R U R A L 21

The International Journal for Rural Development 2 | 2021

VOLUME 55

ISSN 1866-8011
D 20506 F

Biodiversity
AFRICA BANGLADESH ACCOMPANYING RESEARCH
Agricultural finance paradigms – Business challenges for Stronger impacts for research
taking a closer look disabled rural women and practice

rural21.com
2 EDITORIAL

Dear Reader,

"It has been shown that, paradoxically, where the most biodi- When the UN Decade on
verse natural resources occur, there is the greatest poverty ... Ecosystem Restoration draws
It is very unjust that the communities bear the entire burden to a close, we will also have
of environmental responsibility for these areas; for this reason, reached the target year of
we seek compensation for the environmental services provid- Agenda 2030, the year by
ed by the territory." which the Sustainable Devel-
opment Goals (SDGs) ought
What Grisólogo Palomino, President of the Kiuñalla Com- to have been achieved. All of
mune in Apurímac, Peru, says perfectly sums up what this us know that the majority of
edition of Rural 21 is about: the diversity of our natural these Goals cannot be reached
resources, how this diversity is distributed around the world, if the current pace of biolog-
responsibility for maintaining it and fair compensation for ical extinction is not slowed
those people who are the stewards of this diversity and thus down. And since the corona
enable us to benefit from its environmental services. pandemic at the latest, it has become unambiguously clear
just how closely the well-being of humans and that of nature
Why this topic, and why now? Just a few days ago, the UN are linked. So it is high time for us to rethink and completely
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration was officially launched. revise our relationship with nature.
It follows the UN Decade on Biodiversity, which closed
with the sobering assessment that none of the targets which One opportunity for this comes up this year’s October, when
the international community had set itself on world-wide the international community gathers in Kunming, China, at
conservation of biodiversity, the so-called Aichi Targets, had the 15th Conference of the Parties of the UN Convention
been fully achieved. On the contrary, never before has species on Biological Diversity (COP15) to negotiate a new global
extinction progressed as rapidly as during the last 100 years. biodiversity framework. What do we expect from these talks?
And this is happening despite our all being fully aware that We couldn’t put it better than Christian Schwarzer, Founding
biological diversity and its related ecosystem services – such as Member of the Global Youth Biodiversity Network, who
food, clean water, clean air and natural ingredients of med- said at the recent European Development Days: “I want you
icines, to name just a few – are essential for the survival of to fight for biodiversity as if the life of your beloved family
humankind. were at stake.”

The latest report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy On that note, the Rural 21 editorial team wishes you
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services warns that inspiring reading.
already, three quarters of all terrestrial ecosystems and 40 per
cent of all marine ecosystems have suffered severe anthro-
pogenic changes. In most habitats, the number of naturally
occurring species has dropped by an average of at least one
fifth. More than 40 per cent of all amphibian species, nearly
33 per cent of reef-forming corals and more than a third of all
mammal species are threatened. In other words, we are biting You can find the latest information on COVID-19 at
www.rural21.com
the hand that feeds us.

Partner institutions of Rural 21

IN THIS ISSUE 3

Imprint
Rural 21 –
The International Journal for Rural Development
CONTENTS
Published by:
DLG-Verlag GmbH
N E WS
Frankfurt, Germany
04 European Development Days 2021
Advisory council:
Boris Büchler, GIZ
Dr Reinhard Grandke, DLG
FOCU S
Martin Koppa, HELVETAS
Ueli Mauderli, DEZA
06 Protecting biodiversity requires transforming human-nature relations
Editorial committee:
Dr Michael Brüntrup, DIE 09 The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Aichi Targets
Dr Manfred Denich, ZEF
Dorothea Hohengarten, GIZ
10 The economics of biodiversity
Jürgen Maier, Forum Umwelt und Entwicklung
Prof Dr Matin Qaim, University of Göttingen
14 Food system transformation starts and ends with diversity
Editor in chief / Berlin office:
Silvia Richter, [email protected] 16 Going for “30 by 30”?
Editorial staff / Frankfurt office: Why conserving 30 per cent of the planet’s land and seas is critical – and how
Olive Bexten, [email protected] to achieve this
Ines Lechner, [email protected]
Angelika Wilcke, [email protected] 17 Why a 30 per cent blanket target on protected areas is not enough
Editorial assistance:
Mike Gardner 20 Connecting people and nature – UNESCO biosphere reserves in Ghana
Translated by:
23 Facts and figures on biodiversity and ecosystem services
Christopher Hay, Tazir International Services

Cover photo: 24 Biodiversity and agriculture – rivalry or a new friendship?1

Nicolas Villaume

Design & Layout: 26 “We must thoroughly change how we use our lands and seas”
Andrea Trapani, DLG-Verlag Interview with Maria Flachsbarth, Parliamentary State Secretary at BMZ
Editorial office, distribution, advertising:
DLG-Verlag GmbH
28 Shaping the transformative change – development cooperation’s role
Eschborner Landstraße 122
60489 Frankfurt, Germany 31 The Agrobiodiversity Index
Printed by:
32 Agrobiodiversity and integrated seed systems to improve smallholder
Bonifatius GmbH
33100 Paderborn, Germany
livelihoods

Rural 21 is published four times a year. 35 Conserving biodiversity, meeting people’s needs
The subscription rate is EUR 33.– (Germany), EUR Helvetas’ experience in Latin America
37.– (EU countries), EUR 51.– (non-EU countries)
and EUR 8.30 per issue, plus postage.
All rights reserved. The contents may not be
translated, reproduced in whole or in part, nor may
OP IN ION
information be passed on to third parties without
permission of the publisher. Please direct all 38 New models to fund conservation are needed
corres­pondence to the editor in chief.

The opinions expressed by the authors are not

S C I E N T I F I C WO R L D
necessarily those of the publisher or the editor. The
editor retains the right to make editorial changes.
41 Financing agriculture in West Africa – challenges and paradigm shift

44 How science on-the-go can enhance development efforts

IN T E RN AT ION A L P LAT FORM

46 Business challenges for disabled poor women in rural Bangladesh

4 NEWS & EVENTS

European Development Days 2021:

“The Green Deal for a Sustainable Future”
The challenges of biodiversity loss, climate chemicals; green finance; green economy-re- 14th edition of the event was not only that it
change and environmental degradation were lated education and training; sustainable ur- was fully digital. This year, the opening cere-
at the centre of this year’s European Develop- banisation; sustainable energy; climate change mony, otherwise addressed by heads of state
ment Days (EDD) that took place on the 15th – natural resources, food and mobility; forest from all over the world, was handled entirely
and 16th June 2021. Under the motto “The and landscape management; wildlife, security by 17 young people who participated – each
Green Deal for a sustainable Future”, nearly and development; seascapes and coastal areas; with a focus on one of the topics dealt with –
100 events were held on 17 thematic blocks: transboundary watersheds; Indigenous peoples in the EDD Young Leaders Programme. Here
rural transformation and food systems; sus- and local communities, research, data and new and in the subsequent discussion rounds, they
tainable blue economy; water and sanitation; technologies; protected area management and shared their expertise, ideas and ambitions for
green and circular economy; pollution and species conservation. What was new about this a sustainable future.

Putting farmers and local communities at the core of food systems

Biodiversity loss, overuse of freshwater sys-

tems, soil degradation – Nachilala Nkombo,
Zambia Country Director of WWF, took
the effects of our current food systems as an
opportunity to call for a radical change in
agricultural production. The government’s
current agricultural policy in her country
was export-oriented, focused on monocul-
ture (maize), and encouraged the use of ar-
tificial fertilisers – i.e. the exact opposite of
sustainability, Nkombo explained. In order
to achieve food security for the population
while conserving the natural resources, in fu-
ture, food systems ought to be in the hands of
local communities; farmers should have a cer-
tain level of control of input use; in addition,
they ought to be enabled to benefit from local
knowledge und have more than one income "We are the land experts and engineers. It is time for Northern countries to learn from us",
stream. Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim said in her video message. Photo: European Commission

Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, founder and

President of the Association for Indigenous fences were cutting off the migratory routes climate change, access to land and ecosystem
Women and Peoples of Chad (AFPAT), ex- for transhumant shepherds and their herds. restoration are combined. Charles Goerens,
plained how such a system could work in One of the activities AFPAT is involved in Member of the Committee on Develop-
practice. In her country, conflict over access to mitigate resource-based conflicts is partic- ment of the European Parliament, support-
to fertile land is one of the biggest obstacles ipatory land mapping. In addition, the organ- ed Ibrahim’s call for considering the rights
to sustainable land use. Land tenure was not isation is lobbying local authorities to ensure of the communities more strongly. Goerens
clearly defined, and land grabbing was assum- that each woman is given a piece of land. The reminded the meeting that community rights
ing drastic dimensions, both internally (by women have to manage this land according over land were hundreds of years old. It was
political elites) and externally (by big com- to agroecological principles, e.g. by planting up to national governments to become active
panies), Ibrahim reported. For example, this trees and cultivating seasonal crops beneath here and, for example, prevent foreign land
had become apparent at Lake Chad, where them. Thus income for women, resilience to grabs.

Empowering women, keeping young people in rural areas

Sherine Omondi, EDD Young Leader Ru- markets. In order to empower women, K-Sam- it,” Omondi said. One achievement of K-Sam-
ral Transformation and Food Systems, is pro- mit distributes millet seed among women and mit was the development of an app providing
gramme coordinator at K-Sammit. The Ken- encourages them to talk to their husbands who young people with access to training via ex-
yan community-based organisation trains own the land. “Young people in the commu- tension offices, without their having to have
farmers on the importance of sustainable ag- nity tend to sell their land, which they have studied or received vocational education. In
riculture and in this context shows them the inherited, to make fast money. We attempt to this manner, they learnt what to plant how and
advantages of crop rotation. It also helps them maintain the land in a profitable condition so when, and how to tackle climate change, the
to obtain rural credit and to develop small rural that the young people can keep and manage EDD Young Leader explained.
RURAL 21 02/21 5

Win-win solutions for farmers, entrepreneurs, consumers and the planet

Maryam Abeiderrahmane is Administrator David Watson

of Tiviski Dairy in Mauritania. Tivisky was Mwabila, EDD
founded in 1987 and is Africa’s first camel milk Young Leader Cli-
dairy. It sources all of its milk from semi-no- mate change: natu-
madic subsistence herders, enabling them to ral resources, food
earn income from their livestock. However, and mobility, is
establishing this value chain was not easy, as managing director
Abeiderrahmane reported. The herders had to and co-founder of
be persuaded to deliver their milk in sufficient Fourth Line Limited.
quantities, and above all on time, to the collect- The idea behind this
ing points, the consumers had to be convinced Zambian social en-
that local products were at least of the same terprise is to enable
quality or even better than imported products, smallholder farmers
and last but not least, the merchants had to be to produce high val-
persuaded to also accept slender profit margins. ue honey destined for
Jutta Urpilainen, EU Commissioner for International Partnerships.
By now, the availability of fresh camel milk global markets, thus The EU is to dedicate ten per cent of its budget to biodiversity objectives.
and other milk products has replaced imported enhancing livelihood
Photo: European Commission
milk powder from Europe. “For such a value improvement for
chain to work, everyone has to benefit from communities across
it – the herders, the milkers, the milk trans- Africa while saving the forest. For him, in ad- worked on their project for more than a year
porters and the shops,” the entrepreneur said. dition to entrepreneurial and innovative skills, before support came from the Bill&Melinda
For the pastoralists, participating in the chain the biggest challenge for youth and women on Gates foundation. “Start where you are, don’t
above all paid its way through a healthy herd the way to becoming an agripreneur is access to wait until the conditions are perfect,” was his
and more resilience in difficult years. finance. For example, he and his colleagues had message to young entrepreneurs.

Eight priorities for the EU and its partners

In the closing ceremony of the EDD, a the world improve the productivity, of remaining intact forests, often high-
high-level group of 13 international scientists sustainability and resilience of food ly effectively;
and practitioners proposed eight recommenda- systems, supporting efforts towards supporting EU partners to implement
tions on how the EU and its partners can ad- implementing agro-ecological and re- biodiversity-relevant multilateral envi-
dress the biodiversity and climate crises, whilst generative agriculture approaches on ronmental agreements and improving
ensuring green growth for people around the 30 per cent to 50 per cent of agricul- coherence of biodiversity-related poli-
world: tural lands; cies at national level;
supporting a strong enforcement of promoting green investments for bio-
protecting 30 per cent of land and sea regulations on wildlife crime and diversity. The high-level group en-
areas, and reducing tropical deforesta- monitoring of wildlife; courages the EU to integrate biodi-
tion and degradation by 75 per cent supporting substantial programmes to versity in its wider efforts to set up a
by 2025 and nearly 100 per cent by fill the implementation knowledge financial system that supports global
2030; gap along with a specific attention to sustainable growth.
restoring 300 million hectares by 2030, interactions between biodiversity and
generating an estimated 8 trillion euros health (One Health), in particular The recommendations are to feed into the on-
in ecosystem services and removing around pandemics and nutrition issues; going negotiations for a future global biodiver-
up to 26 gigatons of greenhouse gases ensuring that all actions to restore and sity framework to be adopted at the 15th Con-
from the atmosphere; conserve biodiversity closely involve ference of the Parties to the UN Convention
continuing to help smallholder farm- indigenous peoples and local commu- on Biological Diversity (COP15), to take place
ers and fishers in Africa and around nities, who already manage 35 per cent in Kunming, China in October of this year.

For a systematic transformation of all economic sectors

So is everything on track regarding biodi- Schwarzer complains, noting that what is lack- formation of the entire economic sector, in
versity? Not at all, says Christian Schwarzer, ing is policy coherence, clear actionable ideas, which gender and intergenerational equality is
Founding Member of the Global Youth Bio- access of youth, grassroots organisations and immanent, is needed. “I want you to fight for
diversity Network. His organisation, repre- indigenous communities to funding mecha- biodiversity as if the life of your beloved fam-
senting around 600 youth organisations from nisms and legally binding definitions of what ily were at stake!” he called on the conference
all over the world, has already participated nature-based solutions really are – so that they participants.
in six rounds of negotiations on the CBD. can really achieve results in linking combating
“I’m so tired of hearing that we failed once global warming and biodiversity conservation.
again the targets that we have all agreed on,” Schwarzer maintains that a systematic trans- Silvia Richter and Luis Hanft
6 FOCUS

Protecting biodiversity requires

transforming human-nature relations
By Tatjana von Steiger and Peter Messerli

© Adobe Stock

With global warming showing no sign of abating, population figures set to soar to ten billion by 2050 and biodiversity
loss progressing, the need for transforming human-environmental systems is becoming only all too apparent. Our
authors review the prospects for putting such a transformation into practice, stressing that reconciling human with
environmental well-being requires a fundamental rethink process in which many voices need to be heard.

The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration The message is loud and clear: we need trans- of a growing global human population to lead
got underway on the 5th June, setting the tone formational change across economic, social, the lives they value and aspire to? And how
for upcoming summits on food systems, cli- political, financial, scientific and technologi- can such a transformation deal with existing
mate change, and biodiversity. It is a call for cal domains. It is voiced in numerous reports, power relations of actors in politics, research,
addressing, in an integrated manner, the triple including the Global Assessment Report on the private sector and civil society, to create
challenge faced by humankind over the next Ecosystems and Biodiversity by the Intergov- alliances for change and overcome obstacles
30 years: feeding ten billion people, keeping ernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodi- and resistance?
the global temperature increase below 1.5°C versity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the
and halting – better still, reversing – biodiver- UN's Global Sustainable Development Report
sity loss. (GSDR), the reports on climate change and The limits of commodification and
land issued by the Intergovernmental Panel protection
However, progress towards the Aichi Biodi- on Climate Change (IPCC), the EAT-Lancet
versity Targets (see page 9), the Paris Agree- commission on Food, Planet, Health – and, A good opportunity for such reflections is pre-
ment and, most importantly, the overarching last but not least – the recent United Nations sented by COP15, the upcoming 15th meet-
framework for sustainable development – the Environment Programme synthesis report, ing of the Conference of the Parties to the
2030 Agenda – has been meagre, and the glob- Making Peace with Nature. Still, we may ask, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in
al pandemic is causing further setbacks. To is it realistic to develop, within a decade, strat- Kunming, China. The debate on how to halt/
manage the turnaround in this decisive decade, egies which have the strength to transform the reverse biodiversity loss is itself controversial
we will have to move from just repairing, to predominant models in a way that will avoid and raises many questions. Is it possible to re-
actually transforming, human-environmental dangerous climate change, halt and reverse configure the harmful relation between people
systems. dramatic biodiversity loss, and meet the needs and nature using the current economic mod-
RURAL 21 02/21 7

el, e.g. through certified commodity chains, and knowledge systems from science, policy ensuring the plurality of answers needed to re-
ecotourism, payment for ecosystem service and practice. Not only will this allow a disen- spond to the global challenges at hand.
schemes or new modes of capital investments? tangling of the multiple drivers of biodiversity
Or is the current economic model the root decline. It will also help to address the trade-offs The newly established Wyss Academy for Na-
cause of the problems we are trying to solve, and identify the co-benefits between nature and ture at the University of Bern, Switzerland (see
and should we therefore avoid it as a remedy people as a basis for a solution-oriented per- Box) is committed to catalysing such innova-
altogether? Should nature then rather be sepa- spective promoting just nature-people relations. tive pathways to manage the above-mentioned
rated from people and allocated a specific share triple challenge of land use/ food systems, bio-
of the planet, to shield it from the consequenc- Metrics and new ways of assessing progress of diversity loss and climate change – in concrete
es of the unwavering belief in the power of such new approaches are equally important. local contexts around the world. By putting
economic growth and technological progress? In adjusting the Human Development Index social and environmental justice centre stage,
Or would separating nature from people in the (HDI) to become the Planetary pressures-ad- we strive to break down prevailing silos of
era of the Anthropocene be not only utopic, justed Human Development Index (PHDI), sectors, stakeholders and mindsets. More spe-
but also highly unjust? the 2020 Human Development Report is cifically, we want to bring together science,
a concrete example of how to build a more policy and practice to co-design pathways that
These radical aspirations and diverging ideas pluralistic perspective. Besides measuring life will have a timely impact while being just and
– but also the unresolved questions – show expectancy, education and per capita income, evidence-based:
that we need to move to innovative approach- the index offers countries another score ad-
es that offer a more differentiated model for justed for carbon dioxide emissions and ma- Science: Rigorous science can help
solving this challenge. In other words, a third terial consumption. This lays bare a country’s to address the underlying dysfunction-
way enabling humans to share our only plan- ecological footprint, offering a more compre- alities in food and economic systems
et with other life on Earth. Such approaches hensive and objective assessment of where this and the way in which energy and
can emerge when relevant actors critically as- country stands in its relation to nature. The infrastructure are provided. More-
sess the limits of their own perspectives and adjusted index is therefore a stark example of over, new research can pursue hu-
understand the necessity of a whole-of-soci- how different the global landscape would look man well-being and the stewardship
ety approach, as proposed by the UN's Global if progress were defined as the well-being of of biodiversity, land and climate. It
Sustainable Development Report or UNEP’s both people and planet. must reach out beyond academia to
Making Peace with Nature. This implies com- be complemented and enriched by lay,
mitting to a pluralistic perspective that is solu- practical and local knowledge.
tion- rather than problem-oriented, where Systemic transformation needs Policy: Bringing knowledge to pow-
“biodiversity can represent a meeting point context-specific pathways er means engaging with key deci-
for the well-being of nature and people”, as sion-makers from academia, business,
described by Unai Pascual and colleagues in A Human Development Index adjusted by policy, finance and civil society. Sup-
Nature Sustainability. its planetary footprint not only shows a dif- ported by knowledge diplomacy, we
ferent pattern of a country’s performance, it aim at joint learning and negotiating
also highlights the heterogeneity of countries’ processes to overcome blockages and
Rethinking human-nature development challenges, priorities and needs. create alliances to leverage systems
relationships Although the challenge of reconciling human transformation.
well-being with environmental stewardship Practice: Sourcing innovative ideas
An entire re-think is necessary to overcome represents a universal task and the distance to from science, policy and practice is the
the dichotomy between nature and people, this target is great for high- and low-income basis for co-designing solutions that
and to reconfigure the relationship from a countries alike, just solutions must be devel- will be incubated and tested in con-
vicious to a virtuous cycle. A pluralistic per- oped in concrete local contexts, taking into ac- crete contexts.
spective or a whole-of-society approach to ad- count the specificities of local human-environ-
dress the triple challenge of creating sustainable ment systems and their socio-political arenas. Initiating an iterative circle of collaboration
food systems, adapting to/ mitigating climate Developing such context-specific pathways between these key partners, we strive to create
change, and halting/ reversing biodiversity thus represents an important precondition to a new type of humus. In this fertile environ-
loss only makes sense if we acknowledge the
engagement of different knowledge and value
systems with nature. It can only work if these ABOUT THE WYSS ACADEMY FOR NATURE
various views and voices are really heard and
the people holding them are given the oppor- At the Wyss Academy for Nature at the University of Bern, research, business, policy-makers
tunity to participate in reflecting on and defin- and communities come together to co-design solutions for sustainable futures. The Acad-
ing human-nature relationships and practices. emy’s mission is to turn scientific knowledge into action. Combining ambitious, innovative
goals with a transformative approach, it was founded in 2020 to develop innovative long-term
For this endeavour to succeed, it must be un- pathways that strengthen and reconcile biodiversity conservation, human well-being and
derpinned by social and environmental justice. the sustainable use of natural resources in a variety of landscapes throughout the world. We
As a compass, social and environmental justice co-design and implement concrete projects across a swathe of regions and countries. This
can guide the new thinking about conservation global structure facilitates the replication of successes and learning. The Wyss Academy for
and how we structure interactions among dif- Nature currently operates Hubs in Central Europe (Bern, Switzerland), Southeast Asia, East
ferent actors with varying world views, values Africa and South America.
8 FOCUS

The Planetary pressures-adjusted Human Development Index (PHDI) allows conclusions to be drawn regarding a country’s ecological footprint. © Adobe Stock

ment, learning from success and failure allows and reasoning. Furthermore, globalised flows At the Wyss Academy, we strongly believe
new policies and practices for sustainable and of commodities, capital, people and informa- that complexity can be embraced in bringing
just futures to be developed and provides the tion are shaping landscapes from a distance – together different perspectives. Science that is
basis for scaling solutions beyond local con- and by powerful actors – rendering obsolete put at the service of local needs will help to
texts. traditional planning units such as watersheds design novel but concrete pathways towards
or administrative boundaries, adding new sus- sustainable development. Inevitable trade-
tainability challenges but also opportunities to offs can be turned into opportunities. Let’s
Creating "solutionscapes" lever change. be humble, but bold – remembering that, as
environmental scientist Erle C. Ellis wrote,
To transform the above tenets into concrete Against this backdrop, the Wyss Academy “the planet we make will reflect the people
and actionable approaches, the Wyss Acade- has developed an approach we call solution- we are”.
my for Nature is focusing on land systems and scapes. Guided by the goal of social and en-
their role in sustainable rural development vironmental justice, we identify options for
as an entry point. The multi-functionality of navigating complex land systems and involve Tatjana von Steiger is Head of Global Policy
landscapes across space and time allows mul- change agents to initiate transformations Outreach at the Wyss Academy for Nature.
tiple claims to be satisfied for a vast variety of across space and scale. Using knowledge di- Her diplomatic career includes accomplishments
goods and services such as food, fibre, water, plomacy, we use rigorous science to engage in sustainable development and leading various
carbon sequestration, conservation, recre- with key stakeholders from business, finance, international negotiations.
ation, culture and much more. The careful policy, and civil society to overcome block- Peter Messerli is Director at the Wyss Academy
design and planning of land systems thus not ages and create alliances to leverage change. for Nature at the University of Bern, Switzerland.
only holds the key to solving the above-men- And we source innovative ideas and co-de- He is a Professor of sustainable development at
tioned triple challenge of creating sustainable sign projects that will be incubated and tested the University of Bern and has been the co-chair of
food systems, mitigating/ adapting to climate in concrete contexts. Via a Synthesis Centre the independent group of scientists appointed by
change and halting/ reversing biodiversity loss. and targeted Global Policy Outreach, we will the UN Secretary General drafting the UN Global
It is also the most important bridge between collaborate with innovators and networks Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) in 2019.
nature and people – and between the SDGs. around the globe and share our insights with Contact: [email protected]
partners in policy, academia, business, finance
Yet, landscapes are not always governed to- and civil society. Ultimately, our success will
wards efficiency, justice, and sustainability. be measured by our contribution to transfor-
Land use policies often reflect power struc- mative changes of policies and practices that
tures, short-term political considerations, lead to sustainable and just futures for nature
References: www.rural21.com
greed and choices based on insufficient data and people.
THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSIT Y
A N D T H E A I C H I TA R G E T S RURAL 21 02/21 9

The Convention on Biological Diversity Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all
(CBD) is the most important multilateral set of natural habitats, including forests, is at least from biodiversity and ecosystem services
agreements on the conservation of the Earth’s halved and where feasible brought close to
biodiversity. It entered into force on the 29th zero, and degradation and fragmentation is Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that
December 1993. Together with the United significantly reduced. provide essential services, including services
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Target 6: By 2020 all fish and inverte- related to water, and contribute to health,
Change (UNFCCC) and the UN Conven- brate stocks and aquatic plants are managed livelihoods and well-being, are restored and
tion to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and harvested sustainably, legally and applying safeguarded, taking into account the needs of
the CBD is one of the three International Law ecosystem based approaches, so that overfish- women, indigenous and local communities,
agreements adopted at the 1992 United Na- ing is avoided, recovery plans and measures and the poor and vulnerable.
tions Conference on Environment and Devel- are in place for all depleted species, fisheries Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience
opment 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. have no significant adverse impacts on threat- and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon
ened species and vulnerable ecosystems and stocks has been enhanced, through conser-
On the 22nd December 2010, the United Na- the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and vation and restoration, including restoration
tions declared the years 2011 to 2020 the UN ecosystems are within safe ecological limits. of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosys-
Decade of Biodiversity, following a recom- Target 7: By 2020 areas under agricul- tems, thereby contributing to climate change
mendation by the signatory states at the Tenth ture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sus- mitigation and adaptation and to combating
meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the tainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity. desertification.
Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10), Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Proto-
held in Nagoya, Japan, in the Prefecture of from excess nutrients, has been brought to col on Access to Genetic Resources and the
Aichi, in October 2010. At COP10, the so- levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising
called Aichi Targets on world-wide conserva- function and biodiversity. from their Utilization is in force and opera-
tion of biodiversity were adopted which were Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species tional, consistent with national legislation.
to be achieved by 2020. They comprise five and pathways are identified and prioritized,
Strategic Goals and 20 Targets: priority species are controlled or eradicated, Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation
and measures are in place to manage pathways through participatory planning, knowledge man-
Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying to prevent their introduction and establish- agement and capacity building
causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming bio- ment.
diversity across government and society Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthro- Target 17: By 2015 each Party has de-
pogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vul- veloped, adopted as a policy instrument, and
Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people nerable ecosystems impacted by climate change has commenced implementing an effective,
are aware of the values of biodiversity and or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to participatory and updated national biodiversi-
the steps they can take to conserve and use it maintain their integrity and functioning. ty strategy and action plan.
sustainably. Target 18: By 2020, the traditional
Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, bio- Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of knowledge, innovations and practices of
diversity values have been integrated into biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species indigenous and local communities relevant for
national and local development and poverty and genetic diversity the conservation and sustainable use of biodi-
reduction strategies and planning process- versity, and their customary use of biological
es and are being incorporated into national Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent resources, are respected, subject to national
accounting, as appropriate, and reporting of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent legislation and relevant international obliga-
systems. of coastal and marine areas, especially areas tions, and fully integrated and reflected in the
Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incen- of particular importance for biodiversity and implementation of the Convention with the
tives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiver- ecosystem services, are conserved through ef- full and effective participation of indigenous
sity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in fectively and equitably managed, ecologically and local communities, at all relevant levels.
order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, representative and well connected systems of Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the
and positive incentives for the conservation protected areas and other effective area-based science base and technologies relating to
and sustainable use of biodiversity are devel- conservation measures, and integrated into biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and
oped and applied, consistent and in harmony the wider landscapes and seascapes. trends, and the consequences of its loss, are
with the Convention and other relevant Target 12: By 2020, the extinction of improved, widely shared and transferred, and
international obligations, taking into account known threatened species has been prevented applied.
national socio-economic conditions. and their conservation status, particularly of Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the
Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, Gov- those most in decline, has been improved and mobilization of financial resources for effec-
ernments, business and stakeholders at all sustained. tively implementing the Strategic Plan for
levels have taken steps to achieve or have Target 13: By 2020, the genetic diversity Biodiversity 2011–2020 from all sources,
implemented plans for sustainable production of cultivated plants and farmed and domesti- and in accordance with the consolidated and
and consumption and have kept the impacts cated animals and of wild relatives, including agreed process in the Strategy for Resource
of use of natural resources well within safe other socio-economically as well as culturally Mobilization, should increase substantially
ecological limits. valuable species, is maintained, and strategies from the current levels. This target will be
have been developed and implemented for subject to changes contingent to resource
Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding needs assessments to be developed and report-
on biodiversity and promote sustainable use their genetic diversity. ed by Parties.
10 FOCUS

Nature-based solutions such as the conservation of mangroves for coastal protection yield high benefits. Here, conservation is combined with crab breeding.
Photo: Jörg Böthling

The economics of biodiversity

The World Economic Forum has established that over half of the world’s GDP is highly dependent on nature and its
services. But what do we really know about the link between ecosystem services and biodiversity, economic prosperity
and human well-being? And are all the yardsticks we use for evaluating really the right ones? Our author shows why a
paradigm shift is needed in the way we perceive progress and well-being and what the role of nature-based solutions
can be in this context.

By K. N. Ninan

Despite the pledge to halt the loss of biodiversi- ed, except for agricultural, fish and bioenergy and land cover change and climate change are
ty and ecosystem services, most countries have production and material harvest, all services among the major drivers contributing to loss
failed to achieve the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Tar- reported negative trends between 1970 and of biodiversity and ecosystem services. If un-
gets (see page 9) as stated in the UN’s Strategic 2019. According to the Center for Interna- checked, this will have an adverse impact on
Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. Degradation tional Forestry Research (CIFOR), each year, economies, ecosystems, lives and livelihoods.
of biodiversity and ecosystems has continued the world loses 6.3 trillion US dollars (USD) It will also jeopardise achievement of the Sus-
unabated, if not accelerated, during the last worth of ecological services due to forest and tainable Development Goals (SDGs).
decade. The recent Global Assessment Report land degradation. An IPBES report notes that
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services con- loss of pollinators threatens global crop out- Biodiversity provides several goods and ser-
ducted by the Intergovernmental Science-Pol- put worth between 235 billion and 577 bil- vices that are critical to human well-being and
icy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem lion USD annually. Pollution is estimated to good quality of life. The genetic pool that it
Services (IPBES) notes that one million spe- cause around 9 million premature deaths an- contains helps develop new crop varieties and
cies are at risk of extinction during the coming nually, and other environment-related health drugs which are assuming relevance in combat-
decades. Out of 18 ecosystem services evaluat- risks claim millions more each year. Land use ing the adverse effects of rapid environmental
RURAL 21 02/21 11

change. Nature can help reduce vulnerability further jeopardised by the COVID-19 pan- – over half of the world’s GDP – is highly
to climate and health risks. A UN report es- demic. While framing the post-2020 biodiver- dependent on nature and its services. Sectors
timated the direct economic losses due to di- sity targets, there is a need to align them such here include construction, agriculture, food
sasters between 1998 and 2017 at 2.98 trillion that they fit in with the metrics tracked by the and beverages, with an economic value of 7.9
USD (in 2017 USD), of which climate-related SDGs. trillion USD – roughly twice the size of Ger-
losses accounted for 78 per cent. many’s economy (about 4 trillion USD). The
Nature-based activities contribute a significant pharmaceutical industry depends on tropical
share to the incomes and well-being of many rainforests and plants for many existing and
Economics – not only monetary terms nations especially developing countries, and of potential drugs. For instance, 25 per cent of
count poor and indigenous communities. The report drugs used in modern medicine are derived
by the World Economic Forum (WEF) on Na- from rainforest plants. About 50 per cent of
The economic benefits offered by biodiversity ture Risks Rising notes that some of the fastest prescription drugs are based on molecules
and ecosystem services are immense. For in- growing economies of the world are highly coming from plants.
stance, the annual economic value of ecosys- vulnerable to nature loss. For example, about
tem services provided by forest ecosystems is a third of the gross domestic product (GDP) in
worth billions of US dollars (see Table). Esti- India and Indonesia is generated in nature-de- Benefits of nature-based solutions
mated economic values are however sensitive pendent sectors. African countries reported this
to the methods, norms and prices used to value share to be 23 per cent of their GDP. Even Nature-based solutions (NBS – see Box on
ecosystem services, as well as the number of large economies such as China, the EU and the page 12) are being advocated to reduce vul-
ecosystem services evaluated. There are other USA, which together account for 60 per cent nerability to the risks posed by climate change,
values of nature (e.g. relational values refer- of global GDP, reported high amounts of GDP environmental degradation and zoonotic dis-
ring to the quality of human-nature interac- as being generated in nature-dependent sectors, eases. NBS are cost-effective and can help
tions) which cannot be expressed in monetary i.e. 2.7 trillion USD in China, 2.4 trillion USD promote multiple objectives such as climate
terms. Experts therefore advocate the use of in the EU and 2.1 trillion USD in the USA. stabilisation, conservation and development.
plural approaches to assess the diverse values of Poor and indigenous communities rely on the They have co-benefits such as generating job
nature. Economic valuation is however useful natural environment for subsistence, income, opportunities and enhancing biodiversity, and
since it speaks in the language easily under- and employment. Non-timber forest products are critical for realising the SDGs.
stood by policy-makers. Besides, it underlines (NTFPs) and forest employment contribute a
the point that just because an ecosystem ser- significant share to their household income (see The economic benefits of NBS are signifi-
vice is not traded in a market or difficult to Figure on page 13). cant. The conservation of mangroves, pro-
value, it need not be a zero-priced good or tected areas, floodplains and watersheds
have no value. Merely that oxygen – the pro- The WEF report analysed 163 industries and yields high benefits, including non-market
vision of which is a life-giving service – is free- their supply chains and found that about 44 benefits such as carbon sequestration, soil and
ly available in the atmosphere does not mean trillion USD of economic value generation water conservation as well as flood manage-
that it has no economic value. The raging sec-
ond COVID-19 wave in India has helped to
gauge the true economic value of oxygen with Economic value of forest ecosystem services: Review of selected studies
COVID-19-stricken patients desperately try-
Forest site/ Number of 2020 PPP USD (A) Author
ing to purchase oxygen cylinders or the Indian ecosystem ecosystem services Billion USD USD/ hectare
government and other agencies making emer- evaluated
gency purchases or imports of oxygen tanks, Brazilian Amazon No information 174.5 - Gutierrez and
concentrators and cylinders. available (2,480.6) (B) Pearce, 1992
Mexican Forest 4 13.06 254.0 Adger et al., 1995
Korup National 5 0.02 231.6 Ruitenbeek, 1989
Park, Cameroon
Human well-being and SDGs
Mount Kenya forest 5 0.24 890.2 Emerton, 1999
reserve, Kenya
Apart from providing multiple benefits to
Leuser National 11 14.2 to 19.0 (C) 5,531 to 7,513 (C) Beukering et al.,
people, in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem Park, Sumatra, (220.8 to 300.3) (D) 2003
services, nature helps reduce vulnerability to Indonesia
climate-related disasters and extreme weather Oku Aizu forest re- 7 1.4 to 1.45 16,675 to 17,318 Ninan and Inoue,
events as well as health risks. It plays an im- serve, Fukushima, 2013a
Japan
portant role in influencing human well-being
Meta-analysis of 1 to 14 - 9.5 to 4,843 Ninan and Inoue,
and good quality of life. Two of the SDGs, 40 forest valua- 2013b
SDG 14 and SDG 15 (Life below Water and tion studies from
Life on Land), relate to marine and terrestrial around the world
ecosystems covering biodiversity and ecosys- (A) E
stimated values in different studies which were converted into 2010 purchasing power parity (PPP) US dollars (USD) in Ninan and Inoue,
2013b, have been converted into 2020 USD terms using the US Consumer Price Index for all US Urban Consumers. Values are annual
tem services. Most of the 17 SDGs refer direct- values unless mentioned otherwise. Since prices of commodities vary across countries, to make the estimated values comparable across
countries it is common to convert the estimated values in local currencies into PPP USD (or international dollars) using the PPP series
ly or indirectly to nature, addressing poverty, compiled by the United Nations or the World Bank.
hunger, health, water, sanitation, etc. Miss- (B) Net present value (NPV)
ing the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets already (C) Present value (PV)

imperils achievement of the SDGs, which is (D) Annuities

12 FOCUS

ment and storm protection services (see Ta- NBS could also form part of COVID-19-re- NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS (NBS)
ble below). For instance, a study in Thailand covery stimulus programmes.
estimated the net benefits from conserving The International Union for the Conser-
mangroves to be 3.6 times higher than from vation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS as
shrimp farming. Another study noted the How to enhance biodiversity and “actions to protect, sustainably manage, and
avoided losses from coastal flooding and oth- economic prosperity – key messages restore natural or modified ecosystems,
er non-market benefits from mangrove for- of the Dasgupta Biodiversity Review that address societal challenges effectively
ests valued at 120-130 billion USD per year and adaptively, simultaneously providing
globally. A study of floodplain restoration in The COP15 meeting of the UN’s Conven- human well-being and biodiversity benefits”,
Waza, Cameroon, established a 6.5:1 ben- tion on Biological Diversity in Kunming, Chi- with climate change, food security, disaster
efit-cost ratio (BCR) with improved flood na, from the 11th to the 24th October 2021, risks, water security, social and economic
management and water flow benefits. The is expected to finalise the post-2020 global development as well as human health being
Rewilding Europe project has reported en- biodiversity conservation framework for a fu- the common societal challenges.
couraging results with recovery of ecosystem ture where humankind lives in harmony with
health, species and co-benefits such as an in- nature. In this context, it is worth looking at
crease in tourist visitation rates. A UN report the key messages of a review commissioned It calls for institutional, market, financial and
notes that restoring 350 million hectares of by the UK Government headed by Sir Par- educational reforms to improve the outcomes
degraded landscapes globally by 2030, as en- tha Dasgupta to assess the economic value for nature. The review’s key messages include
visaged in the Bonn Challenge, would yield of biodiversity and to identify actions that the following:
benefits worth 9 trillion USD for an invest- will simultaneously enhance biodiversity and
ment of 1 trillion USD (about 0.1 per cent of economic prosperity. The review calls for a The way in which governments assess pro-
global GDP between 2021 and 2030), remove paradigm shift in the way we think, act and gress or well-being in terms of GDP has to
an additional 13–26 gigatons from the atmo- measure economic success and to protect and change. GDP is a flawed measure since it
sphere and contribute to poverty alleviation. enhance our prosperity and the natural world. ignores how environmental degradation
or income distribution impact long-term
well-being. For example, a barrel of oil or a
Economic benefits of nature-based solutions: selected cases tonne of iron ore extracted today is counted
Cases Country Benefit Net present values Author
as an addition to GDP. Being non-renew-
(NPV)/ benefit-cost able, these resources once extracted are no
ratios (BCR) longer available for future generations and
Mangrove versus Thailand Carbon sequestra- USD 60,000/ ha Balmford et al., hence will constrain long-term economic
shrimp farming tion, biodiversity, versus USD 16,700/ 2002 growth and welfare. Traditional national
storm protection, ha in 2006 USD (A)
nursery for fish- BCR: 3.6:1 income accounts consider depreciation of
eries, income & anthropogenic capital, but not of natural
employment capital, even though its depletion will af-
Mangrove forests Global Avoided losses USD 80 billion per Global Commission fect long-term well-being and sustainable
from coastal flood- year on Adaptation, 2019 development. The review argues that to
ing and protection
accurately measure well-being, one ought
Other non-market USD 40–50 billion to consider the concept of inclusive wealth,
benefits provided per year which covers produced capital (factories,
Protected forests – Karnataka, India NTFPs, soil and Net annual bene- Ninan and Kon- machines and roads), human capital (skills
Nagarhole National water conservation, fits: USD 13–148 toleon, 2016 and knowledge) and natural capital (e.g.
Park carbon sequestra- million (or USD 203/
tion, nutrient cy- ha to USD 2,294/ soils, forests and lakes). Tracking the chang-
cling, air pollution ha) in 2014 USD es in these three forms of assets will better
control, recreation, using alternative capture social well-being. UNEP’s Inclu-
and other benefits valuation methods sive Wealth Report 2018 compared the per
and prices
capita GDP (income) growth in 140 coun-
Floodplain resto- Waza, Cameroon Improved flood NPV – USD 7.8 IUCN, 2003
ration management, addi- million (B) tries with per capita (inclusive) wealth and
tional water flow BCR – 6.5:1 noted that 44 out of 140 countries reported
Watershed develop- Mittemari, India Increase in agricul- NPV – USD 0.32 Ninan and Laksh- a decline in per capita (inclusive) wealth
ment tural yields, water million to USD 1.7 mikanthamma, between 1990 and 2014, even though per
table and other million in 1989- 2001
capita GDP increased in most countries.
benefits 1990 USD (C)
BCR – 1.2 to 1.8 However, like GDP, the inclusive wealth
Coastal wetlands USA Storm protection Value: USD 23.2 Costanza et al., index (IWI) also has shortcomings in that
billion. 1 ha wetland 2008 it does not tell us anything about income
loss leads to an (or wealth) distribution within countries,
average of USD
which affects well-being.
33,000 increase in
storm damages The coverage and investments in protected
(A) Net present values (NPVs) estimated using 6 per cent discount rate; cash flows summed over 30 years. areas (PAs) need to be increased both on
(B) NPV estimated using 10 per cent discount rate; cash flows summed over 25 years. the land and in the seas. According to the
(C) NPVs estimated using alternate discount rates of 3 per cent, 5 per cent and 8 per cent; cash flows summed over 25 years. report, to protect 30 per cent of the world’s
RURAL 21 02/21 13

tion to lower our carbon footprint. Further,

it emphasises the need to reduce perverse
subsidies (globally estimated at 4–6 trillion
USD annually) that favour destruction of
nature. It calls for increased financial flows
and implementation of Payment for Eco-
system Services (PES) schemes and Debt
for Nature swaps to reward those countries
and communities who conserve and supply
ecosystem services.
Businesses and financial institutions are in-
creasingly concerned about nature-related
financial risks and their impact on their pro-
duction and revenues. They therefore need
to incorporate sustainability concerns to
hedge their businesses and institutions from
these risks. The report calls for an increase
in green investments and nature-based
solutions to address the nature-related risks
faced by businesses, financial institutions,
and economies.
Non-timber forest products play a major role in sustaining the livelihoods of rural indigenous communities. To connect people with nature, the review
Photo: Jörg Böthling calls for reforming our educational system,
whereby studying natural history is made
part of the curriculum from the early stag-
land and oceans and manage them effective- It calls for greater involvement of indige- es. Ultimately, all citizens should in part be
ly by 2030 would require an average invest- nous people and local communities in their naturalists. The review calls for empower-
ment of 140 billion USD annually, which management. ing citizens to ensure better outcomes for
is just about 0.16 per cent of global GDP Maintaining our current living standards nature.
and less than a third of the current global would require 1.6 Earths, which is unsus-
subsidies supporting activities that destroy tainable. The review calls for a shift towards Unless there is a transformative change in the
nature. The benefits from this would be a sustainable food production system, decar- way that governments and societies perceive
immense and include lowering climate and bonising our energy and transport systems, the value and role of nature to promote hu-
health risks. Let alone increasing the cov- reordering our consumption and produc- man well-being and sustainable development
erage of PAs, the report notes that only 20 tion patterns, and reducing food wastages prospects for biodiversity and humankind will
per cent of existing PAs are managed well. estimated at a third of global food produc- remain grim. If you take care of nature, na-
ture will take care of you. If you abuse nature,
nature too will abuse you. In the words of
Share of non-timber forest products & forest employment of total annual household Mahatma Gandhi: “Earth provides enough to
income of rural/ indigenous communities satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s
greed.”
90
% Share of total annual HH income

77.4
80
K. N. Ninan is Senior Fellow at the World
70
Resources Institute (WRI) India, New Delhi, and
60 Lead Author, Working Group III Contribution to the
47 Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
50 42
36 Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland.
40
29.5 29.3 Prior to this, he was Professor of Ecological
30 Economics at the Institute for Social and Economic
20 Change in Bangalore, India, and Co-Chair,
Methodological Assessment of Scenarios and
10
Models of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services at
0 the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
Mangwende, Mantadia, Chilimo, Nagarhole, Sumatra, Pará, on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Bonn,
Zimbabwe Madagascar Ethiopia India Indonesia Brazilian Germany.
1994 1995 2017 2000 2015 Amazon
Contact: [email protected]
2014/2016
Forest sites and countries
Note: Figure for Nagarhole, India consists of: NTFPs – 28.1 %; forest employment – 49.3 %.
Source: SCBD, 2001; Ninan et al., 2007; Demie, 2019; Widianingsih et al., 2016; Antunes et al., 2021 References: www.rural21.com
14 FOCUS

Food system transformation starts and ends with diversity

While having failed to solve problems such as hunger or malnutrition, industrial agriculture appears to be causing
additional ones both in environmental and health terms. Our author calls for a transformation of the food system and
highlights the key role of diversity in this context.

By Emile Frison and Nick Jacobs

If the food system transformation we need

could be summed up in a single word, it
would be diversity. We need diversity in the
TRANSITIONING FROM
field, within the farm, across the landscape, and DIFFERENT STARTING POINTS
throughout the economy. We need soil biodi-
versity, agrobiodiversity, wild biodiversity and DIVERSIFIED AGROECOLOGICAL FARMING
dietary diversity. We need to value diverse
Connect to Markets Relocalize
forms of knowledge – or as Vandana Shiva put
Diversify Diversify
it, we must move beyond ‘monocultures of Mechanize Reduce chemical inputs
the mind’. In some ways, it is a journey back Build knowledge Build knowledge
to the diversity that characterised agro-ecosys-
tems prior to the advent of industrial agricul-
ture. In other ways, it is a journey forward, SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE
drawing on cutting-edge knowledge to deliver
highly productive, resilient, resource-efficient
and multifunctional landscapes.
How uniformity took over the world mental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiver-
sity and Ecosystem Services, the High Level
Industrial agriculture – an existential It is worth recalling how we got here. Panel on Food Security and Nutrition, and
threat to itself? Throughout history, humans have consumed many others. Diversity is front and centre of
over 7,000 species of plants as well as numer- these calls for food system transformation. This
The challenges we face require no less. ous animal species, most of them harvested reflects the growing evidence from around the
COVID-19 has affected one third of food and from the wild. Over the last 10,000 years, a world of what diversity can achieve, from the
farming livelihoods. It has added 100 million significant number of species have been do- soil microbiome to the plate:
people to the world’s hungry – who already mesticated and were part of diverse agricultur-
numbered 750 million before the pandemic. al systems. But the 20th century saw a major Soil biodiversity, including a wide diver-
In addition, two billion people suffer from reorganisation of production systems. As the sity of microbes, arthropods and earth-
micronutrient deficiencies and 1.9 billion are ‘Green Revolution’ took hold around 50 years worms, is key to achieving healthy and
obese or overweight. Around the world, those ago, food production systems were increasing- productive soils via nitrogen fixation,
facing poverty and malnutrition are often ly focused on a small number of staple crop va- nutrient mobilisation, organic matter
small-scale farming communities. rieties and animal breeds. They were designed decomposition and transformation in
for production in uniform, intensive, and humus, soil texture improvement facil-
The environmental picture is bleaker still. highly-specialised systems. Rather than relying itating root penetration, water retention
More than half of the world’s farmland is de- on diversity to keep soils healthy and mitigate and carbon sequestration.
graded or severely degraded, and every year risks, they opted for synthetic fertilisers, pes- Combining different species with differ-
an area the size of the Philippines’ cultivated ticides and antibiotics. While industrial food ent roots systems and nutritional require-
land is added to the list. Runoff from fertiliser systems increased production, they have left a ments enables a better exploitation of soil
is polluting groundwater and causing vast dead legacy of soil degradation, water and air pollu- nutrients and water and can take advan-
zones in estuaries. Over-use of antibiotics in tion, greenhouse gas emissions and drastic bio- tage of synergies, such as the combina-
industrial feedlots is accelerating the spread of diversity losses – while failing to end hunger tion of leguminous species and cereals in
antibiotic resistance – predicted to be a bigger and malnutrition. which the leguminous species fix more
killer than chronic diseases by mid-century. nitrogen than if grown in pure stands.
Food systems are responsible for as much as Diverse mixed plant-animal farming and
one third of global greenhouse gas emissions. Time for a transformation agroecological practices, such as legume
intercropping and permanent soil cover,
Perhaps most alarmingly of all, agriculture is Over the last decade, it has become increasing- increase soil biodiversity and allow syn-
responsible for 80 per cent of deforestation and ly clear that this trajectory is not sustainable. thetic fertilisers to be replaced with lo-
70 per cent of terrestrial biodiversity loss. In- A profound transformation – a new paradigm cally-sourced organic fertilisers.
stead of nurturing the biodiversity it relies on – is urgently needed. This is the conclusion of A broad range of pollinating insects are
to thrive, agriculture is helping to destroy it landmark reports from the Intergovernmental necessary for food production. Almost
– and is therefore an existential threat to itself. Panel on Climate Change, the Intergovern- 75 per cent of the world’s crops pro-
RURAL 21 02/21 15

ducing fruits, vegetables and seeds for PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION
human consumption depend, at least in
part, on pollinators for sustained produc- 1. Recycling. Preferentially use local renewable resources and close as far as possible re-
tion, yield and quality. Other parasitic or source cycles of nutrients and biomass.
predatory insects as well as birds contrib- 2. Input reduction. Reduce or eliminate dependency on purchased inputs and increase self-suf-
ute to pest control. ficiency.
Diverse fields and landscapes, combined 3. Soil health. Secure and enhance soil health and functioning for improved plant growth, par-
with agroecological practices, re-estab- ticularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil biological activity.
lish natural pest and disease control sys- 4. Animal health. Ensure animal health and welfare.
tems that do not require pesticides. The 5. Biodiversity. Maintain and enhance diversity of species, functional diversity and genetic re-
use of complementary species in and sources and thereby maintain overall agroecosystem biodiversity in time and space at field,
farm and landscape scales.
around fields, such as in push-pull sys-
tems, allow for pest and weed manage- 6. Synergy. Enhance positive ecological interaction, synergy, integration and complementarity
among the elements of agroecosystems (animals, crops, trees, soil and water).
ment.
Diversified production systems provide 7. Economic diversification. Diversify on-farm incomes by ensuring that small-scale farmers
have greater financial independence and value addition opportunities while enabling them to
for healthy, diverse diets. The reintro-
respond to demand from consumers.
duction of neglected and underutilised
8. Co-creation of knowledge. Enhance co-creation and horizontal sharing of knowledge includ-
species – especially those rich in vitamins,
ing local and scientific innovation, especially through farmer-to-farmer exchange.
minerals, health-giving antioxidants and
9. Social values and diets. Build food systems based on the culture, identity, tradition, social
polyphenols, and other micronutrients –
and gender equity of local communities that provide healthy, diversified, seasonally and cul-
helps to re-diversify diets and improve turally appropriate diets.
the quality of nutrition in farming com-
10. Fairness. Support dignified and robust livelihoods for all actors engaged in food systems, es-
munities and beyond. pecially small-scale food producers, based on fair trade, fair employment and fair treatment
Diversification of production systems of intellectual property rights.
also diversifies sources of livelihood 11. Connectivity. Ensure proximity and confidence between producers and consumers through
and builds resilience to shocks. Firstly, promotion of fair and short distribution networks and by re-embedding food systems into
it decreases the vulnerability of farming local economies.
households to commodity price volatili- 12. Land and natural resource governance. Strengthen institutional arrangements to improve,
ty. Secondly, it also allows workload to be including the recognition and support of family farmers, smallholders and peasant food pro-
spread throughout the year and provides ducers as sustainable managers of natural and genetic resources.
more stable employment. And thirdly, 13. Participation. Encourage social organisation and greater participation in decision-making
diverse production systems are more re- by food producers and consumers to support decentralised governance and local adaptive
silient to extreme weather events. For management of agricultural and food systems.
example, after Hurricane Mitch in 1998,
the diverse fields of small-scale peas- approaches are captured in the 13 Principles of has the potential to transform our food systems
ants in Honduras recovered much faster agroecological transformation (see Box) iden- from being the greatest greenhouse gas emit-
from the damage than the monoculture tified by the High Level Panel on Food Secu- ter to being carbon neutral. Indeed, diversified
banana fields neighbouring them. And rity and Nutrition in 2019, building on the ten agroecological systems will deliver on virtu-
when Hurricane Ike hit Cuba in 2008, elements of agroecology previously adopted ally all of the Sustainable Development Goals
the losses on diversified farms were only by the UN Food and Agriculture Organiza- (SDGs), and we must transition towards them,
half as bad as on neighbouring monocul- tion (FAO). These principles can address all irrespective of whether the starting point is
tures. situations and all scales, but their practical ap- under-performing subsistence agriculture or
plication is location-specific and involves con- unsustainable industrial agriculture.
These approaches are mutually reinforcing. tinuous co-innovation between farmers and
Diversity in the field breeds diversity in the scientists. These principles provide a unifying In other words, it is time to stop seeing bio-
ecosystems and landscapes surrounding them. framework for all of those redesigning and diversity as a necessary victim of food systems.
There is a close correlation between the diver- re-diversifying their farming systems, whether Food system transformation starts and ends
sity of plants and the diversity and abundance they refer to themselves as agroecological, re- with diversity – and the time for transforma-
of the soil microbiome and fauna. Re-intro- generative, organic, or permacultural. tion is now.
ducing more biodiversity in landscapes, e.g.
incorporating tree crops and other perennials, Policymakers looking for ‘win-win-wins’ – for
also brings back wild biodiversity in them. social, environmental and economic sustain- Emile Frison is a member of the International
ability, or for animals, people and the plan- Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems
et – should look no further than diversified (IPES-Food). He focuses most of his career on
A unifying framework for food system agroecological systems. This is the compre- the contribution of biodiversity to the nutritional
transformation, with diversity at its core hensive response to industrial agriculture, and quality of diets and the sustainability, resilience and
the way out of its vicious cycles. The benefits productivity of smallholder agriculture.
Different terminologies are used to describe for biodiversity are obvious, but the potential Contact: [email protected]
the transformation we need. But there is grow- for tackling climate change is no less dramat- Nick Jacobs is the Director of the Secretariat of
ing consensus that production systems must be ic: the combination of carbon sequestration in IPES-Food.
redesigned and re-rooted in diversity. These soils and diverse vegetation, including trees, Contact: [email protected]
16 FOCUS GOING FOR
“By 2030 protect and conserve through well connected and effective systems of protected areas and other effective
conservation measures at least 30 per cent of the planet with the focus on areas particularly important for biodiversity,”
the draft monitoring for the post-2020 global biodiversity framework demands. Opinions on this target are divided. In the
following two articles, our authors sum up its pros and cons.

Why conserving 30 per cent of the planet’s land and seas is critical –
and how to achieve this
By Georg Schwede

In the negotiations for the new global biodi-

versity framework (GBF) to be adopted at the
15th Conference of the Parties (COP15), the
current draft target two, calling for a significant
increase in the extent of protected areas (PAs)
and other effective conservation measures
(OECMs), has received considerable public
and political attention. Parties to the CBD,
scientists, economists, NGOs, international
organisations, Indigenous People and Local
Communities (IPLCs), and other stakeholders
are intensely engaged in the debate about ex-
tending the area managed for conservation to
at least 30 per cent. Many see the current draft
target “By 2030 protect and conserve through
well connected and effective systems of PAs
and OECMs at least 30 per cent of the planet
with the focus on areas particularly important
for biodiversity”, in short “30 by 30”, as a crit-
ical cornerstone of the new GBF.

For the advocates of “30 by 30”, there are four According to IPBES, habitat loss and degradation and overexploitation of the oceans
main reasons why adopting this target will be are among the leading causes of global biodiversity loss. Photo: David Mills/ WorldFish

critical: curbing the loss of biodiversity, miti-

gating and adapting to climate change, provid-
ing essential ecosystem services and other eco- lowing for a strategic focus on ecosystems of that protecting 30 per cent of land in strategic
nomic benefits, and reducing the risk of future global significance for biodiversity conserva- locations could safeguard more than 500 giga-
zoonotic diseases like COVID-19. tion and the protection of critical carbon sinks. tons of carbon while reducing extinction risks
of 88 per cent of the species considered. And
In 2019, the Intergovernmental Science-Pol- finally, as part of its five key strategies to mit-
The scientific arguments icy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem igate climate change, advert biodiversity loss
Services (IPBES) identified habitat loss and and make global food systems more sustain-
To effectively address the intertwined crises of degradation and overexploitation of the oceans able the German Advisory Council on Global
biodiversity loss and climate change, the scien- as the leading causes of biodiversity loss. In its Change recommended expanding protected
tific community is overwhelmingly supporting recommendations to curb further loss, IPBES areas to 30 per cent of the Earth’s land area.
“30 by 30”, seeing 30 per cent as the floor and suggested to expand and effectively manage
not the ceiling of what the world community the current network of protected areas. This
has to agree on. A survey of 335 conservation recommendation was echoed in the 5th Edition The socioeconomic arguments
scientists from 81 countries found “very strong of the Global Biodiversity Outlook in 2020
support” for conserving even a larger percent- calling for “major increases” in both the size The scientific arguments for adopting “30 by
age – “in the order of even 50 per cent” – of and effectiveness of protected areas. A 2020 30” have been underpinned by various eco-
the planet. It further revealed strong agree- landmark paper in Science Advances stressed nomic studies. A 2020 report from the Uni-
ment that the former Aichi target 11 of pro- that by 2030, we need 30 per cent to be for- versity of Cambridge documents that pro-
tecting at least 17 per cent of the world’s land mally protected and an additional 20 per cent tecting 30 per cent of the world’s land and
and freshwater and 10 per cent of the ocean designated as climate stabilisation areas to stay oceans provides greater benefits than the status
isn’t enough. To maximise biodiversity, cli- below the 1.5°C global temperature increase quo, both in terms of financial outcomes and
mate and other benefits, scientists are also clear and significantly reduce the loss of biodiver- non-monetary measures like ecosystem ser-
that “30 by 30” needs to be a global target al- sity. In October 2020, a UN report estimated vices. It concludes that these benefits outweigh
“30 BY 30”? RURAL 21 02/21 17

the costs by a factor of at least 5:1. McKinsey 60 countries from across the globe have joined the areas proposed for biodiversity conserva-
recently completed an analysis of the econom- the High Ambition Coalition (HAC) for Na- tion. IPLCs conservation institutions and lo-
ics of 30 per cent. The authors found that in- ture and People. The HAC champions a glob- cal governance regimes have been effective in
creasing protected areas to 30 per cent would al deal for nature and people with the central preventing habitat loss, often more successful
safeguard 30 million jobs in ecotourism and goal of protecting at least 30 per cent of the than traditional conservation approaches (for
sustainable fisheries, create 650,000 new jobs world’s land and oceans by 2030. example the establishment of purely govern-
in conservation management and support 500 ment-managed conservation areas without
billion US dollars of GDP in ecotourism and involving IPLCs and without these benefit-
sustainable fisheries. Let’s talk about “how” ing from possible monetary and non-mone-
tary values). Expanding recognition of IPLC
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought home In a nutshell, for the supporters of “30 by 30”, land tenure rights must be seen as an effective,
the global importance of one of the most crit- the key question is not anymore “whether or moral and affordable solution for protecting
ical services that healthy natural areas offer not” but “how” it needs to be adopted. Among our world and preventing rights violations that
to humanity: a protection shield against the key aspects currently discussed in the CBD have plagued many traditional conservation
outbreak of new diseases. The IPBES #Pan- negotiations to address the “how” are quali- strategies. Thus, the target of conserving at
demicsReport looking at the links between tative, financial and social and human rights least 30 per cent of the planet’s land and oceans
pandemic risk and nature describes how the questions. Qualitative features need to ensure must explicitly underscore the need to protect
spill-over of new pathogens to humans can be the prioritisation of areas most important for Indigenous Peoples’ rights, ensuring free, prior
reduced. Recommended measures included biodiversity conservation, climate change mit- and informed consent and alignment with the
the conservation of protected areas and im- igation and reducing the risks of further zoo- UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
plementing policies limiting unsustainable ex- notic diseases. New sites have to be connected, Peoples (see following contribution by Fried-
ploitation of areas high in biodiversity. Anoth- integrated into the wider landscape and man- rich Wulf).
er paper published in October 2020 found that aged effectively to deliver their expected ben-
effective and equitably managed networks of efits for nature and people. Closely related to It has never been more urgent to switch to a
protected areas “can and should be part of the management effectiveness are financial aspects. transformative path to solve the multiple in-
response to reduce the risk of future zoonotic Sustainable financing is the biggest challenge of tertwined crises that put our common future
pandemics”. ensuring management effectiveness, in partic- at risk, and it seems evident that the adoption
ular in countries of the Global South. Recent of the “30 by 30” target is an important step
The compelling scientific and economic ar- estimates assume that managing an extended which we must take now.
guments for “30 by 30” have prompted in- network of protected areas effectively, sustain-
ternational NGOs as well as a growing num- ing their delivery of biodiversity and ecosystem
ber of CBD parties to publicly commit their services benefits, including significant econom- Georg Schwede is the Representative Europe
support of “30 by 30”. In a joint declaration ic and financial contributions, will cost around of the Campaign for Nature and is based in
international environmental NGOs, including 140 billion US dollars annually. Badenweiler, Germany. Before joining the
Conservation International, WWF, The Na- Campaign for Nature in January 2019, he
ture Conservancy, BirdLife International, the Social and human rights aspects are intrin- held various Senior Management positions in
Wildlife Conservation Society and others, are sically connected to the question on priority international conservation and humanitarian NGOs.
calling for “the effective protection and con- geographical areas for “30 by 30”. There are He earned a PhD and a MSc in wildlife biology
servation of at least 30 per cent of both land and approximately 476 million Indigenous People from the University of Bielefeld, Germany and the
sea by 2030, including through protected areas world-wide. Although they make up only six Smithsonian’s Conservation and Research Center,
and indigenous and community-led approach- per cent of the global population, Indigenous Virginia, USA.
es”. At the intergovernmental level, more than Peoples inhabit approximately 85 per cent of Contact: [email protected]

Why a 30 per cent blanket target on protected areas is not enough

By Friedrich Wulf

While the voices for a global “30 by 30” target The last question certainly is of highest con- and driven into hunger and malnutrition. The
are getting stronger, so are those raising con- cern. For many, the quest for increasing their model case quoted for this is the USA’s Yel-
cerns and asking questions. What do we mean protected area networks relies on the conven- lowstone National Park, founded in 1872, after
by ‘protected areas’? Where should those pro- tional model, that of governance by govern- the establishment of which over three hundred
tected areas come from? If it is true that these ment (via agencies and services at various levels, native Americans were killed and several thou-
would cause ‘limited human impacts’, does as is often the case for protected areas), imple- sands displaced. According to a recent report of
this not increase the pressure on the remaining mented in some regions in an exclusionary the Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI), a
70 per cent? And what does the designation manner which in practice involves or at least global coalition of more than 150 rightshold-
of protected areas mean for the people who tolerates the use of coercion or even violence. er organisations and their allies, between 1.65
live there? Most areas are populated, however People are being mistreated or killed and driv- billion and 1.87 billion Indigenous Peoples and
sparsely, and people depend on them for their en off their land which they previously used to Local Communities (IPLCs) live in important
livelihoods. nourish themselves, thereby being dispossessed biodiversity conservation areas, 363 million of
18 FOCUS GOING FOR
whom inhabit existing protected areas – this
illustrates the potential dimension of the issue.

Aspiration and reality – experience

from four continents

Example 1: Central Africa

A study published by Rainforest Foundation
UK (RFUK) in 2016 looked at the impacts of
setting up 34 protected areas in Central Af-
rica (Cameroon, the Central African Repub-
lic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Gabon and the Republic of the Congo) on
biodiversity and local inhabitants. It found
that while poaching persisted and elephant,
bongo, gorilla and chimpanzee populations Adivasi in a village in the Indian Federal State of Jharkhand fighting for their land rights.
were further declining, the creation of at Photos: Jörg Böthling
least 26 of these 34 reserves resulted in par-
tial or complete relocation or displacement,
without any compensation, of local indige- a burden on food production than land-grab- digenous People depend on their territories,
nous and farming communities present in the bing activities for other countries’ agrocom- it is precisely their intrinsic (non-western)
area prior to park establishment. Contrary to modities because protected areas often are es- relation with nature which fosters sustain-
claims, there is no consultation or participa- tablished in regions which are less suitable for ability within their habitat. These protected
tion. Eco-guards hired by the organisations farming, e.g. mountainous regions, wetlands areas or Indigenous Territories close to the
running the site do not shrink from brutal or areas with poor soils. agricultural frontier often look like an oasis
violence in enforcing their policies, and gov- in the middle of destruction. However, they
ernments do not intervene. There is huge dis- Example 2: India are increasingly under threat by the advance
trust on both sides, who consider each other India is home to 104 million ‘Adivasi’ or first of destructive sectors (agribusiness, logging,
as enemies and mutually ignore each other’s inhabitants. Wherever biodiversity was pro- mining and oil industries) who want to make
situation. In some cases, people’s deprivation tected, nurtured and used by them, it was tak- profits from the forest areas, with the current
of their traditional sources of food made it en over by colonial governments as a source Bolsonaro administration ensuring their im-
necessary for the World Food Programme to of commercial revenue, and the alienation of punity. This destruction is exacerbated by the
step in and help them. In another case, pygmy IPLCs has been continued by post-indepen- complete lack of public policies to promote
people were driven off their land and now are dence governments too. IPLCs are treated as different uses of forests under control of the
forced to live in a dreary camp and earn their encroachers in nearly all of the forest areas in communities. A “30 by 30” target based on
living by poaching – just the opposite of what the country protected by law as Reserve For- exclusive protection could be an incentive
is intended. ests and Protected Forests, constituting about to halt the demarcation of indigenous lands,
21 per cent of India's area. Five per cent of the while still unthreatened lands could be de-
This has led Civil Society organisations in the country is protected area run in an exclusive clared exclusive protected areas involving
DRC to develop a position paper with de- manner without involving the historical cus- eviction of the Indigenous People there.
mands for the global biodiversity framework. todians of biodiversity.
With regard to draft target 2 on protected ar- Example 4: Europe
eas, they highlight the need to prioritise com- Example 3: Brazil The situation in Europe is different. Pro-
munity-conserved areas before conventional, In Brazil, Indigenous Peoples and other for- tected areas, as diverse as they may be, usu-
government-run protected areas, to respect est-dependent communities have advanced ally are not exclusive, although rejection of
the principle of free prior and informed con- in creating indigenous lands as a category in protected areas by local people and public
sent (FPIC) and to identify the possible conse- the constitution. The government is obliged decision-makers in general is not uncom-
quences of a 30 per cent target on the subsis- to demarcate these as well as extractive re- mon. Other effective conservation measures
tence of IPLCs and to evaluate their impact to serves (RESEX) for communities to remain in including Indigenous and community con-
compensate for the actions tolerated or made the forest and survive from non-timber forest served areas (ICCAs) are getting more recog-
by states. products like oils, latex, etc., a result of social nition in the European Union, too. Howev-
activist Chico Mendes’ struggle in the 1980es. er, despite diverse subsidies being available to
If solutions following these criteria are found, They face many challenges, but it is an import- landowners, there still are numerous imple-
this would enable the local people to continue ant step forward. mentation gaps in protected areas, and many
foraging in the forests, thereby reducing the species continue to be threatened. Experts
pressure on biodiversity in areas outside. This There is consensus that Indigenous Territo- agree that a much bigger effort from Member
is a key argument for establishing non-exclu- ries (around 25–30 per cent of the Amazon) States would be needed to achieve good man-
sive protected areas which has also been voiced ensure forest protection as well as or even agement of all areas than merely extending
by others. In addition, one could hold that the better than protected areas like national parks the protected area network from the current
creation of protected areas will be much less of without people. And it is not just that the In- 25.7 to 30 per cent.
“30 BY 30”? RURAL 21 02/21 19

by 30” target by redefining what constitutes

“conserved” land, to make that new defini-
tion distinct from, and more comprehensive
than, “protected” land, to respect the rights
and sovereignty of tribes, and to position local
communities and tribal nations as the primary
actors to reach that target.

As this article shows, equity and various forms

of governance for protected and conserved ar-
eas are key for a new “30 by 30” target. But
they are not the only aspects that need to be
clearly addressed in the new CBD target on
protected areas. All the elements contained in
the still valid Aichi target 11 need to be reflect-
ed in the new one as well:
Indigenous Territories in the Brazilian Amazon are increasingly under threat by the advance of sectors
seeking to make a profit in the forest areas. • Representativeness is crucial to ensure
that areas of particular importance for
biodiversity are included and not just the
So what can be done? rights, including those laid down in the “easiest to get” areas.
UN Declaration on the Rights of Indig- • The areas need to be effectively man-
A “30 by 30” protected area target is seen both enous Peoples (UNDRIP). If there is a aged, so that they deliver the conserva-
as a necessity to save the world’s biodiversity protected area target in the new global tion outcomes for which they were des-
(see previous contribution by Georg Schwede) biodiversity framework, it needs to be ignated.
as well as a threat to human rights and biodi- monitored through a headline indicator • The areas need to be well-connected, so
versity inside and outside of protected areas. on compliance with human rights. Head- that species populations are not isolated.
While for some this leads to the issue of not line indicators are indicators required
setting a percentage target on protected areas, from all countries to monitor implemen- It is to be hoped that the new global biodi-
others, such as the Rights and Resources ini- tation of the post-2020 global biodiversi- versity framework will take heed of this ad-
tiative, suggest the problems raised can be re- ty framework, according to current draft vice and the concerns currently voiced at the
solved by adapting the global target to ensure proposals. Areas which cannot demon- CBD-related meetings, and that the target on
that respect for local people’s land rights be a strate that they comply should not be protected areas includes all these elements so
prerequisite for any new conserved area. Ei- counted towards a protected area target. that it serves both nature and people. Final-
ther way, the following must be addressed: A globally agreed target needs to ly, protected areas are only one element of
come with teeth to enforce it, such as the CBD and the global biodiversity frame-
Any site designation and management a grievance mechanism which enables work, which must respect the rights of IPLCs
process must be the result of an equitable, rightsholders and IPLCs to demand jus- throughout (including in target 20) and also
inclusive and fair process with the con- tice in case their rights are disregarded. address biodiversity loss outside of protected
sent of local rightsholders and consulta- The Global Assessment Report by the areas, through sustainable use and by reducing
tion with other people concerned, based IPBES sees justice and inclusion in con- the pressure created by the drivers of biodi-
on a thorough prior impact assessment. servation as a key leverage point for a versity loss.
All four types of governance of con- transformation towards sustainability.
served areas need to be included in the
future target: by government (i.e. clas- These demands are not new but are deeply Friedrich Wulf is a biologist and has been
sical protected areas), by various actors rooted in the Convention on Biological Di- responsible for international biodiversity policy at
together, by private actors and by IPLCs. versity (CBD). In 2000, it embraced the eco- Pro Natura – Friends of the Earth Switzerland and
Areas governed and managed by IPLCs system approach, a strategy for the integrated Friends of the Earth Europe since 2008, as well
offer a huge contribution to conserving management of land, water and living resourc- as being coordinator of the Biodiversity Working
nature. They include community forests es that promotes conservation and sustainable Group of the German NGO Forum on Environment
and ‘territories of life’ (also known as IC- use in an equitable way. The Programme of and Development. Wulf is active on the issue of
CAs) in biodiversity-rich areas. In order Work on protected areas (POWPA), in its el- protected areas at national, EU, pan-European
to be fully counted towards any “30 by ement 2, has set detailed targets to promote and global levels and is involved as an NGO
30” target, they should be properly rec- equity and benefit-sharing and enhance and representative in the negotiations on a post-2020
ognised and supported by state govern- secure involvement of indigenous and local framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity
ments, in particular by securing gover- communities and relevant stakeholders in gov- (CBD), where issues include the design of a new
nance and tenure for their custodians. erning protected areas. An encouraging step in protected area target and rights-based approaches.
The management of all protected areas this direction currently has been announced Contact: [email protected]
must be closely monitored, not only in by the US government, although the USA
terms of efficiency, but very importantly is not a member of the CBD. The “America
References: www.rural21.com
regarding full compliance with all human the beautiful” initiative aims to reach its “30
20 FOCUS

Connecting people and nature –

UNESCO biosphere reserves in Ghana
Biosphere Reserves are increasingly being recognised as special sites for people and nature. They bring together
stakeholders and provide opportunities to dialogue, share ideas and expertise, and join hands to conserve biodiversity
while enhancing community welfare and initiatives. This article showcases Ghana’s experience with the biosphere
reserve concept with a focus on Bia Biosphere Reserve.

By Sheila Nana Akua Ashong

Local communities in Africa depend heavily on One network, one vision, one world – Biosphere reserves are designed to go beyond
biodiversity for their livelihoods, such as sub- UNESCO Biosphere Reserves conserving biodiversity to address and place
sistence agriculture, fishing, hunting and the emphasis on community well-being. Hence,
extraction and processing of non-timber forest UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are they serve three mutually reinforcing and
products like snails, honey and medicinal plants. terrestrial or coastal sites that provide op- equally important functions:
Due to a higher population growth rate in such portunities to reconcile the conservation of
areas as compared to urban areas, there is a ten- biodiversity with its sustainable use. They conservation of genes, species, landscape,
dency to overexploit resources from forests, are designated by the United Nations Educa- and cultural and ecosystem diversity;
mountains, wetlands and other vital ecosystems tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization socio-economic development: providing
to meet human needs without considering the (UNESCO) to model innovative approach- essential benefits such as livelihoods, food
ability of the natural resources to recover. es to attaining the Sustainable Develop- and fodder, and cultural values to human
ment Goals (SDGs). The World Network of communities;
The introduction of protection regimes in Biosphere Reserves (WNBR), introduced logistic support meaning research, monitor-
many countries, especially in Africa, initially through the Man and the Biosphere Pro- ing and education.
faced challenges with resource depletion and gramme (MAB) 50 years ago, is an interac-
loss of biodiversity because it was often done tive and dynamic network that fosters the To fulfil these functions, BRs are characterised
without due consideration of local community harmonious integration of people and nature. by three interactive zones:
needs, leading to animosity among individuals It combines various forms of knowledge, pro-
and communities, and between communities viding opportunities for joint learning across the core area, which is strictly protected
and authorities responsible for protected areas. different sites in different countries and re- from all human activity except for research;
Protection regimes must consider sustainable gions. The WNBR with a current member- the buffer zone, where human activity
development principles, ensuring the estab- ship of 714 sites in 129 countries, including 21 which is compatible with conservation goals
lishment and maintenance of balance between sites shared by two or more countries or con- is allowed, such as research laboratories;
conserving natural resources on the one hand tinents, has been recognised as a major tool to the outermost transition area, where com-
and communities using these resources on the be used for attaining the Sustainable Devel- munities live and benefit from the resources
other, without compromising nature’s ability opment Goals (SDGs). The biosphere reserve while ensuring sustainable practices.
to sustain itself. Biosphere Reserves demon- concept draws strength from its integration
strate this approach as a viable solution for a of diverse knowledge and diverse stakeholder BRs differ from other nature reserves based on
harmonic coexistence between human popu- networks and principles across several inter- the emphasis they place on human welfare as
lations and nature. national conventions and programmes. compared to previous ways of conserving re-

Giant African snails found in Bia BR.

Photo: Sheila Nana Akua Ashong
RURAL 21 02/21 21

sources that did not adequately consider com- The Bia BR is known to have some of the
munity needs. The participatory approach is country’s tallest trees, such as Pericopsis ela-
used in BRs to foster community empower- ta and Khaya anthotheca. It also serves as a
ment to support conservation. Also, they pro- refuge for many important animal species.
vide opportunities for different stakeholders These include 34 species of mammals such
to combine knowledge for innovation and to as the African elephant (Loxodonta afri-
learn sustainable development together. cana), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus),
olive colobus monkey (Procolobus verus) and
Biosphere reserves facilitate the orientation or Geoffroy’s Pied Colobus (Colobus vellerosus).
reorientation of stakeholders towards nature There are also 60 species of birds such as the
conservation with and through people and are common bulbul (Pycnonotus barbatus) and the
emulated in many nature reserves. By com- great white heron (Egretta alba), invertebrates
bining all knowledge sources and bringing on like the giant African snail (Achatina achati-
board diverse stakeholder groups, management na) and 40 species of Pericopsis elata butter-
problems have been resolved more expedient- flies including the citrus swallowtail (Papilio Cocoa farming in the transition area of Bia BR.
ly. The joint learning and experiential sharing demodocus). Protecting these species contrib-
within the WNBR and its sub-networks have utes to achieving SDGs 13, 14 and 15.
enhanced the capacities of local populations
and their stakeholders through exchanges, ed- In terms of fulfilling the development func-
ucational programmes for children and youth, tion (SDGs 1, 2 and 3), communities are en-
implementation of community initiatives to gaged in agriculture (chiefly cocoa, Ghana’s
sustainable development and the integration main cash crop), vegetable, fruit and other
of traditional knowledge concepts into conser- food crop farming, while some revenue is
vation. Local populations are able to interact also generated from tourist visits to the na-
with their counterparts in other regions man- tional park and trading. The forest provides
aging similar or different resources to learn numerous medicinal plants used by the com-
from their experiences and seek common solu- munities.
tions. BRs also promote peace between pop-
ulations in different countries through joint Several initiatives have been implement-
plans and programmes used to manage shared ed by various stakeholders to address previ-
ecosystems. ous community animosity and perception
of marginalisation relating to delineation of
the national park. Two such initiatives emu-
Ghana’s story so far: the example of lating the benefits derived from being a part
Bia Biosphere Reserve of the WNBR for Bia BR are UNESCO’s Farmers in Bia harvesting honey on their farm.
“Biosphere Reserves for Biodiversity Con- Photos: Dominic Awukuvie
Bia Biosphere Reserve lies in Ghana’s transi- servation and Sustainable Development in
tion zone between the moist evergreen and Anglophone Africa” (BRAAF) project, im-
moist semi-deciduous forest in the country’s plemented in five forest ecosystems in Gha- of the beneficiaries). With all these initiatives,
southwest, along the border with la Côte na, Nigeria, Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda Bia is contributing to achieving SDGs 1, 5 ,8,
d’Ivoire (see Map on page 22). The core area from 1995 to 1997, and “Green Economy 11, 13, 14, 15 and 16.
is made up of the Bia Conservation Area (Bia in Biosphere Reserve” (GEBR) project, im-
National Park and Bia Resource Reserve) and plemented from 2013 to 2017 in three forest Concerning its logistic function, Bia is a re-
the “Apaaso” sacred grove, which is a sacred ecosystems in Ghana, Nigeria and Tanzania. search site for national universities and interna-
site visited only for prayers and sacrifice. The Through the BRAAF project, communities tional researchers on culture, chimpanzees, el-
buffer zone is made up of degraded neigh- were reoriented through capacity building, ephants, butterflies, cocoa production and soil
bouring forest reserves organised into com- sensitisation and supplementary livelihood organisms. There is a vibrant schools and com-
munity resource management areas and some initiatives like snail farming, oyster mush- munity education programme (active before
communities, while the transition area com- room production, grasscutter rearing and bee COVID-19) to facilitate behavioural change in
prises about 30 communities. The reserve is keeping to understand and support conserva- the youth for sustainable development. Several
estimated to have a total population of 65,000, tion. Recommendations were also made for studies have been conducted under the MAB
with about half living below the national daily creating a shared elephant migration corridor Young Scientists award on snails, mushrooms
minimum wage of 2 USD. It is managed by with la CÔte d’Ivoire. The GEBR project and the River Bia.
the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Com- built on this foundation to reduce poverty by
mission in collaboration with the Community diversifying the local economy through bee-
Resource Management Area (CREMA) com- keeping, mushroom rearing, palm oil pro- Lessons learnt and remaining
mittees and the Advisory Board. Communities duction, business management and snail rear- challenges
are known to embrace the CREMAs because ing (with 220 persons trained and set up in
responsibility for management of the resources business). The beneficiaries were also trained For people in Bia, membership of the WNBR
is devolved to them by the Wildlife Division, in business and financial management while has provided increased visibility and opportu-
thereby increasing their sense of ownership. ensuring women’s empowerment (40 per cent nities to share experiences with counterparts
22 FOCUS

locally, nationally and internationally for the GHANA'S BIOSPHERE RESERVES

common good. The BR has hosted delegations
Bia Conservation Area, a national park enlisted in 1983
from Scotland, Senegal, Nigeria, Tanzania and
Songor Ramsar Site, a coastal wetland enlisted in 2011
other countries on joint projects. Most signifi-
Lake Bosomtwe, a natural lake in Ghana enlisted in 2016
cantly, communities are now more involved,
better oriented and collaborating with the
management authorities. Based on previous
recommendations from the BRAAF project,
a GEF/FAO project was implemented which
led to the preparation of a joint management
plan for the Bia-Diambakro forest corridor to
be implemented by the Forest Services and
Wildlife Divisions of the Forestry Commission
in Ghana and the Societé de Développement
des Forêts (SODEFOR) and national parks
service (OIPR) in Côte d’Ivoire. Additional
CREMAs have been demarcated to manage
the forest resources in the transition area.

The key lesson reiterated by the communities

is that challenges which they face in natural
resource management and sustainable devel-
opment are not unique but common to other
communities across the world. However, as
our elders say: “Two heads are always better
than one.” It is therefore more expedient to
confer with others when solving problems.
Stakeholder collaboration and partnership
(SDG 17) is essential for the attainment of all
the other SDGs, and biosphere reserves play a
fundamental role in bringing stakeholders to-
gether to deepen our relationship with nature.

Moving forward

Of course the management of the Bia Reserve

also entails challenges, of which human-wild-
life conflicts, where elephants sometimes raid
cocoa farms, degradation of the forest reserves
in the transition area zones for farmland, in-
adequate government financing and poaching
are among the most important ones. To ad-
dress these challenges, bee-keeping on farms
and the use of the pepper-grease method is
encouraged to deter elephants. The various
projects, especially the National REDD+ Pro-
gramme, have supported enrichment planting
in degraded forest areas while general stake-
holder collaboration has been deepened to im- Sustainable Development, introduced in 2018 Sheila Nana Akua Ashong is the Deputy Director
prove law enforcement and local awareness on to enhance awareness on the BR concept, will of the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana.
the zonation. Through collaboration with the continue to be used as a platform for network- She is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Expert and a
National Development Planning Commission ing and sharing. Fellow of the 1st Women for the Environment (WE
(NDPC), which started in 2017 to mainstream Africa) Cohort, 2021. Sheila holds a bachelor's
the BR concept in development planning, the The BR concept has been of immense bene- degree in Natural Resource Management and
MAB National committee is set to publish a fit to local populations in Bia, the region and a master's degree in International Fisheries
handbook to guide district officers to ensure the nation as a whole. In the anniversary year Management. Currently, she is a PhD Integrated
increased government allocation of financial of the MAB Programme, consensus building Coastal Zone Management student at the Africa
resources for BR activities during the prepa- is expected to be enhanced for optimal stake- Centre of Excellence in Coastal Resilience,
ration of medium-term plans for 2022–2025. holder support to make Bia a site of excellence University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
The biennial National Forum on BRs and for learning sustainability. Contact: [email protected]
RURAL 21 02/21 23

Facts and figures

on biodiversity and ecosystem services
The worrying ones … The neutral ones … The promising ones …
• World-wide, out of an estimated eight • 80 per cent of all species world-wide • The rate of deforestation has been
million animal and plant species, one live on just 20 per cent of the Earth’s reduced by around a third compared to
million are threatened with extinction. surface. the previous decade.
• 75 per cent of terrestrial ecosystems • Forests are home to more than 80 per • Between 2000 and 2020, terrestrial
and 40 per cent of marine ecosystems cent of biodiversity. areas under protection grew from 10
have already suffered severe anthropo- to over 16 per cent, marine protected
• More than two billion people rely on
genic changes. areas rose from 3 to over 7 per cent,
wood fuel to meet their primary energy
and the conservation of key biodiversity
• Since 1990, world-wide, 420 million needs.
areas grew from 29 to 44 per cent.
hectares of forest area has gone lost.
• More than 75 per cent of global food
• The Nagoya Protocol, which regulates
• Each year, human activities cause the crop types, including fruits and vege-
access to genetic resources and a
destruction of around 13 million hect- tables and some of the most important
balanced and fair sharing of the advan-
ares of forest. cash crops, rely on animal pollination.
tages resulting from their use, is being
• Each year, the world loses 6.3 trillion • Over half of the world’s gross domestic applied in at least 87 countries.
US dollars worth of ecological services product (GDP) is highly dependent on
• International financing of biodiversity
through forest and land degradation. nature and its services.
conservation doubled between 2010
• Loss of pollinators threatens global • About a third of the GDP in India and and 2020.
crop outputs worth between 235 and Indonesia and 23 per cent of the GDP
577 billion US dollars annually. in African countries is generated in
nature-dependent sectors.
• Maintaining current living standards
would require 1.6 Earths. • 25 per cent of drugs used in modern
medicine are derived from rainforest
• 33 per cent of all fish stocks are over-
plants.
fished.
• At least a quarter of the global land
area is traditionally owned, man-
aged, used or occupied by indigenous
peoples. These areas include approx-
imately 35 per cent of the area that is
formally protected, and around 35 per
cent of all remaining terrestrial areas
with very low human intervention.
• The conserving of 30 per cent of the
planet’s land and sea would cost 140
billion US dollars, which is equivalent
to 0.16 per cent of global GDP.
• Protected areas store 20 per cent of
terrestrially sequestered carbon.
• World-wide, around 85 billion US dol-
lars is spent annually on the conserva-
tion of biological diversity.
• Oceans produce 50 per cent of our oxy-
gen and absorb more than 90 per cent
of greenhouse gas heat.

Sources: IPBES, FAO, IUCN, OECD, WEF

24 FOCUS

Biodiversity and agriculture – rivalry or a new friendship?

Like agriculture and climate change, agriculture and biodiversity, and hence food security, are interconnected in
both a negative and a positive sense. In this article, our author describes what we know about the links, what role
the agricultural sectors have to play in the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity and what the transition of
agricultural systems which this requires could look like in small-scale and in large-scale production.

By Irene Hoffmann

Biodiversity plays a crucial role in achieving

food security and nutrition for all. Biodiver-
sity also provides regulating and supporting
ecosystem services for agriculture, including
nutrient cycling, soil formation and rehabili-
tation, as well as habitats for wild species, bio-
logical pest control and pollination. Biodiver-
sity makes production systems and livelihoods
more resilient to shocks and stresses, includ-
ing the effects of climate change. But despite
global efforts spanning several decades, biodi-
versity continues to be eroded; in their 2019
publications, the Food and Agriculture Or-
ganization (FAO) and the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services (IPBES) provide evidence
that many of the drivers that have negative im-
pacts on biodiversity are at least partly caused
by inappropriate agricultural practices.

Without changes in production and consump-

tion patterns and reductions in food waste and For smallholders, biodiversity conservation must be linked to food security and livelihood improvements.
losses, the agricultural sectors will struggle to Photo: FAO/ Luis Tato
meet future food demands. As demand grows,
the role of the agricultural sectors in the sus-
tainable use and conservation of biodiversity touched “natural” ecosystems, but also, and biodiversity is generally declining less rapidly
will become even more significant. Regarding indeed mainly, by changes in the intensity than elsewhere.
biodiversity and food security, food system and of land already modified. Many of the most
sustainable agricultural transitions are part of a biodiverse areas remaining on the planet are
larger debate on the role of farm size in glob- forests or drylands, covering about one third Biodiversity-friendly practices and
al food security, biodiversity and landscape of the terrestrial area; they are often man- diverse landscapes as parts of the
fragmentation as well as land-sharing versus aged by indigenous peoples under traditional solution
land-sparing, and have most recently been ad- low-intensity systems, including hunting and
dressed in the development of the post-2020 gathering. Roughly another third of the land In the next decade, the agricultural sectors
global biodiversity framework. area is too cold or dry for permanent human – including crop and livestock production,
use, or is covered by extensive shrub- and forestry, fisheries and aquaculture – need to
The following focuses on terrestrial (mostly rangelands. rapidly upscale the best practices identified for
crop production) systems, despite the import- managing biodiversity for food and agriculture
ant role of biodiversity and its management in Agricultural land accounts for more than one and for halting the loss of biodiversity with-
marine and coastal ecosystems and inland wa- third of the terrestrial area. It includes diverse in and outside of agricultural systems. FAO
ters, and the diverse roles of livestock across cultural landscapes with dynamic and pro- country reports on The State of the World’s
many ecosystems. ductive mosaics of ecological communities in Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture show
varying states of succession, and cultural mod- that the use of a wide range of management
ifications have been continued or maintained practices and approaches regarded as favour-
Biodiversity on which land? over millenia in many regions, often in small- able for the sustainable use and conservation
holder systems, where a wealth of biodiversity of biodiversity for food and agriculture at
Going back in history, humans have shaped for food and agriculture was developed and landscape, farm and field level, such as land-
the planet for more than 12,000 years. There- conserved. At least a quarter of the global land scape management and ecosystem approaches,
fore, current biodiversity losses are caused not area is traditionally occupied and used or man- agroforestry or sustainable soil management, is
only by anthropogenic degradation of un- aged by indigenous peoples, and in these areas, increasing. However, it is difficult to evaluate
RURAL 21 02/21 25

the extent to which these approaches are being deforestation in the tropics and subtropics over culture and associated and “wild” biodiver-
implemented. This is firstly because, especially the same period and 70 per cent of the defor- sity (e.g. pollinators), and improving market
in smallholder systems, many biodiversity-fo- estation in Latin America. access through public procurement schemes
cused practices are relatively complex and can for biodiversity-friendly production meth-
be knowledge-intensive, and are context and In more intensive large-scale systems, agri-en- ods or specialty markets for traditional foods
location specific and secondly because few ap- vironmental policies should aim at reducing with higher prices. Policies also need to en-
propriate assessment methods and cause-effect field sizes and the share of crops under partic- sure that agricultural intensification does not
relationships have been demonstrated, while ularly intensive management while simultane- lead to reductions in genetic diversity for food
benefits of practices materialise only in the rel- ously promoting diversification. In less biodi- and agriculture, and that investments and pol-
atively long term. verse regions and low-external input farming icy incentives promote diversified agriculture,
systems, intensification is an option for clos- health and well-being.
There is an ongoing discussion about the im- ing production yield gaps without necessarily
pact of practices versus farm or plot size on causing additional decline in biodiversity. This The global land area managed by farmers who
biodiversity. The FAO report shows that agri- can be achieved through improved nutrient, are not smallholders is significantly larger,
cultural landscapes can provide habitats for bio- water and pest/ disease management, and in- and this group, thanks to their relatively low-
diversity and promote connectivity between novative approaches such as precision or cli- er numbers and often better organisation, are
protected areas and other biodiverse areas. mate-smart agriculture; however, care has to potentially easier to target than local networks
be taken to not create threats to traditional of smallholders. Biodiversity-friendly practices
Farm holding and field size – though differ- genetic resources for food and agriculture and need to be up-scaled and promoted through
ent – are dimensions of landscape heterogene- wild species depending on extensively man- capacity development and strengthening poli-
ity, since small-scale agricultural systems with aged landscapes. cy frameworks. Biodiversity can be promoted
high-field border density, buffer strips, hedges on larger farms by stimulating more biodiversi-
and trees provide habitats and can boost as- Agriculture can impact biodiversity but the ty-friendly management practices, especially re-
sociated biodiversity (e.g. pollinators, natural intensity and extent to which this happens de- ducing the use of pesticides and more effective-
enemies of pests). This is where smallholders pends on biodiversity richness, abundance and ly using fertilisers, and increasing habitats such
come into the game. Globally, smallholder endemism in and surrounding the intensified as buffer strips, hedges and trees. These farmers
farms under two hectares represent 84 per cent area or farm. Even when agricultural expan- operate in the formal sector of the economy
of all farms and occupy around 12 per cent of sion and intensification has already occurred, where regulation, taxes and incentives take
the global farmland; they were found to har- there are ways to enhance ecosystem services hold. They are also often linked to global value
bour greater crop and non-crop biodiversity or increase productivity through a range of chains, where consumer pressure, government
at the farm and landscape scales compared to biodiversity-friendly practices and approaches, commitments and corporate standards involv-
larger farms, as a recent publication in Nature as indicated above. Where productive ecosys- ing zero-deforestation and eco-labelling bring
Sustainability has shown. Very small fields siz- tems are degraded, they have to be restored to about change. Ecosystem acounting at national
es have a substantial share in the total agricul- their productive potential. and corporate levels and innovative investment
ture of Asia and Africa, but play a smaller role could further enhance the links between con-
in Western Europe, while large fields domi- servation and production.
nate in post‐Soviet Union countries, the USA, Targeting agricultural stakeholders
Brazil, Australia, Argentina and Canada. Ac- for sustainable use, conservation and Nature cannot afford to rival agriculture. Dual
cording to the June 2021 issue of World Devel- restoration of biodiversity goals of conserving biodiversity while increas-
opment, large farms of more than 50 hectares ing the efficiency and yield of food production
represent one per cent of all farms but occupy Policy-makers need to balance decisions in- can be simultaneously achieved through ac-
70 per cent of farmland. volving land use for biodiversity conserva- knowleding and valuing the full contribution
tion and agricultural production, taking into of nature to agricultural systems and engaging
account needs of stakeholders, and identify with all stakeholders at all levels. Political will
What agricultural systems transition hotspots of biodiversity as well as potential and multistakeholder action are key.
should look like future conflicts and loss of environmental and
societal resilience.
Hunger and poverty are most widespread in Irene Hoffmann is Secretary of the Commission on
rural and smallholder settings in developing Smallholders are both food producers and Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Office
countries, where the diversity of food con- stewards of biodiversity. While smallholders’ of Climate Change, Biodiversity and Environment,
sumed is often low. Smallholder farm systems, globally managed land area is small, their num- at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
when faced with population growth and con- bers are collectively large and their contribu- United Nations (FAO) in Rome, Italy.
tinued poverty can result in increased biodi- tion to food security is significant. However, Contact: [email protected]
versity loss, including through cropland ex- rural poverty rates are high. For this group,
pansion into forests that harbour large parts of which has been neglected by R&D and ex- The views expressed in this publication are those of
wild biodiversity. Local subsistence agriculture tension services in many low- and middle-in- the author and do not necessarily reflect the views
accounted for 33 per cent of deforestation in come countries, biodiversity conservation or policies of the Food and Agriculture Organization
the tropics and subtropics over the 2000–2010 must be linked to food security and livelihood of the United Nations.
period. Expansion also happens in the com- improvements. Such links could be rewarding
mercial sectors: large-scale commercial ag- smallholders for their conservation benefits
References: www.rural21.com
riculture accounted for about 40 per cent of towards genetic resources for food and agri-
26 FOCUS

We must thoroughly change how we use

Photo: BMZ
our land and seas
Biodiversity is a core issue of German development cooperation. Parliamentary
State Secretary Maria Flachsbarth on achievements, lessons learnt and remaining
challenges.

Ms Flachsbarth, with the Strategic Plan Do we know more today about the
for Biodiversity 2011–2020 adopted significance of biodiversity than we did
in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010, nearly 30 years ago, when the United
governments opted for halting the loss Nations adopted the Convention on
of biodiversity on our planet. However, Biological Diversity?
the latest UN Global Biodiversity Outlook We have indeed learnt a lot about nature con-
presents a rather gloomy picture. Isn’t servation over the last 30 years. Based on the
Maria Flachsbarth is Parliamentary State the world taking the conservation of Convention, we have intensified cooperation
Secretary to the German Federal Minister biodiversity seriously enough? world-wide. We have developed many meth-
for Economic Cooperation and Development
The IPBES report on the global state of bio- ods and tools and tested them successfully, and
logical diversity has confirmed that our present have gathered experience in implementing
efforts to conserve biodiversity are not suffi- measures to conserve biodiversity, especially
cient to secure our natural basis of life in the regarding how these can be effectively and in-
long term. Of course this is not good perfor- clusively designed and offer benefits both for
mance. Even so, we can also present success, humans and for nature. Thanks to progress in
as the Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 demon- science, we also know more and more about
strates. the interaction at local level between ecosys-
tems and species and genetic biodiversity as
What exactly does this success look like? well as global interrelations between biodi-
For example, world-wide, the rate of defor- versity, climate and health, and can use these
estation has been reduced by around a third insights to make decisions and steer processes.
compared to the previous decade – this relates Thus we know too that in addition to protect-
to Aichi Target 5. Regarding Target 6, in areas ing ecosystems, we must thoroughly change
with good fisheries management, marine fish how we use our land and seas. What is lacking
stocks were maintained or restored. Progress is a consistent implementation by all actors.
has also been made concerning Targets 11 and
12. Between 2000 and 2020, terrestrial areas Has the corona pandemic acted as a
under protection grew from 10 to over 16 per wake-up call in this respect?
cent, and marine protected areas rose from 3 to The pandemic has once again shown how vul-
over 7 per cent, while the conservation of key nerable we humans are and what direct impacts
biodiversity areas grew from 29 to 44 per cent. destroying nature has on us as humans – both
And thanks to conservation measures such as regarding our health and well-being and eco-
the designation of protected areas, hunting re- nomically. Biodiversity and health are closely
strictions, the control of invasive species alien linked, and most new infectious diseases, includ-
to certain areas, ex-situ conservation and the ing COVID-19, are zoonoses. We have been
reintroduction of species, we have managed shown clearly that preventing the development
to reduce the number of species threatened by and spreading of new diseases requires protect-
extinction. Without these measures, extinc- ing nature. This is why we have been making
tion levels of birds and mammals in the last ten even more efforts to give biodiversity conser-
years would probably have been two to four vation more attention since the onset of the
times higher. COVID-19 pandemic.

Another achievement is that the Nagoya Pro- With the International Alliance against Health
tocol, which regulates access to genetic re- Risks in the Trade of Wildlife and their Prod-
sources and a balanced and fair sharing of the ucts, together with the German Federal Minis-
advantages resulting from their use, has come try of Environment (BMU) and other partners,
into force. It is now being applied in at least 87 we have created a communication platform to
countries. And international financing of bio- promote international dialogue, sharing exper-
diversity conservation was doubled between tise among various actors and significantly re-
2011 and 2020. Thus we have also made prog- ducing certain health hazards arising from legal
ress with Targets 16 and 20. and illegal trade in and consumption of wildlife.
RURAL 21 02/21 27

In future, this will improve the prevention of BioInnovation Africa. Within these initiatives, It demonstrates that biodiversity loss is
zoonoses while at the same time contributing fair framework conditions for the distribu- also jeopardising the achievement of the
to biological diversity. tion of profits from genetic resources are be- 17 Sustainable Development Goals. 2030
ing promoted, and European-African business isn’t that long off. What must happen to
This year, your Ministry is backing partnerships are being developed for fair and turn the tide?
the conservation of biodiversity with sustainable value chains for products with nat- We must urgently agree on a new, ambitious
600 million euros. What exactly is this ural ingredients. By 2022, this is to create more global biodiversity framework which we can
money being used for? than 10,000 hectares of areas used under con- then swiftly and reliably implement, and which
Via government financial and/ or technical bi- sideration of conserving biodiversity as well as genuinely reverses the trend. Various aspects
lateral cooperation, the BMZ is supporting the several thousand additional sustainable jobs at need fine-tuning to achieve this. First of all,
protection of 668 areas in 80 countries com- local level. Another example is the eco.Busi- we must significantly increase investment in
prising an overall surface of more than two ness Fund Africa, set up to finance and support the conservation of biodiversity and promote
million square kilometres, six times the size resource-efficient and biodiversity-friendly innovative alliances tapping new sources of fi-
of Germany. We are also assisting our partner forms of production. It addresses financing nance from the private sector and from philan-
countries in considering the triad of conser- partners as well as, directly, businesses in devel- thropists, and thus provide additional resources.
vation, sustainable use and fair benefit sharing oping countries and emerging economies. We must secure nature reserves and other pro-
and combining the conservation of biodiversi- tected areas and thus promote good governance
ty with economic development and mitigating We are aware that we can only cope with the and an effective and fair management of these
and adapting to climate change. enormous challenges by working together. All protected areas which actively involves the
contracting states have to raise their efforts. participation of the local people and observes
Could you give some examples? We are supporting our partner countries in human rights. We must combat poaching and
With the programme “Kavango-Zambezi this context. In addition, we are seeking to the illegal wildlife trade along the entire value
Transfrontier Conservation Area (KaZa)”, for get stronger commitment on the part of the chain throughout the world. We must imple-
instance, we are supporting Angola, Botswana, private sector. Global supply chains have to be ment sustainable utilisation concepts in agricul-
Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe in linking up conceived with a view to conserving biodi- ture and forestry as well as fishery and avoid
their national conservation areas via the larg- versity, and finance flows must no longer be biodiversity losses through the use of fertilisers
est terrestrial, cross-border conservation area channelled into measures harming biodiversity. and pesticides as well as land degradation while
world-wide. For this purpose, the BMZ has so simultaneously changing consumer behaviour
far provided more than 35 million euros. By But despite all our knowledge, in general. We must combat climate change,
building up endowment capital, the Legacy intact ecosystems continue to suffer which is regarded as one of the most import-
Landscapes Fund, launched in May 2021 and destruction on a massive scale. For ant causes of species extinction, and commonly
kick-started by Germany with a contribution example, human activities destroy address biodiversity and climate change mitiga-
of 82.5 million euros, creates long-term finan- around 13 million hectares of forest tion and adaptation. We must pursue a holistic,
cial security for protected areas in developing each year. Partner countries in German interdisciplinary health approach covering the
countries and newly emerging economies development cooperation are affected complex links between human beings, livestock
which are of outstanding significance in terms too. How do you get your local political and wild animals and seeking systemic solutions
of global biodiversity. Here, public finance partners to rethink their approaches? to health problems. And last, but not least, we
leverages private (philanthropic) funds at a rate Nature is being destroyed in several of our must ensure that the population in developing
of 2:1. And the Blue Action Fund, started in partner countries. That is why we are support- countries receive an appropriate share of the
2016 by the BMZ and KFW Entwicklungs- ing them in implementing their biodiversity profits accruing from the exploitation of biodi-
bank, is now one of the largest funds world- targets. In politically difficult times, too, we versity in research and business.
wide addressing marine conservation. It sup- seek to work out ways together with them
ports NGOs developing the extent and quality aimed at not losing sight of the biodiversity How optimistic are you that the
of marine conservation areas.With the initiative targets. We have a wide range of tools for this resolutions agreed in Kunming will
“MeerWissen”, evidence-based political deci- purpose which are applied at all political levels not remain mere paper tigers?
sions are backed via German-African research and among a diversity of actors. However, the Given the level of engagement that many of
partnerships. And we support the international destruction of nature always also has a lot to the contracting states have shown over the
initiative “Save Our Mangroves Now!” run by do with our behaviour as consumers here in last few months, also because of the impact
the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) and the Global North. Much of the food sold in the corona pandemic has had, I feel confident
the International Union for Conservation of Germany comes from, or is based on, primary that we are going to implement the resolu-
Nature (IUCN).This initiative mobilises polit- products from countries with a high level of tions in a joint effort. It is however important
ical decision-makers and seeks to halt the loss biodiversity. We have to address this too if we to strengthen the implementing and control
of mangrove forests. wish to tackle the drivers of biodiversity loss. mechanisms and commit all relevant actors to
We have to rid our supply chains of deforesta- take action.
You also mentioned support for policies tion and make them more sustainable, and we
that foster sustainable use of resources have to use nature in a sustainable way.
and fair benefit sharing …
Examples here include the multi-donor initia- The policy paper on the conservation of The interview was conducted by Silvia Richter.
tive on ABS – Access and Benefit Sharing Ca- biodiversity which your Ministry issued
pacity Development with Norway, Switzerland in October 2020 is titled “Investing in The complete interview is available at:
and the European Union, and the Initiative Biodiversity – A Matter of Survival”. www.rural21.com
28 FOCUS

Shaping the transformative change – development cooperation’s role

There is a growing body of evidence that, if the current pace of biological extinction does not abate, most of the Sustainable
Development Goals will not be reached – thus threatening the Agenda 2030 as a whole. Taking the example of German
development cooperation efforts to conserve and restore biodiversity and ecosystem services, our authors show what
international collaboration can and must do to counter the biodiversity crisis.

By Anika Busch, Carolin Frisch and Justus Kröger*

The promotion of non-timber forest products (NTFP) for the benefit of women and indigenous groups is a focal aspect of a GIZ project in Cameroon. Photo: GIZ

About 80 per cent of the world’s biological half as much carbon as trees outside the trop- rent pace of biological extinction is not slowed
and genetic resources are located in the trop- ics. In addition to bearing an important cul- down, the German Ministry for Economic
ical and subtropical zones, mostly in develop- tural and spiritual significance for local groups Cooperation and Development (BMZ) sup-
ing countries. However, in those countries, and indigenous peoples, natural resources are ports its partner countries world-wide in three
biodiversity and the ecosystem services related an important source of income for many peo- biodiversity-related fields: conservation, sus-
to it are under growing pressure (see also ar- ple, especially in developing countries. tainable use and restoration of ecosystems (see
ticles on pages 6–8 and 10–13). This is all the also examples given on opposite page).
more dramatic since especially in the Global At the same time, developed countries ben-
South, people rely on healthy ecosystems to efit immensely from intact ecosystems in the Protected areas are one important instrument
satisfy some of their basic needs and for their Global South regarding global climate and for the conservation of ecosystems and eco-
economic development. For instance, ground- water regulation, natural resources for count- system services, since they act as a refuge for
water ecosystems and their (micro)organisms less industrially manufactured goods and basic animal and plant species while also allowing
provide one of the most important bases of elements for numerous pharmaceutical drugs. biological processes to run unimpaired. Addi-
life – drinking water. Flowing waters and ac- Thus, it is evident that a biodiversity-rich tionally, protected areas allow the maintaining
tive floodplains maintain flood retention, and planet is the basis of life for us and the gener- of natural distances between humans and wild-
forest ecosystems help control the water cycle ations to come. life, thus reducing the risk of pathogen spill-
by regulating precipitation, evaporation and over leading to zoonoses (infectious diseases
flows, as well as having an enormous impact Recognising the fact that the overwhelm- caused by pathogens which have jumped from
on the local, regional and global climate as ing majority of the Sustainable Development animals to humans). It is of high importance for
carbon sinks. Trees in tropical rainforests store Goals (SDGs) will not be reached if the cur- protected areas to be specifically established in
RURAL 21 02/21 29

SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE USE IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is part of two biodiversity hotspots of global importance, the Eastern Afromontane
and the Horn of Africa. However, its biodiversity is under threat. The population is growing
rapidly, overgrazing is increasing due to intensive pastoralism, and large-scale investments
in industrial agriculture often don’t consider biodiversity and its ecosystem services. In order
to preserve the country’s unique biodiversity, German development cooperation supports the
relevant Ethiopian federal authorities and regional governments in successfully implement-
ing strategies and measures for the conservation and sustainable use of protected areas
and forests, thereby improving the living conditions of the local population. In the Sheka and
Yakup biosphere reserves, around 30,000 people have been enabled to improve their income
through the sustainable production of coffee and the integration into relevant value chains. As
a result, the forests – where the coffee can originally be found – are used sustainably and are
protected from deforestation.
Photo: GIZ/
Silas Koch

INTEGRATED LAND USE PLANNING FOR PEATLAND ECOSYSTEMS OF INDONESIA

Peatland ecosystems of Indonesia (peat and mangrove forests) are complex and interconnected ecosystems known for their high biodiversity,
extremely efficient terrestrial natural carbon storage and their important role in freshwater filtration and flood protection. About two-thirds
of the world's CO2 emissions from the destruction and conversion of peatland ecosystems come from Southeast Asia, primarily Indonesia.
To address the devastating consequences of peatland destruction and the loss of its biodiversity, integrated land use planning and land use
policies are needed at national, provincial and district levels. Therefore, German development cooperation supports the administration of North
Kalimantan province in developing its planning and implementation capacities to rehabilitate peatland ecosystems in the Kayan Sembakung
Delta. This should lead to improved management practices for peat ecosystems and wetlands as well as improved living conditions for the local
population.

EMPOWERING THE INDIGENOUS POPULATION IN HONDURAS

In the Mosquitia region of Honduras, the indigenous population have largely preserved their traditional way of life, thereby maintaining spe-
cies-rich ecosystems that are part of the Central American Biocorridor. Despite the abundance of natural resources, poverty affects more than
half of rural families living in subsistence farming due to lack of market access and increasing crop failures caused by climate change. Through
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), the BMZ supports the clarification of responsibilities for the administration of
the territories that have resulted from land titling. Building on this, it strengthens the technical and organisational skills of the indigenous terri-
torial councils, so that they can fulfil their tasks appropriately. Gender-sensitive promotion of democratic processes is intended to increase the
participation of women in political decision-making processes and their implementation. In addition, producers are supported in the production
and sale of food for school meals and other markets to increase food security through income generation and increased availability of food at
local level. Alternative income options for women (e.g. honey) are particularly encouraged.

SOIL BIODIVERSITY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines soil biodiversity as
the variation in soil life, from genes to communities, and the ecological complexes of which
they are part, that is from soil micro-habitats to landscapes. In other words, soil biodiversity
represents the variety of life below ground. Soil organisms including bacteria, fungi, earth-
worms and termites are essential for most of the ecosystem services that soils provide,
namely soil formation, decomposition and nutrient cycling, carbon and nitrogen fixation and
sequestration, infiltration and storage of water.
A research cooperation between GIZ’s Global Programme “Soil Protection and Rehabilitation
for Food Security” and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) focused on
agronomic management controls on microbial populations in soils and found that the ap-
plication of farmyard manure (FYM) alongside reduced tillage is a good strategy to promote
diversity and abundance of soil microorganisms. This recommendation subsequently sup-
Photo: GIZ/ Jörg
ported GIZ in its efforts to out-scale sustainable ways of intensifying agriculture in Western Böthling

Kenya, taking into account soil biology, microbial activity as well as associated nutrient use
efficiency and crop productivity.
30 FOCUS

areas where biodiversity hotspots occur – not annually world-wide, only a fraction of what able use are means to achieve transformative
just in territories without (economic) benefits is necessary. The global need for investment in change aimed at a range of other societal chal-
for humans. For instance, some protected areas biodiversity is estimated to be up to five times lenges. So far so good – but how can develop-
exist on maps or in legislation but offer little higher. There is a huge necessity to mobilise ment cooperation support this transformation?
real protection to biodiversity (“paper parks”) more public and especially private funding in It is essential to promote the co-creation of
due to ineffective management or insufficient all member states. transformative visions and new narratives to
financing. Inclusive and human rights-based overcome the supposed opposition between
(co-)management approaches can simultane- Germany is very active in moving the inter- human development and biodiversity conser-
ously provide social and ecological benefits. national dialogue forward. With more than vation. By emphasising diverse co-benefits and
This implies a sustainable use of natural re- 80 other countries, it has joined the Leader’s synergies (e.g. pandemic prevention), develop-
sources aimed at balancing social, economic Pledge for Nature, committing to decisive ment cooperation can engage in dialogues and
and cultural needs with ecosystem sustainabil- action on nature and biodiversity to protect mainstreaming processes with different sectors
ity and resilience. planetary and human health. Germany also and actors and thereby extend the action are-
recently became a member of the High Am- na for transformative change. Furthermore,
Change of land use, mostly through agricul- bition Coalition (HAC), an intergovernmen- development cooperation can contribute to
ture, is a key driver of biodiversity loss, because tal group championing the “30 by 30” target a “transformative governance” by conducting
of overexploitation, pollution and degradation globally. While these special-purpose organi- capacity building for political actors and sup-
of ecosystems, among others. Transforming sations serve an important function in shining a porting the enabling structures needed for the
our agricultural and food systems could hence spotlight on vital issues, existing forms of inter- implementation of an economic and societal
result in a quantum leap towards biodiversity national coordination and cooperation should transformation. When adopted, development
conservation – for example with agroecology embrace the efforts for biodiversity. For ex- cooperation can also assist partner countries
(see also article on pages 14–15). This very ample, the G7 and G20 should align their in transferring the – hopefully transformative
promising approach aims at bringing our cur- agenda with the United Nations Framework – aspirations of the new post-2020 global bio-
rent food systems towards sustainability and Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) diversity framework into national policies and
resilience. It goes beyond agricultural pro- and Agenda 2030. implementation structures. In addition, devel-
duction, including a variety of social, political opment cooperation can create good practices
and environmental aspects that help maintain In order to address the main drivers of biodi- which stimulate new politics and strategies and
healthy agro-ecosystems while providing safe versity loss and achieve the goals of the Con- prepare upscaling.
and nutritious food for all. Agroecological vention on Biological Diversity (CBD), posi-
practices are local-specific and use, preserve tive turnarounds and a transformative change Thus, we need much more than to close the
and improve biological and ecological process- of society and economy are needed. As global financial gap for biodiversity conservation: we
es in agricultural production, hence reducing common goods, natural resources and biodi- need strategic alliances, a focus on synergies
levels of external inputs (such as synthetic ag- versity require that actors at all levels assume and co-benefits for different actors and sec-
rochemicals), and create diverse, resilient and fair responsibility. All humans depend in a tors as well as innovative and courageous ideas
more productive agro-ecosystems. Agroeco- systemic way on the persistence of terrestri- and capacities for implementation in order to
logical farming systems place a strong focus on al and marine ecosystems, and the effects of achieve a just, sustainable and green transfor-
diversification, e.g. through practices such as their destruction and degradation do not stop mative change.
mixed cropping and intercropping, agroforest- at borders. This means that biodiversity con-
ry, use of the locally adapted seeds and bio- servation needs to be mainstreamed into all
logical pest control and management, among policies and all sectors, including agriculture, Anika Busch is a social scientist with a
others. water management, the fishing industry, min- specialisation in sustainable development. She is
ing and infrastructure. The agriculture and Policy Advisor for Conservation of Biodiversity on
Areas where ecosystem services are already livestock sector, for instance, is a key leverage Land, specialising in communication at Deutsche
degraded require a restoration of ecosystems, point for transforming our food systems. Sus- Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
which brings them closer or even back to their tainable production systems, like agroecology (GIZ) in Bonn, Germany.
natural state. This refers to forests, farmlands, or traditional indigenous farming, as well as Contact: [email protected]
wetlands and oceans. Assisting them in recov- changes in our eating habits, are a prerequi- Carolin Frisch is a geographer by training who
ering can lead to healthier, biodiversity-rich site for ensuring reliable and healthy diets for a specialises in development geography. She is
ecosystems which can better provide e.g. fer- world population that will grow to more than Policy Advisor for Conservation of Biodiversity on
tile soils and thus improve the livelihoods of nine billion by 2050, as is meeting the chal- Land at GIZ in Bonn.
people depending on them. lenges of anthropogenic climate change, loss of Contact: [email protected]
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Justus Kröger is Junior Communication Specialist
at MediaCompany in Bonn, Germany.
Moving the international dialogue Contact: [email protected]
forward What can development cooperation do?
* With contributions from Silke Spohn, Carla
So far, efforts by countries and organisations Biodiversity in the context of transformative Amongero Noriega and Lisa Rihm (all GIZ).
have fallen short of ameliorating the looming change can thus be seen from two perspectives.
biodiversity crisis. One reason for the current Biodiversity conservation can be the goal of
downward trend in biodiversity is a persistent a transformative change process. At the same
References: www.rural21.com
lack of funds, with 85 billion US dollars spent time, biodiversity conservation and its sustain-
RURAL 21 02/21 31

The Agrobiodiversity Index

Despite its importance, little is known about the state of agrobiodiversity across the world. Evidence of commitments
made and actions taken to use and conserve this biodiversity is also scarce. As a result, agrobiodiversity is often
completely left out from dietary guidelines, agricultural and environmental policies, biodiversity assessments and
global monitoring efforts.

By Roseline Remans*

The importance of monitoring agrobiodiversi-

ty as a key food system characteristic is increas-
ingly recognised by farmers and consumers as
well as by decision-makers and programme
managers, particularly in the context of in-
creasing climate change. Against this back-
drop, the Alliance of Bioversity International Photo: J. Co
ronel/ Biov
ersity Intern
at
and the International Center for Tropical Ag- ional

riculture (CIAT), together with multiple part-

ners, developed the Agrobiodiversity Index.
The Index is an innovative tool that, crossing
disciplinary boundaries, brings together exist-
ing measures and data on breeding and seed
systems, production systems, food markets and
diets, analysing them under the lens of agricul-
tural biodiversity for multiple goals.

By accessing open data on food and agricul-

ture, the tool allows biodiversity trends in food
systems to be understood and monitored. In
particular, it helps seed and food systems actors
to measure agrobiodiversity in selected areas A women selling vegetables in a market in Western Bengal, India. Small photo: Maize diversity in Ecuador.
or value chains and understand to what extent Photo: Krishnasis Ghosh/ Bioversity International
their commitments and actions are contrib-
uting to the sustainable use and conservation spite its importance, the majority of the inter- decision-making. As examples, the food rat-
of agrobiodiversity. Where data are available, actions between biodiversity, ecosystem ser- ing company HowGood has used the Index
the Agrobiodiversity Index equips food system vices and the agricultural sector are invisible in to incorporate agrobiodiversity layers in its
actors with the data-based insights needed to established informational systems – including sustainability assessment tool, and Wholechain
make informed decisions to achieve sustain- the quantities and respective prices of food and to integrate agrobiodiversity metrics into its
ability and resilience. Where data are missing, agricultural trade. Third, Agrobiodiversity In- blockchain-based technology for traceabili-
the Index helps to flag these critical data gaps dex results allow countries and programmes’ ty of supply chains. Multi-partner initiatives
for planning. performance related to use and conservation of such as the Food Accelerator FACT have also
agrobiodiversity to be compared. This can fos- adapted and adopted the Index to integrate
Decision-makers can benefit from the Agro- ter knowledge exchange among programmes agrobiodiversity principles and measures in
biodiversity Index in different ways. First, it and countries, by identifying best practices to their tools and activities.
can help them identify risks in food and ag- sustainably use and conserve agrobiodiversity.
riculture related to low agrobiodiversity. Sec-
ond, they can use the information generated The Agrobiodiversity Index has been used by, Roseline Remans works as senior scientist with
through the Index to plan interventions and and tailored to, various organisations. Initially, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT,
formulate evidence-based policies and strat- most demand came from public sector part- as part of the Multifunctional Landscapes research
egies that efficiently address today’s global ners. This led to a first series of country profiles lever. She is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
challenges – including malnutrition, climate which assessed existing levels of agrobiodiver- Contact: [email protected]
change and natural resource degradation. De- sity in markets and consumption for healthy
diets, in production systems for sustainable * With contributions from Sarah Jones, Natalia
agriculture, and in genetic resource manage- Estrada, Ehsan Dulloo and Francesca Graziola, all
Agricultural biodiversity, or agrobiodiversity, ment for future options. More recently, the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT.
is a subset of biodiversity which includes the private sector has become increasingly inter-
diversity of crops and their wild relatives, ested in leveraging agrobiodiversity for more
trees, animals, microbes and other species sustainable solutions and considering related
More info: www.agrobiodiversityindex.org
that contribute to agricultural production. measures in their monitoring, assessments and
32 FOCUS

Agrobiodiversity and integrated seed systems to improve

smallholder livelihoods
Crop and tree diversity are essential to agriculture sustainability and food and nutrition security. The diversity of species
and varieties that are available for farmers and the ways through which this diversity is made accessible to them depend
on seed systems. But what must seed systems be like to enhance agrobiodiversity and smallholders’ livelihoods? Our
authors take a look at the strengths and weaknesses of existing seed systems and experiences gained from a ten-year
project in five countries on three continents.

By Isabel López Noriega, Gloria Otieno and Michael Halewood

Seed systems (see Box) are at the origin of agri-

culture. Over millennia, for each crop present
in the farm, the farmer had a strategy to select,
multiply and use seeds for the next season. Re-
maining seeds were sold or exchanged for oth-
er seeds from neighbouring farms. Thus farm-
ers themselves were breeders, seed multipliers,
quality controllers and seed suppliers. As agri-
cultural research and development has become
more specialised and agricultural production
has evolved towards industrialisation in many
parts of the world, what used to be performed
by farmers has been taken over by specialised
actors – with a profound impact on the shaping
of seed systems and on the diversity of crops
and varieties that they supply to farmers.

Seed systems and their impact on

farming Ugandan banana farmers. Photo: A. Vezina/ Bioversity International

At present, several types of seed systems exist: bles. Commercial vegetable seed production is knowledge passed down over millennia, and
taking off in a number of developing countries, is regulated by informally established norms.
Formal seed systems: such as Kenya, India and Thailand, but often Informal systems prevail in many developing
small farmers usually underserved relies on exotic varieties of ‘cosmopolitan’ countries around the world, supplying at least
On the one extreme, formal seed systems de- vegetables rather than native crops or locally 65–80 per cent of seeds in many of them. While
liver seed of crop varieties that have been bred, bred varieties. In addition, commercial seed high levels of crop and tree diversity have char-
registered and released by specialised organisa- companies are reluctant to extend their busi- acterised local seed systems in many regions,
tions based on predetermined criteria and pro- ness to geographical areas with poor market this diversity is threatened or in the verge of
cedures created through national policies and infrastructure, due to the difficulties involved disappearing in many territories because of cli-
laws. The seeds in this system are a result of in reaching these areas, and the lack of reliable mate change, decreasing quality of the seed and
investments in research and breeding governed information about the actual and potential de- local communities’ isolation as more and more
by the principles to maintain varietal identi- mand for certified seed and other complemen- farmers migrate to urban areas. Diversity is also
ty and purity, and to deliver seed of optimal tary inputs such as fertiliser, pesticides and irri- affected by land use changes and conversion to
physical, physiological, and sanitary quality. gation systems. In consequence, remote areas, high-input agriculture, which often leads to
Actors who operate in the formal system pro- which is where many poor smallholder farm- homogenisation of crops and varieties.
duce and supply seed whose quality has been ers live, remain underserved by ‘formal sector’
certified by official governmental organisa- components of seed systems. Integrated systems: combining two
tions (or their appointed agents) according to worlds
existing laws and regulations, which are often Informal systems: threatened diversity The functioning of informal seed systems and
based on internationally agreed standards. In On the other extreme, informal systems con- the role they play in ensuring seed availabil-
developing countries, public and private in- tinue to be managed mostly by farmers and ity and accessibility have attracted consider-
vestments in agricultural R&D and seed sector their communities. In these systems, farmers able attention in the last decade. A number
development have generally targeted the main select and multiply seed of both landraces and of scholars have stressed the need to look for
staple crops (rice, maize, wheat), with much improved varieties that are adapted to the local complementarities between formal and in-
less investment in minor cereals (e.g. millets, conditions. Seed distribution takes place based formal seed systems, the potential of informal
sorghum), tubers, legumes, fruits and vegeta- largely on the application of local indigenous seed systems to provide seed wherever the for-
RURAL 21 02/21 33

mal sector is absent, or in addition to it, and Seed systems comprise the actors and the teams to identify and prioritise traditional and
the possibility to mobilise informal channels institutions that govern the development, farmers’ varieties for registration in the nation-
to distribute improved crop varieties from multiplication, processing, quality control, al catalogues of commercial varieties, and their
the formal system alongside farmers’ varieties. storage, distribution and marketing of seeds. subsequent commercialisation in the form of
Mixed or integrated systems have emerged in (Maredia and Howard, 1999). quality certified seed, as we explain below.
a number of countries. They combine formal
and informal elements. For example, farmers
and farmers’ organisations working outside the cy for Development and Cooperation (SDC) Building capacities and opportunities
formal channels cultivate, multiply and distrib- and research and development organisations in at community level
ute both improved varieties developed by the Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Nepal, Uganda and Uz-
formal sector and their own landraces; govern- bekistan, has led a project aimed at increasing The project reinforced the technical capacities
mental and non-governmental organisations crop diversity in seed systems, with a particular of farmers in the project, who produce and
(NGOs) provide support for the certification focus on informal and mixed or integrated sys- cultivate seed for themselves, local markets and
and distribution of farmer-bred varieties and tems. The following paragraphs summarise the seed industry, either individually or as part of
farmer-produced seed, in line with national project’s main activities and achievements, and farmers’ associations and cooperatives. Thanks
rules and regulations. include reflections about the challenges that to combinations of training, new facilities,
still persist. technical equipment and good quality foun-
So far, integrated seed systems facilitated by dation seed, farmers increased their capacities
governmental organisations and NGOs have to produce quality seed of a broader range of
overly focused on the commercial and oper- Understanding crop diversity and varieties. The project also supported market-
ational aspects of seed production, often over- farmers’ preferences ing and promotional activities. Ultimately, seed
looking the importance of the genetic quality producer groups and individual farmers were
of planting material. This is because, generally, The project’s first step was to understand and able to sell more seed and at higher price in all
these systems have relied on the same varieties characterise the varietal diversity of the target five countries. A number of farmers in Uzbeki-
used in the formal systems. So although they crops in the project sites. For this purpose, sci- stan, Nepal, Uganda and Bolivia have become
contribute to enhancing distribution of seeds, entists, seed enterprises, governmental agen- custodian farmers. They maintain high levels
particularly in areas not served by the com- cies and seed sellers were involved in a wide- of crop diversity on their farms, produce high
mercial seed sector, they do not add much to scale participatory characterisation of varietal quality seed for sale or distribution within their
the diversity of crops and varieties that become diversity together with farmers’ communities. communities and train other farmers on good
available to farmers. Taking four Nepalese sites The farmers led the process of identifying the agricultural practices and seed production.
as illustrative examples, the Table presents the characteristics they wanted to focus on, based
gradient from purely informal to purely for- on their own contexts and preferences, and Specialisation in native varieties, landraces and
mal seed systems, highlighting how some basic ranking varieties accordingly. They identified traditional varieties improved through partici-
characteristics change along this gradient. a number of characteristics that breeders of- patory plant breeding has given a comparative
ten do not focus on, including adaptability/ advantage to the seed producer groups and
Against this background, in the last decade, robustness, cooking requirements, taste and individuals involved in the project. In Nepal,
the Alliance of Bioversity International and the fodder values. In addition to increasing various Uganda and Uzbekistan, community-based
International Centre for Tropical Agriculture actors’ understanding of the actual and poten- seed producer associations have managed to
(CIAT), in partnership with the Swiss Agen- tial value of the varieties, this work allowed the establish long-term seed supply arrangements

Selected characteristics along the continuum of seed systems in Nepal

Seed system designation Informal – own seed Informal – local seed Mixed Formal
Illustrative locations in Nepal Ghanpokhara, Lamjung Begnas, Kaski Kachorwa, Bara Some crops and areas
(village, district) (mainly in Terai region)
Seed source Own retention, limited ex- Own retention, neighbour Own retention, neighbours’ National agricultural research
change with neighbours or farmers, relatives, seed relatives, seed co-operatives, council and seed industry,
relatives cooperatives, including from seed dealers, seed industry directly or through seed
neighbouring villages dealers
Application of existing legal 0 + ++ ++++
framework Little to no contact with legal Little contact with legal Partial application Strict application
framework framework
Integration of seed and crop + ++ +++ ++++
markets
Access to new seeds and new + ++ +++ +++
varieties
Varietal richness ++ ++++ +++ +
(number of different varieties) Mostly landraces For rice, half are landraces,
half are modern varieties
Expected allelic diversity ++++ ++++ +++ +
(genetic diversity within
varieties)
Source: Adapted from Wyss et al. 2018. Scale: ++++ = high/numerous, +++ = medium, ++ = little/few, + = low/very few, 0 = none (explanations added where relevant)
34 FOCUS

with farmers’ cooperatives and medium-size

seed enterprises. Along all the steps, the in-
volvement of seed quality control agencies and
officers, as well as extension agents, has been
crucial to helping farmers become familiar
with regulatory aspects and with the individ-
uals who enforce the rules. At the same time,
officers and extension agents have become
more aware of smallholder farmers’ realities,
needs and potential, particularly as holders and
providers of seed diversity.

In Burkina Faso, Nepal and Uganda com-

munity seedbanks existed when the projects Scientists visit rice seed fields managed by farmers next to Pokhara, Nepal.
started to operate. Community seedbanks are Photo: Isabel López Noriega/ Bioversity International
local organisations whose core functions are
to maintain, safeguard and exchange local and
farmer-preferred seeds for local use. The proj- and legal frameworks. This has resulted in the However, there are still some loose ends. In all
ect’s efforts focused on improving the seed- adoption of Resolution #504 on “Measures three countries, most of the varieties registered
banks’ capacities to operate both as repositories on restoration of local varieties of agricultural so far bear the name of the seed authority that
of local genetic diversity and reliable seed pro- crops with unique traits and features that are in processed the registration, a public research
viders for their communities. These objectives danger of extinction and development of their institute or the national agricultural research
were largely met. In Uganda, the success of the foundation seed supply system”, of the 24th organisation, and not those of the farmers
existing community seedbanks encouraged the August 2020, by the Cabinet of Ministries of who have conserved and developed those
project team to support the opening of three Uzbekistan. Through this Resolution, the gov- varieties. These governmental or research or-
more in different sites of the country. How- ernment commits to provide support to study, ganisations, and not the farmers, are thus in
ever, economic sustainability continues to conserve, multiply and mobilise local agrobio- charge of maintaining the varieties. This raises
be a challenge for community seedbanks. To diversity, including farmers’ varieties. With the fundamental questions in relation to farmers’
address this challenge, in Nepal and Uganda, Resolution, the government of Uzbekistan rights and responsibilities over the genetic re-
the cooperatives in charge of the seedbanks re- recognises and values the national heritage of sources that farmers generate and maintain.
ceived assistance to open commercial branches. interspecific and intraspecific crop diversity It is also important to note that despite the
While these branches are demonstrating to be and the evolving role of farmers in coping with technical and procedural flexibilities that have
effective financial mechanisms, questions are environmental and economic challenges. been introduced in the mentioned countries,
being raised with regard to the possible neg- the length of the process for applying and the
ative effects they may have on the seedbanks’ technical requirements still keep farmers from
interests and capacities to continue conserving Registration of farmers’ varieties as a following the procedures by themselves. In
crop genetic diversity, and supplying such di- step towards wider commercialisation these countries, it is too early to assess whether
versity to farmers under favourable conditions. or not the transaction costs involved in vari-
The project has also contributed to advances ety registration are worth assuming. This will
in the registration of landraces and farmers’ depend on farmers and other actors’ capacities
Initial steps towards an enabling varieties in national catalogues of commercial to effectively multiply and sell the seed of the
policy environment plant varieties in Bolivia, Nepal and Uzbeki- registered varieties, which in turn will be very
stan. The process of applying for registration much influenced by farmers’ demand for land-
Discussions are slowly progressing in the five of these types of varieties has challenged coun- races and farmers’ improved germplasm.
countries to develop policies and programmes tries’ established standards and procedures, and
from municipal to national levels to support has led to the adoption of flexibilities which,
informal and integrated seed systems. We see in some cases, have been normalised and in- Isabel López Noriega works as a policy specialist
advances in this direction in the adoption of tegrated in the regular procedures. Thanks to at the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT,
the Food and Agriculture Organization’s these advances, landraces and farmers’ varieties based in Spain.
Quality Declared Seed System in Uganda for have changed their status from “informal” to Gloria Otieno works as associate scientist on
areas where the presence of a formal seed sec- “formal”, resulting in small farmers being able genetic resource, climate change and food security
tor is limited and for crops and varieties that to produce and distribute seed of these varieties policies at the Alliance of Bioversity International
are not usually produced by seed enterprises. with certified quality, for which they can re- and CIAT, based in Uganda.
Another example is the official commitment quest a higher price than that of informal seed. Michael Halewood is the head of the research area
by district offices in Nepal to provide techni- The opportunity to sell certified quality seed on policies for agrobiodiversity at the Alliance of
cal and financial support to community-based has also allowed them to reach markets beyond Bioversity and CIAT, based in Italy.
seedbanks and cooperatives as part of those the local ones. The inclusion of landraces and Contact: [email protected]
districts’ programmes for the conservation and farmers’ varieties in national catalogues con-
sustainable use of agrobiodiversity. In Uzbeki- tributes to the diversification of crops in the
stan, the project has contributed to raising the seed market and the recognition of farmers as
References: www.rural21.com
profile of crop diversity in the existing policy generators of crop diversity.
RURAL 21 02/21 35

Conserving biodiversity, meeting people’s needs

Ideally, restoring and conserving biodiversity in a region ought to be based on cooperation with local inhabitants and
benefit them as well. Our authors have a look at projects in Latin America with a focus on supporting governance
structures.

By Jane Carter, Francisco Medina, Kaspar Schmidt and Martha Tax

Throughout the world, economic develop-

ment and human prosperity has often taken
place at the expense of biodiversity. Where ar-
eas of the planet’s once rich flora and fauna re-
main, it makes sense to work with the people
living closest to this biodiversity, supporting
conservation efforts through their participation
– and in so doing, generating livelihood op-
portunities. This, of course, is the basic theory
of change of many projects aiming to inter-
link conservation and local livelihood objec-
tives. It is also implicit in the post-2020 global
biodiversity framework (GBF) Action Targets
(albeit not yet ratified). Arguably, there are
two main approaches. One is productive use,
generating additional value from the resource
or areas immediately around it through sus-
tainable harvesting, resource management and
cash crop development (often for ecological-
ly sensitised niche export markets). The oth-
er main approach is to avoid harvesting and
generate additional value from the resource
through payments to restore or conserve it.
The village of Kiuñalla, Peru, with the forests that surround and protect the village, its agricultural fields and
Where possible, Helvetas aims to integrate these meadows. Photo: Nicolas Villaume

two approaches through supporting land use

planning at a landscape level – recognising that
productive systems are also closely interlinked interventions. Terrestrial spaces having such a found within their boundaries. Both also suffer
with the natural services of ecosystems and their label must meet two criteria: high endemism similar stresses and threats to livelihoods and
biodiversity (see also article by Zora Urech, of vascular plants and at least 30 per cent of the biodiversity, such as conflicts over land own-
Kaspar Schmidt and Francisco Medina in Rural natural vegetation intact. ership, land use changes, deforestation, illegal
21, no 4/19). In areas delineated for productive activities and weak institutions for natural re-
use, interventions may support agrobiodiversity Helvetas works in two important biodiversity source management.
for food security or value chains such as cocoa, hotspots: Mesoamerica and the Tropical An-
coffee or plants that provide natural ingredients des. The former comprises the subtropical and
for food and cosmetics. In areas delineated for tropical ecosystems from central Mexico to Incentives and subsidies for
conservation, there is often a particularly strong the Panama Canal, including all of Guatema- biodiversity conservation
element of supporting governance structures la, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua
at community level and beyond, linked with and Costa Rica, as well as a third of Mexico The main incentive for biodiversity conserva-
awareness raising about the intrinsic value of and nearly two-thirds of Panama. The latter tion used by our selected projects is revenue
the resource. In this article, we examine select- extends from western Venezuela to northern generation from ecotourism, whilst the main
ed projects in Latin America that focus on – or Chile and Argentina, and includes large por- form of subsidy is payment for environmental
contain strong elements of – the latter approach tions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Boliv- services (PES).
(see Box on page 36). ia. Both have important global relevance as
centres of origin (e.g. maize, potato, tomato, Ecotourism has, in theory, high potential for
beans and other crops and animals originating revenue generation. This has been demon-
The biodiversity hotspots of in Central and South America), and as the hab- strated in the seven municipalities around the
Mesoamerica and the Andes itat of numerous endemic species, with unique caldera of the volcano Uku’uch Ixcanul in
ecosystems. They are both home to more than Guatemala, where Helvetas has been work-
The concept of “biodiversity hotspots” is often 60 indigenous groups; over 70 per cent of ing on promoting various community tour-
used for prioritising biodiversity conservation species of animals and plants in the world are ism initiatives since 2016. These include rural
36 FOCUS

Selected projects contributing to biodiversity conservation in Latin America

Type of activity Innovation
Andean Forests Programme A regional initiative funded by Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) supporting knowledge exchange on valuing and con-
(2014 – 2021) serving the biodiversity of Andean forests across Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia, www.bosquesandinos.org

Climate Change Adaptation Pro- An SDC project aimed at enabling vulnerable people in Cusco and Apurimac, Peru, to increase their capacity to adapt to
gramme (2009 – 2016) climate change, reducing impacts of the consequences of climate change on their livelihoods by including solutions based on
nature and traditional knowledge.
Uku’uch Ixcanul Conservación y De- Originally two separate projects of the “Fondo para la Conservación de Bosques Tropicales” FCA and Helvetas, these are
sarrollo en el Altiplano Occidental now managed under one umbrella. They work to strengthen forest governance, building on indigenous systems to conserve
biodiversity and provide opportunities for sustainable tourism whilst mitigating threats to biodiversity and water resources in
de Guatemala, CDAO (2016 – 2022)
the departments of Totonicapán, San Marcos and Quetzaltenango.
Water for Abancay and Communi- A European Union-funded project aiming to ensure a responsible and equitable water supply to residents of Abancay and the
ties, Euroclima+ water (2020 – 2023) Mariño micro-watershed, Peru, through a sustainable investment mechanism based on multi-actor governance that also
conserves the natural resources and biodiversity of the catchment.
Pachayachay Pachayatiña, Eurocli- A European Union-funded project aiming to reduce agricultural losses caused by droughts. It works with local and other
ma+ risks (2019 – 2021) authorities to improve preparedness and reduce risks associated with drought in specific municipalities of La Paz (Bolivia)
and Puno (Peru). In its interventions in wetlands, it contributes to biodiversity conservation.
Andes Resilientes (2020 – 2024) A regional SDC-funded initiative in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru implemented by a consortium of Helvetas and the Foundation
Avina. It has an overall pro-poor focus and aims to strengthen national and sub-national climate change dialogue and up-
scale good practices in climate change adaptation which also address biodiversity conservation.

homestays, the production and sale of handi- tracting tourists can be directly linked. Each trance fee (usually two or three US dollars) in
crafts and food items, guided forest tours, zip municipality has a different co-management addition to charging separately for the services
lines, hot springs, and swimming areas. Project structure, but in all cases community commit- offered; sometimes the communities charge
data shows that 27,871 local people, 53 per tees contribute to the planning and implemen- the fees directly themselves.
cent of them women, have actively participat- tation of conservation objectives such as the
ed in these activities – generating an additional efficient use of firewood (woodlot plantations, Many of the tourists who have visited the
income for 4,661 families. The forest covered wood-saving stoves), forest fire prevention, Uku’uch Ixcanul came from other countries
in this initiative, totalling more than 14,800 restoration using native species, biological – the USA and Europe as well as Latin Amer-
hectares, is under the ownership of the munic- monitoring, and compensation mechanisms ica. Inevitably, the COVID-19 pandemic has
ipalities. This means that forest conservation for downstream water supplies (PES). In some halted this flow of visitors and has shown the
and the benefits associated with it through at- cases, the municipalities charge tourists an en- danger of relying on external actors. In future,
greater focus will be placed on attracting local
tourists, especially over festival periods. These
are easier to manage in terms of predictable
timing; local tourism could also be a new form
of validating traditional heritage and strength-
ening community identity.

The earliest PES mechanisms supported

through our selected projects generally focused
on payment for a safe and reliable water supply.
Under such schemes, downstream communi-
ties contribute financially to forest, wetland
or grassland restoration and/ or conservation
activities conducted by communities living in
the upper reaches of the catchment. For exam-
ple, under the Andean Forests Programme and
the Euroclima+ water project in the Depart-
ment of Apurímac, Peru (see Box), the rural
communities (Ccerabamba, Huironay, Pac-
chani, Kiuñalla, Atumpata, Llanucancha and
Micaela Bastidas) have come together with the
regional and municipal governments and the
private water and sewerage service providers
to form the MERESEH (this is the Spanish
acronym for water ecosystem service compen-
sation mechanisms) for the city of Abancay.
An elderly local farmer in the Andean forests. This process began in 2015 and was finally ap-
Photo: Nicolas Villaume proved and implemented in 2020. A Reserve
RURAL 21 02/21 37

ernance is needed, whether organised through

the public or private sector. Our experience
shows that if adequate resources are invested
in establishing such a sound mechanism, it can
be a very sustainable solution.

We have observed that the protection of nat-

ural resources is often assumed to equate the
conservation of biodiversity; sometimes this is
backed by data, and sometimes not. For the
future, we feel it is important that the biodi-
versity is systematically verified – for example,
through recording sightings of indicator spe-
cies or periodic monitoring of species compo-
sition in sample plots. Although such monitor-
ing has associated costs, these can be integrated
into activities; one means of doing so is to en-
gage university students who use the findings
as part of their studies (as long as this is done in
a collaborative, “win-win” manner).

Many hopes have been pinned on ecotourism,

but the benefits – especially from foreign tour-
ists – are erratic and often stay higher in the
Local people restoring Andean forests with native species as part of the activities of the Quiroz-Chira Water chain (with tour companies, etc). Although
Fund in Northern Peru. the Uku’uch Ixcanul example is broadly posi-
Photo: Naturaleza y Cultura Internacional tive in terms of benefits channelled directly to
the communities, the limits of foreign-derived
earnings from such initiatives have been high-
Fund was created, operated by a coordination politan Area of the Aburrá Valley and Mas- lighted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
committee led by the public water and sew- bosques in the implementation of a BancO2
age provider company, with the participation agreement (a funding mechanism, see https:// One paradoxical result of the pandemic is in-
of the communities involved. An eco-hydro- banco2.com) in the framework of a Pact for creased public familiarity with virtual com-
logical system, implemented since 2017, is one Forests. This platform brings together civil so- munication tools, combined with greater
of the main monitoring tools of MERESEH. ciety institutions and public and private sector awareness around the importance of biodi-
Under this, hydrological variables (runoff, vol- entities interested in forest conservation and versity, including for human health. Visits to
ume and evaporation), climatic variables (pre- restoration to collaborate under time-bound the Andean Forests Programme website have
cipitation and temperature) and bio-physical agreements. Specifically, 300 farming families increased by 60,000 over the period 2019 to
variables (soil moisture, groundwater level in are receiving payment to conserve the import- 2021, with 33,836 new users being registered
bogs and species composition) are all moni- ant ecosystems on their land. Funds also come in the period January – June 2020 alone. The
tored as part of the annual workplan. from carbon credits and are conditional on the challenge is to harvest this interest into funding
communities adhering to a forest management for further practical biodiversity activities on
Various other pilot PES schemes are being plan with provisions for improving the quality the ground.
provided with technical advice through the and quantity of water, soil protection and the
Andean Forests Programme. One example is protection of flora and fauna. The plan also
in the rural commune of Kiuñalla in Apuri- makes provisions for the education of children Jane Carter is Senior Advisor Natural Resource
mac, where 300 families receive payment for and medical treatment of the elderly. Governance at Helvetas in Bern, Switzerland.
conserving 500 ha of indigenous forest and Francisco Medina is Director of the Andean Forests
grasslands. Under the original agreement in Programme with Helvetas Peru.
2019, this mechanism was devised to ensure Some lessons learned Kaspar Schmidt is Programme Advisor of Helvetas
downstream water supplies; however, it has Peru.
now been expanded to include carbon credits Many countries in Latin America have now Martha Tax is Coordinator of the Project Uk´uch
through the platform Regenera. This platform developed PES polices and regulations, recog- Ixcanul of Helvetas Guatemala.
channels voluntary contributions from compa- nising their potential for revenue generation. Contact: [email protected]
nies seeking to offset their carbon footprint. Nevertheless, developing PES solutions on the
Kiuñalla is also a national pilot of forest res- ground is time consuming, generally requiring
toration under the national forestry authority. multiple partnerships between very different
types of organisations (such as multiple levels
Another example of a pilot PES mechanism of government administrations, private com-
comes from Colombia. In 2016, the Ande- panies, NGOs and scientific institutions). A
More information: www.rural21.com
an Forests Programme supported the Metro- strong institutional mechanism with good gov-
38 OPINION

New models to fund conservation are

needed
With climate change impacts already upon us, the conservation of our protected
areas is no longer a nice to have, it is a priority. One important supporter of
global conservation efforts is ecotourism. However, the COVID-19 pandemic
has exposed the vulnerability of this conservation approach. Therefore, we
must urgently find new and innovative ways to value our natural capital, our
author maintains. A look at the conservation crisis in Africa and a plea for
global commitment.

By Annie Sugrue

Africa has 1,967 key biodiversity sites with pitality, services, retail, etc. The reserves were
7,800 terrestrial protected areas that support left high and dry, unable to pay their staff, who
the most abundant and diverse large mammal carry out essential conservation services. Most
species in the world. Africa is also the custo- protected areas are state-owned and man-
dian of the world’s second largest rainforest, aged, but there are an increasing number of
Annie Sugrue is the Director of her own the Central African Congo Basin, which har- private lodges and ranches as well as NGOs
company, EcoSasa Developments. She bours a major proportion of global terrestrial and private sector entities forming collabora-
consults in areas of sustainable development natural assets, including significant biodiver- tive management partnerships with the state
& the circular economy, conservation,
biodiversity and the bioeconomy, value chains sity and critical ecosystem services that pro- and others. Via Community-Based Natural
for small-scale agriculture and gender. vide, amongst others, high levels of carbon Resource Management (CBNRM) – an ap-
sequestration and storage. Our natural capital proach that integrates conservation of our nat-
is our greatest wealth, and it is largely upheld ural assets while supporting rural livelihoods of
by ecotourism. But this is a fragile economic the communities that live inside or adjacent to
model that can be easily disrupted, as the past protected areas – community-owned and run
two years have shown. conservancies are supported. The approach fo-
cuses on diversifying local value chains while
many continue to rely on income from wild-
Wildlife-based tourism and life and ecotourism. Zimbabwe’s Communal
conservation efforts heavily affected Area Management Programme for Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE) was a champion for
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a serious this approach in the 1980’s across the Southern
impact on conservation efforts in Africa, for African Development Community (SADC),
the economic downturn has been catastrophic and it spread to Mozambique, Botswana and
across the world. Some of the fallout was trag- Namibia in the 1990s. There are more re-
ic. For instance, twelve rangers who protect cent examples in Malawi and South Africa,
What happens if mountain gorillas in the Virunga national park, the latter being supported by the African Sa-
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), fari Foundation (ASF), which works across
we suffer another were murdered. Millions of jobs all over Africa sub-Saharan Africa to empower communities
have been lost as a result of lodges and nature to take control of their own natural resources.
economic shock? reserves closing, along with national borders, These are critical interventions, since many of
and recovery will take time. While the trav- these reserves form a part of iconic wildlife re-
el restrictions have seriously curtailed illegal serves, including the Kruger National Park in
trade, the lay-off of rangers is exposing con- South Africa.
servation areas to an increased risk of poaching
and as soon as borders reopen, illegal trade is Funding for conservation also comes from
likely to flourish again. a range of global and regional sources, but
even when there is no pandemic, the sector is
Wildlife-based tourism in Africa employed 3.6 chronically underfunded, and African states are
million people and generated an estimated 29 unable to provide the resources to adequate-
billion US dollars (USD) per annum before ly fund conservation as they struggle to uplift
March 2019, with these funds largely used for their people from poverty. South Africa, for
conservation. By April 2020, 99 per cent of instance, needed to reallocate resources within
the tourists had cancelled, and most have not the national government department responsi-
yet returned, taking with them both park fees ble for the environment and nature reserves to
and the billions of dollars they spend on hos- plug the nearly 700,000 USD gap caused by a
RURAL 21 02/21 39

lack of visitor fees to support the state-owned per cent of which are endemic. The forests How new models for sustainable
SanParks responsible for the reserves. It has produce over 75–95 per cent of the region’s conservation could look like
become patently obvious that new models to rainfall through evaporation and evapotranspi-
fund conservation are needed. ration. In addition, over 75 million people live Building resilience must encompass the so-
in the area in 150 distinct ethnic groups, some cial development needs of developing nations
of them in abject poverty. which house an estimated 689 million people
Africa’s natural capital assets: living in extreme poverty, i.e. on 1.9 USD per
extensive, but under threat Satellite imagery carried out by the Univer- day. Two out of three of these people live in
sity of Maryland, USA in 2018 showed that rural settings and are dependent on the natural
The Central African Congo Basin stretches 165,000 km 2 of forest were lost from the environment to provide a livelihood. In the
mainly across six Central African countries, Congo Basin between 2000 and 2014, mostly Congo Basin, 72 per cent of DRCs population
covers over 310 million hectares of primary because of small-scale agriculture. The study live in extreme poverty, and under these con-
rainforest and is the second largest rainforest concluded that at the current rate of defor- ditions, it is easy to understand why poaching
in the world. The countries include Camer- estation the Congo Basin’s forests would not holds an allure and slash and burn small-scale
oon, the Central African Republic (CAR), the survive past the end of the century. Conserv- agriculture is a main source of income. New
Republic of the Congo, the DRC, Equatorial ing even one per cent of the basin’s forested approaches are needed to enable these people
Guinea and Gabon. Apart from its forest cov- land would mean preventing the release of to earn a living while conserving natural capi-
er, this rainforest is the world’s largest tropi- 230 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere. tal. What could they look like?
cal peatland, estimated to store more than 33 However, inhabitants of the forest are poor
billion tonnes of carbon; some put the figure and rely on its natural resources to survive Government and private-sector led
at 80 billion tonnes. Additionally, its trees se- and this will be exacerbated by the economic initiatives
quester up to 1.2 billion tonnes of CO2 each impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. With One relatively new concept is the Natural
year. The rainforest’s cumulative carbon store a lack of alternatives, poverty in the region Capital Approach (NCA). It broadly defines
is equivalent to at least three years of global is putting pressure on its natural resources, natural capital as the physical assets with-
fossil fuels emissions, and its atmospheric re- driving approvals for large-scale industrial in an ecosystem that deliver economic value
lease would seriously undermine attempts to agriculture, illegal logging, mining and oth- through ecosystem services. It can be cashed
minimise climate change. The DRC has the er prospecting as well as livelihood support. in, as when a tree is chopped down, or it can
largest forest cover area, with 107 million Notwithstanding the need to deal with the be retained to continue providing ecosystem
hectares, which is 60 per cent of Central Af- growing humanitarian and health crisis, we services of value for longer. NCA has been ad-
rica’s lowland forest cover on 44 per cent of cannot ignore the conservation crisis which is opted by the business and investment sector as
the land, but Gabon has 87 per cent of its land also in the making. If we carry on regardless, a solution to fight climate change. The World
under forest, the highest percentage of the six more economic shocks will come. Forum on Natural Capital took place in Edin-
countries. The Congo Basin is also a unique-
ly biodiverse area and has the world’s largest
population of forest mammals, with a total of
400 species, over 10,000 species of tropical
plants and more than 1,000 bird species, 38

Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, income from wildlife-based

tourism in Africa has almost entirely collapsed.
Photo: Silvia Richter
40 OPINION

burgh, Scotland, in 2017. A growing number that sources of income from sustainable fish- munities and facilitating their participation in
of organisations (among them the Internation- ing and the sustainable beneficiation of forests forest policy development, planning and man-
al Union for Conservation of Nature – IUCN, resources are enhanced and supply chains are agement”. A SADC-wide training programme
the UN Environment Programme and the not broken, even in times of economic stress. has resulted in the rolling out of participato-
World Business Council) are supporting this Ecotourism can provide a cherry on the top, ry forest management in many of its member
approach and form part of the Capitals Coali- but it should not be the main source of in- states. Zambia, for instance, has devolved the
tion whose ambition is that by 2030 the ma- come. Resilience is critically important to control of 27,846 hectares of land to 16 com-
jority of businesses, financial institutions and conservation areas so that they remain intact munities, 13 of which have legal control. This
governments will include natural, social and for the prosperity of our planet and its people. process is also happening in the DRC, where
human capital in their decision-making. two million hectares of the country's
The World Economic Forum predicts that community rainforest concessions have
nature positive plans as put forward by the already been, or are about to be, handed
Natural Capital movement could unleash over to communities with the potential

Photo: Silvia Richter

ten trillion USD and create 395 million for up to 75 million hectares to be made
jobs by 2030. This effort could be bol- available for the scheme. Early evidence
stered if Article 6 of the Paris Agreement from the DRC confirms research from
were activated at the next UNFCCC Latin America by the World Resources
COP26 in China this year and opened Institute which showed that communities
up international carbon markets. How- “maintain or improve their forest carbon
ever, critics of this approach believe it storage” when they have ownership. It
to be more of the same, framing nature requires training and capacity building so
as capital and services where putting a that communities can meet the sustainable
price on it assumes that its entire value management requirements of their con-
is captured. They say that if this value is cessions, which they own in perpetuity.
embedded in a market-based economy, However, these efforts require financing,
it links it only to monetary investments, and as the communities do not have the
unlike an ethical approach, which centres on Forests provide a wide variety of resources that ability to navigate the process alone, nor to pay
social justice and equity with nature (also see can be used in value addition, such as wood for training, these schemes need support.
article on pages 10–13). and charcoal fuel, furniture making, building
materials, products, clothing, wood pulp for
More ambitious programmes include the Race paper, flooring, cellulose fibres, packaging and Long-term commitments are needed
to Zero Global Campaign that mobilises 708 so on. However, forestry materials need to be
cities, 23 regions, 2,162 businesses, 127 of the sustainably harvested or their use could con- There have been calls to recognise our global
biggest investors and 571 higher education in- tribute to the reduction in forest cover. Gabon interconnectedness and understand how los-
stitutions committed to achieving net zero car- and Republic of the Congo have chosen to in- ing natural resources, particularly in areas rich
bon emissions by 2050. With 120 countries, vest in sustainable forestry value chains where with carbon stocks, is detrimental for every
this is the largest ever alliance, covering almost beneficiation adds value to forestry and natural citizen in the world. The UN Environment
25 per cent of the global CO2 emissions and resource products creating jobs for local peo- Programme (UNEP) has made an urgent call
over 50 per cent of global GDP. ple rather than exporting raw logs. Lee White, to the international community to establish
a former conservationist and Gabon Minister emergency funds to offset the losses of rev-
Community-based approaches for Forests, Water, Environment and Climate enue from ecotourism during the pandemic.
People lie at the centre of solutions to protect Change, has been reported as saying that “un- But what happens if the pandemic continues
our biodiversity and preserve peatlands and less we make timber into a precious resource despite vaccines, or if we suffer another eco-
forests. Community-Based Natural Resource we won’t be able to maintain the trees”. He nomic shock? We must be bold and recognise
Management (CBNRM) is a people-centred aims to create 200,000 forest-related jobs over that in some areas of the world, natural capi-
approach to conserving our natural capital as- the next ten years and increase forestry’s con- tal assets must remain protected, or our world
sets such as water, soil, forests, peatlands and tribution to national income by 40 per cent, will forever be transformed. These resources
diversity. When we invest in supporting lo- up from 4 per cent. White says that if you sell are a global good, and it is starkly inequitable
cal people who live in and around areas that raw timber you get 200 USD per cubic metre, that some of the poorest nations in the world
are rich in natural assets, they will become the but if you turn the same timber into a resource are insufficiently supported to conserve these
custodians of these resources. CBNRM gives you can get up to 2,000 USD, and with very resources. A global commitment is needed
rights over land and natural resources to local precious woods, the payment increases. Gabon that guarantees long-term support which can-
communities and builds skills and capacity so signed a ten-year deal in 2019 for 150 million not be retracted. A global climate tax would
that these resources can be sustainably utilised USD with Norway so that it could earn in- go a long way to spreading the responsibility
for generating income. However, if the main come from keeping its forests intact as part of for conservation of natural assets to those who
income model is ecotourism, without diversi- the Central African Forest Initiative (CAFI). are better able to afford the cost of conserving
fying into other economic areas, these com- these precious resources and preventing cata-
munities will suffer economic hardship when Support for community ownership strophic climate change.
economic downturns strike, as in the case of Community forestry management practices
the COVID-19 impacts. CBNRM areas need are taking root in Africa. The SADC Proto-
to be linked to local and regional markets so col on Forestry promotes “the rights of com- Contact: [email protected]
RURAL 21 02/21 41

Financing agriculture in West Africa – challenges and paradigm shift

The causal relationship between increased agricultural investment, agricultural development and economic development
is a compelling finding from the agricultural revolutions in Europe, America and various parts of Asia. Reviewing the
evolution of the agricultural financing paradigm, this article diagnoses the difficulties undermining agricultural financing
in West Africa.

By Ollo Dah and Toussaint Boubié Bassolet

Financing is a critical issue in agricultural de- operational constraints due to low returns on In addition, in rural areas, non-agricultural
velopment. Insufficient infrastructure that investment, low asset levels and geographic activities are invariably linked to agricultural
weighs on transaction costs, problems of co- dispersion; capacity constraints, including in- activities, with rural households being subject
variance due to climatic risks, price and mar- frastructural capacity, technical capacity, social to many of the risks that affect the agricultur-
ket risk, but also bankers lacking experience exclusion, and institutional capacity; and pol- al sector, creating a covariance in outcomes.
needed to assess the value of the products they icy and regulatory constraints, such as politi- Concentration on similar agriculture-related
are asked to finance, the low level of educa- cal and social interference and the regulatory activities in small geographic areas leads to a
tion of farmers and farm workers, as well as the framework. high covariance of farm household incomes.
problem of guarantees are among the barriers This situation is aggravated by the lack of for-
standing in the way of banking institutions. In rural areas, clients are more dispersed than mal insurance mechanisms to mitigate these
in urban areas due to the lower population risks. Informal insurance such as solidarity is
density. The financial services demanded are inadequate to manage the systemic risks arising
Difficult, costly, risky small amounts, so transaction costs per unit are from income covariance. As a result, local fi-
high for financial institutions. With generally nancial institutions are vulnerable.
The supply of rural finance that integrates agri- less developed transport and communication
cultural finance is often perceived as more dif- infrastructure, information costs for providers In addition, the weakness of human resources
ficult than the supply of urban finance for sev- and users are higher. combined with the lack of appropriate guar-
eral reasons. Miller (2004) classifies constraints antees complicates the development of a local
in rural finance as vulnerability constraints, Agricultural loans are also perceived to be risk- service offer and weakens financial transactions.
including systemic market and credit risks; ier because of production and marketing risks. Moreover, in rural areas, loans are sometimes

Two women in the Tillaberi region of Niger whose husbands abandoned them to seek a better life in
neighbouring coastal countries working in their market crops field to boost their income.
Photo: Arne Hoel/ World Bank
42 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

confused with grants because of poor manage- foreign exchange needed for development, are considerable, many agricultural credit insti-
ment on the part of the public development the sector had to be modernised. But due to tutions are in difficulty, and the entire financial
banks and their frequently failing to adequate- the low monetarisation of the economy and system is highly dependent on external aid.
ly inform farmers about what are grants and the practice of subsistence agriculture, most of
what are loans, leaving them confused. These the peasants did not have the means to finance The track record of development agencies
practices are widespread during election peri- modern equipment and inputs. Banking chan- heavily involved in agricultural financing
ods or in the populist positions of certain gov- nels were therefore needed to play this role. highlights the mixed impact of these credit
ernments. All of these factors provide reasons However, the commercial banks at the time programmes. Evaluations show that this ap-
why many commercial banks prefer the less preferred to intervene in the trading economy. proach has helped some developing coun-
arduous task of lending to the industrial and Therefore, banks entirely devoted to the ag- tries to improve their agricultural yields in
service sectors, and to urban consumers, rather ricultural sector were created by the States in the short term. However, these studies also
than to the agricultural sector with its multiple most countries of the subregion. highlight many negative effects of these credit
difficulties and uncertainties. programmes. More generally, the size of the
Adopting such agricultural financing policies volumes of financing disbursed is not correlat-
Hollinger (2012) states that one of the risks was inspired by Keynesian economic theories. ed with a significant and systematic increase in
financial institutions face when deciding to fi- Rural and agricultural underdevelopment was agricultural productivity and income. In addi-
nance agriculture is the phenomenon of asym- analysed as the result of the inability of poor tion, the savings capacity of rural households
metric information that may exist between peasants to save and invest; credit was then has not increased and the hoped-for "virtuous
lender and borrower. The information held used as a necessary lever to initiate the "vir- circles" of private investment remain virtual. In
by the lender regarding the specific elements tuous circle" of development. Public credit many cases, state-owned agricultural credit in-
that determine the feasibility of a potential should promote technical change, the financ- stitutions have compromised the development
investment or the financial context of a farm ing of innovation and the development of ag- of private financial institutions. The informal
operation does not match that of the borrow- ricultural production. It was also a means of sector that these policies aim to reduce remains
er. Neither does the lender know whether reducing the usurers' hold on rural economies. very active. The public institutions created to
the borrower will use the funds in accordance As a result, low, subsidised interest rates were spread credit in rural economies are proving
with the originally stated objectives or genu- to stimulate the demand for credit by rural to be weakly effective. The capital mobilised
inely intends to repay. This behaviour is a fea- populations and the use of inputs, and support reaches only some of the farms, the institutions
ture of opportunism in rural areas. Asymmetric the development of farms. are poorly managed and lead to losses and em-
information problems, coupled with problems bezzlement, repayment rates are low, and little
in monitoring and enforcement, increase the Governments were not concerned with the attention is paid to savings mobilisation. All
risk of moral hazard. After signing a loan con- profitability of financial institutions. Faced this compromises the viability of financial in-
tract, the borrower may subsequently engage with non-payment, they managed poor-quality stitutions, as does the political use that is often
in behaviour detrimental to the interests of the portfolios that jeopardised their sustainability. made of them. In sum, the benefits achieved
lender. Indeed, many agricultural credits were granted have largely failed to achieve the objectives of
in the context of poorly designed development increasing rural incomes, asset formation and
Given the importance of the risks associated projects. As a result of these poor performanc- rural poverty reduction, among others.
with agricultural activity, banks are not very es, both in terms of clientele and the viability
involved in financing the agricultural sector. of these directed credits, most of these credit At the beginning of the 1980s, financing pol-
Over the period 2013–2015, the sector re- programmes were interrupted and several rural icies will change as a result of the debt crisis
ceived only 2.61 per cent of the credit granted development banks went bankrupt. The poor in developing countries. In order to overcome
to the economy (BCEAO, 2015). Production results obtained, combined with the failure of the difficulties, it is recommended to remove all
credits are mainly granted to industrial farmers the public structures involved and the general- constraints limiting the development of finan-
capable of producing guarantees, with prior- isation of liberal economic thinking, led to the cial markets. In West Africa, this liberalisation
ity given to cash crops, which are organised abandonment of this approach (Lapenu, 2008). has resulted in the restructuring and reorgani-
sectors where production revenues are totally sation of the banking sector (privatisation, liq-
controlled by a centralised sales network. uidation or restructuring of public banks, ratio-
Questioning agricultural credit nalisation of interest rate policies, devaluation
policies (1970-1980) of the CFA franc, regional financial integration,
Evolution of the agricultural financing Neo-classical economists have questioned ag- etc.), the introduction of new regulations and
paradigm ricultural credit policies based on Keynesian the emergence of institutional innovations in
policies, maintaining that state intervention the area of decentralised financing.
Agricultural finance policies in West Africa through the control of interest rates and keep-
can be categorised in four major periods: ing them artificially low and the support pro-
vided by public banks to failing public enter- Emergence of rural financial markets
Agricultural credit policies (before the prises limited the functioning and efficiency of (early 1990s)
1970s) the financial system. These practices contribute With the rise of liberal theories, public inter-
Since independence, the economy of West to low savings mobilisation and government vention in the promotion of access to financial
Africa has been essentially based on agricul- levies detrimental to investment. The diffi- services for populations excluded from them
ture. In order to meet both the imperatives culties encountered by agricultural credit pro- has been strongly criticised. The inability of
of food self-sufficiency and those of the in- grammes during this period reinforce this the- the interventionist logic to take into account
ternational market, which had to provide the oretical criticism: losses linked to unpaid loans realities, its cost and finally its inefficiency in
RURAL 21 02/21 43

the face of real needs have been favourable to the private sector
widely pointed out. The trend and aimed at improving the busi-
towards regulation by the mar- ness environment, as well as the
ket as the better vector of social construction of community in-
justice than public action has frastructure to improve market
therefore naturally imposed itself. access, storage and the valorisa-
Credit is a financial operation tion of agricultural production,
that meets banking requirements. rather than to amounts of public
It must be repaid and the risk spending on agriculture. There
covered by material guarantees: have also been changes in the in-
buildings, equipment, proper- stitutional landscape of financing
ty deeds, stocks, herds, etc. The that are reflected in an evolution
interest rate must at least cover of the instruments used and an
management costs and risks and, increasing orientation of public
if possible, make a profit. The Financing agriculture in West Africa is still difficult. funds in financial packages on
objective is no longer to pro- Photo: Arne Hoel/ World Bank attracting private investment.
mote sectoral credit, but to foster Thus, African states and donors
the development and fluidity of have gradually become involved
a rural capital market in which "rural credit" The shift from agricultural credit to rural fi- in financial instruments such as guarantee
is no longer just one of many financial instru- nancial markets has led to a rarefaction in the funds, investment funds, banking integration
ments, constituting a less constrained, sustain- supply of agricultural financing. The agricul- in agricultural value chains and the establish-
able, more widely developed system of global tural producers' organisations that are develop- ment of agricultural engineering companies.
financial intermediation, linking households to ing in many West African countries are acutely
the macroeconomic sphere. confronted with this paradox. They are solic-
ited by their members to meet their financing On the right way?
This new paradigm, while based on the needs needs. The integration into the rural financial
of farmers, focuses on improving the supply market predicted by theory is struggling to be Public investment in agriculture is necessary
of financial services, using financial market achieved and the partnership between the ag- to provide the public goods that can enhance
principles to provide not only credit but also ricultural and financial sectors is far from being the dynamism of the agricultural sector. Syed
other financial services to the rural world. spontaneous. At the same time, profitable ag- and Miyazako (2013) show that investment
The system promotes financial intermediation, riculture in structured channels demonstrates in public goods has much higher returns than
which improves the provision of resources to financial needs that microfinance is unable to other expenditures. Jacquet and Guillermo
investors via the savings collected. Hence there meet. These include investments in heavy ag- (1988) argue that in most regions where ag-
are no longer any specific credits aimed at the ricultural equipment requiring substantial me- ricultural production is efficient and better
poor or loans at subsidised rates. The interest dium- or long-term loans. As a result, these developed, capital and input intensity levels
rate served on financial operations is a matter reforms have not produced the expected re- are higher. They are supported by Hoff and
of matching market supply and demand. sults, particularly the substantial increase in ag- Stiglitz (2002), who argue that in the search
ricultural growth to reduce rural poverty. The for the best productivity, capital accumula-
This paradigm is seen as a means to enable more private sector has not moved into the vacant tion becomes indispensable. Individuals with
efficient financial market development and in- spaces left by the state, and agricultural mar- few or no assets will be relatively unproduc-
tegration rather than market segmentation pol- kets have not developed as anticipated by the tive compared to what they would produce
icies. Financial market efficiency ensures the macroeconomic stabilisation and structural ad- if more wealth allowed them to work under
availability and productivity of production fac- justment measures put in place. more stimulating conditions. These authors
tors, while promoting inter-temporal resource hold that agricultural intensification by capi-
allocation and risk management. Thus, for the tal is more suitable for increasing productivity;
followers of this school, financial development Back to the state's public intervention hence state intervention to allocate enough
promotes economic development, not state in agriculture (from the 1990s onwards) funds to the agricultural sector in order to re-
interventionism in the financial sphere. In this increasingly complex agricultural fi- duce poverty appears to be the right way.
nancing landscape, following the Addis Ababa
According to the neoclassical economic theo- Conference on Financing for Development
ry underlying this approach, for the market to in July 2015, the call for the public sector to Ollo Dah is a teacher and researcher at the
function efficiently, the price must be able to build effective agricultural financing strategies Department of Economics at Thomas Sankara
vary according to supply and demand. This is has become louder. In West Africa as a whole, University at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
why interest rates must be liberalised. This in- recent studies reflect an overall increase in the Toussaint Boubié Bassolet is a senior lecturer at
terest rate must cover the costs of the resource amounts mobilised for agriculture. This in- the Department of Economics at Thomas Sankara
and the financial transaction. Also, it is argued crease is not attributable to a single group of University.
that the free functioning of the market will actors, but results from a joint effort by gov- Contact: [email protected]
favour the allocation of financial resources to ernments, donors and the private sector.
those agents and activities with the best capaci-
ty to make them profitable. This is the optimal The commitments made by African govern-
Full list of references: www.rural21.com
allocation of the resource. ments relate to legislative and fiscal measures
44 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

How science on-the-go can enhance development efforts

Development projects rarely play by the book. Unpredicted challenges and opportunities can emerge in any project – as
the world painfully observed in 2020. ‘Accompanying research’ embeds continuous, systematic research in development
work. In this approach, scientists and change agents work hand in hand on a shared vision: stronger impacts for both
research and practice. Our authors give an account of experience from Malagasy-German research cooperation.

By Jonathan Steinke and Alexandra Konzack

steps of project implementation. This includes

a thorough exploration of the target context
prior to the design of interventions. Once the
intervention project kicks off, research close-
ly observes implementation, for example, the
context-based modification of ongoing inter-
ventions, or participation barriers experienced
by the target group. Although researchers take
a passive, observing role in the development
project, closely monitored experiments, for
example around individual intervention de-
sign, are possible.

One key characteristic of accompanying re-

search is the execution of small, self-contained
studies on emerging topics identified by the
development project. At regular intervals, ac-
companying research delivers outputs that are
meant to inform the decision-making of the
cooperating change agents. This allows quick-
ly and flexibly responding to knowledge needs
identified ‘along the way’. But it also requires a
good amount of ongoing communication and
Beneficiaries of a nutrition security project in Madagascar join researchers to discuss expected impacts of a coordination from both sides.
range of potential interventions. Photo: Sarah Tojo Mandaharisoa

A toolkit for mutual learning with

D evelopment projects frequently cooper-

ate with researchers to legitimise their
activities. For example, academic mid-term
nationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). This pilot
project, named Accord-M, aims at integrating
systematic research into all phases of the de-
development projects

Despite the need for flexibility, agreeing on a

reviews and post-project evaluations are com- velopment project. The research component research roadmap is crucial for clear commu-
mon practice. By collecting lessons learnt and enables the project to evolve over time, based nication between all stakeholders. While ev-
advancing institutional knowledge, these types on empirical evidence. ery accompanying research project will need
of cooperation between science and practice to design its methodology to match the inter-
are vital for the design of follow-up projects. vention project, it may be useful to build on
In running projects, however, necessary adap- What’s new about accompanying the experience of similar collaborations. In our
tations are often based on ad-hoc decisions by research? case, the research roadmap for accompanying
the project team, rather than on systematic in- a project that aims at improving the nutritional
quiry. Permanently embedding research within In contrast to extant research-in-development status of women and children in Madagascar
development projects has the potential to save approaches, accompanying research implies follows three major stages: first, informing the
resources and strengthen impacts. continuous, mutual interaction between the design of the intervention package by an in-
on-the-ground activities of the development depth analysis of local needs and opportunities,
Yet, as much as every intervention project is project and the research agenda. This means second, informing practical implementation by
unique, there is no standard approach to ac- that neither the intervention project nor the observing intervention roll-out, and third, af-
companying research. Currently, researchers research project are fully pre-designed: ideally, ter at least two years of implementation, a pre-
at Humboldt University Berlin (Germany) their respective activities are informed by the liminary, participatory impact assessment and
and Université d’Antananarivo (Madagascar) other. cost-effectiveness analysis.
are piloting accompanying research within a
project for food and nutrition security in Mad- The idea behind accompanying research is to In all stages, the project combines quantitative
agascar led by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Inter- provide scientifically grounded advice on all and qualitative methods of socio-economic
RURAL 21 02/21 45

vention project, and GIZ’s role in the research

Selected research topics from Accord-M
activities is limited to logistic support. In ad-
Before implementation of • Target group’s problem perception dition, while the intervention project raises
development interventions • Local positive deviance in food and nutrition security questions that emerge from ongoing practice,
• Participatory ex-ante impact assessment the research project is free to select method-
During early implementation • Adaptation of interventions by beneficiaries ological approaches, interview partners or case
• Unintended negative side-effects studies. The leading role of Université d’An-
• Trade-offs experienced by target group tananarivo in the research activities on-the-
ground has shown to strengthen this indepen-
Final year of implementation • Spill-over effects to non-beneficiaries
dence. Detecting signs of insufficient scientific
• Effects beyond the targeted food and nutrition indicators
independence and suggesting coping strategies
• Cost-effectiveness analysis
may also fall within the duties of external advi-
sors acting as a ‘critical friend’.
research. One example is the search for ‘pos- project’s need for quick outputs, which can,
itive deviant’ households in the intervention sometimes, be hard to align with established
region. Using survey data collected by the standards of scientific rigor. After all, proper A process of continuous learning
intervention project, we identified individual socio-economic research demands time-con-
households with ‘surprisingly’ strong food and suming development of research methods, Accompanying research thrives on flexibility
nutrition security indicators. In the next step, preparation of fieldwork and processing of and constant exchange between researchers
researchers revisited these positive deviants for collected data. We try to speed up the feed- and practitioners. In this respect, we are con-
in-depth interviews, with the aim of identify- back process by delivering preliminary results tinuously learning to improve not only our
ing uncommon practices that may contribute as quickly as possible, from a slimmed-down research, but also the meta-methodology of
to their superior situation. This tool helps to set of methods. Fully triangulated results from accompanying research. To suggest best-prac-
outline interventions that are likely to be viable multiple methods are presented later. tice for accompanying research, we are plan-
and effective in the targeted context. Another ning to evaluate our pilot cooperation system-
example of how accompanying research can Another trade-off that requires consideration atically. Communication, power distribution
inform the design of the intervention package relates to the simultaneous needs for flexibility and conflict management are major topics for
is participatory ex-ante impact assessment. In and planning security. Many researchers pur- thorough examination and scientific analysis.
this process, a diverse group of future project sue long-term scientific projects, such as the In this article, we make suggestions on how to
beneficiaries express their priorities regarding development of a methodology across multi- address some identified tensions. Other chal-
potential project impacts. Then, they discuss ple research projects. PhD students, who may lenges and opportunities may need a closer
and rate expected intervention impacts against invest time and effort into acquiring meth- look and profound scientific exchange after
these criteria. The insights generated help the odological skills, need to be sure the research project end.
development project to prioritise interventions needs and priorities will not strongly change in
with most positive impact expectations in the the meantime. To maintain the ability to ac- More than just a tool for advising development
most important criteria. commodate emerging knowledge needs while projects, accompanying research can also hold
granting adequate planning security, we de- a mirror up to science. The close interaction
Regular communication between all project cided to assign pre-agreed lines of research to with development practice has the potential to
stakeholders is key: for researchers to be aware PhD students. Post-doctoral staff and graduate challenge established scholarly wisdom. Re-
of emerging research questions, and for prac- students focus on smaller, rapid studies in re- searchers may benefit from new perspectives
titioners to receive new scientific insights in sponse to the intervention project’s expressed that open up during accompanying research.
a timely, understandable, and actionable man- needs. Involving Master’s students from both Finally, highlighting best practice in develop-
ner. To guide the research agenda, we have Université d’Antananarivo and Humboldt ment projects through scientific analysis can
established an ‘advisory board’ that convenes University as researchers on self-contained help to up-scale identified successes in the fu-
three times a year, reflecting on findings and topics has so far proven a successful approach. ture. We look forward to further applications
discussing the next steps. This board includes and development of the approach and wel-
members of the research team (from Germany Lastly, scientific independence is non-nego- come lively exchange with researchers, donors
and Madagascar alike), the intervention project tiable. This means that early in the develop- and development practitioners.
and the funding organisation. In addition, it is ment of an accompanying research project,
joined by an external academic expert, who discussions should emphasise the mitigation of
was invited to review all research activities and possible conflicts of interest. In our case, fund-
outputs and to provide unbiased, independent ing for our research originates from the same Jonathan Steinke is a post-doctoral researcher at
feedback and recommendations. source as funding for the intervention project, Humboldt University Berlin, Germany, where he
i.e. from GIZ. We believe that this kind of studies strategies to increase the effectiveness of
constellation is likely to be typical of accom- agricultural development efforts.
Inherent tensions and opportunities panying research, where the donor of an in- Contact: [email protected]
tervention project is interested in increasing its Alexandra Konzack is a doctoral researcher at
Along our ongoing project, we have encoun- effects. We have tried to minimise conflicts of Humboldt University Berlin, Germany, and analyses
tered some tensions that challenge the routines interest by prohibiting double roles between strategies for successful cooperation between
of conventional research projects. One chal- the two projects: no member of the research science and development projects.
lenge, for example, consists in the intervention team can take up responsibilities in the inter- Contact: [email protected]
46 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

Business challenges for disabled poor women in rural

Bangladesh
Women with disabilities living in rural areas are the most disadvantaged and oppressed people in Bangladesh. This
article centres on a case study looking at business challenges that women entrepreneurs with disabilities experience
in rural areas. Our author argues that a more gender-friendly environment and better consideration of disability during
policy design and implementation could help disabled women to be more productive and successful entrepreneurs, and
to overcome social and financial hardships.

By Debashis Sarker

Bangladesh has a population of more than 165 Salma Akhter (the name is a pseudonym), aged ceive credit. In such cases, when credit is pro-
million, 6.94 per cent of whom have some 22 years, has physical and hearing disabilities, vided, it is typically with harder conditions,
form of disability. A significant number of and her speech impairment deters her from such as stricter repayment and tougher credit
poor people with disabilities live in rural areas, going out and meeting up with people. She checks. Another participant in the interview
where they face negative attitudes based on completed high school but was unable to go on stressed that MFI’s staff were generally particu-
stigma and prejudice and are treated as a bur- studying because of her disabilities. Her fami- larly reluctant to award credit to women with
den on their family and society. This is espe- ly wanted to arrange marriage for her, but she disabilities due to stigma and prejudice.
cially the case for women with disabilities, who rejected this, fearing she could have children
generally have poor health, inadequate nutri- with disabilities. Salma Akhter wanted to con-
tion and less access to medical services. The sult doctors for health treatment but could not Limited business opportunities and
majority of these women lack basic education, afford that. She then decided to start her own market access
and it is hard for them to find employment op- business to become financially independent.
portunities. In many cases, they are ostracised She needed credit for her venture and, despite The study found that women with disabili-
by their families. They have reduced marriage her disabilities, and with the strong support of ties who access NGO-MFI financial services
prospects and suffer higher rates of abuse and her family and neighbours, she received sup- were doing business, but that poor business
violence. Although different disability policies port from a local microfinance institution and opportunities limited income levels. Most of
and acts are in place in Bangladesh, people, started a dress-making business. Her physical the businesses in the study area were seasonal
and especially women, with disabilities are yet disability kept her from working long hours, businesses. “Once I produce dresses, a middle-
to be socially and economically empowered. while her impaired hearing ruled out her vis- man comes and picks them up. He sometimes
To tackle this problem, some Non-Govern- iting the local market to sell her products, returns to order more products. I can’t sell
mental Organisation Microfinance Institutions making her dependent on a wholesaler buying throughout the year – most products are sea-
(NGO-MFIs) in Bangladesh recently started them. The intermittent nature of her business sonal. So, we cannot generate enough income
providing microfinance to economically active meant there was no regular income. She nev- for our living,” said Salma Akhter.
people with disabilities, particularly women, ertheless had to make weekly debt repayments.
with poor access to formal financial services. Although the participants in the study were
These schemes have yet to prove their effec- involved with income generation activities,
tiveness. The problem of credit they had less access to existing markets to sell
their products and fewer opportunities to col-
To do business in the area studied, women laborate with the value chain owing to their
The study with disabilities need capital to purchase raw disabilities. Not being able to access the market
materials for production. But accessing capital directly, the women had no choice but to sell
The case study “Business Challenges for Poor is hard for them as they are mostly living in the finished products to middlemen, who usu-
Women with Disabilities in the Rural Areas poverty. Their families typically cannot pro- ally also set the prices. For example, one wom-
of Bangladesh” was conducted in the North vide money or even borrow it themselves. an with a physical disability running a poultry
of the country in association with the NGO Moreover, there is a scarcity of financial in- business was offered prices below normal by
Thengamara Mohila Sabuj Sangha (TMSS). stitutions, especially banks. Local money lend- wholesalers. Her disability made it hard for her
Five economically active women with disabili- ers charge higher interest for credit. The oth- to visit local markets and interact with other
ties were interviewed who were involved with er option is to seek credit from NGO-MFIs, businesspeople.
income generation activities – mainly in small whose interest rates are still high, but lower
businesses. Their average age was 30 years. Two than those of the local money lenders.
women had physical disabilities, two had mul- Financial literacy, business training –
tiple disabilities (physical, poor vision, hearing A blind woman addressed in an interview ini- and willingness to take risks
impairment), and one was blind. Two of them tially fared worse accessing credit, being re-
had no education, two had primary school ed- jected by a credit officer because she had no Business success depends heavily on finan-
ucation, and one had high-school education. education and could not sign the credit doc- cial literacy, especially on money manage-
They were involved with selling chickens, uments. Finally, thanks to the credit group ment skills. Only two of the participants in
rearing goats, and dress and cap making. member’s positive endorsement, she did re- the study had received business skills training.
RURAL 21 02/21 47

potential and contribute to their livelihoods

and the rural and national economy.

Since women with disabilities are often kept

hidden by their families in rural areas, local
political and community leaders could be
engaged to identify and provide services to
them. Accessing such services would enhance
their capacity to engage with people outside
their home and build social connections. To
empower people with disabilities, it is im-
portant to build social networks, especially in
rural areas, so that they can meet each other,
share their stories and motivate each other for
their livelihoods. Sharing their stories locally
and globally can inspire others who are will-
ing to do something. Moreover, networks
outside the family could eventually support
them in building confidence and succeeding
in their businesses.

This study further found that since microfi-

nance projects for people with disabilities are
mostly funded by donor organisations, the
sustainability of these programmes is always
a concern. Once funding is over, the project
Salma Akhter (pseudonym), a woman with multiple disabilities from the rural study area.
will be no more. Thus, providing sustain-
Photo: Debashis Sarker
able funding for greater financial inclusion
of women with disabilities remains a critical
Inadequate or lacking education limited the depend on family members, and often, these aspect.
participants’ capacity to use credit effectively became reluctant to extend their support.
and to achieve business success. The two par- Hence addressing health issues poses a serious Especially in the rural areas of Bangladesh,
ticipants who had received training said they barrier to women with disabilities to being in- the government should take necessary steps to
did not understand the complex training ma- volved with income earning opportunities. make sure that women with disabilities can ac-
terials, which were neither disability-friendly cess financial institutions. Moreover, it should
nor suited to the needs of the different types Running any business as a sole trader is chal- provide support to women with disabilities
of disability. lenging, especially when the person gets sick. so that they can access existing markets to sell
Women with disabilities are more likely to be their products.
Due to limited mobility and unfriendly trans- unable to work, while their health and social
port facilities, the women usually conduct isolation makes them more prone to get sick, Women with disabilities need access to ed-
businesses from home, which further limits meaning they need a support network and ac- ucation, business-related training and in-
their potential to earn more income. It incurs cess to healthcare. Besides helping their family formation allowing them to make informed
costs, reduces production and disrupts com- members financially with the income they had decisions about business activities. Various
munication with other businesspeople and ex- earned, two of the participants were able to disability and rural development policies have
isting markets. Moreover, it raises dependence afford purchasing medicines and visiting a doc- been formulated in Bangladesh for empow-
on wholesalers or other middlemen. tor thanks to their business activities. ering women with disabilities, but most of
them are yet to be implemented effectively.
The study further found that women with dis- A particular focus on gender and disability
abilities were less willing to take risks, especial- Looking ahead inclusion is needed for rural areas to support
ly in diversifying their businesses, e.g. starting the development and empowerment of these
another business alongside their existing one. The study suggests that amongst disadvan- women.
This was mainly due to long-term deprivation taged persons in rural Bangladesh, wom-
and exclusion from society, which leaves such en with disabilities who were perceived as
women in a more vulnerable position. incapable of engaging in business activities Debashis Sarker is a PhD research scholar at
showed that they could be self-employed and the School of Social Science, The University of
contribute to society, challenging the notion Queensland, Australia. His research focuses on the
Health issues that women with disabilities are not ‘worthy’. economic and social empowerment of people with
Rather, they are capable of realising their disabilities, financial inclusion, microfinance and
The women believed they could have been potential when they get the opportunity. poverty. He is an Australian Government Research
more successful if they had had no health is- However, they require a disability-friendly Training Program scholarship recipient.
sues. When they got sick, they would mostly enabling environment to achieve their full Contact: [email protected]
R URRURARULR
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