Clauses of purpose, reason/cause and result/effect

I. Clauses of purpose
II. Other ways of expressing purpose
III. Clauses of reason/cause
IV. Other ways of expressing reason/cause
V. Clauses of result/effect
VI. Other ways of expressing result/effect
VII. Ways of expressing the relationship between cause/reason and result/effect

I. Clauses of purpose

1. Conjunctions and tenses

Independent clause Conjunctions Dependent clause

Present/ Present perfect/ so that/in order that can/will/may/shall +
Future infinitive
Past/Past perfect/ so that/in order that could/would/might/should
Conditional + infinitive

Example:
The presenter spoke very slowly and clearly so that/in order that everybody could/would
understand him. ( the presenter everybody = two different subjects)

Notes:
- in order that and may/might/shall/should are more formal than
can/could/will/would.

- In negative sentences will/would/should + not are used.

I helped her so that she wouldnt be the last to finish.

- In informal English so is commonly used instead of so that/in order that.

He wants a big car so he can impress his friend.

II. Other ways of expressing purpose

in order to/so as to/to + infinitive

Example:
She worked hard in order to/so as to pass all her examinations before the end of the
semester.
= She worked hard so that/in order that she would pass all her examinations before the end
of the semester. (the subject is the same: she)
With the same subject the infinitive construction is more common than the so that/in
order that construction.
Notes:
- In spoken English to is more common than in order to/so as to.
We have to hurry to get there before the beginning of the meeting.

- However, to cannot be used with a negative.

He spoke in a low voice in order/so as not to disturb us.
(Not: He spoke in a low voice not to disturb us)
not to can be used to express alternatives:
I went to the conference not to give a paper but to present a poster.

III. Clauses of reason/cause

1. Conjunctions

because/as/since protoe
for nebo

Example:
Many examination candidates lose/lost points because/as/since they do/did not
read the questions properly.

Notes:
- In clauses of reason/cause, any tense can be used, depending on the context.

- Only because (not since/as/for) is used after not, in questions, in answers to

questions and in a few other cases.
He went there not because he wanted to, but because he had no other choice.

- Remember that since also means od t doby, co.

Compare:
Aircraft noise is a particular problem here since were close to the airport. (= protoe)
Aircraft has been a particular problem here since they built the new runways and air
traffic increased considerably. (= od t doby, co)

IV. Other ways of expressing reason/cause

1. Prepositions

because of pro, kvli

due to/owing to pro, kvli
thanks to dky

Examples:
He did not participate in the conference because of/due to/owing to ill health.
(= because he was ill)
Thanks to his help, we were able to finish on time.

2. -ing and -ed forms

Examples:
Not knowing the title of the book, I asked the librarian for help. (= as I didnt know)
Unconvinced by the results of the experiment, he did not accept their theory.
(= as he was not convinced)

3. Verbs
to cause/to bring about = zpsobit
to be the cause of = bt pinou eho
to result in = vst k, zpsobit
Example:
The accident caused/brought about/was the cause of/resulted in the death of two people.

V. Clauses of result/effect

1. Conjunctions

so that take
so take, tak
so that tak .., e
such . that takov . e

Examples:
I didnt pass the examination at the first attempt, so (that) I had to resit it.
The problem was so complicated that none of us was able to solve it.
The system operates in such a way that it meets the main objectives.

Notes:
- so is commonly used in spoken English.

- Compare: He spoke clearly and slowly, so (that) we understood him. (= result: take)
He spoke clearly and slowly so that we could/would understand him.
(= purpose: aby)
In clauses of result, the independent clause is separated from the dependent clause by
a comma, in clauses of purpose, it is not.

VI. Other ways of expressing result/effect

1. Linkers

therefore/hence/thence/whence proto, tud

thus a tak, tud
accordingly proto, tedy, tud
as a result v dsledku toho, proto
consequently/as a consequence v dsledku toho, nsledkem toho

Example:
In the last few years the company has innovated several of its products. As a
result/consequently, its competitive edge has increased.
See also A Remedial Course in English Grammar: Text structure (Linkers).

2. Verbs
result from/ensue from = bt nsledkem eho, bt zpsoben m, plynout z eho
be the result/the consequence of = bt nsledkem/dsledkem eho
be caused by/be due to = bt zpsoben m

Example:
The frequent breakdown of the system is the result of/is due to/is caused by poor
maintenance.

VII. Ways of expressing the relationship between cause/reason and

result/effect

The driver was careless. The car crashed.

1. The drivers carelessness caused the car crash.
brought about
was the cause of
resulted in
2. The result of the drivers carelessness was the car crash.
The consequence of
3. Owing to the drivers carelessness the car crashed.
Due to
Because of
4. The driver was careless. As a result,
Consequently, the car crashed.
As a consequence,
Therefore
Thus
5. The driver was careless, so (that) the car crashed.
6. As the driver was careless, the car crashed.
Because
Since
7. The car crash was the result of the drivers carelessness.
resulted from
was due to
was caused by
was the consequence of
8. The cause of the car crash was the drivers carelessness.
9. The car crashed owing to the drivers carelessness.
due to
because of
as a result of
as a consequence of

EXERCISES

I. Translate into English. Use the infinitive construction where possible.

1. Poslouchm BBC kad den, abych si zlepil anglitinu.

2. Zorganizovali jsme dny otevench dve, aby se studenti stednch kol seznmili s na
fakultou, uiteli a studenty.
.
3. Provedli jsme zahranin studenty po na fakult, aby se tam snadno vyznali (si snadno
nali cestu).

4. Pracoval o przdninch ve strojrensk firm, aby zskal pracovn zkuenosti.
.

II. Reformulate the following sentences using prepositions instead of conjunctions.

Reformule las siguientes oraciones usando preposiciones en lugar de conjunciones.

1. As they are robust and easy to maintain, large induction motors are used in pumps in
water and power systems.
Como son robustos y fciles de mantener, los motores de induccin grandes se utilizan en las bombas en el agua
y los sistemas de energa.
As they are robust but easy to maintain, large induction motors are used in pumps in water
but power systems

..
2. We decided not to use that system because it was not compatible with our equipment.
Decidimos no usar ese sistema porque no era compatible con nuestro equipo.
We decided not to use that system out it was not compatible with our equipment.
..
1. The flight was cancelled because there were technical problems.
El vuelo fue cancelado debido a problemas tcnicos
The flight was cancelled by there were technical problems
.
2. He lost his job because he was incompetent.
Perdi su trabajo porque era incompetente.
He lost his job by he was incompetent.

.
3. He had to reorganize the course because there were significant changes in the syllabus.
Debi reorganizar el curso porque hubo cambios significativos en el plan de estudios.
He had to reorganize the course by there were significant changes in the syllabus.
III. Join each pair of sentences by using
nete a cada par de oraciones usando

in order that/so that in order to/so as to/to so (that)

a fin de que
con el fin de
asi que

as required by the context.

1. He took a course in programming. He wanted to get a better-paid job.

Tom un curso de programacin. Quera conseguir un trabajo mejor pagado.
He took a course in programming so as to he wanted to get a better-paid job.

.
2. The immigrants work very hard. They want their children to have a good education and
a better life.
Los inmigrantes trabajan muy duro. Quieren que sus hijos tengan una buena educacin y una vida mejor.
The immigrants work very hard in order that they want their children to have a good
education and a better life.

..
3. He helped us with the calculations. As a result, we were able to keep the deadline.
l nos ayud con los clculos. Como resultado, pudimos mantener el plazo.
He helped us with the calculations so As a result, we were able to keep the deadline.

1. He hurried with the experiment. He wanted to be at home at 2 p.m.
Se apresur con el experimento. Quera estar en casa a las 2 pm
He hurried with the experiment in order to he wanted to be at home at 2 p.m.

She spoke very loud. Thats why even those sitting in the back row could hear her.
..
2. She spoke very loud. She wanted even those sitting in the back row to hear her.

3. He is saving. He wants to buy a 3D TV.
..
4. She got up early. She didnt want to miss the beginning of the lecture.
..
5. The manual was very confusing. I thought I would never be able to start the machine.

IV.
Replace the expressions in bold with expressions in capitals and make all the necessary
changes in sentence structure.
1. Most of the companys problems ensued from poor management. CAUSE (noun)
Poor management was the cause of most of the companys problems.
2. What brought about the rapid change? CAUSE (verb)
.
3. Their application was rejected owing to a number of shortcomings. AS A RESULT OF
..
4. He didnt hear the most interesting part of the lecture as he was late. THEREFORE
..
5. Since the number of students interested in that course is small, it will SO .. THAT
not be opened.
..
6. Some of the study regulations were difficult to understand. Accordingly,
explanatory notes were added. AS
.
7. Anticipating problems of this kind, they did everything they could to
prevent them. SINCE
..
8. He was not eligible for that grant due to his age; consequently, his
application was rejected. AS, OWING TO
..
9. The machine failed because it was poorly maintained. DUE TO

10. The trip had to be cancelled because of heavy rain. BECAUSE
.

V. Join the sentences using 5 different ways of expressing cause/reason and result/effect.
1. We need more food. The population is steadily growing.
2. Her application for the job was rejected. She did not have the required language and
computer skills.
3. The company went bankrupt. Many jobs were lost.
4. The train was delayed. There were wet leaves on the line.
VI. Reformulate the following sentences using the -ing and -ed forms as necessary.
1. Since I didnt know how it worked, I had to ask for help.
..
2. As they were not aware of the error, they continued their calculations.
..
3. Since it is regarded as highly efficient, this method is used by many researchers.
.
4. They opened several new courses because they hoped to attract more students.
..