
parts of a presentation. The pace of speaking affects voice quality. To move quickly
through insignificant parts, and slowing down to emphasize important parts can
provide impressive effects. Pronunciation and enunciations can be developed for
communicating well. All of these components are developed as a part skill for vocal
quality.
B. Presentable appearance: The non-verbal elements are communicated using the

body as a medium. So it matters how one looks and carries himself/herself
throughout a presentation. A right level of confidence is important that can be
achieved through constant rehearsals and increasing experience. The speaker must
convey his/her involvement in the presentation by showing enthusiasm, a friendly
attitude and maintain good eye contact with everyone as far as possible.
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C. Non-Verbal communication skills: Facial expressions, gestures, postures and
related conscious movements work towards improving a person’s non-verbal
communication. Gestures help emphasize and compliment verbal communication
through movement of head, hand and complete body itself. Posture are ideal or
expected positions while sitting, standing, walking etc. Upright postures suggest
good confidence and commanding authority. Drooping figures indicate loss of
energy, tiredness, preoccupied mind etc. Carrying oneself with grace through a
presentation impresses an audience and generates interest in the subject of
discussion. Facial expressions are important too. A flat expression is unable to
generate interest with just impressive content.
B. Listening skills: Interactive presentations can be interrupted by an active

audience at intervals. The speaker should not discourage that. Being emphatic to
others is necessary. If discouraged, an audience feels reluctant to provide feedback.
As a result, the motive of the communication is lost. One must be allowed to finish
before responding. A good speaker must also be a good listener. A one-sided
communicator will try to dominate a discussion which is not an appreciable attitude.
Opportunities to speak should be identified at the end of sentences and the change
of topics to address a query.
C. Time management skills: Presentations that stick to time allotted are well heard
too. As an audience is always pre-informed of the agenda for presentations along
with a scheduled programme, people come prepared with an attitude to listen for
the stipulated time. Violating time limits is considered as an indication of lack of
rehearsals and poor time management skill. Due to technical obstructions,
presentation time needs adjustment. The skill to skip to important content due to
lack of time, is another skill that good presenters develop. The adaptation to a new
pace can be developed by inculcating flexibility in delivery of content.
D. Interactive & emphatic skills: Good presenters sometimes prove to be

unskilled in post presentation interactions. Some presenters seem to memorize and
deliver content and are irritated by interruptions. Interactions do not satisfy the
audience as queries are misunderstood by such presenters. At times, answers or
responses are irrelevant. Interactions heat up due to disagreement. All such things
must be avoided. A presenter must come prepared with sufficient background
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research to clarify probable issues that were briefly stated in the content. Being
emphatic is an allied skill where presenters see things from the audience point of
view. Responses become more relevant in this way.
Check your progress

1. What are the sub elements for vocal skills?
2. What skills are required for a speaker during audience
feedback?
3. How can time management skills be developed?
F. Technical skills: Having good vocal control, being emphatic, being a good
listener with great interactive skills are not enough. To excel as a presenter, people
are expected to be well-versed in technical skills as well. Word processing, using
audio-visual aids, graphic skills, digital designing skills have upgraded many
presenters to giving impressive outputs.
G. Psychological skills: Psychological skills including anxiety control, confidence

boost, patience, calmness, presence of mind, intelligence etc. These kind of skills
helps a presenter remain calm on stage and deliver remarkable presentations. The
psychological skills have to be practiced for development. Once developed, a
person loses stage fear, adapts to unseen situations, changes delivery based on
audience evaluation and much more.
2.6. Let us sum up

Success in oral presentations depend on the skills of the presenter. An effective presenter
has to develop good vocal skills that in turn comprises of tone, pace, pitch and volume.
Vocal words are again emphasized by non-verbal skills of the presenter. Using gestures,
postures and other paralanguage skills, good presenters successfully convey complete
meaning of the content to their audience. Communicators must also develop a presentable
appearance through acceptable formal dressing and an impressive attitude to go with it.
Having an impressive presence with confidence, enthusiasm, empathy and involvement
generates interest of audience towards the content. Psychological skills allow a
communicator to be calm on stage, patient, emphatic and free of anxiety. Technical skills
are becoming mandatory in contemporary times where word processing, audio visual aids
and graphic designs are replacing conventional tools in presentation.
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1. A presenter needs to have a presentable appearance in an oral presentation. Comment.
2. What are the various kills required for an effective oral presentation?
3. Why should a presenter develop non-verbal communication skills?
4. How can we improve our non-verbal communication skills?
5. Developing interactive and emphatic skills are important in oral presentations. Why?
6. What are the types of oral presentations?
7. What are the factors affecting oral presentations?
8. Are rehearsals important for oral presentations? Comment.

Wiley.
Kennedy, G. (1998) The New Negotiating Edge: The Behavioral Approach for Results and
Relationships. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Dwyer, J. (1997) The Business Communication Handbook, 4th edition. Sydney: Prentice
Hall.
Ellis, A. and Beattie, G. (1986) The Psychology of Language and Communication.
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
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UNIT 3: SOME COMMON PRESENTATIONS IN BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
3.3. Informative presentations
3.4. Instructional presentations
3.5. Persuasive presentations
3.6. Problem-solving presentations
3.7. Decision-making presentations
3.8. Let us sum up

This unit shall introduce readers to:
• Informative presentations in business
• Analytical presentations in business
• Investigative presentations in business
• Problem-solving presentations in business
• Decision-making presentations in business

Presentation is a form of oral communication used prevalently in business organizations
and other institutions. There is a speaker or multiple speakers in sequence. The date
scheduled for the presentation is always communicated beforehand by issue of a notice or
advertised as needed. The audience for presentations are sometimes specific and general
for most. The members of audience are invited to a space reserved for the presentation
through formal channels. The speaker referred to as presenter prepares the content for a
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presentation on a selected topic with necessary research. Audio-visual aids are employed
in corporate presentations but using whiteboards and markers are still in use. Presentations
are followed by an interactive session with the speaker where the audience is allowed to
put up queries and get expert responses. The aim of presentations may vary depending on
the purpose and the delivery styles employed. Broadly presentations common in business
organizations can be categorized as informative, instructional, persuasive, problem-solving
and decision making.
3.3. Informative presentations

Informative presentations are aimed at transmitting information. The information could be
about new product launches, company practices, new appointments, service access,
operating procedures etc. It transmits anything that is in the nature of informing.
3.4. Instructional presentations

Corporations use presentations as the first tool that introduces employees to anything new
that requires employee action in a prescribed manner. The use of an equipment, the
operation of a production process, using any resource portal etc. are explained in terms of
correct operating procedure, dos and don’ts and problem solving mechanism. Presentations
for training employees, hands-on technical presentations, workshop presentations fall in
this category.
3.5. Persuasive presentations

A business concern has to face variety of issues that obstruct smooth operation. Those
issues needs to be resolved. Decisions are taken through meetings and pushed for
implementation. Before such decisions are executed, sensitive issues are discussed using
persuasive presentations to ensure unbarred implementation. Concerned members are
invited and logical explanations are put forward to resolve issues. Success rate of action
implementation in increased by persuasive presentations as it clarifies undiscussed but
existent issues.
3.6. Problem-solving presentations

These presentations discuss problems that are not critical at present, but has potential to
develop into corporate bottlenecks. Issues are raised as topics of discussions and the
sessions involve high levels of speaker-audience interaction. The aim of such presentations
is to converge on acceptable suggestions on potential problem solving approaches by
76
pooling intellect o the matter. Such presentations raise awareness and lead to future
presentations that can examine the matter more rigorously.
Check your progress

1. What type of presentations are Trainings and workshops?
2. When are persuasive presentations used?
3. How does the business communicate operating procedures
to employees?
3.7. Decision-making presentations

The decision-making presentations take up topics that involve audience in participative
decision making. Most issues discussed in these presentations are intradepartmental with
participants from a specific expert area. For example, the sales head calls up the entire sales
team to participate in a decision making presentation. The sales head presents the historical
statistics of sales, with individual contribution of the team towards organizational profits.
The matter raised in to decide on the sales target for the year on the basis of resources
available and capacity assessment. Interactions and arguments lead to fixing sales targets
and related decisions which are under the decentralized control of the sales head.
3.8. Let us sum up

Common presentations in business include informative, persuasive, instructional, problem-
solving and decision making. Informative presentations include policy information,
product launch information, operating guidelines etc. Persuasive presentations are utilized
by corporates to resolve issues by interaction and placing logical explanations. Instructional
presentations include trainings, workshops, hands on technical exercises etc. Problem
solving presentations are used to discuss issues of general nature affecting organizational
culture that can develop as corporate obstacles. Decision making presentations involve
participants of single business divisions that take decentralized decisions through
participative decision making.

1. What are informative presentations?
2. What kind of presentations do businesses use for instructing employees?
3. How does a company communicate decisions to employees through presentations?
77
4. How does a business resolve issues using presentations?
5. What are the common presentations seen in business communication?
6. What are decision making presentations?

Bowman, L. with Crofts, A. (1991) High Impact Business Presentations: How to Speak
Like an Expert and Sound Like a Statesman. London: Business Books.
Miller, K. (2012). Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes (6th edn.).
USA, Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Aziz, K. (2000) Presenting to Win: A Guide for Finance and Business Professionals.
Dublin: Oak Tree Press.
Cameron, D. (1995) Verbal Hygiene. London: Routledge.
Corman, S.R., Banks, S.P., Bantz, C.R. and Mayer, M.E. (eds) (1990) Foundations of
Organisational Communication: A Reader. New York: Longman.
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BLOCK 5: NON-VERBAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
1.3. What is body language?
1.4. Kinesics
1.5. Proxemics
1.6. Paralanguage
1.7. Let us sum up
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This unit aims:
• to bring out the importance of body language in oral communication

• to explain the use of movements in body language
• to explain the use social space in body language
• to explain the meaning of para language
Communication can be broadly classified into oral and written communication. Oral
communication further bifurcates into verbal and non-verbal communication. A major part
of this non-verbal part of oral communication is body language. This subject covers all
kinds of movements and body expressions that are an output of one’s inner feelings and
perception. Body language is a particularly observable area in oral communication where
verbal communication is complimented by movements, gestures and other similar non-
verbal expressions as displayed by the communicator or the listeners. We come across such
things in our daily life, in schools, offices, by the bus stop, in a metro train, in a bazaar etc.
This field is diverse and continuously evolving. We shall study the underlying dimensions
of body language and explore their impact on the process of communication, especially
looking at it from a business perspective.
1.3. What is body language?
People are social beings and they interact in various ways. This interaction is specifically
intriguing in the case of communication. Even staying completely still in a meeting
suggests something to others. It could be the sheer uninterested attitude, boredom,
perplexity or even a lack of confidence to speak. The body expresses the feelings and state
of mind of a person through movements that are conscious as well as unconscious. These
very movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, maintenance of distance etc.
whether voluntary or not, suggest feelings of approval, denial, anger, boredom, frustration,
concentration, terror and grief. Such things are known as body language. The study of body
language can be organized into three areas as given below,
• Kinesics
• Proxemics &
• Para language
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1.4. Kinesics
The study of movements of the entire body or parts of an individual’s body that can be
considered as a non-verbal communication is called Kinesics. Ray Birdwhistell is
reportedly the first person to have even studied the movements that create non-verbal
communication. The work of Birdwhistell is popular that used video analysis of the
recorded movements of people placed in different situations. As physical movements seem
to convey information about a person doing such motion, study of the phenomenon became
important for non-verbal communication.
Kinesics involves the following principal areas:
A. Facial expressions
The facial expression is the first noticeable element in non-verbal communication.

It is very difficult to hide one’s state of mind by altering facial expressions. Even
without words, a facial expression can express different attitudes of an individual.
Facial expressions are very important to communicators who try to assess the
reaction of the listeners to a talk through constant scrutiny of the facial expressions.
They even modulate their voice, complexity of content, tone of delivery with
respect to changes in facial expression of their audience. In contemporary times,
facial make up as chosen by the wearer expresses their attitude in their lifestyle
itself. It is interpreted differently by onlookers and peers who try to read the state
of mind of the subjects. Examples of conventional facial expressions include, an
enthusiastic face, a light smile, a disappointing frown, an encouraging face, an
angry face etc.
B. Eye expressions
Although eyes are a part of the face, sometimes they show movements in contrast
to the facial expression maintaining a separate identity. Happiness, sadness,
attention, affection and many more feelings are well expressed just by eye
movements. This area is highly important for both the speaker and the listener/s.
Maintaining eye contact during an oral presentation is always recommended for a
successful lecture. A part of the audience not in eye contact with the speaker may
lose interest in the talk. However, staring is not advisable as it creates discomfort.
People with strong self-confidence and clear conscience always maintain eye
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contact during conversations. Avoiding eye contact are common indications of
dishonesty, lying and keeping secrets.
C. Postures
By careful observation, one can realize that there are different ways in which human
beings perform the functions of standing, sitting and walking. The typical ways in
which a human being does the mentioned functions is known as posture. This
includes the variation in ways for positioning one’s hands legs and other parts of
the body while sitting, standing and walking. Different postures express different
states of a person’s feeling. For example, an upright person, that looks robust while
doing these things seems more active and participating. A person with a protruding
stomach and drooping posture suggests of him being tired and quitting. People also
change their posture when they are about to make a point or are steering a change
in discussion. An ideal and correct posture is very important for effective speaking
as postures send out uncontrollable signals of a person’s state of mind to the
audience.
D. Gestures
Gestures are what we might call an add-on to effective verbal communication.

Gestures are those bodily movements that work in harmony with their verbal dialect
by highlighting a part, suggesting a reaction or seeking audience participation.
Examples of common gestures are, modding one’s head, hand signs, shaking of
head, patting someone’s back, shrugging, frowning, blinking, yawning etc. One
must be careful in using gestures as a gesture done at a wrong time, at a wrong place
can lead to gender discrimination, cultural offensiveness or an immoral attitude.
1.5. Proxemics
Some people feel comfortable in a crowd while some others don’t. People behave
differently with respect to the surrounding population density they are in. In this context, it
is interesting to note the use of space by people when communicating and the reverse
impact of space usage on communication. Edward T. Hall is the most remarkable scholar
in this field who has defined proxemics.
We see that people use distance or space to influence the outcome of communication. Just
like animals, people have a concept of territory. This territory is smaller in public but still
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well maintained. Any attempt at the threat of invasion of this territory (more suitably
personal space) leads to change in interaction. When strangers visit a house, the owner is
apprehensive of identity and hence maintains a safe distance from half open doors to
communicate. This is more evident in the installation of voice controlled security system
in homes to ward off uninvited guests.
We come across four kinds of zones or proximity areas in proxemics. These are:
A. Public zone: This zone is maintained at a distance of greater than and equal to
10 feet or 3 meters from the person. Such distance is preferable for public speaking.
The distance chosen by various members of the audience tells about the attitude of
the people towards the speaker.
B. Social zone: The social zone is maintained at a radial distance of 4-10 feet from
the speaker. Such distance is maintained for people that are familiar to us and even
strangers when arrangements are not under our control (e.g. in banks and hospitals).
C. Personal zone: Personal space is maintained at a distance of 1.5-4 feet around a

person. At this distance, handshakes are feasible. We only let friends and trusted
acquaintances to this zone.
D. Intimate zone: The intimate zone is marked by a radius of 0-1.5 feet from the
person. People allowed in this proximity are very close ones, like relatives, selected
best of friends, long term acquaintances and spouse. Access to this zone allows for
intimate communication with very limited control measures and involves easily
availability of touch. Whispering, touching and informally confiding information
happens in this zone.
Check your progress

1. What composes kinesics?
2. How does use of space change communication?
3. What does Postures and gestures signify in body language?
1.6. Para language
Para language is another area of non-verbal communication that helps to enhance verbal
communication. It is hard to believe when we say that the verbal words could have non-
83
verbal aspects that are important for communication. These aspects are the pitch, volume,
rate and quality of voice of the speaker. These factors can be controlled and used for making
verbal communication more effective. The various aspects known as paralanguage are as
follows:
A. Quality of voice: One of the aspect in this case is the hereditary nature of voice
as programmed in us. But the quality of voice can be improved by controlling other
aspects like tone, pitch and volume. Some people have a sweet tone that attracts the
attention of audiences. This tone can be altered with practice. A very good speech
is spoiled by a voice that is given in loud volume throughout. Volume of voice
should be increased or decreased as necessary. The proper use of mike and mouth
distance can achieve a well-balanced volume. Pitch is something that singers are
very familiar with. A pitch when unregulated throughout leads to monotony. The
pitch should be higher when stressing on important parts of a speech and artfully
taken down to wrap up sentences.
B. Speed: We might have all come across people who speak very fast. Such
speakers need repetition of sentences to make people understand. The speed here is
also referred to as rate or pace. Variation in rate is good. Pausing is used by many
good speakers to have breathers, rethink and adapt to unseen circumstances.
Finishing early earns no respect in communication. But controlling the pace is
necessary to finishes talk and speeches within stipulated time. Also, speeches that
proceed very slowly end up in lesser involvement of the audience.
C. Pronunciation: Correct and clear pronunciations indicate that a speaker has

command over the medium of communication and had come with preparations.
Haphazard recitations and extempore deliveries are prone to errors in pronunciation
until proven otherwise.
D. Accent: In these times, accent is a very talked about part of paralanguage.

Accents are distinctive ways of speaking that develops in a person influenced by
his/her geographical residence, strong mother tongue or instructor. Accents develop
naturally and yet people try to develop an accent as a way to impress others. Accents
are thus not compulsory to learn as a skill but it is something that gets instilled in a
person through various factors.
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E. Pauses: The use of this tool in communication creates impact when used
properly. A well placed pause can highlight a word that comes next. The change of
topics in discussions can also be preceded by well-timed pauses. At times, a query
might pop up from the audience in the middle of a discussion. As most queries are
novel in nature, a pause can help plan a response.
1.7. Let us sum up

Non-verbal aspects of communication increase the effectiveness of verbal communication.
The various movements whether done voluntarily or involuntarily that impact the process
of communication is termed as body language. The movements in body language are
studied under an area known as kinesics. People often use space or simply distance to
convey intentions in communication. This use of space for communication is known as
proxemics. The third area of body language is para language. These are the non-verbal
aspects like pitch, rate of speech, quality of voice, tone, pronunciation etc. that support
verbal communication.
1. Why is para language important?

2. How does gestures and postures help in communication?
3. What do you mean by kinesics?
4. Explain the aspects of para language.
5. How do people use space in communication?
6. Explain the various elements of body language.
7. How does body language help in communication?

Knapp, M.L. and Hall, J.A. (1997) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 4th
edition. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
Argyle, M. (1994) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour, 5th edition.
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Axtell, R.E. (1998) Gestures: The Do’s and Taboos of Body Language Around the
World,. New York: John Wiley.
Birdwhistell, R. 1970. Kinesics and Context. University of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia.
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Knapp, M. 1972. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Reinhart and
Winston, New York

2.3. Listening and oral communication
2.4. Hearing v/s listening
2.5. Process of listening
2.6. Principles of effective listening
2.7. Types of listening
2.8. Barriers to listening
2.9. Let us sum up

This unit aims at:
• Explaining the importance of listening in oral communication

• Distinguish between hearing and listening
• Explain the process of listening
• Stating the principles of effective listening
• Presenting the barriers to listening
Listening goes hand in hand with oral communication. As a speaker works towards making
the audience understand messages, the audience must also make good efforts in decoding
messages to understand in anticipated manner. Messages are not interpreted correctly
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without effective listening. Most people also confuse listening with hearing. But there is a
striking difference between the two. Although we perform the exercise of listening on a
daily basis, it can be done more effectively if we understand it as a logical process.
Listening is of different types based on the levels of involvement of the listener.
Identification of barriers to communication will help a listener take measures to reduce or
eliminate their impact on listening.
2.3. Listening and oral communication

Listening is not under constant examination as speaking. Teachers and experts try to raise
enthusiasm by questioning their audience at random. Listening is the process of careful
receipt of communicated messages that are retained for further interpretations and use.
Skipping through lectures, paying attention on command, giving in to distractions etc.
creates distortion in detail and misinterpretations. The purpose of oral communication is
never fulfilled if the audience doesn’t listen. The formality is achieved but intended results
don’t arrive. Listening is that part of oral communication which involves the receiver
completely. People are always eager to provide feedback without listening to the whole
message. Some people are impatient, some are distracted, some are biased and others are
not attentive. All of these people have something in common. They are oblivious to the
process of effective listening. Listening starts right at home from dinner talks, pep talks
from parents, work shadowing from elder siblings etc. Good parenting can groom
youngsters with effective listening. Such skills have long term retention.
2.4. Hearing v/s listening

Hearing is a physiological function that human beings can perform using their ears. The
function of hearing helps in retaining information without interpretations. Hearing without
listening can lead to partial recall of information or incomplete recall. People applying only
hearing might not have any queries. The queries for these people arise once they sit down
to implement any instruction or task.
Listening is a psychological phenomenon and an analytical process. This process helps

people understand things that they hear. Listening allows retention of complete
information. Listening identifies issues on spot that needs clarification. Thus listening may
produce queries that resolve issues and improve one’s understanding on a matter.
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2.5. Process of listening
The process of listening involves steps arranged logically. If the listening is exercised as
shown in these steps, it is expected to yield better results. The various steps involved in
listening are shown below,
Hearing Filtering Interpreting Responding Remembering
Fig. Process of listening
A. Hearing: As previously mentioned, hearing is a physiological process. Hearing

is an unconscious effort and a passive activity. We don’t hear only when limited by
a distant source or the obstruction of physical barriers. Hearing is the first step in
listening but many people assume it to be the last. Hearing is the absorption of
stimuli that occurs externally.
B. Filtering: There could be many sources that provide stimulus in the

environment. There could be other factors too that stimulate internal senses. Verbal
communication is not solely composed of words that the speaker speaks. It comes
to a person mixed with surrounding noise, natural sounds, distracting sounds,
internal thoughts as voices etc. To process a message, one has to filter out the parts
of stimuli that are not relevant to him/her.
C. Interpreting: Stimuli is simply received in the first two stages. In the third stage,
stimuli are given meaning by the receiver. The process of interpreting uses both
verbal parts and non-verbal parts of any message. Interpretation as a process is also
affected by previous experiences of the listener, their knowledge and associated
beliefs. Correct interpretation is important to derive the intended message. This is
known through feedback and post session interactions.
D. Responding: Reponses from the listeners provide the feedback towards

reception of the intended message. Responses vary in the listening process. People
respond by use of verbal communication. Some others prefer to use non-verbal
responses like nodding one’s head, hand signs, facial expressions etc. There are
people that seek further clarification of the message that want elaboration. This
stage is considered for the process of listening as responding has no purpose without
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listening. A person who has not listened cannot raise a question or does not feel the
need to do so.
E. Remembering:
This is the true test of listening. Recalling information from a communication that
took place at a previous time is called remembering. People who have listened
carefully during a communication, interpreted well and responded to increase their
understanding, are able to remember complete information. The careless ones that
consider a talk as a compulsory hearing session or a formal oral communication
retain partial information only.
Check your progress

1. How is hearing different from listening?
2. How is filtering done in listening?
3. Why is responding included in the process of listening?
2.6. Principles of effective listening

Listening is also an art. It develops over time through sincere effort. A few principles can
assist in effective listening. In the end, it is the willingness to listen that matters the most.
A. Concentration on message
Consistent focus on the message being delivered is the first principle. The listener
must not be swayed by distractions while listening. There are several things that
stimulate a person. A strong focus allows one to overcome certain barriers that
distort communication. A good listener is not overwhelmed by physical appearance
of the speaker or striking vocal qualities. Some listeners rephrase messages in their
own style to remember better.
B. Identifying the purpose of messages
Written communication has subject titles that are separately highlighted. Oral
communication also has specific objectives of communication. By carefully
listening, one has to identify the purpose of communication to understand well.
Until they do so, they have half the motivation to listen. The identified purpose can
be used to evaluate the usefulness of listening to the message.
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C. Giving Feedback
Feedback keeps listeners in the game. Listeners providing feedback feel an

involvement in the process of communication, a sense of importance and thus
achieve motivation for further concentration. Feedback also helps the speaker know
the effectiveness of his/her communication. This feedback during listening could
be verbal, using non-verbal cues or paraphrasing the message for gaining further
information. However, one must be careful as to understand the suitability oif
feedback in different communications. For example, it is not customary to give
feedback in between a video presentation, which is acceptable at the end of a
presentation.
D. Taking notes
Some employees are so busy in taking messages during communication that they
fail to interpret their own writing later. This is habitual and should be minimized to
the level of necessity. Noting down everything is never the objective. The aim is to
scribble important points to assist recall at a later stage. Taking down the outline
for a later report preparation is advisable.
E. Analyzing messages
Analyzing messages is what differentiates hearing and listening. If we ask members

of an audience to state a certain message communicated in a presentation, some
people will report the exact words as delivered by the speaker. This does not tell
that people have understood the message. To understand the complete message, the
verbal words, gestures, postures and facial expression of the speaker during those
parts of the message must be analyzed. This tells a lot about the things that were not
spoken but were meant by the speaker.
F. Causing interruption and distraction
We must wait for a good time to interrupt communication and only if the rules allow
us to do so. At the end of a completed sentence, in the pause between a change in
discussion, one may interrupt if interaction time is not allotted at the end of
communication. There are always some members of the audience who are not
listening. They can quickly become a source of distraction taken by the frustration
of compulsory participation. It is courteous to maintain decorum during
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communication even if one loses interest in listening. People like different colours,
different movies and different flavours. It is only natural that one might not be
interested to listen to a particular talk. However, it does not give permission to them
to disrupt on-going communication.
2.7. Types of listening

There are various types of listeners based on the type of listening they exercise. This is due
to different interests, speaker preferences, personal experiences, social factors, level of
compulsion, personal attitude etc.
A. Active listening: Listening by active participation to decode messages with good

effort is called active listening. Active listening also facilitates the speaker in
effective delivery of message by showing empathy, motivating them and
participating with feedback. Active listening allows one to retain complete details
of a message.
B. Passive listening: A pretentious listening exercise that gives the necessary

impression of listening to the speaker but does not involve analyzing or interpreting
the messages is known as passive listening. It is difficult to participate when
passively listening. Important details are skipped and the purpose of communication
is lost.
C. Selective listening: This type of listening involves listening to some parts of a

communication and leaving out other parts. The complete message is not delivered
to the listener. The selection of listening parts depends on judgement of the listener.
The listener focus is unstable in such a case. Selective listening is practiced in most
situations. Beginners are generally active listeners that move to selective listening
after years of experience and the reduction of administrative fear.
D. Emphatic listening: Emphatic listening actually goes beyond active listening.

While active listening concentrates on the content of the message, emphatic
listening evaluates the non-verbal cues, body language, para language to understand
the speaker’s perspective on the situation. The listener shows acceptance to what is
being said and encourages the speaker by providing summary responses like “I see”,
“I understand”, “True” etc. Counter arguments and disputes are not put forth by
listeners of this type.
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E. Skimming: Skimming is used to derive the general content of the message
without giving complete concentration. The listener does not retain the exact words
or listen to them minutely. The listener attempts to draw out main ideas. The type
of listeners are attentive as they try to identify the essence of a message.
F. Scanning: This involves a superficial listening exercise that is motivated by

specific interest in parts of the whole communication. Listener does not tire by
concentrating on everything. There is high probability of missing useful
information.
Check your progress

1. What is the purpose of skimming as a listening type?
2. What is empathy?
3. Which type of listening is best for retaining complete
information?
2.8. Barriers to listening

All barriers that obstruct listening are listening barriers. Understanding barriers is
important. This will help a listener avoid them to effectively listen to a message. Some
common barriers to listening are,
A. Physical barriers: Physical barriers are those that can be seen or felt. These
barriers include, discomfort due to temperature, bad smell, presence of noise,
distracting peers etc. There are ways to overcome these barriers. A person sitting in
front can prevent distractions from peers. Discomfort due to temperature and smell
can be avoided by change in sitting location.
B. Psychological and mental barriers: Personal thoughts and distractions always

come in the way to effective listening. People are affected by mental distractions
like anger, anxiety, depression, excitement apart from psychological distractions
like work assignments, laziness, and personal biases. People tend to concentrate
more on forming judgements about a talk rather than listening to it positively.
C. Health issues: Health issues during listening are uncontrollable as they cannot
be predicted. Although a person is aware of his/her health condition, it can worsen
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during a particular communication. Due to health issues, people lose focus and find
it even difficult to attend a session.
D. Non-verbal barriers: Listeners observe everything from words to expressions.

Certain gestures like frowning, yawning, staring etc. gives out a negative feedback
to the listener which has the capacity to affect listening. Some speakers look at their
watch regularly, raising disinterest or distractions among the audience. The thing to
note here is that a listener must not focus on these cues, rather the message.
E. Time urgency barriers: Everyone has a personal life and most have a work life.
People are preoccupied by tasks that spread out across the entire day. Attending a
lecture, meeting and conference does not relive anyone of his/her daily routine.
While listening, the progress and estimation of time bothers the listener who is
preoccupied by the things to be done next. Abrupt changes in communication time
causes distractions in listening. A sudden announcement to shorten or lengthen a
discussion should be appropriately placed so that the audience does not lose interest.
2.9. Let us sum up

Listening is not just hearing. It is an analytical process that involves interpreting, filtering,
analyzing, responding and recalling. Effective listening requires careful concentration on
the message to identify its purpose, interpret the message and provide participative
feedback. There are different types of listeners. Some are selective, some skim messages,
some scan messages for suitable parts and some are emphatic listeners. Listeners also exist
as active and passive depending on their level of interest and involvement. One must learn
how to overcome physical, mental, psychological, time, health and non-verbal barriers to
effectively listen to a communication.

1. Why is listening important for communication?
2. Distinguish between hearing and listening.
3. Explain the barriers to listening.
4. How can we listen effectively?
5. What are the various types of listeners?
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Cameron, D. (2000) Good to Talk. London: Sage.
Hartley, P. (1999) Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
Hargie, O. (ed.) (1997) The Handbook of Communication Skills, 2nd edn. London:
Routledge
Sypher, B.D. (ed.) (1997) Case Studies in Organizational Communication 2: Perspectives
on Contemporary Work Life. New York: Guilford.
Argyle, M. (1994) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour, 5th edition.
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
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3.3. Interviews
3.4. Interviewer preparation
3.5. Interviewee preparation
3.6. Interview guidelines
3.7. Let us sum up

This unit aims at the follows,
• To explain the purpose of interviews
• To explain the preparation areas of an interviewee
• To explain the preparation areas of an interviewer
• To introduce the different types of interviews
• To state the guidelines for an interview

Interview is not a new word for anybody. Every one of us have faced an interview at this
point. It starts from the time we apply for admission into an educational institution. With
respect to businesses, interviews are very important. Interviews are important parts of
businesses. Interviews are different in structure and purpose. Each of them have definite
features. Interviews are not just about the candidates but also about the interviewers too.
Interviewers and interviewees prepare in a different manner for the interview. Lack of
preparation on the part of an interviewer can result in wrong selection of candidates or
unsuccessful assessments. Interviews, like other areas in formal communication are
governed by a few universal rules. We shall discuss to understand the purpose of interviews
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better while exploring the different types practiced in businesses. Preparation areas for
interview from both interviewee and interviewer perspectives shall be discussed. To
complete the discussion, we shall introduce readers to certain guidelines for interviews.
Understanding them shall allow aspiring interviewees to understand the do’s and don’ts in
an interview.
3.3. Interviews
A scheduled formal interaction between two parties for exchange of views to specific
topics. The general aim of such interactions is evaluation of knowledge, performance and
potential of individuals. The person or persons asking the questions and directing the
interview are interviewer/s. The person/s answering questions, performing tasks and
responding to queries are the interviewees or candidates. Interviews are of different types
as per the need and have individual features. Some of the commonly known types are
presented below:
A. Promotion interviews: There is no pool of candidates for such an interview.

Even without any competition, an individual whose promotion is due, is
interviewed to assess their suitability for the higher position/post. Such interviews
have an informal element as the candidate is familiar with some of the interviewers.
Such interviews also bring out the career plans of a candidate and their level of
organizational commitment.
B. Appraisal interviews: Employees do not try to work ideally as expected by

businesses for salaries alone. The avoidance of erratic behavior, sincerity in
following guidelines and adhering to good work culture is also triggered by the
awaiting appraisal interviews that assess the performance of employees through that
period. It is a periodical assessment tool used in business and government houses
alike. The primary goal is to discuss career plans, resolve issues and revealing areas
where the candidate needs improvement. It is a usual practice to raise salaries after
satisfactory year end appraisals in corporate houses. Career confusion, change in
departments and work life issues can also be discussed freely in appraisal
interviews. Interviewees have some mount of control in these interviews as their
opinion matters in the issues being discussed.
C. Exit interview: Employees often apply for resignation from a present job owing
to various reasons of personal or professional nature. It could be a better
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opportunity, an unending dispute, mismanagement or simply the need for a change.
In regular employments as well as employees working in contract/project mode,
resignations must be placed before a standard period of time so that the management
has time to take a correct decision along with the necessary formalities. Exit
interviews are interviews taken for employees whose resignations have been
accepted to know their reasons for exit. Exit interviews also inform the employee
about reimbursements, transfer of provident funds, insurance and receivable dues.
The employee’s experiences, suggestions and any specific remarks are noted, which
could prove beneficial for the organization in future.
D. Recruitment & selection interviews: Selection is a part of the entire

recruitment process. Interviews are techniques used by recruiting personnel to
examine the compatibility of a candidate with a specific job description. In terms of
human resources management, it is finding a match between job specification of a
candidate and job description of a specific job. There are different kinds of
interviews that we come across in recruitment and selection. They are as given
below:
• Face-to-face interviews: Such interviews are commonly known as personal

interviews. The interviewee has to be present in person for this interviews.
The length of the interview depends on the success of the interaction.
Typically, potential selections are given more time for understanding their
psychy and stability. Candidates are expected to know about the operation
of organization concerned and their policies. These interviews are preceded
by standard introductory sessions by the company.
• Telephonic interviews: Interviews that are conducted over the telephone
are known as telephonic interviews. These interviews are used in
preliminary screening before face to face interviews. Such interviews are
very important to assess the telephonic communication skill of employees
for specific roles that demand frequent telephonic conversations. Examples
of such job roles are abundant in consumer tech-support services, business
consulting and call centre jobs. Outsourced operations require individuals
that are apt in this skill.
• Stress interviews: Candidates are tested for their ability to think logically
under stressful situations in these interviews. Interviewers are interested to
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know the specific reaction of candidates to artificially created stressful
situations. This interview is quite practical considering the daily stress that
employees have to face at work. The ability to control one’s temper under
such situation is very essential for a candidate who can become a future
colleague.
• Panel/committee interviews:
Panel interviews are favoured to reduce biased selections as in the case of
personal interviews. A candidate can be tested diverse experts to find the
overall rating as a potential candidate for the job. Responding well and
impressing each individual member is essential in such interviews.
Sometimes, intra panel discussions overwhelm such interviews.
• Psychological test or interviews:
These type of interviews are becoming more useful owing to the rapidly
inclining attrition rates in jobs. Interviewees have harnessed their nerves to
give out stereotypical anticipated reactions that impresses conventional
interviewers. Reading candidate thinking through psychometric test,
behavioural scales and non-verbal assessment has become necessary.
Unpredictable behavior from employees are on the rise. Opportunistic
behaviours, underlying career motives and violation of company policies
areas that can hide from conventional interviews.
• Task based interviews:
A typing test, a software application test, a problem solving test, a logical
test, a test of reasoning, a test for competitiveness, a test for team work
compliance etc. are certain tasks that bring out crucial information about
candidates. It facilitates quality candidate selections.
• In-depth interviews: A notch higher to personal interviews are in-depth
interviews. A candidate’s background, past experiences, achievements,
educational track record, major decisions in life etc. are explored in depth
in such interviews. These interviews go for long durations as interviewers
are not in haste of completing by overlooking information.
E. Informational interviews: The aim of such interviews is extracting information

on topics of interests and asking for guidance. Informational interviews are used for
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increase in knowledge about an incident, a problem or develop one’s own skill in a
particular field.
Check your progress

1. When are telephonic interviews useful?
2. What are the features of in-depth interviews?
3. What are the advantages of panel interviews?
4. Why are exit interviews conducted?
3.4. Interviewer preparation

A. Scrutinizing applications: Before an interview begins, an interviewer has to
finalize a list of candidates that match the job specification and who qualify for
attending the interview. This is a time consuming task that requires careful
examination of applications received. The output is a list of candidates that can be
called for the interview for the scheduled dates available. The task is either
performed by the interviewer themselves or assigned to office staff.
B. Interviewer/Interviewer panel selection: Interviewer selection is important as

subject expertise matters in selection of candidate, or the person to be interviewed.
Selection of panel members are done for panel interviews. Members are invited by
formal communication and acceptance confirmation is awaited, before finalization.
C. Scheduling interviews: The dates for interviews are fixed taking into account
availability of interviewer, logistic issues, availability of interview space,
confirmation of supportive services and formal permissions as necessary. The dates
so scheduled are communicated to the candidates well in advance to facilitate
transportation arrangement and planning convenience for the interview.
D. Interview space setup: The room or hall where the interview would take place
needs to be setup with required furniture, audio visual equipment for the interview.
Candidate waiting spaces are also arranged with limited amenities for convenience.
E. Interview assistants: In some interviews where the number of candidates are

large, assistants are employed for guiding the candidates through initial formalities,
registrations and introducing them to interview etiquettes. These assistants help the
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interviewer or the panel in paperwork necessary before and also in securing
feedback after interviews.
F. Content preparation: The interviewer sensitizes himself/herself with the job

specification and the job description before an interview. This helps find suitable
candidates. Based on the job requirements, the interviewer prepares a set of
structured questions and leaves a few cues for directing unstructured queries from
the candidate. Interviewers also stock some introductory interview openings and
closing remarks thinkable for the upcoming interview. Preparing for situations
where the candidate might give in to stress created in an interview is a caution that
interviewers can take.
3.5. Interviewee preparation

A. Appearance: Appearance gives the first impression to interviewers. Grooming
for an interview includes formal dressing, hairdo, personal hygiene and formal
accessories carried for formal meetings. The attire must be well fitting, sober in
colour, acceptable contrast in parts and clean in all respects.
B. Posture: Posture is a part of non-verbal communication. It is a very important

element in interviews. Habitual negative movements (like shaking legs while sitting
down) can be restricted by practice. An upright posture in sitting, standing and
walking reflects confidence. A drooping figure might lead to a negative impression
and create disinterest.
C. Interview Etiquette: Greeting interviewers correctly with respect to time is

important. A casual attitude here can lead to embarrassment. Abrupt movements
should be avoided during an interview. Asking permission to sit down, a firm
handshake, a courteous leave etc. are all signs of good interview etiquettes that an
interviewee can impress on.
D. Subject preparation: Jobs relate to a particular area of education and expertise.

People going for an interview should revise on related information in the field for
gaining confidence. Recent developments in the area can provide an edge to
candidates.
E. Knowledge on current affairs: It is not difficult to keep up with the current

affairs for people who do so every day. This is one of the reasons why the habit of
100
reading newspapers are inculcated among students. Current affairs might come up
at any moment in an interview. It is advisable to be always prepared.
F. Company background research: Knowing about the company that the

candidate is aspiring to work with is expected by interviewers. There is no excuse
to not knowing so. Products and services offered, geographical proliferation of
operations, customers, competitors, competitiveness etc. should be researched in
before attending the interview.
G. Keeping good health: Maintenance of a healthy lifestyle comes to use for

candidates. A candidate must be careful to keep away from unhealthy eating habits,
unacceptable social habits and risk taking situations before an interview. A healthy
candidate has an unobstructed presence of mind to make a comeback and impress
the panel.
H. Salary negotiation: A good market research reveals the current salary being
offered for a particular position. Knowledge of this allows one to prepare counter
arguments in support of a salary demanded. It is important to frankly discuss all
basic queries about salary if asked for.
I. Personality and attitude: Interviewers are always looking for a positive attitude
in candidates even in stressful situations. This can be acquired by tuning one’s
outlook to what a job demands. There could be certain traits of one’s personality
that are undesirable for a particular job. Self-assessment allows identification of
those traits. With due care, a favourable personality can be displayed for excelling
an interview. However, it is advisable to be honest and straight when facing an
interview as concealing personality features could end a selected candidate in an
unsatisfied work life.
Check your progress

1. How does an interviewer structure an interview?
2. Should one discuss about salary in an interview?
3. What are interview protocols?
4. What are the important areas of company background that
are researchable before interviews?
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3.6. Interview guidelines
We have explained the importance of interviews and how to prepare for interviews. The
scene changes as soon as a person actually goes for an interview. Quick thinking and wits
help but a person has to have a structured guide for certain acceptable rules for
interviews.
We can learn these as two broad categories as given below,
Things to do
• The candidate or the interviewee should let the interviewer lead the
interaction. Let the interviewer initiate the discussions.
• The candidate must not be the one to ask questions even when presented
with opportunity. This gives out a negative message.
• The candidate should try to show preference for the job being offered and
the eagerness to work if selected.
• Highlighting one’s strength before interviewers is good. But such claims
must be supported by substantial evidence and examples.
• A person must take a favourable opportunity to highlight one’s skills that
are relevant to the job.
Things to avoid
• A candidate should not make negative remarks about former employers or

peers in an interview
• Answers should not be long, lacking confidence and vague in nature
• A person should not lack enthusiasm in responding
• One must not state unrealistic aims and overambitious goals in an interview
• An interviewee must not lack courtesy throughout the interaction
• The candidate must try to remain calm and avoid being aggressive, rude or
short-tempered
3.7. Let us sum up

Everyone has to face an interview at some point of time or other. Interviews are formal
interactions and are pre-planned with mutual consent of parties involved. Interviews could
be for promotion, for appraisal, for selection, informational in nature, task oriented in
nature, psychological in nature etc. The purpose defines the structure and nature of the
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interview. Both the interviewee and the interviewer has to prepare differently for an
interview. The interviewees prepare for an interview by taking care of physical appearance,
mental preparation, company research and reading about current affairs. The interviewer
has to shortlist candidates for interview calls, communicate those information, schedule
dates for interview, select panel members, prepare interview structure, reserve and arrange
interview space etc. There are a few general guidelines for attending interviews that
increase the chances of selection or the chances of a successful interaction.

1. What are recruitment & selection interviews?
2. Why are different interviews methods used?
3. What are the preparation areas for interviewees?
4. How does an interviewer prepare for an interview?
5. State the guidelines for an interview.
6. How can a candidate increase the chances of success in an interview?
Honey, P. (1988) Face to Face: A Practical Guide to Interactive Skills, 2nd edition.
Aldershot: Gower.
James, J. (1995) Body Talk: The Skills of Positive Image. London: Industrial Society.
Hargie, O., Saunders, C. and Dickson, D. (1994) Social Skills in Interpersonal
Communication, 3rd edn. London: Routledge.
Axtell, R.E. (1998) Gestures: The Do’s and Taboos of Body Language Around the
World,New York: John Wiley.
Cooke, C. (1998) ‘Not so much “what” you say, but “how” you say it.’ Journal
ofCommunication Management 3(2): 180–196.
Ellis, A. and Beattie, G. (1986) The Psychology of Language and Communication. London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Kennedy, G. (1998) The New Negotiating Edge: The Behavioral Approach for Results
and Relationships. London: Nicholas Brealey.
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4.3. Communication and advancement in technology
4.4. Contemporary networks in communication
4.5. Contemporary techniques in communication
4.5.1. Email service
4.5.2. Short messaging services
4.5.3. Teleconferencing technique
4.5.4. Video conference technique
4.6. Let us sum up

This unit aims at:
• Exploring the development of communication alongside technological innovations
• Understanding the patterns of networks in communication
• Understanding some popular techniques in communication in recent times

Until there was an innovation, discovery or revolutionary change in taste, people were with
conventional techniques in communication. The development of new techniques goes
through several trials before being adopted by people for use. The increase in availability
of resources, quick access to sources and the speed of transmission are marvels of the recent
times. Newer techniques for communication has developed hand in hand with these
innovations. We shall explore a few important communication techniques in recent times
that have affected operations in business. The role of internet in the advancement of
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communication technology cannot be ignored. It has connected the workplace like never
before. The services that are usable with the availability of internet brings in speed,
convenience, resourcefulness and quality to communication. The contemporary techniques
in communication have reduced the problem of distance among people. People can now
work from home through these techniques. Drastic reduction in compromising deadlines
has been achieved. The tracking, geo-positioning systems and artificial intelligence has
revolutionized communication. We shall discuss how these techniques have developed
communication.
4.3. Communication and advancement in technology

The evolution of communication in line of technological advancements can be outlined as
below:
• The advent of writing- The moment people learned writing, they found a way to
record what they think, what they saw and what they knew. This was the first
milestone. There was a way to end and receive messages that can be referred on
later as well.
• The invention of printing- Writing for a mass audience was difficult with just
writing individual documents was difficult and time consuming. Printing gave a
way to produce books, copy documents for distribution and sped up the process of
mass media communication. Printing was a boon for spreading literacy and
spreading information and still is.
• The telegraph and the telephone- Communication speed developed even further
with the coming of telegraph and the successive invention of telephone. Passing on
confidential information that was protected from information leaks was more
guaranteed through these media.
• Radio and television- The ability to broadcast information, audio, visual
information and videos came with radio and television. Live broadcasting or simply
prompt communication came into existence. News, interviews and crucial
information for public interest could be transmitted at ease.
• Computers and the web- Computers alone are considered to be the greatest
innovation in communication. Combined with internet connections, the capacity of
computers to connect and conduct communication made phenomenal progress in
communication. Businesses are flourishing with their support and extensive use.
105
4.4. Contemporary techniques in communication
If we begin listing techniques in communication, we might end up with a long one. It will
include oral presentations, written reports, memos, resumes, meetings, conferences,
seminars, workshops, training sessions, telephonic communication, messaging services,
interviews, books, brochures etc. and many more. But when we look at communication in
contemporary times, we can short list a few important ones that must be mentioned in this
regard. They are as given below,
• E-mail mode of communication

• Short messaging techniques
• Teleconferencing techniques
• Video conferencing techniques
Each of the techniques mentioned above are in widespread practice for maintaining daily
communication in contemporary times.
4.4.1. E-mail service:

Electronic mails or E-mails in short are messages transmitted with the use of
internet between users of email, identified by unique email identities. A receiver
must not be compulsorily connected to the sender for receiving the message and
vice-versa. An email can be read in their own convenience by logging onto
computer networks. The delivery information is reliable and the content of the
message is saved for future correspondence or reference. E-mail content can be
formal or informal as preferred by users. There is data transmitted is quite secured.
It saves paper and speeds up communication. There is hardly any cost involved in
communicating though E-mails. Although developed in 1971, this technique is still
in vogue and practice. E-mails are not restricted by time. They can be sent and
received at any time as long as one has access to internet. It is considered as a formal
Technique of communication and hence demand a level of etiquette in
communication.
Check your progress

1. Is development of communication related to advancement
of technology?
2. What are the demerits of E-mail communication?
106
4.4.2. Short messaging services
These literally mean short message sent across a telecommunication network. As
computers aren’t easier to carry around, telecommunication is offered a more
preferred way of communication considering the probability of greater response.
Mobile device users exchange short messages at all times conveniently and with
lesser effort. The devices involved are tablet assistants, digital assistants, mobile
cellphones etc. Cellphone service providers have expanded this technique by
introducing support for sending voices, video clips and documents through short
messaging services. In recent times, the invasion of android operating systems and
allied software applications like Whatsapp, Facebook messengers, Hangout etc.
have revolutionized short messaging service communication techniques. It is no
longer about short messages. People can send anything that can be digitalized with
optimal size rules. People are marked as active or passive, online or offline, busy
on another phone and even a constantly updated status are being provided now.
Similar to the one above, this saves time and there is very minimal cost involved.
There is obstruction of network traffic and short messages have a probability of
being misinterpreted. Hence, it is advisable that such communication be followed
up with a phone call for any clarification.
4.4.3. Teleconferencing technique
The shortcoming of the short messages is that they have a chance of

misinterpretation. Some messages are so important that such a risk cannot be taken.
Also, certain communications are not possible in short messages. Teleconferencing
provides a platform for individuals located at different geographical locations, to
discuss such issues. Multiple number of persons can communicate simultaneously
in a teleconference. The audio conference provides the sensation of physically being
in a face to face meeting. The chances of misinterpretations are far lesser in this
technique. Simultaneous speaking and aggressive talking can spoil the
communication. This technique saves time and cost in setting up real-time
meetings. The concentration level and the involvement of participants cannot be
well determined in this technique as members are not physically present. Similar to
short messaging services, there is the risk of distorted network services that can
interrupt communication.
107
4.4.4. Video conference technique
Video conferencing has eliminated most of the demerits experienced in the previous
three techniques. It produces a live video meeting between participants connecting
them by use of internet. The audio as well as video feeds are sent and received in
real time. The barriers of geography are eliminated and it creates convenience in
communication. Verbal as well as non-verbal aspects of communication can be
easily observed by all participants which is absent in the previous techniques. This
is an effective technique for communication. There is a cost of data consumption
for conducting such conferences. But it is minimal as compared to real time setups
that also involves transportation and accommodation costs for participants. Proper
availability of equipment and internet access is necessary for success of such
techniques.
4.5. Let us sum up

Communication has developed hand in hand with the progress of technology to
communicate. Writing was the beginning that was succeeded by revolutionary inventions
like the telegraph, radio, television and most importantly, the internet. Internet access has
allowed networking the workplace. Communication to the outside world is no longer
limited by time and distance. Various advancements in communication techniques are now
being utilized for improved flow of information. E-mail communication is still prevalent
event though its use is diminishing. Sort messaging services have taken with the use of
portable communication devices. But teleconferencing techniques are limited by the
inability to access non-verbal communication. Videoconferencing techniques have
resolved this issue. But the availability of necessary equipment to avail the service and the
connectivity issues have scope for improvement.

1. Explain the popular communication techniques in contemporary times.
2. How has communication developed with technological advancements?
3. What are the advantages of using video conferencing techniques?
4. How is short messaging services superior to E-mails?
5. Evaluate the comparative effectiveness of teleconferencing techniques and video
conferencing techniques.
108
Cairncross, F. (1997) The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will
Change our Lives. London: Orion.
Gates, B., with Hemingway, C. (1999) Business @ the Speed of Thought: Using a Digital
Nervous System.
Bitner, J. (1996) Mass Communication: An Introduction (6th ed.) Boston: Alyn and
Bacon
Dizard, W. (2000) Old Media New Mass Communications In Information Age. New
Longman. Media the York
Desmond, A.D'Abreo (1994), The Mass Media and You, Better Yourself Books, Bombay.
109
5.3. Cultural factors in communication
5.4. Barriers in international communication
5.5. Strategies for international communication
5.6. Let us sum up
This unit shall discuss,
• The impact of cultural diversity in international communication

• The barriers that are encountered in international communication
• Key strategies that can assist in effective international communication
The very first step to prepare for international communication is to understand the impact
of cultural diversity on communication at the workplace. Being open-minded to cultural
differences ensure good communication. In a global workplace, people can speak different
languages. People involved in international communication should be apt enough about
offensive and acceptable communication both verbally and non-verbally. Many people are
ethnocentric in a work place. Hence understanding their beliefs and social rules is very
important. Skipping such detail can lead to easy stereotyping in judging others.
Demography factors of age, ethnicity, race and religion must be cared for while
communicating to an international audience. Abiding by general communication principles
is advisable. But it is also necessary to adapt one’s communication style considering the
language needs and cultural diversity of the audience. Expert communicators utilize
110
cultural diversity to their own advantage by bringing in common phrases or popular idioms
to sweeten his/her own communication. There are various things that have to be carefully
planned in international communication. We shall explore and discuss some of the most
important aspects in international communication.
5.3. Cultural factors in communication
We understand that people develop their own understanding of the world based on their
cultural beliefs and past experiences. People use these to analyze and interpret messages.
We must accept that cultural differences do affect the way people communicate. Effective
communication requires expert understanding of cultural differences so that
communication messages do not offend any member of the audience. Interpersonal
communication also follows similar rules. There is yet another cultural dimension that is
relevant to our discussion. It is the expectations of the organizations for employee
behaviours, organizational values and mode of operation. This is known is corporate
culture. The various factors in this context that are relevant in international communication
are presented below:
A. Ethnicity, race and religion: The three things have been mentioned together
because their impact on communication is somehow similar. Ethnicity and race
define a group of people with similar descent, speaking a common language and
having similar physical characteristics. These groups seem to follow similar rules
that govern their social and cultural life. Ethnicity and racial identity is also carried
to the workplace with pride. Although profession views every one as human, these
factors cannot be ignored while communicating. People of different ethnicity and
race seem to interpret messages differently by the same speaker. This is caused by
the beliefs and cultural binding on these groups. Thus, profession may pose things
that contrast the beliefs drawn from ethnic and racial concepts. Religion is another
element that makes international communication as planned activity. Casual
communication can let off unintentional remarks, analogies and cultural references
that might offend a certain religious group. Care must be taken to regard the feelings
of everyone while communicating in a global setting.
B. Gender sensitiveness: Gender classifications have produced many schools of

corporate thought. Some scholars propose gender blindness, others gender
sensitivity and some also propose gender equality. The discussions are never ending
111
and the corporate decisions can only reach the approximately best alternative in
gender issues. Gender concepts like social interaction, work-life and distribution
of roles differ from culture to culture. Communicators must be careful not to offend
any gender group by stating a message that has a biased perspective. Understanding
culture in this regard is helpful. For example, in the United states, India and the
middle east generally accepted philosophies on gender issues are quite different.
C. Age: Age consideration in developing considerate content is applicable in all

kinds of communication settings. As age progresses, so does understanding of
information and accepted beliefs. Different stages of a person’s life are
characterized by different needs and choices. Age factor also defines how a person
interprets and receives a message. In any organization the work experiences of
people differ as per their engagements in the role. Their views and beliefs are very
different from one another. A communicator must not forget this aspect while
communicating to an audience that has a wide age diversity.
D. Corporate culture
The corporation also has expectations with respect to employee behavior, attitude,
peer interactions etc. As the corporation respects the cultural beliefs of its
employees, it expects the employees to respect the corporate culture in return.
Employees are well groomed in corporate culture in due time of their employment
through trainings and refreshers. While communicating with corporate employees,
a communicator should learn about the policies, standards and guidelines of
operation contained in formal statements of the business.
E. Physical disability
Persons with physical disability face favoritism, discrimination, avoidance and

other such treatment at workplaces. It takes time for the peers to get adjusted with
a peer with a disability. Solutions are found in time and most cases are resolved
with sound management decisions. Considering this element in communications is
crucial. Communicators usually overlook presence of such members of the
audience unless present in front rows. Messages concerning them are analyzed
differently by members who have physical disability.
112
5.4. Barriers in international communication
A. Ethnocentrism: It is common for people to think that their own culture or

ethnicity is superior to others. This feeling gives rise to ethnocentrism that bars
people from learning from other cultures. People find difficulty in accepting beliefs,
traditions and social rules that have different cultural sources.
B. Language differences: We are all comfortable in our own mother tongues.

Communication comes without effort and fluency comes with little practice. For
communicating to a global audience that have different language groups demand
for adaptability in this regard. A speaker but be versatile enough to learn even a few
phrases that can make communication effective. The introvert attitude of audience
members having trouble in understanding universal languages create barriers.
Either a translator or an interpreter is necessary to overcome such barriers.
C. Cultural comparison: There are some people who compare cultural beliefs and
opinions of others taking their culture as a standard point of reference. The decision
made for correct or wrong is based on the variation of one’s own beliefs. When the
speaker and audiences differ by culture, communication in international setting can
get difficult.
D. Lack of cultural knowledge
We devote lesser time to learn about other cultures than our own. This creates a
cultural gap. The knowledge we possess is accidental in most cases and superficial
in nature. We tend to assume that everyone out there has to be like us. By exposing
ourselves to cultural differences and cultural studies, we learn to appreciate the
differences. Lack of knowledge leads people into stereotyping quickly after brief
observations of people from different cultures.
E. Discrimination
Discrimination is present in many areas of business. Discrimination in information

distribution, opportunity distribution, allotment of significant job roles etc. are a
common sight although many corporations will be in denial. Discrimination causes
problems in business communication and makes people apprehensive of these facts.
This practice questions trust, reliability and honest operations in business.
113
F. Language barriers: Observation of social behavior of people in workplaces
reveal that people tend to make groups for socializing. Typically, groups are formed
within people speaking similar languages. A person speaking a different language
is screened with skepticism before allowing group entry. Similarly, in global
communication, language barriers obstruct effective communication. Multiple
language representations are used to reduce this barrier to involve various types of
language speaking audience in a common presentation.
Check your progress

1. What is ethnocentrism?
2. How can corporate culture effect communication?
3. How can lack of cross cultural knowledge affect
communication?
4. Why is gender sensitivity important in international
communication?
5. Ethnicity, race and religion is a factor in international
communication. Comment.
5.5. Strategies for international communication
A. Expertise on business communication principles:
The principles of communication apply to all kinds of communication settings. The

very first step in strategizing international communication is to hone the general
communication skills. Encoding messages, simplifying things, bringing analogies,
supporting theories by examples, research support etc. are the areas that must be
studied before applying communication principles.
B. Analyzing audience
The audience is an important part of the complete communication process.

Knowing the demography, culture, expertise areas of the audience allows the
speaker to plan the content that will be suitable for such an audience. As previously
mentioned, overlooking age, religion, race or physical disability could prove
detrimental for a speaker. Once the content for communication is ready, it can be
114
adapted to acceptable level for an audience removing any content that is likely to
be offensive to any member.
C. Openness to cultural differences
Understanding and learning about different cultures will open up the mind to
acceptance of cultural diversity. The speaker shall no longer be limited by
ethnocentric perspective or comparison of cultural values. By doing so, a respectful
attitude is reflected in a communicator and thus the message is well received. The
key is to remain patient, negotiate well, and ask for feedback.
D. Acquiring knowledge on cultural diversity
A good speaker learns about different cultures that the audience might be affiliated
to. He/she attempts to install popular phrases, happy triggers and cultural symbols
to impress upon the audience. A good amount of research is necessary for content
development at such a level. Preliminary interactions with different cultural
representatives to understand them better can improve communication at a global
forum. This strategy can prevent the use of non-verbal gestures that may be
unacceptable or misinterpreted.
E. Assessment of language differences
A communicator must assess his/her capacity to compensate differences in

language of communication. If an interpreter or even a translator is required, the
assessment must be done beforehand. A quick registration survey about the
preferred language of communication can help in this context. As language training
requires years in minimum, the strategy implementation to fill up language gaps
must be a long term objective.
5.6. Let us sum up
International communication requires the willingness to adapt and a desire to make an effort
towards communicating to a global audience. One must be open to differences in culture
and beliefs while communicating. The acceptance that culturally different individuals will
interpret differently is important in international communication. There are several barriers
in international communication like language, culture, discriminations, unwillingness to
learn, ethnocentric attitude and also gender issues. Barriers can be overcome if suggested
115
strategies to analyze the audience, to learn other cultures, to employ language assistants, to
accept cultural differences and to learn communication principles, are adopted.
1. What is the impact of culture in international communication?
2. Explain the barriers to international communication.
3. How can language gap be addressed in international communication?
4. What are the strategies to strengthen effective international communication?
5. What are the various cultural factors that affect international communication?
6. Cultural differences must be accepted for effective international communication.

Comment.
Jandt, E. (1998) Intercultural Communication: An Introduction, 2nd edition. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage. Janis, I. (1982)
Samovar, L.A. and Porter, R.E. (eds) (1997) Intercultural Communication, 8th edition.
Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.
Oliver, S (1997) Corporate Communication: Principles, Techniques and Strategies.
London: Kogan Page.
Samovar, L.A. and Porter, R.E. (1997) Communication Between Cultures, 2nd edition.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Schein, E. (1991) ‘What is culture?’ In Frost, P., Moore, L., Louis, M., Lundberg, C. and
Martin,J. (eds) Reframing Organisational Culture. London: Sage.
Thatcher, B. L. (1999) ‘Cultural and rhetorical adaptations for South American
audiences.’Technical Communication 46(2): 177–195.
Timmerman, T.A. (2000) ‘Racial diversity, age diversity, interdependence, and team
performance.’Small Group Research 31(5): 592–606.
Ting-Toomey, S. (1999) Communicating across Cultures. New York: Guilford.
Wiseman, R.L. and Shuter, R. (1994) Communicating in Multinational Organisations.
ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.
116

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SELF LEARNING MATERIAL

B.Com. – BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

B.Com. (1st Semester)

Directorate of Distance Education

UNIT 1: BASICS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 2: MODELS AND PROCESSES IN COMMUNICATION

UNIT 3: THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

BLOCK 2 : CORPORATE COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1: FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

UNIT 2: PREVALENT PRACTICES IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT 3: PRESENTATION AND REPORT WRITING

BLOCK 3 : WRITING SKILLS

UNIT 1: STAGES IN WRITING AND RELATED SKILLS

UNIT 2: BUSINESS LETTERS AND MEMOS

BLOCK 4 : REPORT WRITING

UNIT 1: REPORTS AND ITS TYPES

UNIT 2: ORAL PRESENTATION – PRINCIPLES, FACTORS AND SKILLS

UNIT 3: SOME COMMON PRESENTATIONS IN BUSINESS

BLOCK 5: NON-VERBAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1: BODY LANGUAGE

UNIT 2: LISTENING SKILLS AND EXERCISES

UNIT 3: INTERVIEW SKILLS – INTERVIEWER AND INTERVIEWEE

UNIT 4: CONTEMPORARY COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES

UNIT 5: INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1: BASICS OF COMMUNICATION

Structure of this unit

1.1. Learning Objectives

1.2. Unit Introduction

1.3. Definition of communication

1.4. Importance of communication in business

1.5. The process of communication and its components

1.6. Forms of communication

1.7. Barriers to communication

1.8. Let us sum up

1.9. Terminal Questions

1.10. Suggested readings

1.1. Learning Objectives

This Unit is aimed at:

• Making you understand the basics in communication

1.2. Unit Introduction

1.3. Definition of communication

1.4. Importance of communication in business

• For training exercises- Communication is vital for imparting effective

Check your progress

1.5. The process of communication and its components

Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver

Fig.1: Process of communication

1.6. Forms of communication

1.7. Barriers to communication

Obstacles are in everything. Communication is no exception. Effectiveness in

1.8. Let us sum up

1.9. Terminal Questions

1. What do you mean by communication?

2. Why is communication important for business?

3. Explain the components of communication process?/ Explain the process of

4. What are common forms of communication?

5. What are barriers to communication?

1.10. Suggested readings

Hargie, O.D.W., Dickson, D., and Tourish, D. (1999). Communication in Management.