Ø Present Simple

1- subject + verb/verb + (e)s

Examples: He plays tennis. She studies English.
2- subject + do/does not + verb
Examples: He doesn't play tennis. She doesn't study English.
3- do/does + subject + verb?
Example: Do you study English?

• To refer to habitual or repeated actions:

o I read a book just about every day.

o She never goes to the cinema.

o He doesn't come here very often.

o Do you smoke?

o With the present simple, frequency adverbs are often used (e.g.
usually, always, frequently, generally, sometimes, rarely, often, never,
normally, every day).

• To refer to permanent states:

o She holds a university degree in economics.

o Note: use the present perfect, not the present simple when describing how long or
since when something has continued:

o She has taught economics since 1991. (not She has teaches economics since 1991)

• To talk about factual information, such as generally accepted truths or scientific

facts:

o Parents are generally blind to their children's faults.

o Water boils at 100°C.

o The following frequency adverbs are often used: generally, normally, usually

• To give instructions (e.g. cooking) or directions:

o First, you add the sugar to the butter; then, you add two eggs.

o You go up the stairs and turn right.

• To talk about what happens in books, plays and films:

o In the film, a young woman travels to the countryside and soon falls in love.

• To use with state verbs when the meaning is not temporary. These verbs often
describe a state rather than an action and therefore do not normally have
continuous tenses.

o Verbs that describe senses: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, look, sound
The coffee tastes really bitter.

o Note: when something is happening now, we use can:

I can’t see anything. It’s too dark.

o Verbs of possession: have, belong, possess, own

This camera belongs to my wife.

o Verbs of perception: know, believe, understand, forget, think, remember

I think she's too young to get married.

o Verbs of emotion: care, like, dislike, love, hate, mind, prefer, enjoy, adore
Do you mind if I open the window?
I adore my husband.
Þ Continuous verbs are usually active verbs (verbs such as to learn), that refer to an
action. Stative verbs (such as to like), refer to a state, and are usually used in simple
tenses, e.g. I like this song. Who sings it? NOT I’m liking this song as to like is a
state, not an action.
Ø Past Simple

In English, for example, verbs such as study, call and work are regular, since they form
their inflected parts by adding the typical endings -s, -ing and -ed, to give forms such as
studied, called and worked. On the other hand, many verbs such
as go, come and write are irregular, since some of their parts are not made according to the
typical pattern: went (go), came (come), wrote (write).

Note: the verb be is irregular: I/he/she/it was; you/we/they were

The principal uses of the past simple are listed below.

• To refer to an action completed in the past at a definite time:

Yesterday I called my supervisor to apologize for not attending the last meeting.
Note: no time reference is necessary if it is already known:
Why did you miss the meeting? (in the story I just told you about)

• To refer to a series of completed actions in the past:

I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

We often use words like next or then to indicate the sequence of events:
Then, I got a bus into the city centre and found a nice restaurant to eat in.

• To talk about past habits:

I studied German when I was a child.
I went on a long bike ride every Saturday when I was at school.
Note: used to and would can also be used.

• To refer to a long-term situation in the past which is no longer true:

He played for our team for 10 years.
People at that time believed that the Earth was the centre of the solar system.
Note: used to can also be used.

Ø Past Continuous
Ø Form: was/were + V(ing)

The principal uses of the past continuous are listed below.

Ø To set the "background scene" to an event or action. We use the past continuous to describe the
background scene and the past simple to describe the event or action:
I saw him at 8 o'clock on Monday morning while he was waiting for the school bus.
I was shopping in a supermarket when I noticed a strange-looking man.

We may have more than one background scene happening concurrently:

I was lying on my bed and listening to one of my favorite songs.

Ø To emphasize activities which continued for some time but whose exact limits are not
known and are not important. Notice the important difference between these two
sentences:

For a while last year I was playing football for my local team and teaching English in
the local elementary schools.
(It doesn't indicate whether the actions were completed or not, or whether they happened
concurrently)

Last year I played football for my local team and taught English in the local elementary
schools.
(It indicates that all of the actions are now complete, and probabley happened in that
order)

Note: state verbs cannot be used in any continuous tense.

Ø USED TO
• We use used to + infinitive to describe repeated actions in the past:
I used to keep the windows closed when I first moved in. (but I stopped doing this)

• We use used to + infinitive to describe past states that are usually no longer true:
We used to live in London when I was a kid.

• We do not use used to to refer to specific restricted periods in the past or saying how long it took
or how many times:

I lived in New York City for ten years. (not I used to live in New York City for ten years.)

I went to London twice when I was young. (not I used to go to London twice when I was
young.)

Ø Present Perfect Simple

Ø Form: has/have + P.P

The principal uses of the present perfect are listed below.

• To refer to a time period which is not yet finished (e.g. today, this month):
We've bought a new house this week. (an incomplete period)

• To show that something happened in the past. We don't state when is happened:
I've lost my watch. Have you seen it anywhere?

Note: If we give the time we must use the simple past:

I lost my watch yesterday. (not I've lost my watch yesterday)

The following time expressions are often used: ever, never, always, up to now, so far.
This is the worst storm we've ever had. (at any point before now)

• To talk about a situation which started in the past and usually continues after the time of
speaking in the present:
He has lived here for six years. (He has lived here till now)

• We use for with a lenght of time (e.g. for three weeks, for two days, for six years)

• since with a point in time (e.g. since 2010, since Wednesday, since nine o'clock, since I was five,
since I moved here)

• To talk about an action which occured at an unstated time in the past, provided that there is still a
connection with the present:
I’ve collected all the documents that are needed for the house sale. (I have the documents now)

Note: If we give the time we must use the simple past:

I lost my watch yesterday. (not I've lost my watch yesterday)

The following time expressions are often used: recently, just, already, and yet with negatives or
questions.
I've just arrived.
Have you done your homework yet?
Compare the use of the present perfect with the past simple:

Present perfect Past simple

links the past with the present:

John has won several awards. (at some only talks about the past:
point before now and he may win more John won several awards in 2012.
awards)

states a specific past time, or the time

does not talk about a specific time in
is understood:
the past:
I read the latest issue of the Magazine
Have you read the latest issue of the
when I was at home. (I'm not at home
Magazine? (at some time before now)
now and the reading is finished)

uses time expressions that show the uses time expressions that show the
time period is unfinished: time is finished:
I haven't seen John this morning. (up to I didn't see John this morning. (after 12
12 noon, the morning isn't finished) noon, last morning has finished)

Note the position of the following time expressions that occur with the present perfect:

• between the auxiliary and main verb (e.g. recently, already, always, ever, just, never):
I've already bought my ticket.
I’ve never met your brother.

Ever is generally used with questions or negatives:

Have you ever been to London?

• after the main verb (e.g. all my life, every day, yet, before, for ages, for two weeks, since 2001,
since I was ten etc.)
I haven't seen him for ages.
I’ve known John since I was ten.

if there is an object clause, the time expression comes at the end:

I've read this book every morning since then.
He hasn't ridden since he broke his arm.
Ø Past Perfect
Form: had+ Past Participle (3rd form)

• When I got to the airport the plane had already taken off .
• I tried to pay but I realised that I had left my wallet at home.
• He was in hospital because he had broken his leg.
• Before I came to the UK, I had never eaten British food.

When to use the Past Perfect

We can use Past Perfect when

• There are 2 consecutive actions in the past ( The train left . I arrived . )
• you want to link the 2 actions with a linking word (When …)
• you want to add drama and interest to your story

Look at this example. It is correct but sounds weird:

I forgot my passport. I suddenly realised .

(TWO consecutive actions.TWO sentences. Simple Past, in the same order they happened.)

I suddenly realised that I had forgotten my passport.

(ONE sentence, a linking word, in a different order from how they happened)

Which one sounds better? The second one.

So we can use the Past Perfect with phrases like I realised that…, I noticed that…, I
remembered that…I discovered that…I found out that…

We used it a lot to answer questions like:

Ø ‘Have you ever lost your phone?’

Ø ‘Yes, I was travelling to work and when I sat down I realised my phone had
fallen out of my pocket’.

§ ‘Have you ever made a complaint?’ ‘

§ ‘Yes I was staying in a hotel, and I had never been to a hotel by myself before.
When they gave me the bill, I noticed that they had charged me for lots of things I
hadn’t ordered!’ .

We also use Past Perfect to explain situations in the past (the linking word is because ) e.g.

Ø I was hungry because I hadn’t had any breakfast.

Ø I failed the test because I hadn’t revised .

This follows the rule of 2 things in the past

Articles

Indefinite Articles
When speaking or writing about a general, non-specific noun an indefinite article — a/an— is
used to modify a single count noun.

When a word begins with a consonant, use the indefinite article “a”. The definite article “a” can
also be used to make generalized statements about any member of a group of nouns. For
example:

1. A car passed by. A single non-specific car passed by. Which car does not matter,

since it was one out of a general group.

2. A test will be given to students. This is a generalized statement about all tests.
When a word begins with a vowel or a silent “h,” like in the words “honour” or “honest” the
indefinite article “an” is used. For example:

4- It was an honour to meet you. Honour is a single count noun that begins with a silent

“h”.

5- An apple fell from the tree. Apple is a single count noun that begins with a vowel.

6- No Article Required

When deciding whether an indefinite article should be used, one must first determine if the noun
being modified is something that can be counted or not. For instance, items like books, chairs,
hats are all items that can be counted, whereas things like feelings — sadness, bravery — cannot
be counted. When a noun cannot be counted, no article is used.

Neither a definite nor an indefinite article is required when:

• Using proper nouns, like place names or language names.

For example: she speaks French.
• Making generalized statements about plural nouns.
For example: Plants need water.

• Using abstract nouns. Abstract nouns are nouns that can be conceptualized, but not sensed.
For example: Education will bring you success.

It’s worth noting that while most proper nouns do not require an article, there are certain
exceptions to this rule. When naming a specific area or region, a definite article is required.

Use of the word ‘the’

We use the:

• when there is only one of something in a particular area: the government, the police, the
bridge, the river, the hospital
• when there is only one in the entire world: the internet, the environment, the ozone layer,
the atmosphere
• with cardinal numbers: the first, the second, the third
• with superlatives: the worst, the shortest, the lowest, the most beautiful, the least
impressive
• with places where the name refers to a group of islands or states: the USA, the UK, the
Maldives, the Middle East, the United Arab Emirates
We don’t use the:

• to talk generally we drop the word ‘the’ and use the plural: dogs don’t like cats, Japanese
cars are very reliable, German products have a high quality.

• with a single place or country: Ireland, China, Vietnam, Europe, South America

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some nouns in English are uncountable and will therefore always be in the singular form and
never plural. Some common nouns that students often get wrong in the IELTS test are:

• Advice
• Advertising
• Food
• Information
• Knowledge
• Education
• Money
• Traffic
• Shopping
• Travel
• Entertainment
• Happiness
• Literature
• Work
• Research
If a noun is uncountable you cannot use:

• a plural verb: There were many traffic in the city.

• a number: three advice, four food
• a few, a couple, many, a number of: a number of literature, a few research

• a/an: a happiness, an entertainment

Noun-Verb Agreement
Ø The verb must agree with the noun. If you use a plural noun, you must use a plural verb
and vice versa.
Example:

There is some dogs outside.

There is some food in the kitchen.

Here are some homework for you.

There are some eggs in the kitchen.

A- A verb agrees with its subject in number.

Singular subjects take singular verbs:

The patient was hospitalized two days ago.

He smokes 40 cigarettes per day.

B- The number of the subject (singular – Plural) is not changed by words that come
between the subject and the verb.
One of the medications was effective.

C- Some subjects always take a singular verb even though the meaning may seem
plural.These subjects always take singular verbs:
(each someone – either anyone – neither nobody – one somebody – no one anybody –
everyone)

- No one of the family members is obese.

- Neither of the family members is diabetic.

D- Subjects joined by “and” are plural. Subjects joined by “or” or “Nor” take a verb
that agrees with the last subject.

- Maria and her mother are being discharged from our hospital into your care today.

- Either Smith or George is being discharged.

- Neither Smith nor his brothers are autistic.
E- There and here are never subjects. In sentences that begin with these words, the subject
is usually found later on in the sentence.

- There were five medications the patient was taking. (were, agrees with the subject
“medications”.)
- Here is the provisional diagnosis I reached to. (Is agrees with the subject provisional
diagnosis)

F- Expressions of time, money, measurement, and weight are usually singular when the
amount is considered one unit.

- Five dollars is (not are) too much to ask.

- Ten days is (not are) not nearly enough time for him to be cured.

Ø –ing or to + infinitive
We use to + infinitive verb after the following verbs: learn how, would like, want, seem, refuse,
promise, prepare, offer, learn, hope, help, deserve, decide, afford, and ask.

Example:

It is important to learn how to speak English

Most people cannot afford to go on holiday every year.

I would like to study overseas.

Note: ‘like’ can be followed by –ing or to + infinitive.

We use verb–ing after the following verbs: suggest, recommend, practice, mind, keep, involve,
imagine, give up, finish, enjoy, deny, consider, carry on, and avoid.
Example:

I would recommend checking your writing for mistakes.

You should avoid drinking coffee after 6 pm.

I’ve finished writing my essay.

Sentence Structures
There are four types of sentence:

1- Simple
2- Compound
3- Complex
4- Compound-complex

1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is one clause with a subject and verb.

Ø Computers are important in the modern world.

Formula = SV

However, it can have more than one subject and verb:

• 2 subjects:

Ø Computers and other technological devices are important in the modern world.
Formula = SSV

• 2 Verbs:

Ø I search for information and play games on my computer.

Formula = SVV
• 2 subject and 2 verbs:

Ø My brother and I search for information and play games on our computers.
Formula = SSVV

2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence consists of 2 or 3 clauses. It is when simple sentences are joined
together.

In this sentence structure, the clauses are joined with the following coordinating
conjunctions:

F = for
A = and
N = nor
B = but
O = or
Y = yet
S = so

The word 'fanboys' is an easy way to remember the different conjuntions that make up
compound sentences. Obviously the most common are 'and', 'but', 'or' and 'so'.

Ø Here are some examples of compound sentence structure:

Ø Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too.

Formula = SV but SV
Ø Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too, sowe must be careful.
Formula = SV but SV so SV.

Avoid writing too many clauses as the sentence may get difficult to follow, and
you cannot use each one more than once in a sentence to join clauses.

This is wrong:

Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of progress, and we
must ensure everyones has access to them.
Incorrect formula = SV and SV and SV. X
Two possible corrected versions:

Ø Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of progress.
We must ensure everyones has access to them.
Formula = SV and SV. SV.
Ø Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of
progress, so must ensure everyones has access to them.
Formula = SV and SV so SV.

Using semicolons
It's also possible to join compound sentences simply by combining two complete sentences into
one long sentence without any additional words. In this case, you must use a semicolon to join
your two independent clauses. For example:

There is an instance when you can have a compound sentence structure without a
coordinating conjuntion, and this is when you join two clauses with a semicolon. It is used
when two ideas are related.

For example:

Computers are used widely in most countires; they are a sign of progress.
Joe made the sugar cookies; Susan decorated them.

While this is grammatically correct, it's also possible to smooth the transition from one clause to
the other with Conjunctive Adverbs such as however, besides, therefore and meanwhile. To use
these properly, place them after the semicolon and add a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
For example:

• It was a difficult assignment; however, Kelly was up to the challenge.

Observe additional compound sentence examples joined by semicolons below:

• The sky is clear; the stars are twinkling.

• The waves were crashing on the shore; it was a lovely sight.
• There were white-out conditions in the town; therefore, the roads were impassable.
• Check back tomorrow; I will see if the book has arrived.
• He said he was not there yesterday; many people saw him there.
• I am happy to take your donation; any amount will be greatly appreciated.
• She only paints with bold colors; indeed, she does not like pastels at all.
• She works two jobs to make ends meet; at least, that was her reason for not having time
to join us.
• Malls are great places to shop; I can find everything I need under one roof.
• Italy is my favorite country; I plan to spend two weeks there next year.
• He turned in the research paper on Friday; he would have not passed the class otherwise.
• You need to pack the appropriate things for camping; for example, a sleeping bag will
keep you warm.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
Complex Sentences contain an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Independent Clause:
It has the ability to stand alone as a sentence. It always makes a complete thought.
(Subject + Verb + adj/obj)
John wrote an amazing paragraph.

Dependent/ Subordinate Clause:

Cannot stand alone, even though it has a subject and a verb.
(Subordinating Conjunction + Subj + verb + adj/obj)
When John wrote an amazing paragraph.

EXAMPLES:
• Because my coffee was too cold, I heated it in the microwave.
• Although he was wealthy, he was still unhappy.
• She returned the computer after she noticed it was damaged.
• As she was bright and ambitious, she became a manager in no time.
• Wherever you go, you can always find beauty.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
• After - although - as soon as - as long as - even though - because - before- if- in order to -
in order that - since- that- though- unless- until - when - whenever- where- wherever- whether
- while

PUNCTUATION MARKS
• Dependent Clause + (,) + Independent Clause (comma splits the clause).
Even though there are sharks in the water, I’m going swimming.

• Independent Clause + (Sub. Conj.) + Dependent Clause (comma usually does not split
the clause)
I’m going swimming even though there are sharks in the water.

For example:
People take natural health supplements even though they may not have been tested.
Our children may not be properly educated if we don't spend more on schools.

I went to bed as soon as he left because I was tired.

These are all adverbial clauses. In these types of complex sentence, the second clause can
be used to start the sentence.

In this case, a comma is needed in the middle.

Even though they may not have been tested, people take natural health supplements.

If we don't spend more on schools, our children may not be properly educated.

As soon as he left, I went to bed because I was tired.

Noun clauses and relative clauses are also a type of complex sentence structure, but these
will be looked at later.

1. Make comparisons
This sentence is slightly more complex than the previous one.

• This sentence is far more complex than any of the sentences that I have used before.

• This sentence is twice as complex as the previous one, because it compares two things.

• The more variety you use, the higher your score will be.

2. Make contrasts
Ø Some people argue that zoos are educational, whereas others are of the opinion that keeping
animals in cages is cruel.

Ø Sales of e-books have increased dramatically, while sales of paper books have plummeted.

Ø Proponents of GM food claim that it will eradicate famine. However, others believe it
threatens the food chain.
3. Give reasons
• The climate is changing because of human activity. [because of + noun]

• The planet is warming due to the fact that we continue to release carbon into the air by
burning fossil fuels for energy. [due to the fact that + sentence]

• As/Since there are few affordable alternatives, this situation will only get worse.

4. Show purpose
• The factory was demolished in order to make way for more housing.

• The factory was knocked down so that more houses could be constructed.

• Many people argue that keeping old buildings and repairing them is better because by doing
this, the character of the town will be preserved.

5. Show concession
• Although/even though/though we are aware of the problem, we do little to solve it.

• Despite/In spite of the fact that we are aware of the problem, we do little to prevent it. (S-V-
O)

• Despite/In spite of being aware of the problem, we do little to tackle it. (+ ing)

• Despite/In spite of our awareness of the problem, we do little to address it. (+ noun)

6. Make conditional sentences

• You won’t get a higher score unless you use conditionals!

• Using conditionals could increase your score dramatically.

• If the government had acted more quickly, the situation could have been avoided.
7. Use time linkers
• When considering a ban on advertising, we need to bear in mind the benefits.

• As soon as the government introduces this legislation, the situation will improve.

• As more local businesses close down, different types of workers (shop floor staff, managers,
cleaners) are having to find jobs elsewhere.

8. Use the ‘ing’ form to start sentences

• Starting a sentence with a noun/’ing’ form can make your writing more formal.

• Selling food in bulk could be one way of reducing plastic packaging.

• Being easily contactable has real advantages for business people and for working parents.

9. Add emphasis
• One of the main reasons why people disagree with zoos is because of animal welfare.

• The most powerful argument in favour of mobile phones is that they can be used to call for
help in the most inaccessible places, for example when a car breaks down in a remote
area.

10. Extend sentences

You could try extending your points with a relative clause, which will certainly make your
sentences longer.

1. There are many creative professions where clothes convey a sense of style, which is very
desirable in many companies.

2. People prefer to shop online, where they can find everything, they need without having to
leave the sofa.
Ø You can also extend your points with ‘for example’ and ‘such as’, and ‘like’.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences
Compound-complex sentences are the same as complex sentences but they also have a simple
(or compound) sentence before or after the 'complex' part.

For example:

I ate a lot when I got home, but I was still hungry.

The part that is underlined is the complex sentence. As you can see, it also has a simple
sentences connected to it. It can also have a full compound sentence attached to it:

I ate a lot when I got home, but I was still hungry, so I went shopping to buy some more food.
Punctuation Rules

Commas Semicolons Colons Quotation Marks

1- Introducer 1-Between sentences: 1- To introduce 1- To enclose direct

commas: lists: quotations:
The meeting ended at
-Thus, dawn; nothing has been I need the following -periods and commas go inside
decided. groceries: milk, the quotations.
-Conversely,
coffee and cheese.
Marlowe is a poet; he was She said, "I have to study, or I
-As a result,
very known in his age. He has two brothers: will flunk."
-While I was Ahmad and Ali.
-Use exclamation points and
studying, my
question marks inside the
friend called me. 2-Before connectors:
quotation marks as long as they
2- Before long
I have never been to are a part of the quotation.
quotations:
England; in fact, I have
2- Listing: "Is it eight o'clock?" she asked.
never been outside my If the quotation is
He speaks country. larger than three 2- Around titles of short works
English, French lines, no quota such as the poems, short
and Arabic. stories, newspaper, chapters of
tion marks are used
books, songs, essays, articles
and the quotation is
and movies.
indented.
3- Inserter My favourite song is
Commas: "Yesterday".
Shakespeare, an 3-In expressions of
The poem is entitled "Like as a
Elizabethan time and day:
Ship".
playwright,
I finished my class at
wrote many NOTICE:
1:50 p.m.
poems.
Underline the titles of books,
Macbeth, who is novels and plays.
a tragic hero,
Great Expectations
suffers from
excessive The Merchant of Venice
ambition.

4-Tag Commas:
It is not logical,
is it?

5-Direct
quotation:

He says, "I will

never forgive
you."

• Components of sentence:

subject+ verb+ adverb+ adjective (comparative)

Ø Conditional Sentences
Conditional structures are used to talk about a condition and a possible result or
consequence. The condition is something that must happen first in order for something else
to happen as a result or consequence. Conditionals are complex sentences, which consist of
an if-clause, followed by a main clause. Either clause can be positive or negative.

1) Zero conditional

if + present tense + present tense

If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.

present tense + if + present tense

Water boils if you heat it to 100 degrees.

Zero conditional is used to talk about factual or true information. We use the same tense (present
or past) in both the if-clause and the main clause (if has a similar meaning to every time):

If you cool water below zero degrees, it freezes.

We can also use when to introduce the condition:

When you visit a place of worship, you dress appropriately.

If it is no longer a fact we use the past tense:

When I was a child, if I was naughty, my parents sent me to bed early.

2) First conditional

if + present tense + will/won’t + verb (inf)

If you invest your money, it will grow.

will/won’t + verb + if + present tense

Your money will grow if you invest it.

First conditional is used to talk about future situations based on conditions. We use the present
tense in the if-clause and a future form in the main clause:
If the world continues to burn fossil fuels at the current rate, global warming will rise to two
degrees Celsius by 2036.

We can use might, may, or could instead of will to suggest something is less probable:

If it’s foggy tonight, the plane may be late.

or can to mean sometimes:

If you travel on weekends, the roads can be very crowded. (this sometimes happens)

3) Second conditional

if + past tense + would(n’t) (might/could) + verb

If you invested your money, it would grow.

would(n’t) (might/could) + verb + if + past tense

Your money would grow if you invested it.

Second conditional is used to talk about something that’s imaginary, impossible or unlikely in
the present or future. The past tense in the if-clause does not refer to past time:

If I won £100,000, I would give up my job.

Note: with the verb be we can use was or were with I/he/she/it:

If I were/was you, I would buy a car.

We can use was/were + infinitive to refer to an improbable action:

If I were to win one million dollars, I would give up my job.

4) Third conditional

if + past perfect + would(n’t) have + past participle

If you’d asked me, I’d have done it.

would(n’t) have + past participle + if + past perfect

I’d have done it if you’d asked me.
Third conditional is used to speculate about past events. It is often used to express regret or to
imagine the result of something that did not happen:
If she had been in her office, I would have seen her. (= she was not in her office so I didn’t see
her)

In the main clause we can use might or could to say that something was less certain:

If I’d asked her, she might have helped me. (possibility)

Ø How to use ‘despite’ and ‘in spite of’

‘Despite’ ‘In spite of’ ‘Although’ ‘Even though’ ‘Though’ and ‘Whereas’ are all linking
words that express contrast, comparison and concession.

But they are not all the same. Find out how they differ and how to use them for IELTS Writing
and Speaking.

1. The meaning of 'despite'

Look at the 4 sentences below. Is the meaning the same or different?

• IELTS is difficult, but I enjoy it.

• IELTS is difficult. However I enjoy it.
• Although IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.
• Despite the fact that IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

The meaning is the same.

Each sentence shows the CONTRAST between the difficulty of IELTS on the one hand, and the
fact that you enjoy it on the other hand.

The only difference is the linking words and punctuation.

• Look at the sentences below.

What is the difference in terms of grammar?
1. Despite the fact that IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

2. Despite IELTS being difficult, I enjoy it.

3. Despite the difficulty of IELTS, I enjoy it.

• Answer 2

1. Despite the fact that IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

Despite the fact that + Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) sentence

2. Despite IELTS being difficult, I enjoy it.

Despite + ing verb

3. Despite the difficulty of IELTS, I enjoy it.

Despite + noun

These are the 3 ways of using ‘Despite’, in order of complexity.

PRACTICE:

Check the grammar in Answer 2, and transform this sentence using ‘Despite’:

‘The exam was difficult, but I passed’.

Practice Answers and Band Score

1. Despite the fact that the exam was difficult, I passed.

Despite the fact that + Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) sentence

Band 6.5 – it’s quite easy to memorize ‘Despite the fact that’ and add a full sentence.

2. Despite the exam being difficult, I passed.

Despite + ing verb

Band 7 – this is more sophisticated.

3. Despite the difficulty of the exam, I passed.

Despite + noun

Band 7+ – this is more difficult because you need to know the noun form.

3. Common Mistakes
1. What’s wrong with this sentence?

‘Despite the exam was difficult, I passed’.

Common Mistakes 1
You cannot put a ‘normal sentence’ (SVO) after ‘Despite’.

You must either put

• ‘the fact that’

• -ing verb

• Noun

2. What’s wrong with this sentence?

‘Despite of the exam was difficult, I passed’.

Common Mistakes 2
A synonym of ‘Despite’ is ‘In spite of’.

But you cannot mix them up!

In spite of works exactly the same as ‘Despite’ but it is a 3-word fixed expression.

Correct Answers:

• Despite/In spite of the fact that the exam was difficult…

• Despite/In spite of the exam being difficult…

• Despite/In spite of the difficulty of the exam…

4. Although, even though, though

Look again at these sentences:

• Despite the fact that IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

• Although IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

• Even though IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

• Though IELTS is difficult, I enjoy it.

Is there any difference in meaning? NO.

Is there any difference in grammar or level or formality? NO.

All of these options must be followed by S-V-O sentences (Subject – Verb – Object).

In less formal, spoken English, ‘though’ comes at the end of the phrase.

‘IELTS is difficult. I enjoy it though ‘.

How to make your TONE more formal and academic in IELTS Writing

The aim of this lesson is to outline some basic rules of Academic Writing, and to help you
develop a more academic ‘tone’.

The basic rules are easy to fix, but the academic tone takes more time and practice, especially
when it comes to expressing your opinion in a sophisticated way, using hedging to soften your
tone, and the use of nominalization to lift your writing to Band 7 and above.

1. Don’t use contractions

Contractions (e.g., ‘I’m’, ‘I’d’, ‘It’s’) make your writing less formal. Use them in General
Training Task 1 Informal Letter ONLY.
Saying ‘cannot’ instead of ‘can’t’ will make you sound more academic.

2. Don’t use slang

The most common slang word I see is ‘kids’ as a synonym for ‘children’. This is not academic
language.
Even phrases like ‘nowadays’ and ‘In this day and age’ are too conversational. It’s better to say
‘Today’ and use the tense to show the time e.g. ‘More and more people are shopping online’.

3. Don’t use cliches

Cliches like ‘Every coin has two sides’ are not academic. It’s better to rephrase them and say
exactly what you mean e.g. ‘There are two sides to every argument’.

The same goes for proverbs. It will sound better if you rephrase them in your own words (Quick
TIP – if you google the dictionary definitions of proverbs, you’ll find the real meanings
written in a formal, academic style)

e.g., ‘Don’t judge a book by its cover’

= ‘People should not prejudge the worth or value of something by its outward appearance alone’.

= ‘A person’s value should not be judged by their appearance’.

or ‘Appearances can be deceptive’ [Fixed expression].

4. Don’t ask a question

The examiner is expecting you to ANSWER the question, not ask one.

It is better to make a statement like ‘It is doubtful whether this strategy will succeed’ than to ask
a question like ‘But will this work?’. Questions are more suitable for magazine-style articles.

5. Don’t use emotional language

Academic language should be objective/neutral and scientific.

Moderate your language to take out any emotion attached to the word. Try to think of a legal
term, which must be unbiased e.g., instead of ‘murderer ‘or ‘hooligan’ you could say ‘violent
criminal’.

6. Avoid ‘flowery’ language

Informal adjectives can make your language sound too casual. Avoid all words like:
amazing, fascinating, wondrous, wonderful, glorious, fantastic, fabulous, cool, magnificent,
shocking, unbelievable, incredible.

7. Avoid words that express ‘value judgements’

Words like ‘good’ ‘bad’ ‘wrong’ ‘terrible’ and ‘ridiculous’ are emotional and opinionated.

Replace them with more specific words e.g.

bad = dangerous, harmful, shortsighted, problematic, inadequate, questionable, destructive,

wasteful, insufficient

wrong = unethical, unfair, irresponsible, corrupt, unprincipled, fraudulent, unscrupulous,

dishonest, inappropriate, indecent, or improper

8. Do not address the reader as ‘you’

The problem with ‘you’ is that it is too conversational. There are many ways to avoid using
‘you’.

e.g., ‘If you lose your health, you may lose your job’.

is better written as

‘If people lose their health, they may lose their job.’

or (noun forms)

‘Ill health can lead to redundancy/unemployment’.

9. Avoid using pronouns like ‘I’ or ‘we’

Although IELTS essays are not the same as academic research papers, it will sound more
academic if you can avoid pronouns.

It is ok to say ‘I believe’ ‘I think’ or ‘I would argue’ once or twice; however. An alternative, in

the introduction, is to say, ‘This essay will argue that…’.

Focus on the topic, not on yourself. Although the question asks for examples from your personal
experience, it is better to keep this more general.

Instead of saying ‘A colleague/friend/brother experienced this’ (anecdotal evidence) say ‘Many

people experience this’.

10. Avoid making generalizations

Generalizations can weaken your argument because they are too broad and imprecise.

e.g., ‘Everybody loves music’ ‘Boys prefer science subjects’.

Generalizations are hard to prove. Try to replace them with specific statements and use the
language of ‘hedging’ to be cautious in your statements.

e.g., ‘Many people enjoy listening to music’. ‘Traditionally speaking, boys have tended to lean
towards scientific subjects…’

11. Avoid exaggeration

“Plastic waste is clogging the oceans, choking the life out of sea-creatures and threatening to end
all ocean-life as we know it!”

It is better to maintain a scientific, objective tone like this:

“According to the Plastic Oceans Foundation, humans have dumped more than 8 million tons of
plastic into ocean water each year for several years in a row. This plastic waste does not degrade,
and clumps together, which creates large blocks in the ocean that hurt ocean-life.”

12. Don’t invent research articles

The example above was taken from a well-researched website, but in the real test you do not
have such access to research articles. So, don’t pretend that you just read one.

And don’t make up facts or statistics in order to prove your point.

Instead, use more general expressions related to research e.g., ‘Research has shown that…’
‘Evidence suggests that…’

13. Keep it simple

In an attempt to sound formal, many candidates use overly formal words and expressions which
can sound unnatural.

Which one is better do you think?

‘The staggering volume of synthetic organic compounds accumulating in large bodies of saline
water has engendered a colossal moral quandary for behemoth manufacturers.

‘The large volume of plastic waste that has accumulated in the Earth’s oceans has created a
moral question for companies that produce large amounts of plastic materials.

Yes, it’s the second one, which is much simpler and easier to read.

14. Avoid short forms/abbreviations

It’s ok to use well-known short forms like ‘the BBC’ or ‘NATO’ but it’s better to use full forms
with shortened words like ‘satnavs’ (‘satellite navigation systems’)

Don’t write ‘e.g.,’. Write ‘for instance’ or ‘for example’ or ‘as an illustration’.

Don’t use vague language like ‘etc.’ or ‘and so on’ – this is considered lazy. Just give one or
two concrete examples that illustrate your point.
The same goes for words like ‘thing’ – choose a more precise summarizing noun
like ‘factor’ or ‘element’.

15. Avoid INFORMAL phrasal verbs

On the whole, phrasal verbs tend to be used in less formal writing, and when you have a choice
between the two, always use the full verb in formal writing.

However, not all phrasal verbs are informal, and there are many that are used frequently in
academic writing. See this article for more information:

16. Avoid stereotypes and ‘sexist’ language

People unintentionally use what might be perceived as sexist language when they say ‘he’ or
‘him’ or ‘his’ when referring to nouns meant to include both sexes.

A simple way around this is to use a plural e.g. ‘people’ or ‘they’.

Instead of writing:

‘A footballer/doctor has worked hard for his high salary’.

write

‘Footballers/doctors have worked hard for their high salaries’.

17. Avoid reference to personal religious beliefs

I recently marked a paper about whether parents should limit screen time. The paper started:

‘Children are a blessing from God above’.

Apart from the fact that the statement is not relevant to the question, ‘it is not appropriate to use
religious beliefs as justification for a point that requires LOGICAL REASONING.’

18. Avoid colloquial idioms

Although I would normally say no to idioms in formal writing e.g. ‘It’s a piece of cake’, certain
idiomatic language is acceptable e.g. ‘On the other hand,’ is an idiom that we often use in IELTS
Essays.

It is usually possible to rephrase idioms/proverbs/cliches in more formal, academic ways.

e.g. ‘The sky’s the limit’

= ‘The possibilities are endless’

19. Use the Passive

The Passive Voice will always make your writing more formal.

e.g. ‘They show too much violence on TV’.

= ‘Too much violence is shown on TV’.

20. Formatting
The main thing to remember here is to use a clear 2 or 3 paragraph structure.

• Don’t use bullet points or numbering.

• What is 'concession'?
Look at the sentences below:

1. Although he’s very rich, he lives a very simple life.

2. Even though she’s in her 60s, she can run really fast.

These are examples of concession – sentences which begin with ‘although ‘or ‘even
though’ followed by an idea which suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence.

Concession is often used to introduce an idea which is the opposite of what you might expect.

Can you think of an example about yourself?

e.g., Although I’m not a digital native, I’m quite good at using computers.

Although + [subject-verb-object], I [subject+verb+object].

How can I use concession in Speaking?

Exactly as you did above.

Concession allows you to make complex but natural sentences in your Speaking e.g.

Part 1/2 Questions about yourself

7- ‘Although I’ve lived there for a long time, I don’t have many friends.’

8- ‘Even though I’ve never been to Paris, I can speak French really well.’

Part 3: Opinions
• ‘Even though most people distrust politicians, I think they do a great job’ (?!)

• ‘Although I agree that plastic should be banned, I think this will be very difficult to achieve’.

How can I use concession in writing?

Look at how we use concession in the Task 2 Conclusion below (IELTS Writing Task 2
Question: whose responsibility is it to transport children to school?):

In conclusion, although there may be additional costs involved in providing a school bus
service, I think that this option has a number of benefits for both parents and children.

You can use concession in Task 2:

• When you want to say that the other side may be right or has a good point (but you don’t agree
with it!).

Or

• When you see an advantage, but you think overall it’s negative.

Or

• When you see a disadvantage, but you think overall it’s positive.

It is a very advanced, mature and sophisticated way to sum up an essay and to show the examiner
that you have considered both sides of the argument (even if you disagree with one of them) and
that you are aware of the issues.

Are there any other ways of showing concession?

Many ‘contrast’ words can be used to express concession:
• Despite the significant costs of school transport, I believe it is the best option.

• School transport is expensive. However, I am of the opinion that it is the best option for both
families and the environment.

• Transporting children to school by bus is undoubtedly a huge financial cost. Nevertheless, I

would argue that it is by far the most environmentally-friendly option.

o When can I use ‘Not only…but also…?

Look at the 4 sentences below. They are all grammatically correct, and they all mean the same
thing.

So, what’s the difference between them?

1. I can speak English and French.

2. I can speak both English and French.

3. I can speak not only English, but (also) French.

4. Not only can I speak English, but I can also speak French.

They are different only in terms of how much emphasis the speaker puts on the fact that they can
speak 2 languages.

#1 – simply states the facts

#2 – ‘both’ adds emphasis to the fact that they speak more than one language
#3 – ‘not only’ adds more emphasis, especially to the new information (I speak French too!)

#4 – The heavy emphasis of ‘Not only’ at the start of the sentence suggests that speaking these
two languages is something amazing!

In Spoken English, you can use your voice (intonation) to add emphasis, but in Formal Written
English (example 4), ‘Not only’ + inversion helps you add emphasis.

You can use ‘Not only…but also’ to add emphasis to what you’re saying, so it’s really useful
for example in Writing Task 2 when you want to write about advantages/disadvantages:

• Cycling is good for our health and the environment. (Band 5)

• Cycling is good for both our health and also for the environment. (Band 6)

• Not only is cycling good for our health, but it is also good for the environment. (Band 7)

o What is ‘inversion’?
TASK 2: Look at the sentences below.

What happens when you use ‘Not only’ at the START of the sentence?

1- I can speak English and French.

2- Not only can I speak English, but I can also speak French.

You will notice that after ‘Not only ‘, the normal word order changes to a QUESTION word
order (Can I speak English?)
The normal word order is inverted (changed).
This is quite simple with modal verbs (e.g., can, will/would and should) because you don’t need
to worry about auxiliary verbs (is/are/was/were, do/did and have).

2a It will affect both animals and people.

2b Not only will it affect animals, but it will also harm people.

3a We should ban the use of both plastic and fossil fuels.

3b Not only should we ban the use of plastic, but we should also ban fossil fuels.

How does inversion work with auxiliary or ‘helping’ verbs?

We saw above that you need to turn the statements into a ‘QUESTION’ word order when you
put ‘Not only’ at the START of the sentence.

4a Cycling is good for our health and the environment.

Question Form: Is cycling good…?

4b Not only is cycling good for our health, but it is also good for the environment.

5a. It wasted time and money.

Question Form: Did it waste…?

5b. Not only did it waste time, but it also wasted money.
6a I’ve been to London and Tokyo.

Question Form: Have I been…?

6b. Not only have I been to London, but I’ve also been to Tokyo.

7a: My phone has both a camera and a stylus.

Question Form: Does it have...?

7b. Not only does my phone have a camera but it also has a stylus.

8a. The food tasted awful and it was cold.

Question Form: Did the food taste awful...?

8b. Not only did the food taste awful, but it was also cold.

Other times when you can use inversion

The ‘Not only’ structure is mostly used in formal writing (but you can use it in Speaking for
emphasis, especially when telling a story in Speaking Part 2 e.g. ‘Not only did I lose my phone,
but I also lost my wallet!’).

Other structures that take inversion include:

9a. We should not leave the EU.

9b. Under no circumstances should we leave the EU.

10a. Life has never been this comfortable.

10b. Never before has life been this comfortable.

11a. I did not think I would pass.

11b Not for a moment did I think I would pass.

12a. I realized my mistake when I got home.

12b. Not until I got home did I realize my mistake.

o What does ‘the former, the latter’ mean?

The former = the first thing mentioned

The latter = the last thing mentioned

o How to use ‘the former, the latter’

Look at the extract, below which is taken from a Reading about the nutmeg tree and
its fruit:

‘The tree is thickly branched with dense foliage of tough, dark green oval leaves, and produces
small, yellow, bell-shaped flowers and pale-yellow pear-shaped fruits.’

‘Inside is a purple-brown shiny seed surrounded by a lacy red covering called an ‘aril’. These are
the sources of the two spices nutmeg and mace; the former being produced from the dried seed
and the latter from the aril’.

Now complete these two gaps fill statements (one word only):
3. The _______ is used to produce nutmeg.

4. The covering known as the aril is used to produce _____________.

Answers
3. seed

4. mace

‘These are the sources of the two spices nutmeg and mace,

3. the former (nutmeg) being produced from the dried seed and

4. the latter (mace) from the aril’.