Full Textbook Insight Year 11 Standard

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OXFORD

INSIGHT
OXFORD INSIGHT MATHEMATICS STANDARD

MATHEMATICS
STANDARD
11 JOHN LEY
MICHAEL FULLER
11 ADDITIONAL RESOURCE
CONTRIBUTORS
FULLER
LEY
BARBARA MARINAKIS
ANDREW HOLLAND
ISBN 978-0-19-031051-6
9 780190 310516
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OXFORD
INSIGHT
MATHEMATICS
STANDARD
11 JOHN LEY
MICHAEL FULLER
ADDITIONAL RESOURCE
CONTRIBUTORS
BARBARA MARINAKIS
ANDREW HOLLAND
Study tips i
00_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 1 19/10/2017 8:04 AM

1
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© John Ley, Michael Fuller 2018
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First published 2018
Second Edition
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Ley, John (author)
Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard (Year 11) Student book + obook assess / John Ley, Michael Fuller.
ISBN 978 0 19 031051 6 (paperback)
For secondary school age.
Mathematics--Study and teaching (Secondary).
Mathematics--New South Wales--Textbooks.
Other Creators/Contributors:
Fuller, Michael (author)
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CONTENTS
Using Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 3 Formulas and equations 74

(Year 11) ............................................................... vi
ALGEBRA
Top tips for study success..................................... vii (MS-A1 Formulae and Equations)
Are you ready? ......................................................75
1 Earning and managing money 2 3A Substitution into expressions

and formulas ................................................76
FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS 3B Solving linear equations ..............................80
(MS-F1 Money Matters F1.2)
3C Solving further linear equations ..................86
Are you ready? ....................................................... 3 3D Finding the value of a variable in
1A Earning an income ........................................ 4 a formula ......................................................92
1B Allowances, bonuses and loadings ..............10 3E Travel calculations .......................................96
1C Commission, piecework and royalties .........16 3F Blood alcohol content ................................100
1D Government allowances and pensions ........22 3G Medication calculations .............................104
1E Deductions and net income .........................28 Chapter review ....................................................108
1F Taxable income ............................................32
1G Calculating tax .............................................36
Chapters 1–3 Cumulative review 114
Chapter review ......................................................40
4 Classifying data and sampling 116

2 Practicalities of measurement 46
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
MEASUREMENT (MS-S1 Data Analysis S1.1)
(MS-M1 Applications of Measurement M1.1)
Are you ready? ....................................................117
Are you ready? ......................................................47 4A Collecting and classifying data ..................118
2A Significant figures ........................................48 4B Census or sample and self-selected
2B Scientific notation ........................................50 sampling.....................................................122
2C Metric units of measurement ......................54 4C Random sampling ......................................126
2D Prefixes for units of measurement ..............58 4D Stratified random sampling .......................132
2E Error and accuracy in measurement...........60 4E Systematic sampling ..................................134
2F Absolute error and limits of accuracy .........64 4F Suitability of sample types .........................136
Chapter review ......................................................70 Chapter review ....................................................140
Contents iii

CONTENTS 5 Perimeter, area and volume 146 8 Relative frequency and probability 278
MEASUREMENT STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

(MS-M1 Applications of Measurement M1.2) (MS-S2 Relative Frequency and Probability)
Are you ready? ....................................................147 Are you ready? ....................................................279
5A Perimeter ...................................................148 8A Sample space and number of outcomes ...280
5B Area of simple shapes ...............................154 8B Relative frequency......................................286
5C Area of composite figures ..........................160 8C Probability ..................................................290
5D Perimeter and area of irregular shapes....166 8D Complementary events ..............................294
5E Surface area of prisms ..............................174 8E Probability for multistage events...............298
5F Surface area of cylinders and spheres ......180 8F Probability tree diagrams ..........................302
5G Volume .......................................................186 8G Expected frequency and simulations.........306
5H Capacity ......................................................192 Chapter review ....................................................314
Chapter review ....................................................196
9 Working with time 320

6 Interest and depreciation 202
MEASUREMENT
FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS (MS-M2 Working with Time)
(MS-F1 Money Matters F1.1) Are you ready? ....................................................321
Are you ready? ....................................................203 9A Latitude and longitude ...............................322
6A Percentage applications ............................204 9B Position on Earth’s surface ........................326
6B Simple interest calculations ......................210 9C Time units and intervals ............................330
6C Simple interest graphs ..............................214 9D World time zones .......................................334
6D Straight-line depreciation ..........................218 9E Australian time zones ................................340
6E Compound interest ....................................222 9F Interpreting timetables ..............................342
Chapter review ....................................................226 Chapter review ....................................................346
Chapters 4–6 Cumulative review 230 Chapters 7–9 Cumulative review 352
7 Representing data 234 10 Budgeting and

household expenses 354
(MS-S1 Data Analysis S1.1) FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
(MS-F1 Money Matters F1.3)
Are you ready? ....................................................235
7A Frequency distribution tables ....................236 Are you ready? ....................................................355
7B Cumulative and relative frequency ............240 10A Household bills ..........................................356
7C Dot plots and stem-and-leaf plots.............246 10B Purchasing a car ........................................362
7D Column and bar graphs .............................252 10C Financing a purchase .................................368
7E Line graphs ................................................258 10D Fuel consumption ......................................372
7F Frequency histograms and polygons .........262 10E Running costs of a car ...............................376
7G Cumulative frequency graphs ....................266 10F Budgeting ...................................................380
Chapter review ....................................................272 Chapter review ....................................................384
iv Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

11 Exploring and describing data 390 Answers 516
CONTENTS
(MS-S1 Data Analysis S1.2) Glossary 579
Are you ready? ....................................................391
11A Mean and mode..........................................392 Index 582
11B Median ........................................................398
11C Relative merits of mean,
Acknowledgements 586
mode and median ......................................404
11D Range and interquartile range...................408
11E Deciles and percentiles..............................414
11F Box-plots ....................................................418
11G Standard deviation .....................................422
11H Identifying outliers .....................................428
11I Graphical data displays ..............................432
Chapter review ....................................................440
12 Linear relationships 446
ALGEBRA
(MS-A2 Linear Relationships)
Are you ready? ....................................................447
12A Straight-line graphs...................................448
12B Gradient and vertical intercept ..................452
12C The equation y = mx + c ..............................458
12D Direct variation relationships ....................462
12E Linear modelling ........................................468
Chapter review ....................................................474
13 Units of energy and mass 480
MEASUREMENT
(MS-M1 Applications of Measurement M1.3)
Are you ready? ....................................................481
13A Units of mass .............................................482
13B Units of energy ...........................................486
13C Food and nutrition: energy intake ..............490
13D Energy expenditure ....................................494
13E Energy consumption ..................................502
Chapter review ....................................................506
Contents v

Using Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard (Year 11)
New South Wales’ most trusted Mathematics series has been updated for the new Mathematics
Standard Stage 6 syllabus. The new edition includes comprehensive exercise sets, carefully graded
exercises and worked examples embedded where students need them. Enhanced opportunities for
support and extension, as well as consolidation and practice are offered in reviews, cumulative reviews,
exam-style questions and integrated technology.
helpful resources are outlined

at the beginning of each unit
visual worked
mathematics examples
glossary boosts and visuals
understanding located next
of key concepts to the relevant
exercise
‘Working Mathematically’ syllabus

components clearly signposted
Student obook assess

Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard (Year 11) is supported
by a range of engaging and relevant digital resources via
obook assess.
> a complete digital version of the Student book with
notetaking and bookmarking functionality
> targeted instructional videos by a team of Australia’s most
experienced Mathematics Standard teachers designed to
help students prepare for assessment tasks and exams
> interactive auto-correcting multiple-choice quizzes.
> access to teacher-assigned work including readings,
homework, tests and assignments
Teacher obook assess

In addition to the student resources, teachers also receive:
> detailed planning resources
> printable (and editable) class tests with exam-style questions and answers
> the ability to set up classes, set assignments, monitor progress and graph results, and to
view all available content and resources in one place.
vi Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11
00_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 6 25/10/2017 3:06 PM

Top tips for study success
Tip 1 – read key documents Tip 5 – know the structure of exams
The first step to success is to gather all key It’s important for you to become familiar with the
documents and read them carefully. format of the exam and the types of questions that
> Your most important tool is the syllabus. It sets out typically appear. In an exam you should also:
all of the information about the course, including > show your working when answering a question –
what you are expected to learn and how you will be even if a question is incorrect or left unfinished,
assessed. You can download a copy from the NESA you may still get some marks for your working
website. > keep an eye on the clock to make sure you have
> Keep all documents from your teacher relating to enough time to answer every question
assessment tasks and copies of any assessment > re-read questions so you know that you have
advice (e.g. marking criteria or assessment provided a complete and accurate answer.
rubrics). Understanding exactly what is required in
an assessment task is crucial. Tip 6 – understand key terms
Assessment tasks will likely include key terms. These
Tip 2 – study regularly range in level of difficulty. Some, such as solve or find,
If you’re going to perform at your best, you need to are simple to understand and master. Others, such as
allocate time for regular periods of study and revision. justify, are more challenging and will take practice to
Studying regularly will help you to reinforce concepts master. Below is a list of common key terms and an
and avoid the stress of last-minute cramming. During explanation of what they mean.
your study you might:
> summarise key points in your own words
TERM DEFINITION
> focus on topics you find difficult and work through
the relevant examples and questions examine something complex by breaking
> test your understanding with revision questions, analyse it down into smaller parts and show how
practice papers and past exams. they relate to one another
Tip 3 – manage your study time calculate work out an answer mathematically
When studying, it helps to put some practical classify catergorise into groups
strategies in place to stay on track. Try the following
change to a different form without
time management strategies. convert
changing the value
> Create a study timetable to set up periods of
describe give a detailed account of the features
regular study and revision around your school and
personal schedule. evaluate determine the value
> Use a diary, wall planner or calendar to record
make something clear by describing the
the dates of upcoming assessment tasks, tests or explain relationships between different aspects
exams and allow you to adequately prepare. and giving reasons
> Make lists of daily, weekly or monthly goals.
It helps to keep the bigger picture in mind represent an answer as a number, figure,
express
and breaks down big tasks into smaller, more formula or symbol
manageable tasks, so that you gain a sense of determine the value or answer to a
find
achievement. problem
Tip 4 – take care of yourself identify determine and state clearly
Looking after yourself during your HSC is important: justify present an argument and provide evidence
> eat a balanced diet and stay hydrated – try to avoid solve work out the solution to a question
too much caffeine and junk food
> get enough sleep and regular exercise
> have breaks – a walk to get some fresh air will
help you reset before the next study session.
Study tips vii

1
Earning and
managing money
The main mathematical ideas in this chapter are:
▶ using different methods for calculating income
▶ calculating allowances, bonuses, royalty
payments, commission and holiday loading
▶ calculating piecework payments
▶ calculating government allowances, pensions and
health payments
▶ evaluating superannuation
▶ calculating net pay and gross pay
▶ calculating allowable deductions
▶ calculating taxable income
▶ calculating the Medicare levy
▶ calculating tax refunds or payments.
FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
MS-F1 Money Matters F1.2

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

1A 1 What is the result of calculating 1A 8 How many months in 3 years?
28.67 + 139.48? A 12 B 24
A 168.15 B 42.618 C 36 D 52
C 110.81 D 157.05
1A 9 How many hours have elapsed from
1A 2 What is the result of calculating 6:00 am to 8:00 pm?
243.81 – 185.25? A 2 B 10
A 142.64 B 69.66 C 12 D 14
C 429.06 D 58.56
1A 10 How many hours have elapsed from
1A 3 What is the result of calculating 47.86 × 2.7? 9:30 am to 4:30 pm?
A 45.16 B 17.726 A 5 B 7
C 129.222 D 50.56 C 7.5 D 13
1A 4 What is the result of calculating 1B 11 What is 65% of $240?
2.9796 ÷ 0.04? A $156 B $1560
A 0.7449 B 7.449 C $27 D $2708
C 74.49 D 744.9
1C 12 What is 42 as a percentage of 70?
1A 5 How many minutes in 3 hours? A 60% B 42%
A 24 B 60 C 167% D 29.4%
C 120 D 180
1C 13 What is $27 as a percentage of $60?
1A 6 How many days in 168 hours? A 22% B 27%
A 7 B 6 C 45% D 60%
C 5 D 4
1C 14 Georgia scored 65 marks out of 80 in a
1A 7 How many weeks in 2 years? mathematics test. What is her percentage mark?
A 8 B 24 A 81.25% B 80%
C 52 D 104 C 65.25% D 8.125%
If you had difficulty with any of these questions or would like further practice, complete one or more of
the matching Support sheets available on your obook assess.
Q1–2 Support sheet 1A.1 Adding and subtracting decimal numbers
Q3–4 Support sheet 1A.2 Multiplying and dividing decimal numbers
Q5–8 Support sheet 1A.3 Converting units of time
Q9–10 Support sheet 1A.4 Calculating elapsed time
Q11 Support sheet 1B.1 Calculating the percentage of a quantity
Q12–14 Support sheet 1C.1 Calculating an amount as a percentage of another
Chapter 1 Earning and managing money 3

1A Earning an income
These resources are available on your obook assess:
• Spreadsheet 1A: Convert between annual, monthly, weekly and hourly income
• assess quiz 1A: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
wage Money earned by working is the basis of most people’s income. Without an income people are
a fixed regular unable to satisfy their basic needs. There are many ways people receive money for work done.
payment earned Most people work for an employer who pays them for their work. An amount earned based on
for work or
services, usually
hours worked is called a wage. A fixed amount earned regardless of the number of hours spent
based on an working is called a salary. This section deals with salary and wage payments.
hourly rate and A salary is an income that is usually described as an amount per annum (p.a.) or per year,
typically paid
although the salary may be paid weekly, fortnightly or monthly. People who are paid salaries
daily, weekly, or
fortnightly include nurses, government employees, teachers and other professionals. A wage is based on
an hourly rate for a certain number of hours worked. Wages are usually paid on a weekly or
salary
a fixed regular fortnightly basis. People who are paid wages include factory workers, shop assistants, building
payment, typically workers and mechanics.
paid monthly but
often expressed
When converting from yearly salaries to monthly, fortnightly and weekly amounts, the
as an annual
sum, made by an following are used.
employer to an 1 year = 365 days
employee = 12 months
per annum (p.a.) = 52 weeks
for each year
= 26 fortnights
(used in financial
contexts)
Employees may be permanent or casual, and may work full-time or part-time. Permanent
employees receive benefits such as sick leave and holiday pay.
EXAMPLE 1A–1 Calculating salary payments

Jenny works as a pastry chef. Her salary is $51 064 per annum. Express this salary as an amount:
a per month b per week c per fortnight.
Solve Think Apply
a Monthly = $51 064 ÷ 12 There are 12 months in a year. When converting from an annual
= $4255.33 Divide the annual income by 12. income, divide by the required
number:
b Weekly = $51 064 ÷ 52 There are 52 weeks in a year.
12 for monthly
= $982 Divide the annual income by 52.
52 for weekly
c Fortnightly = $51 064 ÷ 26 There are 26 fortnights in a year. 26 for fortnightly
= $1964 Divide the annual income by 26.

EXERCISE 1A Earning an income
1 Amy earns $19 884.80 per annum for part-time work. Complete
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING
the following to find how much she earns:

a Monthly = ____ ÷ 12
= ____
b Weekly = $19 884.80 ÷ ____
= ____
c Fortnightly = ____ ÷ ____
= ____
2 Caterina earns $86 924 per annum. Calculate her weekly pay.
3 Express each of the following annual salaries as an amount:

i per month ii per week iii per fortnight.
a $38 903 b $27 106 c $30 098
d $109 870 e $75 076 f $50 990
EXAMPLE 1A–2 Calculating annual and monthly salary payments

Michiko works part-time and earns $283 per week.
a How much does Michiko earn per year?
b How much does Michiko earn per month?
Solve Think Apply
a Yearly = $283 × 52 There are 52 weeks in a year. When converting weekly amounts
= $14 716 Multiply the weekly wage by 52. to annual amounts, multiply by 52.
b Monthly = $14 716 ÷ 12 There are 12 months in a year. Always use the annual income
= $1226.33 Divide the annual amount by 12. divided by 12 to find the monthly
One month is not 4 weeks, because income. If the annual income is not
12 × 4 = 48, not 52 weeks. provided, convert to it first.
4 Jason earns $421 per week for weekend work. Complete the following to find:
a Jason’s annual income b Jason’s monthly income
Annual income = $421 × ____ Monthly income = $21 892 ÷ ____
= ____ = ____
5 Ashley earns $379 per week for part-time work. How much does Ashley earn:
a per year? b per month?
6 Calculate the annual salary amount for each of these workers.

Name Weekly wage Annual salary

C. Cooke $847.94
D. Moussa $1021.06
B. Boje $630.54
T. Lambert $570.38

7 a David works part-time and receives an annual salary of $41 398.45. How much does he earn each week?
b Debra works part-time and receives a monthly salary of $2933. How much does she earn each week?
c Ali works part-time and receives an annual salary of $46 837.25. How much does he earn each
fortnight?
d Kristy works full-time and receives an annual salary of $78 500. How much does she earn each
fortnight?
e Iain works part-time and receives a monthly salary of $3599.60. How much does he earn each
fortnight?
f Ngoc works full-time and receives an annual salary of $74 292. How much does she earn each month?
8 Convert each of the following to an annual salary, if necessary, and calculate the difference between the
annual salaries.
a Kylie: $1136.60 a week and Stacey: $54 642 a year
b Roland: $1803 a fortnight and Paul: $55 271 a year
c Binh: $2610 a month and Aaron: $693.20 a week
EXAMPLE 1A–3 Calculating wage payments

Monica is paid $21.65 per hour for casual work. How much does she earn if she works:
a 6 hours in one day? b 6 hours per day for five days?
Solve Think Apply
a Pay = $21.65 × 6 The find the amount earned, Incomes stated as hourly rates need
= $129.90 multiply the hourly rate, ($21.65) to be multiplied by the number of
by the number of hours (6). hours to find the total income.
b Pay = $21.65 × 6 × 5 Multiply the daily rate ($21.65 × 6)
= $649.50 by the number of days (5).
9 Clare works in a jewellery

store earning $28.45 per hour.
Complete the following to find
the amount Clare earns:
a in an 8-hour day
Pay = ____ × 8 = ____
b for a 38-hour week
Pay = ____ × ____ = ____
10 Aaron works as an assistant in a

clothing store and is paid $21.75
an hour for a 35-hour week.
Calculate his weekly wage.
11 Madonna works as a
receptionist. If she is paid
$20.90 an hour, how much does
she earn in a 38-hour week?
6 Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

12 David works at Pizza Barn delivering pizzas. Calculate his weekly wage if he earns $22.20 an hour and
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING worked the following number of hours in a given week.
a 16 h b 24 h c 35 h d 41 h
13 Kristie is a junior and earns $14.43 an hour. Calculate her weekly wage if she works:
a 18 h b 35 h c 40 h d 48 h.
EXAMPLE 1A–4 Calculating annual income

Angus works a 35-hour week and is paid $22.80 per hour. How much does he earn in a year?
Solve Think Apply
Pay per week = $22.80 × 35 Find the pay per week by Hourly income is the basic
= $798 multiplying $22.80 by 35, then building block that, by
Annual income = 798 × 52 multiply by 52 to find the annual multiplication, will allow us to
= $41 496 income. calculate income over any time
Angus earns $ 41 496 per year. period.
14 Taylor earns $21.60 per hour for a 38-hour week. Complete to find her weekly pay and her annual income.
a Pay per week = $21.60 × ____ b Annual income = $820.80 × ____
= ____ = ____
15 An electrician works a 38-hour week. Find her yearly pay if she earns $58.40 per hour.
16 Ikbar works a 38-hour week. His hourly rate is $22.27. Find his pay for 1 year.
EXAMPLE 1A–5 Converting annual salaries to shorter time periods

Convert an annual salary of $47 424 for a worker who works 35 hours each week to:
a a weekly salary b an hourly salary.
Solve Think Apply
a Weekly = $47 424 ÷ 52 Divide the annual salary of $47 424 Converting annual salaries to
= $912 by 52 to convert to weekly salary. shorter time periods requires
Next, divide the weekly salary division. Divide by 52 for weekly
b Hourly = $912 ÷ 35
($912) by 35 to convert to the or by 12 for monthly incomes.
= $26.06
hourly rate.
17 Jake works 35 hours per week for an annual income of $54 527.20. Complete to find his weekly pay and his
hourly rate.
a Weekly pay = ____ ÷ 52 b Hourly pay = ____ ÷ ____
= ____ = ____
18 Indoo receives an annual salary of $63 300. Convert this to a weekly salary and find Indoo’s average hourly
rate if she works 52 hours per week.
19 Guido works 7 hours a day, five days per week. Find his hourly rate if his annual income is $38 900.

20 Rodney and Anastasia both work at a shoe factory for an hourly rate of pay of $26.80, including the time
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N
taken for their meal breaks.

i Calculate the total number of hours worked in one week by each employee.
ii Calculate each employee’s weekly wage.
a Name: Rodney
Day In Out Hours
Monday 7:00 am 4:00 pm
Tuesday 8:00 am 4:00 pm
Wednesday 7:00 am 5:00 pm
Thursday 11:00 am 4:00 pm
Friday 9:30 am 2:30 pm
Total
b Name: Anastasia
Day In Out Hours
Monday 7:40 am 5:40 pm
Tuesday 10:20 am 4:20 pm
Wednesday 9:00 am 3:00 pm
Thursday 8:30 am 3:30 pm
Friday 8:35 am 3:35 pm
Total
21 Complete the following wage table.

Day Hours
Name Mon Tues Wed Thurs Friday worked Hourly rate Weekly rate
S. Smith 7 5 – 4__12 9 $29.40
D. De Souza 11 4 3__12 6__12 7 $26.30
A. Bentley 6__12 – – 3 9__12 $611.80
C. Johnson 4 2__12 7 2 1__12 $30.34

K. Kernell 3 7__12 5 4__12 – $374.80
P. Patrick 5__12 9 2__12 – 6__12 $19.83
22 Jim is a junior and works 26 days per month. He averages 7 hours per day. Find his annual income if his
hourly rate is $18.17.
23 Nato is paid $35.20 per hour. He works 4 hours per day seven days a week. Find his pay for 1 year.
24 Isla is paid $1710 per fortnight.

a Find:
i her weekly pay
ii her monthly pay
b If Isla works 6 hours per five days a week, what is her hourly rate?

25 James is a junior and works as a casual employee at the local
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N supermarket. He is paid $16.05 an hour from Monday to Friday
and $20.35 an hour on weekends. During a week of his school
holidays he worked from 3:00 pm until 6:00 pm Monday to
Friday and 8:30 am until 1:30 pm on Saturday and Sunday.
a How many hours did he work on weekdays?
b How many hours did he work on weekends?
c Calculate his income for the week.
26 Steve is paid a salary of $78 904 per annum.

a Calculate Steve’s weekly pay rate.
b What is his hourly rate if he works 45 hours per week?
27 Which pay option offers the higher weekly wage? By how much?
a Option A: $903.20 a week or Option B: $45 103.20 a year
b Option A: $953.29 a fortnight or Option B: $2405 a month
c Option A: $3276 a month or Option B: $47 024 a year
28 A spreadsheet is provided on your obook assess to enable you to easily convert between annual, monthly,
fortnightly, weekly and hourly income. Use it to check some of your answers for questions in this exercise.
29 Armin and Richard were comparing their pays. Richard said that he earns more per week than Armin.
CHALLENGE
Richard earns $33 800 per annum, which he said is $704.17 per week. Armin earns $680 per week.
The yearly pay for Richard is correct, but he has made an error in calculating his weekly pay.
a Find Armin’s annual income.
b Find Richard’s correct weekly pay.
c Who really earns more?
d Richard said that he divided the annual income by 12 to find his monthly pay and then by 4 to find his
weekly pay. Find the mistake that Richard made. Explain your answer.

1B Allowances, bonuses and
loadings
overtime These resources are available on your obook assess:
extra time worked • Video tutorial 1B: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 1B-5
by employees • Worksheet 1B: Practise your skills with extra problems on earning money
in excess of
• Spreadsheet 1B: Calculate wages including overtime
their normal
working hours • assess quiz 1B: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
time-and-a-half Most employees work under an award that states the maximum number of normal work hours
overtime rate
they should work per day or per week, and also their normal working days. Hours worked in
where employees
are paid 1__12 times
excess of these (including weekend, late night and public holiday work) are overtime and are
their normal paid at a higher hourly rate than normal time. The two main overtime rates are time-and-a-
hourly rate half and double-time.
double-time Employees who are required to work under difficult, unpleasant or dangerous conditions
overtime rate are often paid an allowance that is above the normal rate of pay. Some examples include
where employees an allowance for cleaning toilets, working in confined spaces, working in hot or very cold
are paid 2 times
conditions, or dealing with toxic substances.
their normal
hourly rate Allowances may also be paid for uniforms, dry-cleaning of uniforms, travelling, meals, tools
bonus and so on.
extra payment paid Employees sometimes are paid extra payments in addition to their normal wages as described
as an incentive to below.
employees who
work hard
annual leave A bonus is an extra one-off payment paid as an incentive for employees who work
loading hard over a period of time. Employers use bonuses to encourage the employees to
extra payment work even harder!
added to the
holiday pay of Employees receive four weeks of annual leave per year. Annual leave loading is
employees taking an increase in an employee’s pay while on holidays. The holiday loading is a fixed
their annual percentage of the employee’s normal pay. It is usually paid at a rate of 17__12 %.
holidays
EXAMPLE 1B–1 Calculating overtime rates

Convert an hourly rate of $26.20 to an overtime rate of:
a time-and-a-half b double-time.
Solve Think Apply
a Time-and-a-half rate Multiply the hourly rate of $26.20 To calculate the overtime rate
= $26.20 × 1.5 by the overtime loading of 1.5. This multiply the normal hourly rate by
= $39.30 is the overtime hourly rate. the overtime factor.
b Double-time Multiply the hourly rate of $26.20 For time-and-a-half the factor
= $26.20 × 2 by the overtime loading of 2. This is 1.5, and for double-time the
= $52.40 is the overtime hourly rate. factor is 2.

EXERCISE 1B Allowances, bonuses and loadings
1 Jasmine earns $22.24 per hour. Copy and complete the following to find her overtime rate at:
a time-and-a-half b double-time.
Overtime rate = ____ × 1.____ Overtime rate = ____ × ____
= ____ = ____
2 Convert these normal hourly pay rates to overtime rates at:

i time-and-a-half ii double-time.
a $11.83 b $14.35 c $21.59 d $18.70
EXAMPLE 1B–2 Calculating wages using overtime rates

Janice is a junior and works 10 hours on a Sunday. The Sunday rate of pay is $12.80 per hour for the first
4 hours, then ‘time-and-a-half’ for additional hours worked as overtime. Calculate Janice’s wage for Sunday.
Solve Think Apply

Number of hours worked is 10. The first 4 hours are at The normal hours are
This is 4 hours at normal rate and 6 hours at the normal rate, so $12.80 multiplied by the hourly
time-and-a-half. is multiplied by 4. rate. The overtime hours
Wage at normal rate = 4 × $12.80 The next 6 hours are at are multiplied by the hourly
= $51.20 time-and-a-half. rate and the overtime factor.
Wage at time-and-a-half = 6 × 1.5 × $12.80 Multiply 6 by 1.5 and The normal and overtime
= $115.20 $12.80 to calculate the totals are added.
Janice’s wage = $51.20 + $115.20 overtime pay.
= $166.40 Add $51.20 and $115.20 to
find the total earned.
3 Brian is a junior and is paid $18.42 per hour. Calculate

his weekly wage if he works 38 hours at the normal
rate and 6 hours overtime at time-and-a-half.
4 Karen earns $27.70 an hour. Calculate her weekly

wage if she worked 33 hours at the normal rate and
6 hours at time-and-a-half.
5 Vikash is a junior and is paid $13.24 per hour for a

35-hour week. He is paid overtime at double-time for
the hours he works in excess of 35 hours. Calculate
his pay in a week in which he works 44 hours.
6 Anna is a junior and earns $14.35 per hour for the first
30 hours in a week. She receives time-and-a-half for
the next 5 hours and double-time after that. Find her pay for a 42-hour week.
7 Alexia works 16 hours at $20.20, 4 hours at time-and-a-half, and 3 hours at double-time. Calculate her
weekly wage.

EXAMPLE 1B–3 Calculating weekly pay with an allowance
Vicki earns $25.45 per hour as a cleaner. If she cleans the toilets, she receives an allowance of $24.00 per day.
Find her weekly pay if she works for 4 hours each weekday and cleans the toilets on Wednesday and Friday.
Solve Think Apply
Normal pay = $25.45 × 4 × 5 Normal weekly pay is $25.45 Allowances are added to normal
= $509 multiplied by 4 hours multiplied by income. First, calculate the
Toilet allowance = $24 × 2 5 days. She cleans toilets on 2 days. normal pay. Next, calculate the
= $48 The allowance is then multiplied by amounts of each allowance. Add
Total pay = $509 + $48 2, giving $48. Add the normal pay the allowance pay to the normal
= $557 and allowance to get the total pay. pay to find the total income.
8 Jovan earns $34.20 per hour for an eight-hour day. He is paid a supervisor allowance of $30 per day. Complete
the following to find his pay for a week in which he works 5 days and is supervisor for 3 of the days.
a Normal pay b Supervisor allowance c Total pay
= $34.20 × _____ × _____ = $30 × _____ = _____ + _____
= _____ = _____ = _____
9 Rose is paid $20.70 per hour welding bins. If the temperature is over 30°C, she is paid an extra $13 per day.
Find her pay for a 35-hour week in which there are two days over 30°C.
10 Harry works in a timber yard and is paid $21.40 per hour. He receives a dust allowance of $12.50 per day.
Find his pay for a 5-day, 40-hour week.
11 Georgina is a junior who works in a restaurant and receives a uniform allowance of $9.50 per night. Her
hourly rate of pay is $18.85. Find her pay if she works 5 nights for 6 hours per night.
EXAMPLE 1B–4 Calculating the value of a bonus

Renee worked extremely hard throughout the year. Her reward was a bonus of 6% of her yearly income. If
her normal yearly income was $58 000, calculate the value of her bonus.
Solve Think Apply

6
Bonus = 6% of $58 000 6% is ___
100
. If the bonus is a percentage, then
6 Multiply this by $58 000 to get that percentage amount is multiplied
= ___
100
× $58 000
$3480. by the income.
= $3480
12 Jeremy receives a bonus of 3% of his annual salary of $43 600. Complete to find the value of his bonus:
Bonus = ____% of $43 600
3
= ___
100
× ____
= ____
13 Determine the bonus for each of these annual salaries.

a 5% of $53 000 b 8% of $92 500 c 9% of $123 468
d 10% of $196 320 e 10% of $253 452 f 15% of $271 096
14 Zofia earns $590 per week. What is her total weekly wage in weeks with these bonuses added?
a 5% b 12% c 20% d 14%

EXAMPLE 1B–5 Calculating holiday pay with a leave loading
Lee is a permanent part-time employee and is entitled to 4 weeks annual leave with an annual leave loading
of 17__12 %. If his weekly pay is $368, find his holiday pay.
Solve Think Apply
4 weeks pay = $368 × 4 Calculate 4 weeks pay by First find 4 weeks pay; the holiday
= $1472 multiplying $368 by 4. loading is 17__12 % of that amount.
Loading = 17__12 % of $1472 Find 17__12 % of $1472. Total holiday pay is the normal pay
Add the 4 weeks pay and for 4 weeks plus the holiday loading.
= 17__12 ÷ 100 × $1472
the holiday loading to get Total holiday pay can also be
= $257.60 the holiday pay. calculated by multiplying the normal
Holiday pay = $1472 + $257.60 4 weeks pay by 117__12 %.
= $1729.60
15 Caleb earns $673 per week and is paid a holiday loading of

17__12 % on 4 weeks pay. Copy and complete the following to
find his holiday pay.
4 weeks pay = $673 × ____ = ____
Loading = ____% of $2692
17.5
= ____
100
× ____
= ____
Holiday pay = $2692 + ____ = ____
16 Allie has permanent part-time work as a personal assistant

and is paid $538 per week. If her 4 weeks of holiday pay
attracts a loading of 17__12 %, find her holiday pay.
17 The holiday loading is 17__12 %. Find the 4 weeks holiday pay

for employees who earn the following:
a a weekly wage of $611
b a fortnightly wage of $1054
c an hourly rate of $28.45 for a 38-hour week
18 If 17__12 % holiday loading is paid on 4 weeks normal pay,

find the holiday pay for:
a John, who earns $1700 in 4 weeks
b Divit, who earns $720 in a fortnight
c Sid, who earns $430 in a week
d Riya, who earns $22.50 an hour for a 30-hour week
e Angie, who earns $25.65 an hour for a 35-hour week.
19 Ximena was paid 4 weeks holiday pay plus 17__12 % holiday loading. If her normal weekly pay is
$637.52, calculate:
a her normal pay for 4 weeks b her holiday loading for 4 weeks c her total holiday pay.
20 Paul earns $28.60 an hour and works a 38-hour week. Calculate his holiday loading if he is paid 17__21 % of
4 weeks wages.

21 Shane is paid $21.30 per hour as a labourer. His normal working week
is 35 hours. He is paid time-and-a-half for the first 5 hours worked

beyond 35 hours and double-time for any hours after that. Calculate
shane’s weekly wage if he worked 49 hours.
22 a Jontey works from 8:00 am to 4:00 pm on Sunday. He is paid time-

and-a-half for the morning work and double-time for the afternoon.
If his normal hourly rate is $26.90, calculate Jontey’s earnings for
Sunday.
b Jontey’s employer is removing overtime rates and changing the
normal rate to $42 per hour. Is Jontey better off with the change?
Explain.
c What would be the equivalent hourly rate so Jontey still receives the same Sunday pay?
23 The following wage table shows the hours worked by the junior employees at Active Sports. Calculate the
weekly wage for each employee if:
• the normal hourly rate is $19.40
• overtime of time-and-a-half is paid for hours worked beyond 4 hours from Monday to Friday
• time-and-a-half is the hourly rate on Saturdays.
Day Normal Overtime (h) Weekly

Employee Mon Tues Wed Thur Frid Sat time (h) time-and-a-half wage
a M. Goodwyn 8 8__12 8 9 4 6
b J. Osbourne 9 9 9 7 8 3__12
c G. Dale 10 9__12 9 9__12 10 2
d E. Evans 4__12 – – 10 9 9
e M. Harkin 7 6 4__12 5 2 7__12
f A. Fenech 10 9 8 9 10 5
24 Raymond earns $96 325 per year. At the end of the year he is given a bonus of 13% of his yearly wage.
Calculate his bonus.
25 Louie works as a plumber’s apprentice and is paid $13.80 per hour. He is paid a digging allowance of
$13.50 per day if he has to dig trenches and $15.80 per day if he works on open sewers. Find his pay in a
week in which he works 50 hours, digs on three days and works on an open sewer for two days.
26 Benny is a security guard and is paid $24.25 per hour. If he works on the door he is paid $25 per night
danger money. Find Benny’s wage for a week in which he is on the door for 3 nights and works 35 hours.
27 Nabil works in a factory and is paid $25.54 per hour. If he works the furnace he is paid a heat allowance of
$5.27 per hour in addition to his normal rate. Find his weekly pay if he works a total of 32 hours of which
8 hours are spent working the furnace.
28 Jenny works in a bar and is paid $23.90 per hour. If she makes cocktails she receives an extra
$3.20 per hour. Find her pay for a week in which she works 20 normal hours and a further 10 hours
making cocktails.

29 Slavo earns $35 600 per year. At the end of the year his company made a profit of $129 561. As a reward,
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N Slavo was given a bonus of 1% of the profits.
a What was Slavo’s bonus?
b What was his total income for the year?
30 a Casey works 6 hours on Saturday at time-and-a-half and is paid $234. Calculate her normal hourly
pay rate.
b Corey works 8 hours on Saturday at time-and-a-half and 5 hours on Sunday at double time. Calculate
his normal hourly pay rate.
31 Samantha received a 17__12 % holiday loading on 4 weeks normal wages. She normally works a 35-hour week.
Her 4 weeks holiday pay and loading is $2533.30.
a Find her normal weekly pay.
b Find her normal hourly pay rate.
32 On your obook assess, a spreadsheet for calculating an employee’s wage including overtime at time-and-a-
half is provided.
The following view shows the formulas used.
A B C D E F
1 Wage calculator
2 Hours Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri
3 Normal 8 8 8 5 8
4 Overtime 2 – 3 – 1
5 Normal hours =SUM(B3:F3) Normal pay =B5*B7
6 Overtime hours =SUM(B4:F4) Overtime pay =B6*1.5*B7
7 Hourly rate 13.6 Total pay =D5+D6
a Use this spreadsheet or create your own to check your answers for questions 3 and 4.
b How would you change cell D6 in the spreadsheet if the overtime rate was double-time instead of
time-and-a-half?
c Change the spreadsheet so you can use it to check your answer for question 5.
d Create a new spreadsheet to check your answers for questions 6 and 7.
33 Research and investigate the rates

RESEARCH
paid to various workers as special

allowances.
34 Investigate the history of annual leave

loading. Many employers are phasing
out or trying to phase out leave

loading. On the basis of your research,
state your opinion about why this is
the case.

1C Commission, piecework
commission
and royalties
payment based on
the percentage of These resources are available on your obook assess:
the total price of • assess quiz 1C: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
the goods sold
piecework
payment based
on an amount per Real-estate agents and car salespersons are examples of people who are paid a commission.
item produced Their commission is a percentage of the total cost of the goods they sell. The more they sell, the
royalty greater their income. A person earning a salary is paid a fixed amount regardless of sales, and a
payment based wage earner is paid a fixed rate per hour. A person who works on commission may also be paid a
on a percentage retainer. A retainer is a fixed amount of money, independent of the total cost of the goods sold.
of the continuing
sales of a product
People employed to make items may be paid for each item produced. This is called
that someone has piecework. Authors will receive a percentage of the selling price of books they have written.
made or created This is called a royalty.
EXAMPLE 1C–1 Calculating commission

Larry sold a new car valued at $22 800. His commission for selling the car was 6% of the selling price.
Calculate Larry’s commission.
Solve Think Apply
Commission = 6% of $22 800 Larry sold goods worth Commission is usually a percentage
6 $22 800. His commission of the value of sales. Calculating the
= ___
100
of $22 800
is 6%, so find 6% of percentage of the amount sold finds
= $1368
$22 800. the commission.
Larry earned $1368 from his sale.
EXERCISE 1C Commission, piecework and royalties

1 Holly holds a make-up
party and sells $1350 of
make-up to her friends. Her
commission is 7% of sales.
Complete the following to
find the amount earned.
Commission amount
= ____% of $1350
= ____ × ____
= ____

2 Find the amount of commission earned for each of these sales amounts. Answer to the nearest dollar.
Commission rate Sales amount
a 25% $42 000
b 18% $6 782
c 7% $840
d 15__12 % $132
e 2.7% $80 000
f 17__13 % $80 000
3 Darren sold a house valued at $650 000. Calculate Darren’s commission from the sale if his rate of
commission is 4.8%.
4 Josephine sold a car valued at $48 000. Calculate her commission if the rate of commission is 7%.
5 An investment advisor receives 6% commission on money invested. How much does he earn for advising on
a $753 000 investment?
EXAMPLE 1C–2 Calculating commission and total earnings

A salesperson earns a retainer of $330 a week plus 13% commission on sales. For a week in which her
sales were $1780, find:
a her commission b her total earnings.
Solve Think Apply
a Commission = 13% of $1780 The commission is Some salespeople are paid a retainer
13
= ___ × $1780 13% of $1780. The plus commission. The retainer is
100
salesperson is paid an amount paid even if there are no
= $231.40
$330 as well. Add $330 sales. It is independent of any sales.
b Total earnings and the commission The amount of commission earned
= retainer + commission ($231.40) to find the from sales is added to the retainer to
= $330 + $231.40 total income. calculate the total income.
= $561.40
6 Luke earns $280 per week plus 9% commission on sales. He makes $2800 in sales in one week. Complete
the following to find his commission amount and his weekly pay.
a Commission amount = ____% of ____ b Weekly pay = ____+ $280
9
= ____ × ____ = ____
100
= ____
7 Jenny earns $265 per week plus 10__12 % commission on sales. Calculate her total earnings for the weeks when
she sold the following amounts.
a $124 b $881 c $2763 d $3882 e $4009 f $5720
8 Samir earns $310 per week plus 15% commission on sales. Calculate his total earnings for a week in which
his sales are $2050.
9 In one week, Mark sold goods to the value of $143 000. If his retainer is $145, calculate his wage that week
if his rate of commission on sales is 13.7%.

EXAMPLE 1C–3 Calculating percentage rate of commission
An auctioneer sells 40 chairs at $18.75 each.

a What is the total value of the sale?
b Determine the auctioneer’s percentage rate of commission if she earns $75 commission.
Solve Think Apply
a Sales = 40 × $18.75 Total sales is 40 chairs

When finding the percentage rate of
= $750 multiplied by $18.75 each.
commission, two amounts are needed.
75 First, the total of all sales. Second, the
b Commission = ___ × 100% Total commission
750 commission earned dollar amount of commission paid. The
= ______________
total sale value
× 100% commission earned
= 10% formula ______________ × 100% is
Divide 75 by 750 and total sale value
used to calculate the rate of commission
multiply by 100.
as a percentage.
10 Emily earns $350 commission on sales of $3723. Copy and complete the following to find her percentage
rate of commission to one decimal place.
commission earned
Rate of commission = ______________
total sale value
× 100%
□
= ___ × 100%
$3723
≈ ____%
11 A car salesperson earned $7853.20 commission for 1 week. If his total sales were $54 160, calculate the rate
of commission as a percentage.
12 Determine the rate of commission as a percentage if Sue earned $9348 on sales valued at $76 000.
13 Copy and complete the following table.
Employee Rate of commission Total sales Commission earned

a E. Swift 4.4% $72 000
b M. Keane $115 872 $4634.88
c S. Wise $64 500 $9481.50
d G. Walsh 8.2% $183 600
e G. Potts $286 472 $16 472.14
f L. Monroe 12__13 % $350 700
14 In one week a used car salesman sold three Ford Focus cars each priced at $25 360 and earned
4__12 % commission on his total sales. Find his commission for the week.
15 A real-estate agent sold a house valued at $576 000. If she received 2__12 %
commission on the first $150 000 and __12 % commission on the remainder,
find her total commission.
16 Rhonda sells paintings. She is paid 3% of the first $5000 of sales, 2%

on the next $5000 and 1% thereafter. Find her commission on sales of:
a $4500 b $6725
c $9422 d $14 680

17 Reginaldo is paid commission of 5% on the first $1000 of sales, 4% on the next $3000 and 1% thereafter.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING Find his commission on sales of:
a $5467 b $4321 c $560 d $9800
EXAMPLE 1C–4 Calculating pay for piecework

Enrique paints wooden fire engines. He is paid $4.38 per fire engine painted. In 1 week he paints 143 fire
engines. How much is he paid?
Solve Think Apply
Pay = $4.38 × 143 Multiply $4.38 by 143. To find the total earned multiply the amount per item
= $626.34 by the number of items.
18 Angelina paints Christmas decorations

and is paid $1.80 per decoration.
Complete the following to find her pay
for 300 decorations.
Pay = ____ × 300 = ____
19 Austin spray paints wooden toys and

is paid $6.90 per toy. Find his pay if
he paints 168 toys.
20 Shania assembles skateboards. She is paid $15.00 per assembled board. How much does she earn for a week
in which she assembles 43 skateboards?
21 Ricky waxes surfboards for the surf hire shop. He is paid $6.70 per waxed board. Find his pay for a day in
which he waxes 15 boards.
22 Ellen works in a belt factory. Each belt completed earns her $4.20. Find her wage for a week in which she
makes 157 belts.
EXAMPLE 1C–5 Calculating hourly rate

Antonia makes dolls which she sells at a craft market. She sells each doll for $36.
a How much does Antonia earn if she sells 18 dolls?
b If it takes Antonia 5 h to make a doll, what is her hourly rate?
Solve Think Apply
a Income = 18 × $36 Multiply $36 by To find the total earned, multiply the amount per
= $648 18 dolls. item by the number of items.
$36 Divide $36 by 5 to Hourly rate is found by dividing the amount paid
b Hourly rate = ___
5
get the hourly rate. per item by the time taken in hours.
= $7.20
23 Roberto makes cricket bats and is paid $130 per bat. In a 35-hour week he makes 8 bats. Complete the
following to find his weekly pay and hourly rate:
a Weekly pay = ____ × 8 b Hourly rate = weekly pay ÷ hours worked
= ____ = ____ ÷ 35
= ____

24 Ivan refelts billiard tables and is paid $290 per completed table. If he completes 8 tables in a 35-hour week, find his:
a weekly pay b hourly rate.
25 Allan strings new tennis racquets and is paid $7.50 per racquet. In a 40-hour week Allan strings
120 racquets. Find his:
a weekly pay b hourly rate.
EXAMPLE 1C–6 Calculating income for piecework paid at different rates

Employees at the Fancy Hanky factory are paid on a piecework basis at the rate of 39 cents per article
produced, up to 200 items per day, and 53 cents per article for each piece produced in excess of 200 items
per day. Calculate Romina’s income on Tuesday if she produces 224 hankies that day.
Solve Think Apply
Tuesday = 200 × $0.39 + 24 × $0.53 Romina makes more than Where more than one rate is
= $90.72 200 hankies. The number paid, find the times where this
Income = $90.72 over 200 is multiplied by occurs. Split the number into the
53 cents and the first 200 parts required and multiply by
are multiplied by 39 cents. the correct rate.
26 Stephanie makes savouries and is paid 80 cents per savoury for the first
50 per day and 95 cents for each savoury in excess of 50. On Monday she
makes 45 savouries and on Tuesday she makes 110. Complete the following
to find her total pay for the two days.
Monday = ____ × $0.80 = ____
Tuesday = 50 × ____ + ____ × $0.95 = ____
Total pay = ____ + ____ = ____
27 Calculate the weekly wage of the following employees who are paid on a
piecework basis at the rate of 57 cents for each piece up to 200 pieces per
day and then 65 cents for each piece produced in excess of 200 pieces.
Name Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

a N. Solo 230 250 186 223 192
b I. Kuryakin 290 210 175 238 177
28 Paula is paid a royalty of 12.3% on all sales. Complete the following to find her royalty on sales of $68 000.
Royalty = ____% of $68 000
12.3
= ____
100
× ____
= ____
29 Calculate the royalties for these authors.
Author Royalty rate Sales

a M. Golovchenko 8.7% $43 590
b N. Smythe 7.3% $367 098
c R. Ireland 12.9% $23 098
d P. Goodacre 10.5% $358 900

30 Karen and Tony both work for Up Market Realty.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N Karen sold a home for $535 000 and Tony sold two
units, each valued at $285 000. The commission rate
was 4%.
a Calculate Karen’s commission.
b Calculate Tony’s commission.
c Who made more from the sales? By how much?
31 Bart earned $446.20 on sales valued at $4600. Karla

earned $213.18 on sales valued at $2090.
a Who has the better rate of commission?
b What is that better commission rate?
32 Madison works in sales. She is given the choice of being paid 8% commission on sales only, or a base salary
of $200 per week plus 2__12 % commission on sales. If Madison sells $3050 worth of goods in a week, which
method of payment would pay her the most? By how much would she be better off ?
33 Jenny was offered a retainer of $640 per month, $140 per month car allowance, plus 1__12 % commission on
any houses she sells. If during her first month of work for her new company she sold two units valued at
$249 000 and $317 000 respectively, what was Jenny’s total income for the month?
34 A doctor charges each person $35.80 per consultation. If the doctor sees, on average, 4 people an hour,
calculate her earnings for an 8-hour day.
35 Nadia is a hairdresser who works at home. She charges $17 for a haircut, $42 for a cut and colour and
$65.20 for a perm. In one week she completes 7 haircuts, 14 cuts and colours, and 2 perms.
a Find her income for the week.
b Calculate her profit for the week, if her expenses were $287.30.
c If Nadia worked a total of 32 h during this week, calculate her hourly rate of pay after expenses.
36 A dressmaker charges $19.00 for major alterations and $11.20 for minor alterations.
a Calculate her wage if, in one week, she completed 15 major alterations and 23 minor alterations.
b Determine her hourly rate if she spent a total of 16 hours working on alterations.
37 Ayansh sells books and is paid a retainer of $875 per month and a percentage
CHALLENGE
commission on total sales made. Calculate the percentage commission rate

for a month where he earns a total of $1562.50 on sales of $27 500.
38 George sells confectionary. He is paid $2440 per month plus commission

on all sales. His commission is calculated using the scale shown in the
table below.
Sales value Commission rate

Up to $15 000 No commission
$15 001 to $25 000 4% of sales over $15 000
$25 001 to $40 000 $600 plus 3% of sales over $25 000
$40 001 and over $1050 plus 1.5% of sales over $40 000
Calculate George’s earnings for the following months.

a March sales totalled $24 890 b April sales totalled $36 002
c May sales totalled $14 050 d June sales totalled $53 821

1D Government allowances
and pensions
• Spreadsheet 1D: Calculate part pensions and part allowances
• assess quiz 1D: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
Some people may receive pensions or allowances from the government. These include
pensions for old age, disabilities and sole parenthood. Some allowances include Youth
Allowance and Job Start. Youth Allowance is paid to young people who are studying full-time,
undertaking a full-time apprenticeship, training, looking for work or are sick.
Youth Allowance rates (as at July 2017)
Circumstance Fortnightly payment
Single, no children
Under 18, at home $239.50
Under 18, away from home $437.50
18 and over, at home $288.10
18 and over, away from home $437.50
Single with children $573.30
Partnered, no children $437.50
Partnered with children $480.50
Students and Australian apprentices personal income test
If you earn between If you earn more Your payment
Students and $437 and $524 your than $524 your reduces to $0 once
Australian fortnightly payment fortnightly payment your income reaches
apprentices reduces by reduces by the maximum of
Single, under 50 cents for each dollar $43.50 plus 60 cents
18 years, at home you earn over $437 for each dollar you $857.17
earn over $524
Single, 18 years 50 cents for each dollar $43.50 plus 60 cents
and over, at home you earn over $437 for each dollar you $939.34
earn over $524
Single or couple, 50 cents for each dollar $43.50 plus 60 cents
no dependants, you earn over $437 for each dollar you $1192.34
away from home earn over $524
Couple with 50 cents for each dollar $43.50 plus 60 cents
dependants you earn over $437 for each dollar you $1265.17
earn over $524
Single with 50 cents for each dollar $43.50 plus 60 cents
dependants you earn over $437 for each dollar you $1422.34
earn over $524
If you earn less than $437 per fortnight, your Youth Allowance payment is not affected.

Job seekers personal income test
If you earn between If you earn more Your payment
$143 and $250 your than $250 your reduces to $0 once
fortnightly payment fortnightly payment your income reaches
Job seekers reduces by reduces by the maximum of
Single, under 18 years, at 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
home you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn $566.50
over $250
Single, 18 years and over, at 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
home you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn $648.67
over $250
Single or couple, no 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
dependants, away from home you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn $901.67
over $250
Couple with dependants 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn $974.50
over $250
Single with dependants 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn $1131.67
over $250
Single principal carer of 50 cents for each dollar $53.50 plus 60 cents
dependent children, granted you earn over $143 for each dollar you earn
an exemption for foster caring, over $250 $1427.67
home schooling, distance
education or large family
If you earn less than $143 per fortnight, your Youth Allowance payment is not affected.
EXAMPLE 1D–1 Calculating Youth Allowance for a student living at home

Jenny is a student living at home. She is 17 and entitled to Youth Allowance.
a What is her Youth Allowance per fortnight if she has no income?
b How much could she earn and still keep full Youth Allowance?
c How much could she earn before she loses her allowance completely?
Solve Think Apply
a From the Youth Allowance Look in the Youth Allowance rates It is important to look
rates table, Jenny is entitled to table for ‘single, no children, under in the correct part of the
$239.50. 18, at home’. The rate is $239.50. table. Find the category
b From the personal income test Look in the Students and Australian you require, then check for
table Jenny could earn up to apprentices personal income table for the correct amounts.
$437. ‘single, under 18, at home’. Consider
the meaning of the heading for the
second column.
c From the personal income test Look in the last column of the
table, Jenny must earn less than ‘Students and Australian apprentices
$857.17. personal income test’ table.

EXERCISE 1D Government allowances and pensions
1 Andrea is a student living away from home. She is 18 and entitled to Youth Allowance.
a What is her Youth Allowance if she has no income?

(Hint: Look in the ‘Youth Allowance rates’ table.)
b How much could she earn and still keep the full Youth Allowance?
(Hint: Look in the ‘Students and Australian apprentices personal income test’ table and find the value
at the end of the table.)
(Hint: As for part b, but look in the ‘Your payment reduces to $0 once your income reaches the
maximum of’ column.)
2 Goran is a student living at home. He is 19 and entitled to Youth Allowance.

a What is his Youth Allowance if he has no income?
b How much could he earn and still keep the full Youth Allowance?
c How much could he earn before he loses his allowance completely?
3 Andres is a job seeker and living at home. He is 19 and entitled to Youth Allowance.
b How much could he earn and still keep the full Youth Allowance?
c How much could he earn before he loses his allowance completely?
4 Sylvana is a job seeker and living away from home. She is 17 and entitled
to Youth Allowance.
b How much could she earn and still keep the full Youth Allowance?
5 Tito is a student living away from home. He is 16 and entitled to Youth

Allowance.
b If he starts a part-time job earning $350 per fortnight, would his
Youth Allowance be affected? Explain.
c If he started a part-time job earning $225 per week, would his Youth
Allowance be affected? Explain.
d How much could he earn before he loses his allowance completely?
6 Leia is a job seeker living at home. She is 20 and entitled to Youth

Allowance.
b If she starts a part-time job earning $160 per fortnight, would her
Youth Allowance be affected? Explain.
c If she started a part-time job earning $70 per week, would her Youth
Allowance be affected? Explain.
d How much could she earn before she loses her allowance completely?

EXAMPLE 1D–2 Calculating Youth Allowance when earning a small income
Marcella is 19, living at home and a job seeker. She earns $187 per fortnight, and is entitled to Youth
Allowance. Calculate the amount of Youth Allowance that Marcella will receive.
Solve Think Apply

Income in excess of $143 Full Youth Allowance for Find the normal full Youth Allowance.
= $187 − $143 Marcella would be $288.10. Compare the income with the reduction
= $44 She loses some because conditions in the ‘Job seekers personal
Reduction = 44 × 0.50 her income exceeds $143. income test’ table. Calculate the cents in
= $22 Reduction for income the dollar reduction first. If applicable, add
Marcella’s allowance between $143 and $250 is the fixed reduction to the dollar reduction.
= $288.10 − $22 50 cents in the dollar. Subtract the total reduction from the full
= $266.10 allowance. Be careful to read all the tables
accurately.
7 Amy is 18, living at home and a student entitled to Youth Allowance. She earns $501 per fortnight.
Complete the following to calculate the amount of allowance Amy receives.
a From the ‘Youth Allowance rates’ table, full allowance for Amy is ____.
b Income in excess of $437 = ____ − $437 = ____
c Reduction = 64 × ____ = __
d Amy’s allowance = ____ − $32 = ____
8 Ingrid is 17, living at home and a job seeker. She

earns $205 per fortnight, and is entitled to Youth
Allowance. Calculate the allowance Ingrid will
receive each fortnight.
9 George is 19, living away from home and a job

seeker. He earns $211 per fortnight, and is entitled
to Youth Allowance. Calculate the amount of Youth
Allowance that George will receive each fortnight.
10 Theresa is 18, living at home and a student. She

earns $414 per fortnight, and is entitled to Youth
Allowance. Calculate the amount of Youth Allowance
that Theresa will receive each fortnight.
11 Christos is 20, living at home and a job seeker. He earns $85 per week and is entitled to Youth Allowance.
Calculate the amount of Youth Allowance that Christos will receive each fortnight.
12 Piera is 16, living at home and a student. She earns $250 per week and is entitled to Youth Allowance.
Calculate the amount of Youth Allowance that Piera will receive each fortnight.

EXAMPLE 1D–3 Calculating Youth Allowance when working part-time
Dukan is 18 and has a partner and one child. He is a full-time student and is entitled to Youth Allowance.
Dukan works part-time and earns $614 per fortnight. Calculate his fortnightly payment.
Solve Think Apply

Dukan earns more than $524 but less Look up the full allowance in the Find the normal full Youth
than $1265.17 per fortnight, so he is ‘partnered with children’ section Allowance.
entitled to a part allowance. of the ‘Youth Allowance rates’ Compare the income with the
From the ‘Youth Allowance rates’ table. amounts requiring reduction
table, full allowance in these Dukan’s income exceeds $524 to determine whether there
circumstances is $480.50. and so the fixed reduction are multiple reduction
Income in excess of $524 applies, along with the 60 cents amounts needed.
= $614 − $524 in the dollar for the amount in Calculate the cents in the
= $90 excess of $524. dollar reduction first.
Reduction = 90 × 0.60 Subtract $524 from income of If applicable, add the fixed
= $54.00 $614, then multiply the result by reduction to the dollar
Total reduction = $43.50 + $54.00 0.60 (being $0.60 or 60 cents). reduction. Subtract the
= $97.50 Then add the fixed amount of total reduction from the full
Dukan’s allowance $43.50 to that amount. Subtract allowance.
= $480.50 − $97.50 the total from $480.50. Be careful to read all the
= $383.00 per fortnight tables accurately.
13 Sami is 19, single and has one child. She is a full-

time student entitled to Youth Allowance. Sami’s
part-time income is $564 per fortnight. Complete
the following to calculate her Youth Allowance.
a Youth Allowance rate from table is ____.
b Income in excess of $524 = $564 − ____
= $40
c Reduction = ____ × 0.60 = ____
d Fixed reduction for income over $524 = ____
e Total reduction = ____ + $43.50 = ____
f Sami’s allowance = ____ − ____ = ____
14 Venus is 16, living at home and a student. She

earns $580 per fortnight and is entitled to Youth
Allowance. Calculate the amount of Youth
Allowance that Venus will receive.
15 Xavier is 17 and lives at home. He is a full-time

student and entitled to Youth Allowance. Xavier
works part-time and earns $544 per fortnight. Calculate his Youth Allowance.
16 Yoshii is 20, lives away from home and has a partner. He is a full-time student and is entitled to Youth
Allowance. He earns $626.00 per fortnight. Calculate his Youth Allowance.
17 Nerita is 20, living at home and a job seeker. She earns $175 per week and is entitled to Youth Allowance.
Calculate the amount of Youth Allowance that Nerita will receive each fortnight.

The table below shows the personal income test for pensions. Use the table to answer questions 18–21.
Income test for pensions
Family situation For full pension (per fortnight)* For part pension (per fortnight)
Single up to $164 less than $1940.60
Couple (combined) up to $292 less than $2970.40
Couple living apart for health reasons up to $292 less than $3845.20
*Income over these amounts reduces the rate of pension payable by 50 cents in the dollar.
18 Joan and Don are entitled to the age pension.

They are a couple with a combined income
of $453.00 per fortnight. The full pension
for each person is $609.30 per fortnight.
Calculate the total pension paid to
Joan and Don.
19 Maurice is single with an income of $620 per

fortnight. He is entitled to the age pension.
If the full pension is $808.30 per fortnight,
calculate the pension Maurice will receive.
20 George and Cheryl are a couple entitled to

the age pension but living apart due to health
reasons. George earns $320 per fortnight. The
full pension is $808.30 each. Calculate the
total pension amount they would receive each
fortnight.
21 Jessica is single and has been receiving the

full age pension of $808.30 per fortnight. Her financial situation is about to change and she anticipates
receiving an income of $1000 per week. How will this income affect the age pension Jessica has been
receiving?
22 Use the internet to find the latest values for Youth Allowance and pensions. Recalculate the answers to some
of the questions using these. The website address for the Australian Department of Human Services is:
http://www.humanservices.gov.au
23 Design a spreadsheet that will allow you to calculate part pensions and part allowances. A prepared
spreadsheet is provided on your obook assess. Modify this spreadsheet with the latest data from the internet
or the Australian Tax Office.
24 Research the following questions to investigate further examples of pensions or allowances.

RESEARCH
a Find at least three examples of pensions or allowances.

b List the criteria for obtaining these pensions or allowances.
c Find the amount paid to people on these pensions or allowances.
d Find the amounts that people may earn and still retain the full pension or allowance.
e Find the reasons for having these pensions or allowances.
f Where does the money come from to pay for these pension or allowances?

1E Deductions and
net income
gross income These resources are available on your obook assess:
total amount • assess quiz 1E: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
earned by an
employee
net income
reduced amount The total amount earned by an employee is called gross income. The net income is calculated
earned by an by subtracting deductions from the gross income.
employee after Net income = gross income − all deductions
subtracting
deductions from The most common deductions include income tax, health insurance, employee superannuation
gross income contributions, social club contributions, voluntary savings and union fees.
EXAMPLE 1E–1 Calculating net income

Won Tae receives a gross weekly income of $865.43. His weekly deductions are income tax of $139.00,
union fees of $6.20, health insurance of $9.40 and employee superannuation contribution of $28.20.
Calculate his net income.
Solve Think Apply
Total deductions = $139.00 + $6.20 + $9.40 + $28.20 Add together all the To calculate net
= $182.80 deductions (tax, union income, subtract
Net income = gross income − deductions fees, health insurance and all deductions
= $865.43 − $182.80 superannuation). Subtract from the gross
= $682.63 this total of $182.80 from the income.
gross income of $865.43.
EXERCISE 1E Deductions and net income

1 Pooja has a gross weekly wage of $642.90 and tax of $56 and union fees of $6.80 are deducted from her
weekly wage. Complete the following to calculate her total deductions and her net income.
a Total deductions = ____ + ____ = ____ b Net income = ____ − $62.80 = ____
2 Tony’s gross weekly wage is $763.90. His weekly wage deductions are tax of $67, union fees of $4.30,
health insurance of $10.40 and employee superannuation contribution of $18.45. Calculate his net income.
3 a Calculate net income if gross income is $980.25 per week, tax is $159, employee superannuation
contribution is $13.68 and union fees are $7.30 per week.
b Calculate net income if gross pay is $611.92 per week, tax is $51, employee superannuation contribution
is $12.65, union fees are $3.00, and health insurance is $15.95 per week.
4 a Calculate gross income if net income is $564.70, tax is $80.00, health insurance is $14.80, and employee
superannuation contribution is $10.50 per week.
b Calculate gross income if net income is $629.90, tax is $116.00, union fees are $3.75 and employee
superannuation contribution is $50.35 per week.

The table below shows health insurance costs (the 30% rebate has been deducted from these premiums).
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING NSW health insurance premiums – single
Direct debit/Payroll deduction Advance Pay
Hospital cover Weekly Fortnightly Monthly Quarterly Half-yearly Yearly
Top hospital no excess $25.64 $51.27 $111.09 $333.26 $666.51 $1310.00
Intermediate hospital no excess $19.32 $38.63 $83.70 $251.10 $502.19 $996.00
Intermediate hospital excess
Level 1: $250 $18.59 $37.18 $80.56 $241.67 $483.34 $950.00
Level 2: $500 $16.48 $32.96 $71.41 $214.24 $428.48 $845.00
Level 3: $1000 $13.21 $26.42 $57.24 $171.73 $343.46 $680.00
Basic hospital excess
Level 1: $250 $16.21 $32.42 $70.24 $210.73 $421.46 $835.00
Level 2: $500 $14.76 $29.52 $63.96 $191.88 $383.76 $762.00
Level 3: $1000 $11.13 $22.25 $48.21 $144.63 $289.25 $575.00
EXAMPLE 1E–2 Calculating the annual premium for hospital cover

Jenny is single. She takes out top hospital cover with no excess and pays her premium in advance. Find her
annual cost.
Solve Think Apply

From the table, Jenny The table shows premiums for singles. First check the table headings.
pays $1310. Read across the ‘Top hospital no Match the row and column
excess’ row to the ‘Yearly’ column. headings to find the value.
5 Harry is single and takes out intermediate hospital cover with no excess. Find his premium:
a per week, if paid by payroll deduction b per month, if paid by payroll deduction
c per quarter, if paid in advance d per year, if paid in advance.
6 Lasallian takes out basic hospital cover for singles. She chooses the $1000 excess.
a Find her weekly premium.
b Find the amount she pays for a year by making weekly payments.
c How much would she save by paying the annual premium in advance?
d How much does she save per week by having a $1000 excess rather than a $250 excess?
7 For each of these rates, calculate the saving by paying yearly in advance instead of paying weekly.
a Top cover, no excess b Intermediate cover, no excess
8 Paula pays $57.24 per month for health insurance. Which cover does she have?
9 Find the cover the following premiums pay for.

a $63.96 per month b $32.96 per fortnight
c $80.56 per month d $680 annually
Superannuation (super) is a way of saving for retirement. Employers contribute a base rate of 9.5% of an
employee’s normal income directly into the employee’s specified super fund as an extra payment above the
employee’s income. Super funds invest the money in assets such as shares, property and managed funds.

EXAMPLE 1E–3 Calculating superannuation contributions
Paul earns $56 092 per annum. His employer pays superannuation of 9.5% on his behalf and Paul
contributes 4% himself.
a How much superannuation is paid on Paul’s behalf by his employer?
b How much does Paul contribute himself?
c What is Paul’s income less his superannuation contribution?
d What is the total amount paid into Paul’s superannuation fund per year?
Solve Think Apply

a Employer’s contribution Employer contributions are 9.5%, The employer contribution
9.5 so find 9.5% of $56 092. is a percentage of the total
= ___
100
× $56 092
income, paid over and above
= $5328.74
that income.
b Paul’s contribution Paul contributes 4%, so find 4% of
Note: The personal
4 × $56 092
= ___ $56 092.
100 superannuation contribution
=$2243.68 is subtracted from the
c Paul’s income (less super) The employer contribution of $5328.74 total income, but a tax of
= $56 092 − $2243.68 is additional to Paul’s income and so is 15% is deducted by the
= $53 848.32 not subtracted. superannuation fund, if
d Total super contribution Total superannuation put into the fund is applicable.
= $5328.74 + $2243.68 $5328.74 plus $2243.68.
= $7572.42
10 Arif earns $41 922 per annum. His employer pays superannuation of 9.5% on his behalf and Arif
contributes 4%.
a How much superannuation is paid on Arif’s behalf by his employer?
9.5
Employer superannuation contribution = ___
100
× ____ = ____
b How much does Arif contribute himself?
□
Employee superannuation contribution = ___
100
× ____ = ____
c What is Arif’s income less his superannuation contribution?
Income = ____ − $1676.88 = ____
d What is the total amount paid into Arif’s superannuation fund?
Total superannuation paid into the fund =____ + ____ = ____
11 For the following people, calculate:

i employer superannuation contributions ii employee superannuation contributions
iii net income iv total superannuation paid into the fund.
Name Annual income Employer contribution Employee contribution

a Fielding $37 764 9.5% 1%
b Louise $48 193 9.5% 7%
c Bianca $12 943 9.5% 0%
d Peter $41 098 9.5% 5%
e Nato $22 940 9.5% 0%
f Ito $63 901 9.5% 6%

12 Wai earns $949 per week. His employer contributes 9.5% of that amount for superannuation and Wai
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING contributes 3%. Calculate Wai’s net weekly income and the total weekly contributions to his superannuation.
EXAMPLE 1E–4 Calculating annual net income after deductions are made
Calculate the annual net income for an employee whose gross yearly income is $73 926. He has union fees
of $276, tax of $14 521.89, employee superannuation contributions of 4% of gross income and basic private
(single) health insurance with $500 excess, which is paid yearly in advance.
Solve Think Apply

Deductions: Calculate the amount of Calculate the value of
4 × $73 926
Superannuation = __ superannuation, using 4% any deductions and
100
= $2957.04 of $73 926. Find the health subtract these from the
Health insurance = $762 contribution from the table gross income to find the
Net income on page 29. net income. Note that the
= $73 926 − $14 521.89 − $2957.04 Net income is $73 926 minus compulsory employer
− $762 − $276 the amounts calculated and super contribution is
= $55 409.07 the other deductions of $276 not included in the
and $14 521.89. calculations.
13 Complete the following to calculate the annual net income for Anita whose gross income is $42 965 p.a. She
has union fees of $365 and personal super contributions of 5% of gross income.
5
Superannuation = ___
100
× _____ = _____
Net income = _____ − $365 − _____ = _____
14 Calculate the annual net income for Jahmalia whose gross income is $47 955 p.a. if, annually, she has
tax of $6339.78, union fees of $421, employee superannuation contributions of 5% of gross income and
intermediate private (single) health insurance with no excess, paid in advance.
15 Theresa earns $38 902 per annum. She has 11% tax taken out, 6% employee superannuation contributions
and health insurance of $672.70 per annum.
a Calculate the tax Theresa has taken out of her gross annual income.
b How much superannuation does Theresa contribute?
c What is Theresa’s net annual income?
d Calculate Theresa’s net weekly pay.
16 Carol is retired and is paid a yearly superannuation payment of 68% of her final year’s salary, which was
$138 000. Calculate her:
a yearly superannuation payment b monthly income.
17 A particular superannuation scheme pays its members a retirement benefit of 20% of their average salary
CHALLENGE
over the last 5 years multiplied by the number of years they have been in the scheme.
Retirement payment = 20% of average salary × number of years
Find the retirement benefit for a person with:
a an average salary of $46 981 who has contributed for 15 years
b an average salary of $39 243 who has contributed for 20 years
c salaries of $38 942, $39 210, $29 881, $33 125 and $40 010 for the last 5 years who has contributed
for 8 years.

1F Taxable income
• Video tutorial 1F: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 1F-1
• Spreadsheet 1F: Calculate the Medicare levy payable on taxable income
• assess quiz 1F: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
taxable income The taxable income is calculated using total income and allowable deductions. Total income
income for one includes income from all sources throughout the year. It could include wages and salaries,
financial year bonuses, interest earned, commissions and allowances. The total income may be subject to
calculated by
subtracting
deductions that reduce the amount used to calculate the tax payable. Tax deductions may
allowable include the cost of tools used for work, the cost of safety equipment, self-education expenses,
deductions from union fees, charitable donations over $2, car travel expenses, the cost of uniforms and their
total income cleaning, and tax agent fees. The deductions allowable will depend on the profession.
total income
all income
received by a Taxable income = total income − allowable deductions
person during one
financial year
Medicare levy The Medicare levy is an extra tax that may be payable.
extra tax to fund Medicare is the public hospital medical system available
the health care without charge for Australians. The Medicare levy is currently
system, calculated calculated at 2% of taxable income. In 2017, the full Medicare
as a percentage of
taxable income
levy was payable if a person’s taxable income exceeded
$26 668. For incomes between $21 335 and $26 668, a reduced
levy was payable, and for incomes of less than $21 335 no
levy was payable. These thresholds were higher in some
circumstances. A Medicare levy surcharge may also apply if a
person does not have private hospital health insurance.
For taxation purposes, income is usually calculated in whole dollars, so always round down to
the nearest whole dollar. (It does not follow the usual rules for rounding.)
EXAMPLE 1F-1 Calculating taxable income

Amita uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $35 980, interest $569
(joint account), bonus $200, cost of uniforms $140, tax agent fee $80, work-related car costs $298.
Calculate her taxable income.
Solve Think Apply
Income = $35 980 + ($569 ÷ 2) + $200 Interest on a joint account is shared Determine all
= $36 464.50 between both account holders. income amounts
= $36 464 (rounded down to the Add all income items and round and all deductions.
nearest dollar) down to the nearest dollar, to give Subtract to find the
Deductions = $140 + $80 + $298 $36 464. taxable income.
= $518 Add all deductions, to get $518.
Taxable income = $36 464 − $518 Subtract to find the taxable income of
= $35 946 $35 946.

EXERCISE 1F Taxable income
1 Annie uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $45 320, interest $665 (joint
account), bonus $800, cost of uniforms $340, tax agent fee $60 and work-related car costs $45. Complete
the following to calculate Annie’s taxable income.
Income = ____ + (____ ÷ 2) + $800 = ____ = ____ (rounded down to the nearest dollar)
Deductions = ____ + $60 + ____ = ____
Taxable income = ____ − ____ = ____
2 Use the following information to calculate Gary’s taxable income: wages $42 330, interest $2355 (joint account),
cost of uniforms $300, cleaning of uniforms $156, tax agent fee $100 and work-related car costs $3220.
3 Asha uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $29 555, interest $243, tax
agent fee $70, work-related car costs $452, donations to charity $120. Calculate Asha’s taxable income.
4 Paul uses the following information to calculate his taxable income: wages $53 022, interest $3659, bonus $1000,
tax agent fee $120, work-related car costs $1256, donations to charity $500. Calculate Paul’s taxable income.
5 Calculate the taxable income for the following people.
Income/deductions Tasman Polding Flockhart Gen Old

Wage $45 996 $36 899 $72 665 $12 990 $26 773
Allowances $590 $100 – $390 $225
Interest $32 $12 $366 $5 $15
Bonus/tips $100 – $2000 – $25
Uniforms $50 – – – $150
Cleaning $35 – – – $55
Tax agent fee $80 $60 $200 $20 $45
Union fee $300 – – $60 $190
Donations – – $100 $2 $20
Car expenses $423 $19 $2333 – –
EXAMPLE 1F-2 Calculating the Medicare levy on taxable income

Calculate the Medicare levy payable on a taxable income of $35 908.
Solve Think Apply
Medicare levy = 2% of taxable income The Medicare levy is 2% Taxable incomes that exceed
2 × $35 908 of taxable income. the minimum threshold pay
= ___
100 2% of $35 908 is $718.16. a 2% Medicare levy.
= $718.16
6 Complete the following to calculate the Medicare levy on a taxable income of $42 756.
□
Medicare levy = ___
100
× ____
= ____
7 Calculate the Medicare levy on these taxable incomes.

a $39 021 b $44 906 c $43 879
d $46 110 e $60 958 f $10 365

EXAMPLE 1F–3 Calculating the Medicare levy on taxable income between
$21 335 and $26 668

The Medicare levy on taxable incomes between $21 335 and $26 668 is 10 cents in the dollar for each dollar
in excess of $21 335. Find the Medicare levy on $21 536.
Solve Think Apply
Excess = $21 536 − $21 335 Calculate the excess by Taxable incomes between $21 335
= $201 subtracting $21 335. and $26 668 have the Medicare
Medicare levy = $0.10 × 201 Multiply 201 by 10 cents levy calculated on the excess
= $20.10 (or $0.10) to get $20.10. income over the $21 335 amount.
8 Complete the following to calculate the Medicare levy on a taxable income of $24 369.
Excess = ____ − $21 335 = ____
Medicare levy = $0.10 × ____ = ____
9 Calculate the Medicare levy on these taxable incomes.

a $22 000 b $22 530 c $12 450 d $24 041
Government loans
For people with loans that assisted them when studying, or other forms of financial support, those loans
are repayable when taxable income exceeds a threshold. The loan repayment is paid as additional tax. The
repayment thresholds and rates for the compulsory repayment of debts to the following are updated annually:
Higher Education Loan Program (HELP), Student Start-up Loan (SSL), ABSTUDY Student Start-up Loan
(ABSTUDY SSL), Trade Support Loan (TSL) and Student Financial Supplement Scheme (SFSS). The
repayment amount is a percentage of RI (Repayment Income), where RI = taxable income plus any total
net investment loss (which includes net rental losses), total reportable fringe benefits amounts, reportable
superannuation contributions and exempt foreign employment income. For this course, we will assume RI is
equal to taxable income.
2016–17 repayment income thresholds and rates for
HELP, SSL, ABSTUDY SSL and TSL
Repayment income (RI*) Repayment rate

Below $54 869 Nil
$54 869–$61 119 4.0%
$61 120–$67 368 4.5%
$67 369–$70 909 5.0%
$70 910–$76 222 5.5%
$76 223–$82 550 6.0%
$82 551–$86 894 6.5%
$86 895–$95 626 7.0%
$95 627–$101 899 7.5%
$101 900 and above 8.0%

EXAMPLE 1F–4 Calculating study loan repayments
Christopher has a student loan and a taxable income of $68 537. Calculate the amount of additional tax he
will pay due to the HELP loan.
Solve Think Apply

Amount to pay $68 537 is between $67 369 Determine the repayment income and use the
= 5% of $68 537 and $70 909, so the repayment corresponding repayment rate to calculate
= 0.05 × 68 537 rate is 5%. the amount of extra tax allocated for the
5
= $3426.85 5% = __ 100
= 0.05 repayment.
10 Use the ‘2016–17 repayment income thresholds and rates’ table to calculate the extra tax allocated to repay
the HELP debts of people with taxable incomes of:
a $65 124 b $88 223 c $50 111 d $57 899
11 Use the PAYG payment

summary shown on the right
to find and calculate:
a gross income
b taxable income if there
are deductions of $2854
c tax paid
12 Choose three different

RESEARCH
professions and find the

deductions to which they are
entitled.
13 Examine the Tax Pack

to determine allowable
deductions.
14 Visit the Australian

Taxation Office internet
site at www.ato.gov.au
Write about the latest tax
information.
15 What changes have been

made to Medicare throughout
its history?

1G Calculating tax
• Video tutorial 1G: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 1G-2
• Spreadsheet 1G: Calculate tax payable on taxable income
• assess quiz 1G: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
Income tax is calculated using a tax table. The following table shows the tax rates for 2017–18.
Taxable income Tax on this income

0–$18 200 Nil
$18 201–$37 000 19c for each $1 over $18 200
$37 001–$87 000 $3572 plus 32.5c for each $1 over $37 000
$87 001–$180 000 $19 822 plus 37c for each $1 over $87 000
$180 001 and over $54 232 plus 45c for each $1 over $180 000
The above rates do not include the 2% Medicare levy.
EXAMPLE 1G–1 Calculating tax payable using a tax table

Use the tax table to calculate the income tax payable on these incomes.
a $53 251 b $26 784 c $105 631
Solve Think Apply
a $53 251 is in the range $37 001−$87 000, Subtract $37 000 to find the excess. Locate the taxable
in the third row of the table. Tax is $3572 plus 0.325 × excess. income range in
Excess = $53 251 − $37 000 the table. Use that
= $16 251 row of the tax
Tax = $3572 + 0.325 × $16 251 table to calculate
= $8853.58 the income
tax payable by
b $26 784 is in the range $18 201−$37 000, Subtract $18 200 to find the excess.
subtracting the
in the second row of the table. Tax is 0.19 × excess.
‘over’ amount
Excess = $26 784 − $18 200
from the taxable
= $8584
income and
Tax = 0.19 × $8584
multiplying by the
= $1630.96
rate, in dollars.
c $105 631 is in the range $87 001 − $180 000, Subtract $87 000 to find the excess. Add the first
in the fourth row of the table. Tax is $19 822 plus 0.37 × excess. amount given in
Excess = $105 631 − $87 000 that cell of the
= $18 631 tax column if
Tax = $19 822 + 0.37 × $18 631 appropriate.
= $26 715.47

EXERCISE 1G Calculating tax
1 Complete to find the income tax payable on $47 953.
$47 953 is in the range ____________ in the ____ row of the tax table.
Excess = ____ − $37 000 = ____
Tax = ____ + 0.325 × ____ = ____
2 What is the income tax payable on each of these taxable incomes?

a $96 564 b $48 911 c $8100 d $31 000
3 The table below shows the pay rates for state MPs, not including electoral allowances. Calculate the amount
of income tax that would be payable on these annual salaries. Round each amount to the nearest dollar.
Office Pay
Premier $377 780
Deputy premier $318 937
Minister $287 515
Parliamentary secretary $235 668
Government whip $185 392
4 The table shows the estimated 2017 starting salaries for new graduates. Calculate the amount
of income tax that would be payable on these annual salaries.
Profession Starting salary

Dentistry $85 000
Medicine $61 000
Optometry $80 000
Engineering $66 000
Computer science $59 000
Veterinary science $50 000
Education $65 600
Accounting $55 000
Psychology $63 000
5 Julie is paid an annual salary of $33 700 and receives an income of $896 from other sources.
a Calculate Julie’s total annual income.
b Use the tax table on the opposite page to help you determine the amount of income tax Julie will need to
pay on her total income.
6 Joshua earns $47 500 per year.

a Calculate the amount of income tax he must pay.
b Calculate the Medicare levy Joshua must pay. (Hint: the full Medicare levy is 2% of taxable income.)
c What is the total amount of tax Joshua must pay?
7 Sam has a few odd jobs. In total, he earns $22 500 per year. He receives a tax deduction of $2600. Calculate:
a his taxable income b the income tax payable on his taxable income
c the Medicare levy payable d the total tax payable.

EXAMPLE 1G–2 Calculating tax refund or balance payable
Sarah works as a secretary and receives a yearly salary of $34 479 plus an income of $1950 per year from
babysitting. Her total tax deductions are $1570. During the year she paid tax instalments of $3265.
a Find her taxable income. b Calculate the Medicare levy she needs to pay.
c Find the income tax payable on her taxable income. d Find her tax refund or tax balance payable.
Solve Think Apply
a Total income = $34 479 + $1950 Add Sarah’s salary and Calculate the
= $36 429 babysitting income. taxable income
Taxable income = $36 429 − $1570 Taxable income by subtracting all
= $34 859 = total income − tax deductions
tax deductions
b Medicare levy = 2% of $34 859 The full Medicare levy applies from total income.
= $697.18 for taxable incomes in excess of Use the tax table
$26 668. to calculate
c Tax = 19 cents per $ in excess of $18 200 Income tax payable on $34 859 is the income tax
= 0.19 × ($34 859 − $18 200) in the range $18 201−$37 000 in payable. Compare
the tax paid
= $3165.21 row 2 of the tax table.
with the total
d Total tax due = Medicare levy + income tax Sarah has already paid $3950.
tax liability to
= $697.18 + $3165.21 She only needed to pay $3862.39.
determine if a
= $3862.39 She has paid too much and will
refund is payable.
Tax refund = $3950 − $3862.39 receive a refund.
= $87.61
8 Brittany earns $89 452 as a company manager and $5203 as a part-time singer. She has tax deductions of
$2612 and, throughout the year, pays a total of $20 867.40 in tax instalments. Complete the following to find:
a her total income = $89 452 + ____ = ____
b her taxable income = ____ − ____ = ____
c the tax payable = ____ + 0.37 × (____ − $87 000)
= ____
d her tax refund = $20 867.40 − ____
= ____
9 Celine earns $32 056 per annum as an environmentalist and $8159 as a part-time analyst. She has tax
deductions of $4903 and has paid $5123.90 in tax instalments.
a Find her taxable income.
b Calculate the Medicare levy she needs to pay.
c Find the income tax payable on her taxable income.
d Find her tax refund or tax balance payable.
10 Mr Benton works part time and has a yearly salary of $29 760.
He receives a salary of $2500 from his hobby of wood
carving. His tax deductions amount to $1090 and throughout
the year he has paid PAYG instalments of $3215.90.
a Calculate his taxable income.
b Calculate the Medicare levy he needs to pay.
c Calculate income tax payable on his taxable income.
d Calculate his tax refund or tax balance payable.

11 Ricky earns $84 365 as a cabaret artist
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N and $4620 from his share portfolio.
He has tax deductions of $13 884 and,
throughout the year, pays a total of
$15 988 in tax instalments.
a Find his taxable income.
b Calculate the Medicare levy Ricky
needs to pay.
c Find the income tax payable on his
taxable income.
d Find the tax refund or tax balance
payable.
12 Use the PAYG payment summary on the

right to find and calculate:
a gross income
b taxable income if there are
deductions of $1350
c the Medicare levy payable on the
taxable income
d income tax payable on the
taxable income
e tax paid
f tax refund or tax balance payable.
(Note: ignore the allowances shown
on the PAYG payment summary)
13 Use the PAYG payment summary shown

on page 35 and your answers to question
11 in Exercise 1F to find and calculate:
a income tax payable on the
taxable income
b the Medicare levy payable on the taxable income
c tax refund or tax balance payable.
14 Find the starting salaries for three apprenticeships of your choice. Work out the tax payable and the take-
home pay. Websites for organisations such as Fair Work Australia could be useful.
15 The spreadsheet shown on the right is provided in your obook A B

SPREADSHEET APPLICATION
assess. It allows you to calculate the amount of income tax

1 Tax calculator
payable on a given taxable income.
2
The formula typed into cell B5 is:
3 Taxable income = $35 641
=IF(B3>180000,(B3-180000)*0.45+54232,
IF(B3>87000,(B3-87000)*0.37+19822, IF(B3>37000, 4
(B3-37000)*0.325+3572, IF(B3>18200,(B3-18200)*0.19, 5 Tax payable = $3313.79
IF(B3>0,”NO TAX”))))) 6
Explain why the formula works. Try using it to calculate tax.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW EARNING AND MANAGING MONEY
You should be able to:
✔ convert between annual, weekly, fortnightly and monthly incomes
✔ calculate incomes that include special allowances or loadings, such as holiday loading
✔ calculate pay when overtime is paid
✔ calculate incomes based on commissions, piecework and royalties
✔ understand and calculate bonus payments
✔ use charts and tables to calculate pensions, government allowances and health insurance payments
✔ calculate the Medicare levy and student loan repayments.
✔ calculate superannuation contributions and payments
✔ calculate net income and understand the difference between gross income and net income
✔ calculate tax payable on taxable income.
Create a summary overview of this chapter. Include your own descriptions of key terms and strategies.
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1A 1 Katrina is a part-time employee and receives an annual salary of $19 370. What is her weekly salary?
A $1616.17 B $403.54 C $372.50 D $745
1A 2 Zoltan is paid $17.90 per hour. What are his earnings for a 26-hour week?
A $465.40 B $17.90 C $930.80 D $698.10
1A 3 Andre is an apprentice and works 9 hours per day, five days per week. He is paid $8.43 per hour. What is his
annual income?
A $75.84 B $379.35 C $18 208.80 D $19 726.20
1A 4 Mal receives a salary of $63 428 per annum. He works six days per week, 8 hours per day. What is his
hourly rate?
A $25.41 B $27.52 C $27.53 D $50.82
1B 5 Paula is a junior and works during the school holidays. She is paid $15.70 per hour normal rate. She works
30 normal hours, 6 hours at time-and-a half and 3 hours at double-time. What is her pay?
A $471 B $612.30 C $642.96 D $706.50
1B 6 Zanthia receives a bonus at Christmas of 6.2% of her $27 695 salary. What is the amount of her bonus?
A $1717.09 B $276.95 C $33.02 D $6.20
1B 7 Paulette is a permanent part-time employee and is paid $456 per week. She receives a holiday loading of 17__12 %
on her 4 weeks holiday pay. What is her total holiday pay?
A $79.80 B $319.20 C $775.20 D $2143.20
1C 8 Marek is paid a weekly retainer of $400 and 13% commission on sales in excess of $5000. What is his pay in a
week when he has sales of $8350?
A $1085.50 B $435.50 C $835.50 D $1685.50

1C 9 Alexia is paid $362 commission on sales of $4525. What is her percentage rate of commission?
A 0.08% B 8% C 12.5% D 3.62%
1C 10 Sue picks mushrooms and is paid $2.15 per box. What is her pay for picking 53 boxes?
A $24.65 B $53 C $4.05 D $113.95
1C 11 Charles is paid a royalty of 8% on total sales. What is his royalty for sales of $356 990?
A $28 559.20 B $3569.90 C $44 623.75 D $35 699
1D 12 The fortnightly living-at-home student rate for a single person under 18 years is $239.50. It reduces by
50 cents for every dollar in excess of $437 earned per fortnight. Sharon is 17, living at home and earning
$451 per fortnight. What is her allowance?
A $7 B $239.50 C $232.50 D $690.50
1E 13 Bernadette receives a gross income of $35 866. She has the following deductions: $3159 PAYG tax; health
insurance of $425; and superannuation contribution of $1240. What is her net income?
A $31 467 B $31 042 C $40 690 D $200 134
1E 14 Trina has an annual salary of $41 908. when she retires, her superannuation will pay her 63% of her salary each
year. What will be her annual income from her superannuation?
A $68 310.04 B $2 640 204 C $15 505.96 D $26 402.04
1F 15 Ossie works part-time for a wage of $23 879 per annum. He receives a bonus of $800, pays tax agent fees of
$60, makes donations to charity of $75 and is entitled to a deduction for work-related car expenses of $356.
What is Ossie’s taxable income?
A $24 415 B $25 397 C $24 188 D $23 961
1F 16 The Medicare levy is 2% of taxable income provided the taxable income exceeds $26 668. What is the Medicare
levy on a taxable income of $34 677?
A $120.14 B $693.54 C $1 201.40 D $8009
1G 17 The income tax on $100 666 is $19 822 plus 37 cents per dollar over $87 000. What is the tax payable on
$100 666?
A $24 878.42 B $19 822 C $ 14 765.58 D $5056.42
REVIEW SET 1
1 An electrician works a 42-hour week. Find his yearly pay if he earns $36.50 per hour.
2 Indera receives an annual salary of $57 801. Convert this to a weekly salary and find Indera’s average hourly
rate if she works 48 hours per week.
3 Brian is paid $17.63 per hour. Calculate his weekly wage if he works 35 hours at normal time and 7 hours
overtime at time-and-a-half.
4 Jack is a security guard and is paid $26.50 per hour. If he works on the door, he is paid an extra $30 danger
money. Find Jack’s wage for a week in which he is on the door for 3 nights and works 30 hours.
5 Georgina works as a personal assistant and is paid $696 per week. If her 4 weeks of holiday pay attracts a
loading of 17__12 %, find her pay for her holidays.
6 Tony is paid 1.2% commission on any sales made. Find his commission on a house that sells for $676 500.

7 Mark waxes surfboards for the surf hire shop. He is paid $7.40 per waxed board.
Find his pay for a day in which he waxes 11 boards.
8 Martin is paid a royalty of 10.8% on sales of his book. His sales for a year are
$63 580. Calculate his royalty payment.
9 Lorena is a job seeker and living away from home. She is 16 and entitled to Youth
Allowance. Use the charts in Topic 1D to answer these questions.
b How much could she earn before she loses her allowance completely?
10 Mary and Ian are entitled to the age pension. They are a couple with a combined
income of $459.00 per fortnight. The full pension for a couple is $1073.40 per
fortnight. Use the table in Topic 1D to calculate the combined pension paid to them.
11 Calculate net income if gross income is $790.25 per week, tax is $93.75,
superannuation contribution is $39.51 and union fees are $6.30.
12 Calculate the gross income of a part-time employee if her net income is $373.21,
tax is $82.10, health insurance is $27.60 and superannuation contribution is
$55.40.
13 Harry is single and takes out basic hospital cover with a $500 excess. Use the
table in Topic 1E to find his weekly premium.
14 Martha uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $36 522, interest $64, tax agent
fee $65, work-related car expenses $1274 and donations to charity $225. Calculate Martha’s taxable income.
15 The Medicare levy is 2% of taxable income over $26 668. Calculate the Medicare levy payable on a taxable
income of $39 359.
16 Use the tax table in Topic 1G to calculate the income tax payable on each of these taxable incomes.
a $57 368 b $31 259 c $6422 d $82 330
17 Gloria earns $47 366 per annum as a company manager and $4865 as a part-time tax agent. She has tax
deductions of $3698 and, throughout the year, pays a total of $8978.40 in PAYG tax instalments. Calculate:
a her taxable income b the Medicare levy she needs to pay
c the income tax payable on her taxable income d her tax refund or tax balance payable.
REVIEW SET 2
1 Jan earns $62 475 per annum. Calculate her weekly pay and her hourly rate if she works 35 hours per week.
2 Akbar works a 7-hour day, six days per week. His hourly rate is $22.56. Find his pay for 1 year.
3 Visnoo is paid $11.95 per hour for a 30-hour week. He is paid overtime at double-time for all other hours.
Calculate his pay for a week in which he works 38 hours.
4 Hewey works as an apprentice plumber and is paid $11.30 per hour. He is paid a digging allowance of $11.50
per day if he has to dig trenches and $15.80 per day if he works on open sewers. Find his pay for a week in
which he works 42 hours, digs on 2 days and works on an open sewer for 3 days.

5 Tabitha received a 17__12 % holiday loading on 4 weeks normal wages. She normally works a 32-hour week.
a Find her normal weekly pay. b What is her normal hourly pay rate?
6 Robert sells new cars valued at $35 675. Find his pay if his commission is 4.5%.
7 Mitchell is a student living at home. He is 17 and entitled to Youth Allowance. Use the charts in Topic 1D to
calculate the allowance Mitchell receives each fortnight if he earns $270 per week.
8 Calculate net weekly income if gross income is $635.28 per week, tax is $128.54, superannuation contribution
is $27.60, and health insurance is $26.20.
9 Calculate gross weekly income if net income is $372.55, tax is $89.10, health insurance is $34.80 and
superannuation is $15.50.
10 Brent is single and takes out top hospital cover with no excess. Use the table in Topic 1G to find his weekly
premium.
11 Kang earns $1728 per week. His employer contributes 9% of that amount to Kang’s superannuation fund and Kang
contributes 3%. Calculate Kang’s net weekly income and the total weekly contribution to his superannuation.
12 Giselle uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $67 220, interest $985, meal
allowance $612, bonus $5000, tax agent fee $180, work-related car expenses $1255 and donations to charity
$600. Calculate Giselle’s taxable income.
13 The Medicare levy on taxable incomes between $21 335 and $26 668 is 10 cents in the dollar for each dollar in
excess of $21 335. Calculate the Medicare levy on $22 317.
a $66 889 b $33 699 c $19 369 d $5522
15 Shania earns $38 996 per annum as a cocktail attendant and $7560 as a part-time singer. She has tax deductions
of $3561 and, throughout the year, pays a total of $6963.30 in tax instalments. Find:
c income tax payable on her taxable income d her tax refund or tax balance payable.
REVIEW SET 3
1 Erica works part-time and earns $29 881 per annum. Calculate her weekly pay.
2 Ronaldo works 5 hours a day, five days per week. Find his hourly rate if his annual income is $26 031.
3 Mona earns $14.28 for the first 35 hours in a week. She receives time-and-a-half for the next 8 hours and
double-time after that. Find her pay for a 52-hour week.
4 Regina works in a cafe and receives a uniform allowance of $8.50 per day. Her hourly rate of pay is $15.23.
Find her pay if she works 5 days for 4 hours per day.
5 Ling works as a personal assistant and is paid $753 per week. If her 4 weeks of holiday pay attracts a loading of
17__12 %, what is her pay for her holidays?
6 Robyn is paid a commission of 5.8% of the price of any item of jewellery she sells. If Robyn sells a ring for
$5250, how much is her commission?

7 Steven is paid a royalty of 9.8% on sales of his book. If his sales for the year are $265 800, what is his royalty?
8 Fabrice is a job seeker and living at home. He is 17 and entitled to Youth Allowance. Use the charts in Topic 1D
to calculate the allowance Fabrice receives each fortnight if he earns $280 per fortnight.
9 Maurice is single with an income of $625 per fortnight. He is entitled to the age pension. If the full pension is
$808.30 per fortnight, calculate the pension Maurice will receive. Use the chart in Topic 1D.
10 Calculate net weekly income if gross income is $956.31 per week, tax is $148.24, superannuation contribution
is $38.25, union fees are $7.00 and health insurance is $23.50.
11 Larry is single and takes out basic hospital cover with the maximum excess. Use the table in Topic 1E to find
his weekly premium.
12 Vanja uses the following information to calculate his taxable income: wages $53 005, interest $134 (joint
account), cost of uniforms $600, cleaning of uniforms $260, tax agent fee $100 and work-related car expenses
$2551. Calculate Vanja’s taxable income.
13 The Medicare levy is 2% of taxable income over $26 668. Calculate the Medicare levy payable on a taxable
income of $30 080.
a $72 556 b $38 694 c $21 211 d $5006
15 Tania earns $48 259 per annum as a musician and $9634 in royalties from her recordings. She has tax
deductions of $4980 and throughout the year pays a total of $8413.44 in tax instalments. Find:
REVIEW SET 4
1 Pauline earns $62 408 per annum. Calculate her hourly rate if she works 38 hours per week.
2 Fielding is paid $23.37 per hour. He works 5 hours per day, six days a week. Find his pay for one year.
3 James is an apprentice and is paid $11.22 per hour. Calculate his weekly wage if he works 35 hours at normal
time and 5 hours overtime at time-and-a-half.
4 Ross works in a timber yard and is paid $25.40 per hour. He receives a dust allowance of $12.50 per day. Find
his pay for a five-day, 38-hour week.
5 Endora received a 17__12 % holiday loading on 4 weeks normal wages. She normally works a 30-hour week.
a Find her normal weekly pay. b Find her normal hourly pay rate.
6 A factory worker is paid $4.35 for each completed garment. Calculate his wage if he completes 429 garments.
7 Willow is paid a royalty of 8.3% on sales of her book. Her sales for a year are $149 000. Find her royalty.
8 Agneska is a student living away from home. She is 19 and entitled to Youth Allowance. Use the charts in
Topic 1D to calculate the allowance Agneska receives each fortnight if she earns $300 per week.

9 Carol and John are entitled to the age pension. They are a couple with a combined income of $428.00 per
fortnight. The full pension for each person is $609.30 per fortnight. Calculate the total pension paid to
Carol and John. Use the chart in Topic 1D.
10 Sam receives a gross weekly wage of $911.03. His weekly deductions are tax of $133.23, union fees of $5.20,
health insurance of $11.80, and superannuation contribution of $19.50. Calculate his net income.
11 Calculate gross income if net income is $540.61, tax is $58.12, health insurance is $15.50, and superannuation
contribution is $38.00.
12 Perry is single and takes out intermediate hospital cover with the minimum payable excess. Use the table in
Topic 1E to help you find his weekly premium.
13 Ito uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $28 369, interest $32 (joint account),
bonus $300, cost of uniforms $250, tax agent fee $50 and work-related car expenses $25. Calculate Ito’s
taxable income.
a $55 233 b $28 775 c $7998 d $22 225
15 Natalie earns $38 555 per annum as a recording artist and $23 997 in royalties. She has tax deductions of $8550
and, throughout the year, pays a total of $10 044.44 in tax instalments. Find:
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION

1 a Bimo is paid $652 for a 38-hour week.
i Convert this to an annual salary. (1 mark)
ii What is Bimo’s hourly rate? (1 mark)
iii Bimo’s mother says his monthly pay is $2608. Is she correct? Explain using calculations. (2 marks)
b Leanne received 17__12 % holiday loading for 4 weeks holiday calculated on her normal weekly
wage of $946. Calculate the holiday pay for her 4 weeks holiday. (2 marks)
c Turay is paid a commission of 8% on all sales and a retainer of $200 per week. He is offered
a new pay deal of 10% on all sales. By calculating Turay’s weekly pay based on average weekly
sales of $9000, decide if he should accept the new pay deal. Give reasons for your answer. (3 marks)
d Jenny is single and receives the age pension of $808.60 per fortnight. She takes a part-time
job earning $300 per fortnight. She loses 50 cents of her pension for each dollar she earns
in excess of $164. Find her adjusted pension payment. (3 marks)
e Maria’s gross income is $46 832 p.a. She pays 4% superannuation, health insurance
of $758 and $425 union fees.

i Calculate her superannuation payment. (1 mark)
ii Find Maria’s net income. (2 marks)
TOTAL: 15 marks

2
47
Practicalities
of measurement
▶ understanding approximations and significant
figures
▶ expressing numbers in scientific notation
▶ converting between metric units of measurement
▶ using prefixes for units of measurement
▶ calculating error in measurement
▶ understanding accuracy of measurement.
MEASUREMENT
MS-M1 Applications of Measurement M1.1

47
ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

2A 1 What does the first non-zero digit in the 2C 8 Which length measurement is equivalent to
number 5083 represent? 2354 mm?
A ones B tens A 2.354 m B 23.54 m
C hundreds D thousands C 235.4 m D 0.2354 m
2A 2 What is the result when 482 096 is rounded to 2C 9 Which area measurement is equivalent to 3 m2?
the nearest 1000? A 300 cm2 B 3000 cm2
A 480 000 B 482 000 C 30 000 cm2 D 300 000 cm2
C 483 000 D 48 000
2C 10 Which volume measurement is equivalent to
2A 3 How many decimal places does 5 cm3?
56.08 have? A 50 mm3 B 500 mm3
A 1 B 2 C 5000 mm3 D 50 000 mm3
C 3 D 4
2E 11 The ruler below is marked in centimetres. To
2A 4 What is the result when 0.639 74 is rounded to the nearest centimetre, what length does the line
three decimal places? segment show?
A 0.63 B 0.64
CM 1 2 3 4 5 6
C 0.639 D 0.640
2A 5 Which decimal value is equivalent to the A 3 cm B 4 cm
fraction __78 ? C 4 __12 cm D 5 cm
A 0.0875 B 0.78 2F 12 What is the area of a rectangle that is 12 cm

C 0.87 D 0.875 long and 7 cm wide?
A 19 cm2 B 38 cm2
2B 6 What is the result of 3.74 × 1000?
C 84 cm2 D 168 cm2
A 374 B 3740
C 37 400 D 374 000 2F 13 What is the perimeter of the rectangle in
question 12?
2B 7 What is the result of 5.031 ÷ 100?
A 19 cm B 38 cm
A 0.050 31 B 0.0531 C 84 cm D 168 cm
C 0.5031 D 0.005 031
Q1–2 Support sheet 2A.1 Understanding place value in decimals
Q3–4 Support sheet 2A.2 Decimal places and rounding
Q5 Support sheet 2A.3 Converting between fractions and decimals
Q6–7 Support sheet 2B.1 Multiplying and dividing by 10, 100, 1000, etc.
Q8 Support sheet 2C.1 Length conversions
Q9 Support sheet 2C.2 Area conversions
Q10 Support sheet 2C.3 Volume conversions
Q11 Support sheet 2E.1 Accuracy in measurement
Q12 Support sheet 2F.1 Area of a rectangle
Q13 Support sheet 2F.2 Finding perimeter
Chapter 2 Practicalities of measurement 47

2A Significant figures
• Video tutorial 2A: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 2A-1
significant figures The significant figures in a number are the important or meaningful figures. A crowd of
the number of 61 348 is approximately 61 000, indicating that only the first two figures (digits) are important.
digits in a number
that indicate its It is impossible to cut a piece of timber to a length of 1.333 333… m. The digits after the
accuracy fourth figure, are completely meaningless in this case.
EXAMPLE 2A–1 Rounding to a given number of significant figures

The first significant figure in a number is the first non-zero digit, reading from left to right. Round each of
the following to:
i one significant figure ii two significant figures iii three significant figures
a 293 568 b 0.076 04
Solve Think
a i 300 000 Locate the relevant significant figure and then round appropriately using the next digit.
The first non-zero digit is 2. This is the first significant figure. The next digit (9) is bigger
than 5; so, rounded to one significant figure, 293 568 ≈ 300 000. (This is the same as
rounding 293 568 to the nearest 100 000 because the first significant figure is in the
100 000s column.)
ii 290 000 The second significant figure is 9. The next digit (3) is smaller than 5; so, rounded to
two significant figures, 293 568 ≈ 290 000. (This is the same as rounding 293 568 to
the nearest 10 000 because the second significant figure is in the 10 000s column.)
iii 294 000 The third significant figure is 3. The next digit is 5; so, rounded to three significant
figures, 293 568 ≈ 294 000.
(This is the same as rounding 293 568 to the nearest 1000 because the third significant
figure is in the 1000s column.)
b i 0.08 The first non-zero digit is 7. This is the first significant figure. The next digit (6) is bigger
than 5; so, rounded to one significant figure, 0.076 04 ≈ 0.08. (This is the same as rounding
0.076 04 to two decimal places because the first significant figure is in the second place
after the decimal point; or rounding to the nearest hundredth because the first significant
figure is in the hundredths column.)
ii 0.076 The second significant figure is 6. The next digit (0) is smaller than 5; so, rounded to
two significant figures, 0.076 04 ≈ 0.076. (This is the same as rounding 0.076 04 to three
decimal places because the second significant figure is in the third place after the decimal
point; or rounding to the nearest thousandth because the second significant figure is in the
thousandths column.)
iii 0.0760 The third significant figure is 0. The next digit (4) is smaller than 5; so, rounded to three
significant figures, 0.076 04 ≈ 0.0760. (This is the same as rounding 0.076 04 to four
decimal places because the third significant figure is in the fourth place after the decimal
point; or rounding to the nearest ten-thousandth, because the third significant figure is in
the ten-thousandths column.)

EXERCISE 2A Significant figures
1 Complete the following to round:
a 5368 to three significant figures.

The first non-zero digit is ____. This is the first significant figure. The third significant figure is ____.
The digit after this is smaller than/bigger than/equal to 5, indicating that, when rounded, the number is
closer to ____ than to ____. So, rounded to three significant figures, 5368 ≈ ____.
b 0.062 53 to three significant figures.
The first non-zero digit is ____. This is the first significant figure. The third significant figure is ____.
The digit after this is smaller than/bigger than/equal to 5, indicating that, when rounded, the number is
closer to ____ than to ____. So, rounded to three significant figures, 0.062 53 ≈ ____.
2 Round each of the following to one significant figure.

a 42 600 b 59 c 4.6 d 108
e 0.6529 f 0.0082 g 0.025 h 990
3 Round each of the following to two significant figures.

a 290 365 b 3960 c 24.9 d 2653
e 8.63 f 0.0487 g 0.000 162 8 h 0.003 97
4 Round each of the following to three significant figures.

a 3688 b 20 657 c 154 299 d 813.4
e 14.294 f 0.003 508 1 g 0.039 14 h 1.999
5 Round each of the following to:

i one significant figure ii two significant figures iii three significant figures.
a 17.256 b 0.450 72 c 521 500 d 0.002 095
6 Express 3 __27 as a decimal correct to four significant figures.
7 Express each of the following numbers as a decimal correct to three significant figures and arrange the
numbers
__
in ascending order (from smallest to largest).
•
√2 , 1. 4, 1 __ 10
2 , __
5 7
8 A town’s average rainfall in summer over six successive years is 246.5 mm, 237.6 mm, 366.9 mm,
287.4 mm, 412.8 mm and 348.2 mm. Calculate the average rainfall for the town over this six-year period,
correct to four significant figures.
9 A car travels for 3 __21 hours at 71 km/h and then for 2 __14 hours at 75 km/h.
a Find the total distance travelled by the car, correct to four significant figures.
b Calculate the average speed for the whole trip, correct to two significant figures.
10 A satellite orbits the Earth at a height of 32 km above Earth’s surface. The

CHALLENGE
diameter of the Earth is 12 740 km.

a Find the radius, to five significant figures, of the satellite’s orbit, assuming
that orbit is circular.
b Calculate the length (l) of the satellite’s orbit, using l = 2πr where r is the
radius. Write your answer to five significant figures.
c If the satellite travels at a speed of 26 000 km/h, calculate how long, in
minutes, correct to three significant figures it will take to complete one orbit.

2B Scientific notation
scientific notation • Interactive 2B: Explore key ideas for scientific notation
a value written as • Investigation 2B: Investigate measurements in our solar system
a number from • assess quiz 2B: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
1 up to, but not
including, 10 (with Scientific notation (or standard notation) is a convenient way of writing very large and very
any number of
decimal places)
small numbers. A number written in scientific notation is written as the product of a number
multiplied by a between 1 and 10 and a power of 10; that is, it is put in the form A × 10n where A lies between
power of 10 1 and 10, and n is an integer (whole number).
EXAMPLE 2B–1 Identifying numbers written in scientific notation

State whether the following numbers are expressed in scientific notation.
a 5.3 × 107 b 78 × 105 c 4.9 × 10 000 d 3 × 10−4 e 294 000
Solve Think Apply
a Yes The first number in the product (5.3) is between 1 and 10, the A number is written in
second number (107) is a power of 10. scientific notation if it is
b No The first number (78) is not between 1 and 10. written as the product of
a number from 1 up to 10
c No The second number (10 000) is not written as a power of 10.
and a power of 10.
d Yes The first number in the product (3) is between 1 and 10, the
second number (10−4) is a power of 10.
e No 294 000 is not written as a product of two numbers.
EXERCISE 2B Scientific notation

1 Use the flow diagram below to determine whether the given numbers are expressed in scientific notation.
a 2.91 × 10−17 b 53 × 106 c 3.8 × 100 000 d 326

Is the given number expressed
NO
as the product of two numbers?
YES
Is the first number between The number is not written

NO
1 and 10? in scientific notation.
YES
Is the second number expressed

NO
as a power of 10?
YES
The number is written in

scientific notation.

2 State whether the following numbers are written in scientific notation.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a 3.6 × 105 b 5.2 × 10 000 c 21 × 105 d 2.87 × 10−6
1
_______
e 6.07 × 1 000 000 f 594 × 10 −5
g 70 × 108 h 3.06 × 10−9
EXAMPLE 2B–2 Writing numbers in scientific notation

Write these numbers in scientific notation.
a 138 000 b 0.000 486
Solve Think Apply
a 1.38 × 105 Move the decimal point so that it is positioned between Move the decimal point
the first and second digits. This always produces a so that it is positioned
number between 1 and 10, in this case 1.380 00. between the first two
Count the number of places back to the original digits. This produces a
position of the decimal point: 1.380 00 number between 1 and
Number of places = five to the right 10. Count the number
= +5 of places back to the
This becomes the power of 10: original position of the
138 000 = 1.380 00 × 105 decimal point. This
= 1.38 × 105 (leave off the zeros) becomes the power of 10.
b 4.86 × 10−4 Move the decimal point so that it is positioned between Note: When counting
the first and second digits, in this case 4.86. back to the original
Count the number of places back to the original position of the decimal
position of the decimal point: 00 004.86 point, counting to the
Number of places = four to the left right produces a positive
= −4 power of 10 and counting
This becomes the power of 10: to the left produces a
0.000 486 = 4.86 × 10−4 negative power of 10.
3 Complete the following to write each number in scientific notation.

a 243 000
Position the decimal point between the first two digits → ________.
The number of places to the original position of the decimal point = _____ to the _____
= +_____.
So, 243 000 = _____ × 10□
b 0.000 586
Position the decimal point between the first two digits → ________.
The number of places to the original position of the decimal point = _____ to the _____
= −_____.
So, 0.000 586 = _____ × 10 □
4 Use the method in Example 2B-2 to write each of these numbers in scientific notation.
a 526 000 b 28 000 c 7 000 000 d 49 800
MEASUREMENT
e 28 000 000 f 603 000 000 g 910 000 h 13 200 000 000
5 Use the method in Example 2B-2 to write each of these numbers in scientific notation.
a 0.000 43 b 0.008 21 c 0.000 007 d 0.000 029
e 0.065 f 0.000 387 g 0.000 008 2 h 0.000 06

EXAMPLE 2B–3 Changing from scientific notation to an ordinary number
Write the following as ordinary (or basic) numbers.

a 4.83 × 107 b 9.2 × 10−6
Solve Think Apply
a 48 300 000 Because the power of 10 is +7, the decimal point The magnitude of the power of
is moved 7 places to the right. 10 tells us how many places to
48 300 000 move the decimal point.
so 4.83 × 107 = 48 300 000 If the power of 10 is positive,
b 0.000 009 2 move the decimal point to the
Because the power of 10 is −6, the decimal point
right. If the power of 10 is
is moved 6 places to the left.
negative, move it to the left.
0 000 009 2
so 9.2 × 10−6 = 0.000 009 2
6 Complete the statements to write each of these numbers as an ordinary number.

a 5.48 × 106 Move the decimal point ____ places to the ____. 5.48 × 106 = ________.
b 3.09 × 10 −5
Move the decimal point ____ places to the ____. 3.09 × 10−5 = ________.
7 Express these as ordinary numbers.

a 3.4 × 106 b 8.3 × 108 c 2.94 × 107 d 2.58 × 105
e 5.26 × 105 f 3.02 × 1012 g 2.9 × 107 h 8.75 × 108
8 Write the basic number for:

a 5.9 × 10−4 b 3.2 × 10−6 c 7.1 × 10−8 d 2 × 10−3
e 8 × 10 −7
f 2.64 × 10−5 g 8.67 × 10−9 h 2.97 × 10−6
EXAMPLE 2B–4 Calculating numbers in scientific notation

Use your calculator to find:
a (3.5 × 107) × (2.4 × 109) b (6.4 × 108) ÷ (2.5 × 10–6)
_________
c √2.4 × 1010 d (1.5 × 107)3
Solve Think Apply
a 8.4 × 1016 Possible steps using a Casio calculator are: If the answer is not displayed
Press 3.5 3 10x 7 3 2.4 3 10x 9 5 in scientific notation, you
could use the SCI function
Answer: 8.4 × 10 16
on the calculator to express

b 2.56 × 1014 Press 6.4 3 10x 8 4 2.5 3 10x −6
6 5 the answer in this form.
Answer: 2.56 × 10 14
c 1.55 × 105 Press √ 2.4 3 10x 10 5

Answer: 1.55 × 10 to three significant figures
5
d 3.375 × 1021 Press 1.5 3 10x 7 x 3 5

Answer: 3.375 × 10 21

9 Calculate the following, correct to three significant figures. Write the answers in scientific notation.
a (2.6 × 108) × (4.1 × 107) b (5.8 × 109) × (8.2 ×1012)
c (9.2 × 10 ) × (3.5 × 10 )
24 −8
d (5.8 × 10−6) × (2.4 × 10−9)
e (8.4 × 1018) ÷ (2.5 × 107) f (5.25 × 1012) ÷ (4.2 × 10−8)
g (1.82 × 10 ) × (2.9 × 10 )
−6 −10
h (2.8 × 108)4 × (1.6 × 106) ÷ (2.1 × 1015)
_________ ________
i √5.76 × 10 16 j √6.8 × 10 17
__________
k √(3.1 × 10 8 ) 5 l (8 × 10−10)6
10 Express the following numbers in scientific notation.

a The distance of Mars from the Sun is approximately 229 000 000 km.
b The diameter of the hydrogen atom is 0.000 000 000 025 4 m.
c The Sun produces the same amount of light as
3 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 candles.
d There are approximately 130 000 hairs on a person’s head.
e There are approximately 10 000 000 000 000 cells in the human body.
11 Change the numbers in the following to ordinary numbers.

a There are approximately 3.16 × 107 s in a year.
b A molecule’s diameter is 8.9 × 10−7 mm.
c The number of different possible hands in the card game Poker is approximately 2.6 × 106.
d Swarms of locusts have been known to contain as many as 3 × 1010 locusts.
e The size of the influenza virus is approximately 2.6 × 10−4 mm.
12 a Light travels at a velocity of 300 000 km/s. Express 300 000 in scientific notation.
b How far does light travel in:
i 1 minute? ii 1 hour? iii 1 day? iv 1 year?
c If light takes 4.1 min to reach Earth from Mars, what is the distance from Earth to Mars?
13 The radius of the Earth is approximately 6400 km.

a Calculate the area of the Earth’s surface, to two significant figures. (Use A = 4 πr 2.)
b Calculate the volume of the Earth, to two significant figures. (Use V = __43 πr 3.)
14 The radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is approximately 1.49 × 108 km. Assuming that the orbit is
circular, calculate to two significant figures the distance travelled by the Earth in one orbit. (Use C = 2πr.)
15 a The human brain contains about 1010 cells. Write this as an ordinary number.
b Each human brain cell is about 2.8 × 10−5 m long. If all the brain cells could be placed next to each
other, in a straight line, how long would this line be?
16 Measure your pulse to determine the number of times your heart beats in a minute. If you live to be 75 years
of age, how many times will your heart have beaten in this time? (Assume your pulse remains constant.)
17 Light travels at approximately 3 × 105 km/s and sound travels at 330 m/s.
CHALLENGE
a After the starter fires the starting gun, how long does it take:
i the sight of the smoke from the gun to reach a timekeeper standing at the end of a 100 m running
MEASUREMENT
track. Give your answer in scientific notation to four significant figures.

ii the sound of the gun to reach the timekeeper, in scientific notation to four significant figures.
b What is the difference between the times from your answers to part a?
c If the timekeeper’s stopwatch measures time to the nearest hundredth of a second, does it matter if she
uses the sight of the smoke or the sound of the gun to start the stopwatch?

2C Metric units of
measurement
• Interactive 2C.1: Explore key ideas for converting units of length
• Interactive 2C.2: Explore key ideas for converting units of area and volume
• assess quiz 2C: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
The metric system of measurement uses base units for quantities such as length, mass, capacity, area
and volume.
The prefix of each unit name indicates the factor of 10 by which the base unit is multiplied.
EXERCISE 2C Metric units of measurement

1 Complete this conversion diagram for length.
× 1000 × 10
kilometres metres centimetres millimetres

(km) (m) (cm) (mm)
÷ 10
EXAMPLE 2C–1 Converting units of length

Convert these lengths.
a 2.5 km = ___ m b 430 mm = ___ m.
Solve Think Apply
a 2.5 km = (2.5 × 1000) m 1 km = 1000 m, so conversion factor is 1000. To convert to a smaller

= 2500 m Multiply by the conversion factor since we are unit, multiply by the
converting from km to the smaller unit of m. conversion factor.
b 430 mm = (430 ÷ 10) cm First convert from mm to cm (conversion To convert to a larger
= 43 cm factor of 10) and then convert from cm to m unit, divide by the
= (43 ÷ 100) m (conversion factor of 100). In each case, conversion factor.
= 0.43 m divide by the conversion factor because we
are converting to a larger unit.
2 Convert these lengths.

a 3.6 km = ___ m b 8.4 m = ___ mm c 34.82 m = ___ cm d 0.56 km = ___ m
e 2.9 m = ___ cm f 0.964 m = ___ mm g 0.658 m = ___ cm h 45.2 cm = ___ mm
i 15.68 km = ___ m j 3.69 cm = ___ mm k 16.37 m = ___ mm l 4.265 km = ___ m
3 a i Complete: 1 km = ___ cm. ii Express the answer in scientific notation.

b i Complete: 1 km = ___ mm. ii Express the answer in scientific notation.

4 Convert these lengths.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a 7000 m = ___ km b 594 cm = ___ m c 8930 m = ___ km d 6000 mm = ___ m
e 40 mm = ___ cm f 85 m = ___ km g 800 cm = ___ m h 328 mm = ___ cm
i 620 mm = ___ m j 14 300 m = ___ km k 86 cm = ___ m l 630 m = ___ km
m 94 mm = ___ cm n 70 mm = ___ m o 24 895 m = ___ km p 23 000 mm = ___ m
q 14 960 mm = ___ m r 16 270 cm = ___ m s 3600 cm = ___ m t 72 945 mm = ___ m
5 What would be a convenient unit (millimetres, centimetres, metres, kilometres) to use for measuring the
following?
a width of the classroom
b length of a textbook
c height of a student
d length of a baby
e length of your foot
f length of a matchstick
g distance from Sydney to Brisbane
h length of material for a dress
i length of a driveway
j distance between railway stations
6 Complete this conversion diagram for mass.

× 1000 × 1000
tonnes kilograms grams milligrams

(t) (kg) (g) (mg)
÷ 1000
7 Convert these masses.

a 3.6 t = ___ kg b 7.1 g = ___ mg c 17.84 kg = ___ g d 0.63 t = ___ kg
e 4.8 kg = ___ g f 2.465 t = ___ kg g 21.59 t = ___ kg h 0.6 g = ___ mg
i 6.06 kg = ___ g j 0.489 kg = ___ g k 1.07 t = ___ kg l 0.03 g = ___ mg
8 a i Complete: 1 t = ____ g. ii Write the answer in scientific notation.

b i Complete: 1 t =____ mg. ii Write the answer in scientific notation.
c i Complete: 1 kg = ____ g. ii Write the answer in scientific notation.
9 Convert the following.

a 8000 kg = ___ t b 4300 g = ___ kg c 2740 mg = ___ g d 690 g = ___ kg
e 65 mg = ___ g f 2320 g = ___ kg g 700 kg = ___ t h 460 mg = ___ g
i 80 g = ___ kg j 7 mg = ___ g k 9 kg = ___ t l 300 g = ___ kg
10 State a convenient unit to use (milligrams, grams, kilograms, tonnes)

for measuring the mass of the following.
MEASUREMENT
a a woman b a jar of honey

c a packet of sugar d a bag of cement
e a large SUV f a rhinoceros
g a headache tablet h a maths textbook
i a sewing needle j a tennis ball

11 Complete this conversion diagram for capacity.
× 1000
kilolitres litres millilitres

(kL) (L) (mL)
÷ 1000

a 35 kL = ___ L b 15.9 L = ___ mL
c 1.65 L = ___ mL d 0.85 kL = ___ L
e 0.06 L = ___ mL f 1.08 kL = ___ L
g 0.015 L = ___ mL h 0.005 kL = ___ L
13 How many millilitres are there in 1 kL? Express your

answer in scientific notation.

a 15 000 mL = ___ L b 8000 L = ___ kL
c 7600 mL = ___ L d 800 mL = ___ L
e 9280 L = ___ kL f 725 L = ___ kL
g 95 mL = ___ L h 40 L = ___ kL
15 State an appropriate unit to use (millimetres, litres,

kilolitres) for measuring the capacity of a:
a teaspoon b swimming pool
c bucket d fish tank
e laundry tub f farm dam
g car’s petrol tank h kettle
16 Complete this conversion diagram for area.

× 10 000 × 100
hectare square metres square centimetres square millimetres

(ha) (m2) (cm2) (mm2)
17 Convert these areas.

a 2.6 ha = ___ m2 b 4.9 m2 = ___ cm2 c 14 cm2 = ___ mm2 d 0.752 m2 = ___ cm2
e 1.65 ha = ___ m2 f 24.8 cm2 = ___ mm2 g 8.294 km2 = ___ m2 h 5.671 km2 = ___ cm2

UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a 63 000 m2 = ___ ha b 127 000 cm2 = ___ m2 c 810 mm2 = ___ cm2
d 45 680 cm2 = ___ m2 e 298 000 m2 = ___ km2 f 2.4 km2 = ___ ha
19 Complete this conversion diagram for volume.

× 1 000 000 × 1000
cubic metres cubic centimetres cubic millimetres

(m3) (cm3) (mm3)
20 Convert these volumes.

a 5 cm3 = ___ mm3 b 3.9 m3 = ___ cm3
c 25.6 cm3 = ___ mm3 d 0.64 m3 = ___ cm3
e 0.415 cm3 = ___ mm3 f 7.39 m3 = ___ mm3

a 7 400 000 cm3 = ___ m3 b 56 700 mm3 = ___ cm3
c 690 000 cm3 = ___ m3 d 4258.5 mm3 = ___ cm3
22 a A bottle of wine has a mass of 1140 g. What would be the mass of

a case of 1 dozen bottles if the cardboard packaging has a mass of
320 g. Write the answer in kilograms.
b If each bottle contains 750 mL of wine, what is the total capacity of
one case. Answer in litres.
23 The catchment area of a dam is 25.6 km2. If 25 mm

of rain falls over the catchment area, what will be the
increase in capacity of the dam, given that 1 m3 holds
1000 kL of water?
24 The average mass of an adult hippopotamus is 1.5 t.

Baby hippopotami, which are born underwater, have
an average mass of 37 kg. Express the mass of a baby
hippo as a percentage of its mass as an adult.
25 A house brick has dimensions of

CHALLENGE
76 mm × 230 mm × 110 mm.

a When travelling to a work site, trucks typically
carry 6 pallets each containing 500 bricks.
Calculate the total space in cubic metres occupied
by these 6 pallets.
b i Calculate the area of the largest face of a brick.
ii Assume that, when laid, each brick has a 10 mm thickness of mortar along one 230 mm edge and
MEASUREMENT
one 110 mm edge. What is the area covered by a brick plus the mortar?
iii How many bricks, surrounded by mortar, are needed to build a wall of area 60 m2?

2D Prefixes for units
of measurement
• Video tutorial 2D: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 2D-1
• Investigation 2D: Investigate prefixes used for file sizes of digital data
Prefixes are used to indicate the factor of 10 by which the base metric unit of measurement is
multiplied. For example, the unit ‘kilogram’ uses the name of the base unit for mass, the gram,
with the prefix kilo, which indicates a multiplying factor of 1000: 1 kg = 1000 g.
This table summarises the most common prefixes used for very large and very small measurements.
Prefix Multiplying factor

tera (T) 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000
giga (G) 109 = 1 000 000 000
mega (M) 106 = 1 000 000
kilo (k) 103 = 1000
centi (c) 10−2 = 0.01
milli (m) 10−3 = 0.001
micro (µ) 10−6 = 0.000 001
nano (n) 10−9 = 0.000 000 001
EXAMPLE 2D–1 Converting length measurements

a Convert the following to metres.
i 3.6 Gm ii 7 µm
b Convert 5.6 m to:
i kilometres ii micrometres
Solve Think Apply
a i 3.6 Gm = 3.6 × 10 m or 3 600 000 000 m
9
1 Gm = 1 × 10 m 9
Apply the multiplying
ii 7 µm = 7 × 10−6 m or 0.000 007 m 1 µm = 1 × 10−6 m factor for the prefix.
5.6
b i 5.6 m = ___
3 km Divide 5.6 by the number Divide by the number
10
= 5.6 × 10 −3
or 0.0056 km of metres in a kilometre. of metres in the
1 = 10−3
___ required unit.
103
5.6
ii 5.6 m = ____
−6 μm Divide 5.6 by the
10
= 5.6 × 106 or 5 600 000 μm number of metres in a
micrometre.
1 = 106
____
10−6

EXERCISE 2D Prefixes for units of measurement
1 a Convert these to metres.
i 5.7 Mm ii 9 cm iii 8 nm
b Convert these to grams.
i 8 Gg ii 4.2 mg iii 5 µg
c Convert these to litres.
i 3 TL ii 2.8 ML iii 7 mL
2 a Convert 4.9 m to:

i kilometres ii micrometres iii nanometres
b Convert 2.4 g to:
i megagrams ii teragrams iii micrograms
c Convert 6.5 L to:
i megalitres ii millilitres iii gigalitres
EXAMPLE 2D–2 Converting mass measurements

Convert the following.
a 3.56 Tg = ___ Mg b 9.4 mg = ___ µg
Solve Think Apply
3.56 ×10 12
Convert 3.56 Tg into grams Convert to grams and
a 3.56 Tg = ________ Mg
10
6
and divide by the number of divide by the number
= 3.56 × 106 or 3 560 000 Mg
grams in a megagram. of grams in the
9.4 × 10 −3
Convert 9.4 mg into grams and required unit.
b 9.4 mg = ________
−6 µg
10
divide by the number of grams
= 9.4 × 103 or 9400 µg
in a microgram.

a 7.2 Gg = ___ Mg b 2.9 cg = ___ ng c 8 Tm = ___ km d 4.3 cm = ___ µm
e 8.8 TL = ___ ML f 9 kL = ___ mL g 5.3 ms = ___ ns h 1.2 µs = ___ ns
4 Light travels approximately 9.46 × 1015 m in a year. Express this in terametres.
5 Warragamba dam holds approximately 2 580 000 ML of water at full capacity. How many gigalitres is this?
6 The distance from Mars to the Sun is 0.228 Tm. Convert this distance to kilometres.
7 The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 × 10−24 g. What is the mass in nanograms of 1 million hydrogen atoms?
8 A computer can access its memory in 24 ns. Convert this to microseconds.
9 Prefixes are also used for file sizes of digital data. You can access an
CHALLENGE
extension task related to these file sizes (Investigation 2D) from your
MEASUREMENT
obook assess.

2E Error and accuracy
in measurement
• Investigation 2E: Investigate different types of error
• assess quiz 2E: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
When physically measuring using a measuring instrument, there

are several sources of possible error and uncertainty.
• Errors occur if the zero on the scale Object

of the measuring instrument does
0 1 2 3
not coincide with the end of the
object or with the pointer on the
measuring instrument.
• An error occurs if the end of Object
the measuring instrument has
1 2 3
been damaged. In this case start
measuring from the 1, for example,
instead of 0.
• Calibration error can occur if the scale is not accurately

marked on the measuring instrument
• Parallax error occurs if your eye is not directly above the scale
on the measuring instrument. Object
• There is always an error due to the limit of reading the 0 1 2 3
measuring instrument.
Repeating a measurement a number of times and averaging the
values can reduce the effect of any errors.
As a result of the accumulating effect of errors when calculations
are performed with measured values, the following conventions are usually applied.
• When adding or subtracting measured quantities, the degree of accuracy of the

answer is limited by the measurement that is accurate to the least number of
decimal places.
• When multiplying or dividing with measured quantities, the degree of accuracy

of the answer is limited by the measurement with the least number of significant
figures.

EXAMPLE 2E–1 Averaging measurements to find an approximation
John measured the width of his maths textbook five times using a ruler marked in millimetres. The
results were 190 mm, 189 mm, 190 mm, 192 mm and 190 mm. Average these measurements to give an
approximation for the width of the book, to the nearest millimetre.
Solve Think Apply

Average Determine the average Averaging measurements reduces the
190 + 189 + 190 + 192 + 190 by finding the sum of the effects of any errors. The answer should
= ______________________
5 measurements and then be given to the same degree of accuracy
= 190.2 mm
dividing by the number of as the given measurements (in this case,
= 190 mm (to the nearest
measurements. The answer to the nearest millimetre).
millimetre)
is 190 mm, to the nearest The differences in the measurements
millimetre, because 190.2 is could have been caused by any of the
closer to 190 than to 191. errors discussed on the previous page.
EXERCISE 2E Error and accuracy in measurement

1 A student measured the length of his textbook using a ruler marked in millimetres. The results were
256 mm, 255 mm, 255 mm, 254 mm and 254 mm. Average these measurements to give an approximation of
the length of the book, to the nearest millimetre.
2 Average the following to give an approximation of the true measurement. In each case, the measurements
were taken to the same degree of accuracy.
a 83 mm, 85 mm, 84 mm, 85 mm, 85 mm, 84 mm
b 4.9 kg, 4.8 kg, 4.9 kg, 5.0 kg, 4.9 kg
c 162 mL, 162 mL, 160 mL, 161 mL, 161 mL, 162 mL
d 22.49 s, 22.61 s, 22.54 s, 22.56 s, 22.52 s
3 Ask five students to measure your height to the nearest

centimetre. Average these measurements to give an
approximation of your true height.
4 The diagrams show several steel rods being measured

with a ruler divided into centimetres. Write the length of
each rod, using the scale given on the ruler.
a
13 14 15
b
13 14 15
c
MEASUREMENT
13 14 15
d
13 14 15

5 The length of a rod is measured using the ruler in question 4, and the measurement is recorded as 14 cm.
a Would this be the exact length of the rod?

b Between what values would the actual length lie?
c What is the absolute possible error in stating that the length is 14 cm?
d How could we find a more accurate value for the length of the rod?
EXAMPLE 2E–2 Finding a sensible approximation for the result of an addition

(or subtraction) calculation
Write a sensible approximation for the result of this calculation: 15.642 m + 8 m + 19.21 m.
Solve Think Apply

15.642 m + 8 m + 19.21 m 15.642 m is accurate to three decimal places. When adding or subtracting
= 42.852 m 8 m is accurate to the nearest whole number. measured quantities, the
= 43 m (to the nearest 19.21 m is accurate to two decimal places. degree of accuracy of the
metre) The least precise measurement is 8 m (the answer is limited by the
nearest whole number), so the answer should measurement with the least
be rounded to the nearest whole number. decimal place accuracy.
6 Complete the following to calculate 13.65 L + 10.9 L + 12.624 L.

13.65 is accurate to _____ decimal place(s).
The least precise measurement is ____ L to ____ decimal place(s).
Hence, 13.65 L + 10.9 L + 12.624 L = ____ L= ____ L to ____ decimal place(s).
7 Write a sensible approximation for the results of the following calculations.

a 9.87 m + 15.219 m + 11 m b 27.3 L + 21.475 L + 16.54 L
c 6.132 km − 3.46 km d 10.528 kg + 11.607 kg − 9.2 kg
EXAMPLE 2E–3 Finding a sensible approximation for the result of a

multiplication (or division) calculation
Write a sensible approximation for the result of this calculation: 15.2 m × 9.8 m.
Solve Think Apply

15.2 m × 9.8 m 15.2 is accurate to three significant When multiplying or
= 148.96 m2 figures. dividing with measured
= 150 m2 (to two significant figures) 9.8 is accurate to two significant figures. quantities, the degree
The measurement with the least number of accuracy of the
of significant figures is 9.8 m (two answer is limited by
significant figures), so the answer the measurement with
should be rounded to two significant the least number of
figures. significant figures.

8 Complete the following to calculate 7.5 m × 12.3 m.
7.5 m is accurate to ____ significant figures.
12.3 m is accurate to ____ significant figures.
The least precise measurement is ____ m (to ____ significant figures).
So, 7.5 m × 12.3 m = ____ m2 = ____ m2 (to ____ significant figures)
9 Write a sensible approximation for the result of each of the following calculations.
a 23.6 m × 5.7 m b 405.2 cm × 58.6 cm
c 88 cm ÷ 65 cm
3 3
d 37.7 mm ÷ 12 mm
10 Five students are given the task of each measuring one of the sides of an 135.6 m 87.26 m
irregular 5-sided block of land. Each student measured their own side to a
different degree of accuracy, as shown on the figure on the right. Write a
sensible approximation for the perimeter of the land. 94.8 m
110 m
11 The diameter of a 20-cent coin is measured to be 2.3 cm. Write a sensible
84.467 m
approximation for the area of the face of the coin.
12 The base and perpendicular height of a triangle are measured to be 5.6 m and 3.89 m respectively. Write a
sensible approximation for the area of the triangle.
13 The mass and height of a woman are measured to be 63.8 kg and 175 cm respectively. Write a sensible
mass where
approximation for the body mass index (BMI) of the woman using the formula BMI = _______
(height) 2
mass is in kilograms and height is in metres.
14 Consider the diagram on the right, showing a composite figure made up of a

CHALLENGE
rectangle and a triangle. 20.5 m

a Calculate a sensible approximation for the area of the rectangle.
b i How many significant figures are there in the answer to part a?
ii Has the answer to part a been rounded to the nearest whole square 47.6 m
metre, 10 m2 or 100 m2?
c Calculate a sensible approximation for the area of the triangle. 62.8 m
d i How many significant figures are there in the answer to part c?
ii Has the answer to part c been rounded to the nearest whole square metre, 10 m2 or 100 m2?
e Calculate a sensible approximation for the area of the composite figure.
MEASUREMENT

2F Absolute error and limits
of accuracy
• Investigation 2F: Compare the relative size of errors in calculations
precision
smallest unit on • assess quiz 2F: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
a measurement
instrument In question 5 in the previous section, a steel rod was measured to the nearest centimetre
absolute error
because this was the smallest unit on the ruler: the length was closer to 14 cm than to 13 cm or
equals plus or 15 cm. The greatest possible error for this measurement is 0.5 cm, or half of the smallest scale
minus half the unit (centimetre) on the ruler.
precision
The actual length will lie between 13.5 cm and 14.5 cm; that is, between 14 − 0.5 cm and
lower bound of 14 + 0.5 cm. To obtain a more accurate measurement, we would need to use a more accurate
true measurement
ruler, one that has a scale marked in smaller units.
result of
subtracting the Because there is always some degree of error in a numerical value found by measurement, it
absolute error follows that the results of any calculations involving this value will also contain a degree of error.
from the given
measurement The smallest unit on a measuring instrument is called the precision of the instrument.
upper bound The absolute error when measuring a quantity (sometimes called the greatest possible
of true
measurement
error) is equal to plus or minus half the precision.
result of adding The smallest and largest values between which the actual measurement lies are called
the absolute the lower and upper bounds of the true measurement. These are the limits of
error to the given
accuracy of the measurement.
measurement
EXAMPLE 2F–1 Finding precision and absolute error

For each of the measurements below, find:
i the smallest unit of measurement (the precision) ii the absolute error.
a 18 cm b 2.4 kg
Solve Think Apply
a i The smallest unit of measurement is The last significant figure of the The position
1 cm; that is, the measurement has been number is in the units column. of the last digit
made to the nearest centimetre. So, the smallest scale on the in the number
Precision = 1 cm measuring instrument is 1 cm. determines the
ii smallest scale on
Absolute error = ±__21 × 1 cm = ±0.5 cm Absolute error = ±__21 × precision
the measuring
b i The smallest unit of measurement is The last significant figure of the instrument
0.1 kg; that is, the measurement has been number is in the tenths column. used. This is the
made to the nearest 0.1 of a kilogram. So, the smallest scale on the precision of the
Precision = 0.1 kg measuring instrument is 0.1 kg. instrument. The
ii Absolute error = ±__21 × 0.1 kg = ±0.05 kg Absolute error = ±__12 × precision absolute error is ±
half the precision.

EXERCISE 2F Absolute error and limits of accuracy
1 Complete the following.
a For a measurement given as 138 cm, the last significant figure is in the ____ column.
So, the smallest scale on the measuring instrument is ____.
The measurement has been made to the nearest ____.
So, Precision = ____.
Absolute error = ±__12 × _____ = _____
b For a measurement given as 11.7 s, the last significant figure is in the ____ column.
So, the smallest scale on the measuring instrument is ____.
The measurement has been made to the nearest ____.
So, Precision = ____.
Absolute error = ±__21 × _____ = _____
2 For each of the following measurements, find:

i the smallest unit of measurement (the precision)
ii the absolute error.
a 16 cm b 286 g c 38 m d 16 L
e 3.6 kg f 15.3 s g 2.8 L h 3.76 m
EXAMPLE 2F–2 Finding absolute error and limits of accuracy

For each of the following measurements, find:
i the smallest unit of measurement (the precision)
ii the absolute error
iii the lower and upper bounds of the true measurement.
a 16 s b 9.38 m
Solve Think Apply
a i The smallest unit of measurement is 1 s; that Find the precision Find the precision and
is, this measurement of time has been made to (1 s) and the absolute the absolute error.
the nearest second. error (±0.5 s) as in Lower bound
Precision = 1 s Example 2F-1. = measurement
ii Absolute error = ±__12 × 1 = ±0.5 s Lower bound − half the precision
= 16 s − 0.5 s Upper bound
iii Lower bound = 16 − 0.5 = 15.5 s Upper bound = measurement
Upper bound = 16 + 0.5 = 16.5 s = 16 s + 0.5 s + half the precision
True measurement is between 15.5 s and 16.5 s. Note: The true
b i Smallest unit of measurement = 0.01 m; that Find the precision measurement is greater
is, this measurement of length has been made (0.01 m) and absolute than or equal to the
to the nearest 0.01 of a metre. error (±0.005 m) as lower bound, but is less
Precision = 0.01 m in Example 2F-1. than the upper bound;
Lower bound that is, lower bound
ii Absolute error = ±__12 × 0.01 m = ±0.005 m
= 9.38 m − 0.005 m ≤ true measurement
MEASUREMENT
iii Lower bound = 9.38 − 0.005 = 9.375 m Upper bound < upper bound.
Upper bound = 9.38 + 0.005 = 9.385 m = 9.38 m + 0.005 m
True measurement is between 9.375 m and
9.385 m.

3 Complete the following for a measurement of 2.6 kg.
a Precision = ____ kg b Absolute error = ____ kg

c Lower bound of measurement = 2.6 − ____ kg. Upper bound of measurement = 2.6 + ____ kg
The true measurement lies between ____ and ____.
4 For each of the measurements below, find:

i the precision ii the absolute error in the measurement
a 12 mm b 348 g c 375 mL d 8.2 km
e 18.4 s f 4.9 kg g 2.37 m h 5.81 L
5 The capacity of a container is given as 750 mL, to the nearest 50 mL. Complete the following.
a The measurement has been given to the nearest ____ mL. Precision = ____ mL.
b Absolute error = ±__12 × ____ mL = ____ mL.
c Lower bound of measurement = 750 − ____ mL.
Upper bound of measurement = 750 + ____ mL.
The true measurement lies between ____ and ____.

i the smallest unit of measurement
ii the absolute error in the measurement
a The mass of a can of soup is 420 g, to the nearest 30 g.
b The capacity of a drink bottle is 380 mL, to the nearest 20 mL.
c The crowd at a cricket match was 38 000, to the nearest 1000.
d The time taken for a plane flight was 6__12 hours, to the nearest
1 hour.
__
2
EXAMPLE 2F–3 Finding absolute error as a percentage of the measurement

a Find the absolute error for the measurement 18 kg.
b Express the absolute error as a percentage of the measurement.
Solve Think Apply
a Smallest unit of measurement Find the precision (1 kg) and The percentage error is the
= 1 kg absolute error (±0.5 kg) as in absolute error expressed
Absolute error = ±0.5 kg Example 2F-1. as a percentage of the
b Percentage error 0.5 given measurement.
Percentage error = ±___
18
× 100%
0.5 Percentage error
= ±___
18
× 100%
absolute error
= ±2.8% (to one decimal place) = __________
measurement × 100%

i the absolute error
ii the percentage error.
a 10 cm b 32 s c 250 g d 14 min
e 6L f 2.4 kg g 13.5 s h 12.56 m
8 Explain how to determine the percentage error for a measurement.

EXAMPLE 2F–4 Finding limits of true perimeter and maximum error
The length and breadth of a rectangle were measured to be 8 cm and 6 cm respectively.
a Calculate the perimeter of the rectangle using these measurements.
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the rectangle’s true perimeter.
c Hence find the maximum error in the answer to part a.
Solve Think Apply
a Perimeter = 2 × 8 + 2 × 6 Perimeter (using measurements) Calculate the perimeter
= 28 cm = 2 × l + 2 × b = 28 cm using the measured
b Now 7.5 cm ≤ length < 8.5 cm and The absolute error of each length and breadth.
5.5 cm ≤ breadth < 6.5 cm. measurement is ±0.5 cm: Determine the lower and
So, 2 × 7.5 + 2 × 5.5 cm length lies between 7.5 cm and upper bounds of each
≤ perimeter < 2 × 8.5 + 2 × 6.5 cm. 8.5 cm and breadth between given measurement.
Thus 26 cm ≤ perimeter < 30 cm. 5.5 cm and 6.5 cm. Calculate the perimeter
Lower bound of perimeter using the lower and
= 2 × 7.5 + 2 × 5.5 = 26 cm upper bounds of length
Upper bound of perimeter and breadth.
= 2 × 8.5 + 2 × 6.5 = 30 cm Find the difference
between the perimeter,
c Maximum error Maximum error = perimeter
calculated using the
= 28 cm − 26 cm (or 28 cm − 30 cm) (using given measurements)
given measurements,
= ±2 cm − lower bound of perimeter (or
and the perimeter
upper bound of perimeter).
using the lower (or
upper) bound of each
measurement.
9 The length and breadth of a rectangular recreation room are measured to be 7 m and 4 m, respectively.
Complete the following.
a Using the given measurements,
Perimeter = 2 × ____ + 2 × ____
= ____ m
b Now 6.5 m ≤ length < ____ m
and ____ m ≤ breadth < 4.5 m
Lower bound of perimeter
= 2 × 6.5 + 2 × 3.5 m
= ____ m
Upper bound of perimeter
= 2 × ____ + 2 × ____ m
= ____ m
So, ____ m ≤ perimeter < ____ m
c Maximum error = ____ m − ____ m
= ±____ m
MEASUREMENT
10 The length and breadth of a rectangle were measured to be 9 cm and 5 cm respectively.

a Calculate the perimeter of the rectangle using these measurements.
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the rectangle's true length and breadth.
c Hence, find the lower and upper bounds of the rectangle's true perimeter.
d Find the maximum error in the answer to part a.

EXAMPLE 2F–5 Finding limits of true area and maximum error
The length and breadth of a rectangle were measured to be 8 cm and 6 cm

respectively.
6 cm
a Calculate the area, using the measurements given.
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the true area.
c Hence, find the maximum error in the answer to part a. 8 cm
Solve Think Apply

a Area = 8 × 6 = 48 cm2 Using the given measurements: Calculate the area using
Area = l × b the measured length and
= 48 cm 2
breadth.
b Now 7.5 cm ≤ length < 8.5 cm The absolute error of each Determine the lower and
and 5.5 cm ≤ breadth < 6.5 cm. measurement is ±0.5 cm. So, upper bounds of each
(7.5 × 5.5) ≤ area < (8.5 × 6.5). the length lies between 7.5 cm given measurement.
So 41.25 cm2 ≤ area < 55.25 cm2. and 8.5 cm and the breadth lies Calculate the area using
between 5.5 cm and 6.5 cm. the lower bounds of the
Lower bound of area length and breadth, and
= 7.5 × 5.5 calculate the area using
= 41.25 cm2 the upper bounds of the
Upper bound of area length and breadth.
= 8.5 × 6.5 Find the difference
= 55.25 cm2 between the area
calculated using the
c 48 − 41.25 = 6.75 cm2 Maximum error = area
given measurements and
48 − 55.25 = −7.25 cm2 (using given measurements)
the area using the lower
Maximum error = 7.25 cm2 − lower bound of area
(or upper) bound of each
(or upper bound of area).
measurement.
11 The length and breadth of a rectangle are measured to be 7 cm and 4 cm respectively. Complete the
following.
a Using the given measurements: Area = (____ × ____) cm2 = ____ cm2
b Now 6.5 cm ≤ length < ____ cm and ____ cm ≤ breadth < 4.5 cm
Lower bound of area = (6.5 × 3.5) cm2 = ____ cm2
Upper bound of area = (____ × ____) cm2 = ____ cm2
So ____ cm2 ≤ area < ____ cm2
c ____ − lower bound of area = ____ cm2
____ − upper bound of area = ____ cm2
Maximum error = ±____ cm2
12 A rectangle was measured to be 5 m long by 3 m wide.

a Calculate the area of the rectangle using these measurements.
3m
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the true length and width.
c What are the lower and upper bounds of the true area?
5m

13 Two pieces of timber were measured to be 164 cm and 128 cm respectively.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a If the two pieces were placed end to end, what would be their total length,
using the measurements given?
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the true length of
each piece.
c Hence, calculate the lower and upper bounds of the true
total length of these two pieces of timber.
14 The masses of two bags of sand were measured and found

to be 47 kg and 52 kg.
a What is the total mass of the two bags?
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the true mass of each bag.
c Calculate the lower and upper bounds of the true total mass.
d What is the maximum error in the answer to part a?
15 Repeat question 14 given that the masses of the sand bags were 47.4 kg and 51.9 kg.
16 A rectangular room was measured to be 5.4 m long by 3.2 m wide.

a Calculate the area of the room using these measurements.
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the room’s true length and width.
c What are the lower and upper bounds of the room’s true area?
e Compare your answers to those obtained in question 12.
17 The diameter of a circular pizza tray is measured to

be 28.6 cm.
a Calculate the area of the tray using the
measurement given. (Use A = πd
2
___.)
4
b What are the lower and upper bounds of the true
length of the tray's diameter?
c Find the lower and upper bounds of the true area
of the tray.
d What is the maximum error in the answer to
part a?
18 A (rectangular) billiards table is measured to be

CHALLENGE
2.84 m by 1.42 m.
a Write the absolute error of each measurement.
b Find the percentage error of each measurement,
to two significant figures.
c Calculate the area of the table using the given measurements.
d Calculate the lower and upper bounds of the table's true area.
e What is the maximum error in the answer to part c?
MEASUREMENT
f Express the error stated in part e as a percentage of the calculated area in part c,
to two significant figures.
g Is the percentage error in part f the sum of the percentage errors in part b?

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW PRACTICALITIES OF MEASUREMENT
✔ round numbers using significant figures
✔ express decimal numbers in scientific notation, and vice versa
✔ perform calculations with numbers expressed in scientific notation
✔ convert between the commonly used metric units for length, mass, capacity, area and volume
✔ understand the possible sources of error in measuring and how to reduce their effect
✔ determine the precision, the absolute error, the upper and lower bounds and the percentage error for a
measurement
✔ find the maximum possible error when measurements are used in calculations
✔ make sensible approximations for the results of calculations using measurements.

2A 1 When rounded to two significant figures, 3950.628 becomes:
A 3900 B 4000 C 39 D 3950.63
2B 2 Which of the following numbers is written in scientific notation?

A 5 × 10 000 B 50 000 C 5 × 104 D 50 × 103
2B 3 7.06 × 10−6 is equivalent to

A 0.000 007 06 B 0.000 070 6 C 706 000 D 7 060 000
2B 4 The result of the calculation (4 × 105) ÷ (8 × 10−3) is:

A 5 × 108 B 5 × 107 C 5000 D 5 × 102
2C 5 Which one of the following is equivalent to 5.06 kg?

A 0.005 06 g B 5060 g C 0.0506 g D 506 g
2C 6 Which one of the following is not equivalent to 5.3 m?

A 530 cm B 5300 mm C 0.0053 km D 0.053 km
2C 7 The capacity of a drinking glass would be closest to:

A 2 mL B 20 mL C 200 mL D 2L
2D 8 6 ML is equivalent to:
A 60 000 kL B 6000 kL C 600 kL D 60 kL
2F 9 The absolute error in the measurement 3.6 L is:

A ±0.1 L B ±0.05 L C ±0.5 L D ±3.55 L
2F 10 The mass of a can of soup was 250 g, to the nearest 10 g. The percentage error in this measurement is:
A ±4% B ±2% C ±0.4% D ±0.2%
2F 11 The side length of a square was measured to be 8 cm. The maximum error in stating that the perimeter is 32 cm is:
A 0.5 cm B 1 cm C 2 cm D 4 cm

REVIEW SET 1
1 Round 3659.063 to:
a the nearest 100 b the nearest whole number c two decimal places
d three significant figures e five significant figures f one significant figure
2 State whether each of these numbers is written in scientific notation.

a 6 × 1000 b 15 × 107 c 2.04 × 10−6
3 Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a 105 000 000 b 0.000 062 c 3179
4 Calculate the following, writing the answers in scientific notation.

a (4.1 × 108) × (6 × 105) b (1.96 × 10−3) ÷ (1.4 × 107)
___________
c (8 × 105)4 d √8.41 × 10−12

a 5.6 cm2 = ____ mm2 b 43 000 m2 = ____ ha
c 2.9 m3 = ____ cm3 d 5600 mm3 = ____ cm3

a 2.3 Gm = ____ m b 52 ML = ____ kL c 3 ms = ____ µs d 7.2 Tg = ____ mg
7 For each of the following measurements, find the:

i precision ii absolute error
iii lower and upper bounds of the true measurement iv percentage error (to one decimal place).
a 7.5 m b 280 g
8 The length and breadth of a rectangle were measured to be 6 cm and 4 cm.

a Calculate the rectangle’s perimeter using these measurements.
b Write the lower and upper bounds of the true length and breadth of the rectangle.
c Find the lower and upper bounds of the rectangle’s true perimeter.
d What is the maximum error in the answer in part a?
e Calculate the rectangle’s area using the measurements given.
f Find the lower and upper bounds of the rectangle’s true area.
g Find the maximum error in the answer to part e.
9 Write sensible approximations for the results of the following calculations.

a 17.3 m + 15.89 m b 17.3 m × 15.89 m
REVIEW SET 2 FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
1 Round 1472.634 to:

a the nearest 10 b two significant figures c two decimal places.
2 Express each of the following in scientific notation.

MEASUREMENT
a 749 000 b 0.000 003 c 0.0105
3 Calculate (1.4 × 107 ) × (4.5 × 108), expressing the answer in scientific notation.

a 2.1 ha = ___ m2 b 780 mm2 = ___cm2 c 9 500 000 cm3 = ___ m3 d 72 cm3 = ___ mm3

a 4.3 cm = ____ µm b 2 Tg = ____ Mg c 52 000 kL = ____ ML d 9.1 mm = ____ nm

a 15.36 m + 9.7 m + 11.62 m b 16.5 cm × 4.7 cm
7 For each of the following measurements, find the:

i precision ii absolute error
iii lower and upper bounds of the true measurement iv percentage error (to one decimal place).
a 12.8 kg b 12.56 m
8 The length and breadth of a table were measured to be 154 cm and 80 cm, to the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the table’s area using the measurements given.
b Find the lower and upper bounds of the table’s true area.
c Find the maximum error in the answer to part a.
d Express the maximum error from part c as a percentage of the area (from part a).
REVIEW SET 3
1 Round 0.005 06 to:
a two significant figures b two decimal places c one significant figure
2 State whether or not each of the following numbers is expressed in scientific notation.
a 4.9 × 100 000 b 7.0 × 108 c 70 × 107
3 Convert each of the following numbers to scientific notation.

a 67 000 b 0.000 080 9 c 1230
4 Write the basic numeral for:

a 3.4 × 106 b 8.7 × 10–5 c 2.053 × 104

a 11.2 cm2 = ___ mm2 b 129 000 m2 = ___ ha
c 3.4 m3 = ___ cm3 d 73 000 mm3 = ___ cm3

a 4.5 Mm = ___ m b 2 Mg = ___ t c 7 µs = ___ ns d 3.5 kL = ___ GL
7 The masses of two bags of potatoes were measured, to be 49 kg and 51 kg, to the nearest kilogram.
a What is the total mass of the two bags using these measurements?
b Write the lower and upper bounds of the true mass of each bag.
c Calculate the lower and upper bounds of the total mass of the two bags.
d Determine the absolute error in the answer to part a.
e Express the absolute error as a percentage of the total mass of the bags.

a 43.2 kg − 8 kg b 125.345 L ÷ 0.85 L
REVIEW SET 4
1 Round 2.0695 to these numbers of significant figures:
a one significant figure b two significant figures c three significant figures d four significant figures.

a 13.65 m = ___ cm b 3460 kg = ___ t c 276 mL = ___ L d 8.3 m = ___ mm

a 13.65 ha = ___ m2 b 1960 mm2 = ___ cm2 c 3 700 000 cm3 = ___ m3 d 6.8 cm3 = ___ mm3

a 6 mL = ___ µL b 4.2 Gg = ___ kg c 8.1 µs = ___ ns d 560 ML = ___ TL
5 Express in scientific notation, correct to two significant figures.

a 643 700 000 b 0.000 000 304
6 Calculate the following, expressing the answer in scientific notation.

_________
a (1.08 × 10−6) ÷ (7.2 × 10−5) b √1.96 × 1020
7 The base and perpendicular height of a triangle were measured to be 15.4 cm and 12.5 cm respectively.
a Find the area of the triangle using these measurements.
b Calculate the range within which the triangle’s true area lies.
c What is the maximum error in using part a as the area?
d Express the maximum error from part c as a percentage of the area (from part a).
8 The length and breadth of a bed are measured to be 1.9 m by 0.84 m respectively. Write a sensible
approximation for:
a the perimeter of the bed b the area of the bed.

1 a Write 0.001 306 in scientific notation, rounded to three significant figures. (2 marks)
b How many significant figures are there in the measurement 5.0 × 106 metres? (1 mark)
______
c Evaluate √6.724 × 10 11 . Write your answer in scientific notation. (1 mark)
d Convert each measurement:
i 94 630 mm = ___ m ii 2.5 m3 = ___ cm3. (2 marks)
e The scale on a thermometer measures temperature to the nearest 0.5°C.
i What is the absolute error in stating that the temperature is 19.5°C? (1 mark)
ii Calculate the percentage error for this measurement. (1 mark)
f Bottle A contains 2.64 L of saline solution and bottle B contains 2.88 L of the
same solution. They are both poured into a large container.
i Calculate the volume of saline solution in the large container, using the
measurements given. (1 mark)
ii Find the lower and upper bounds of the true volume of saline solution. (2 marks)
iii Calculate the maximum error in the answer to part i. (1 mark)
iv Express the error from part iii as a percentage of the answer in part i. (1 mark)
g The base and height of a triangle are measured to be 28.4 cm and 9.6 cm respectively.
Write a sensible approximation for the area of the triangle, based on the
MEASUREMENT
accuracy of each measurement. (2 marks)
TOTAL: 15 marks

3
Formulas and
equations
The main mathematical ideas investigated are:
▶ substituting into algebraic expressions
▶ substituting into formulas and finding values
▶ solving linear equations
▶ using formulas to calculate distance, speed
and time
▶ using formulas to calculate an estimate for blood
alcohol content
▶ using formulas to calculate required medication
dosages.
ALGEBRA
MS-A1 Formulae and Equations

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

3A 1 What is the result of calculating 10 – 3 × 5? 3A 8 Which expression is the result of simplifying
14k ?
___
A 35 B 25 21
C –2 D –5 A __k B __2k
3 3
3A 2 What is the value of 62? C 2k D 3k
A 6 B 8
3A 9 Which expression is the result of simplifying
C 12 D 36 6xy3
____ ?
___ 4xyz
3A 3 What is the value of √64 ?
3y 3y
A 4 B 8 A __z B __
2z
C 16 D 32 3y
C ___
2
D
3y
___
2
z 2z
3A 4 Which expression is the result of simplifying 3A 10 What is the expansion of –7x(2x – 5)?
4a + 7 – 9a – 4?
A –14x2 + 35x B –14x + 35
A –5a + 3 B –5a – 3 C 14x – 35x
2
D 14x – 35
C 5a + 3 D 5a – 3
3A 11 What is the complete factorisation of 15pq – 12q?
3A 5 Which expression is the result of simplifying A 3(5pq – 4q) B q(15p – 12)
5x – 3y + 8y – 7x? C 3q(5p – 4) D 3pq(5 – 12p)
A 2x – 5y B 5y – 2x 3A 12 What is the value of 6a – 4b if a = 3 and
C 2x + y D 12x + 11y b = –5?
3A 6 Which expression is the result of simplifying A 38 B –2
8d × –6g? C 18 D 2
A 2dg B 48dg 3B 13 What is the value of a in the equation
C –48dg D –2dg a + 4 = 24?
3A 7 Which expression is the result of simplifying A 2 B 6
5a × 3b × 4ab? C 20 D 28
A 19ab B 534aab 3C 14 What is the lowest common multiple of 4 and 6?
C 60ab D 60a2b2 A 24 B 12
C 6 D 4
Q1 Support sheet 3A.1 Understanding order of operations
Q2–3 Support sheet 3A.2 Finding powers and square roots
Q4–5 Support sheet 3A.3 Simplifying like terms
Q6–7 Support sheet 3A.4 Multiplying algebraic terms
Q8–9 Support sheet 3A.5 Dividing algebraic terms
Q10 Support sheet 3A.6 Expanding expressions to remove brackets
Q11 Support sheet 3A.7 Factorising simple expressions
Q12 Support sheet 3A.8 Evaluating expressions
Q13 Support sheet 3B.1 Solving simple linear equations
Q14 Support sheet 3C.1 Finding the lowest common multiple
Chapter 3 Formulas and equations 75

3A Substitution into
expressions and formulas
• Worksheet 3A: Practise your skills with extra problems for substitution
• Investigation 3A: Write and evaluate expressions relating to costs at a cinema
pronumeral When the pronumeral x is replaced by a number, for example 2, in an expression such as
letter or symbol 3x − 5, we say that 2 was substituted for x, and the value of the expression is 1 when x = 2
that takes the because 3(2) − 5 = 6 − 5 = 1. When substituting a number into an expression, we usually
place of a number
place the substituted value within brackets.
formula
relationship or A mathematical formula can be used in many applications. Usually it starts with a single
rule between two variable on the left-hand side followed by the equals sign and the rest of the formula on the
or more variables right-hand side. The single variable on the left-hand side is called the subject of the formula
that contains an and its value is found by substituting other values into the right-hand side of the formula and
equals sign; e.g.
evaluating.
v = u + at
(Note: the words ‘formulas’ and ‘formulae’ both mean more than one formula.)
variable (algebra)
numerical
quantity that can
have varying or
different value EXAMPLE 3A–1 Evaluating expressions by substituting given
and can be values for pronumerals
represented by a
pronumeral; e.g. For a = 5, b = −2 and c = 3, find the value of:
______
time or t a 2a − c b √a − 2b c c − 4b2
subject of the
formula Solve Think Apply
single variable
a 2a − c = 2(5) − (3) Substitute 5 for a and When asked to evaluate
usually on the
left-hand side of a = 10 − 3 3 for c. (or find the value of) an
formula; e.g. v is =7 Use order of operations to expression, substitute
the subject of the evaluate. the given values into the
formula v = u + at _____ __________ expression.
b √a−2b = √(5)−2(−2)
____
Substitute 5 for a and −2
When substituting, put
= √5+4__
for b. Evaluate under the
the number in brackets.
= √9 square root sign first, then
Use the correct order of
=3 find the square root.
operations to find the
c c − 4b2 = (3) − 4(−2)2 Substitute 3 for c and
value.
=3−4×4 −2 for b. When −2 is
When using a calculator,
= 3 − 16 squared the answer is +4.
enter the information
= −13 Use order of operations to
from the expression from
evaluate.
left to right.

EXERCISE 3A Substitution into expressions
and formulas
1 For x = 7 and y = −3, complete the following to find the value of:
a 3x + 2y = 3(7) + 2(____) b x − 2y = (____) − 2(−3)

= ____ = ____
2 For a = 2 and b = 5, find the value of:

a a+b b b−a c 2a + 3b d a − 2b
e b2 f 2b2 g (2b)2 h b3
i 4a + b j 4(a + b) k (a + b)2 l a2 + b2
m ab
___ n 5(2a + 3b) ab
o __ a2b
p ___
20 4 10
3 For p = 2 and q = −5, find the value of:
a p+q b p−q c 2p + 5q d 3p − 2q
p+q
e __13 (p + q) f _____ g (p − q)2 h p2 − q2
2
i −5(3p − 2q) j 4 − (p − q) k 8 − (3p − 4q) l (p + q)(p − q)
4 For m = 3 and n = 7, find the value of:

a m+n b m−n c n−m d n+m
e m_______
2
+n 2
f n_________
2
− m2 g 3(m + n)
________
h −2(m − n)
________
i √6m + n j √10(m + n) k √4(n − m) l √ 7m + 4n
EXAMPLE 3A–2 Substituting into a formula to find a value

Given that v = u + at, find v when u = 50, a = 10 and t = 6.
Solve Think Apply

v = u + at Substitute 50 for u, 10 for a and 6 for t When finding the value of a variable in an
= 50 + 10 × 6 in the equation. Evaluate using order of equation or a formula, substitute the given
= 50 + 60 operations or your calculator. values into the formula and evaluate.
= 110
5 Complete the following to find t using the formula t = a + (n − 1)d when a = −3, n = 20 and d = 2.
t = −3 + (20 − 1) × ____
= ____
6 a Given that V = IR, find V when I = 10 and R = 250.

b Given that V = IR, find V when I = 50 and R = 20.
c Given that W = Fs, find W when F = 100 and s = 12.
d d , find s when d = 50 and t = 10.
Given that s = __
t
7 a Given that v = u + at, find v when u = 5, a = 10 and t = 7.
b Given that s = ut + __12 at 2, find s when u = −3, a = 10 and t = 5.
ALGEBRA
c 360 , find d when n = 12.

Given that d = 180 − ___ n
d Given that a = 2Rn
_____ , find a when R = 8 and n = 24.
n+1

8 The volume, V, of a sphere is found using the formula
V = __43 πr3, where r is the radius. Find, to one decimal place,
the volume of a sphere with radius:
a 6 cm b 8.5 cm c 1.3 m
9 The amount of money in an investment that pays

compound interest is given by A = P(1 + r)n. Find
A when:
a P = 1000, r = 0.1 and n = 5
b P = 600, r = 0.05 and n = 20
c P = 2340, r = 0.035 and n = 10
d P = 625, r = 0.112 and n = 8
______
10 Pythagoras’ theorem is c = √a2 + b2 . Find c when:
a a = 3, b = 4 b a = 5, b = 12
c a = 15, b = 20 d a = 16, b = 12.
11 Using a = 2 and b = −5, and showing all working, check

whether these pairs of expressions are the same. For those

pairs that are not the same, rewrite the second expression
to make it the same as the first.
a 4(a + b) and 4a + 4b
b 4(a + b) and 4a + b
c 2(3a + b) and 6a + 3b
d 3a − 5(a + b) and 2a − 5b
e 3a − 5(a + b) and −2a − b
f 3a − 5(a + b) and −2a − 5b
g (3a − 2b)(4a + 7b) and 12a2 − 14ab
h (3a − 2b)(4a + 7b) and 12a2 − 8ab – 14b2
i (a + b)3 and a3 + b3
j (3a − 2b)(4a + 7b) and 12a2 + 13ab − 14b2
12 a Using a = 3 and b = −4, evaluate the following.

i 4(a + b) ii a2 + b − 9 iii 4a + 4b iv −10 + 2a
b What do you notice about the value of all these expressions?
c Does this necessarily mean that all these expressions are always equal?
d Test using other values of a and b to find which, if any, of the expressions are always equal.
13 The body mass index, b, is a measure used to determine if a person’s mass is within a recommended range.
The range is 21 < b < 25.
The body mass index formula is given by b = __ m where m = mass in kilograms and h = height in metres.
h2
a Calculate the value of b for a person of mass 65 kg and height 1.65 m. Is the value within the
recommended range?
b Peter has a mass of 100 kg and is 1.95 m tall. He states that his mass is within the recommended range.
By calculating the value of b for Peter, determine if he is correct.
c Kristy has a mass of 50 kg, is 1.5 m tall and feels that she is below the recommended body mass. Is she
correct? Explain using calculations.

14 To hire beach chairs a $50 deposit must be paid as well as $10 per chair hired.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Write an algebraic expression for the total hire cost, using n to represent the number of chairs hired.
b How much would it cost to hire 6 chairs?
15 In basketball, players score points by throwing the ball through the basket, in an act known as ‘shooting’.
Different points are awarded to players based on where they are standing when they shoot.
3 points Awarded to players successfully goaling from behind the three-point line
2 points Awarded to players successfully goaling from anywhere inside the three-point line
1 point Awarded to players successfully goaling when playing a foul shot
a Using appropriate variables, write an algebraic

expression to represent the total number of
points scored during a basketball game.
Remember to carefully define your variables.
b Calculate the total number of points scored by
a team during part of a practice game in which
the players successfully scored 5 goals from
behind the three-point line, 12 goals from inside
the three-point line and 4 goals when playing
foul shots.
c Find three different ways of achieving a score
of 68 points.
16 Emma walks along a beach. She starts 5 kilometres from the lighthouse and travels at 6 kilometres per hour.
a Write an algebraic expression to represent Emma’s distance from the lighthouse, using t to represent the
number of hours she has been walking.
b How far will Emma have walked if she has been walking for half an hour?
c For how long would Emma have walked if she is 14 km from the lighthouse?
17 A formula for calculating the bend allowance, B, of

CHALLENGE
(
2π R + __
2 )
T ×A
a sheet of metal is B = ____________ , where
360
B = bend allowance
T = thickness of the sheet, in millimetres
A = number of degrees in the angle of bend
R = radius of curvature in millimetres
By calculating the value of B determine which sheet
metal below has the greatest bend allowance.
Sheet 1: T = 3, A = 5, R = 12
Sheet 2: T = 15, A = 50, R = 60
ALGEBRA

3B Solving linear equations
• Interactive 3B: Explore key ideas for solving linear equations
• Video tutorial 3B: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 3B-1
• Investigation 3B.1: Solve linear equations relating to household bills
• Investigation 3B.2: Write formulas relating to body measurements
• assess quiz 3B: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
equation An algebraic equation contains two algebraic expressions that are equal to each other. The aim of
collection of two solving an equation is to find the value of the pronumeral that makes the equation a true statement.
or more algebraic
terms separated To solve a linear equation:
by mathematical
operation symbols 1 Keep the equation balanced by performing the same operation to both sides of the
and containing
equation; that is:
an equals sign;
e.g. 2x + 1 = 7 or • add the same number or term to both sides of the equation
3x2 = 5x – 2
• subtract the same number or term from both sides of the equation
solve
• multiply both sides of the equation by the same number or term
to find the value
of the pronumeral • divide both sides of the equation by the same number or term.
that makes the
equation a true 2 Continue until you obtain the simplest equivalent equation with the pronumeral on
statement one side of the equation and a number on the other. For example, to solve x + 4 = 10,
linear equation we subtract 4 from both sides of the equation to obtain the solution x = 6.
equation in which
the highest EXAMPLE 3B–1 Solving two-step linear equations
positive integer
power of the Solve these equations.
pronumeral is 1; a 5x + 7 = 37 b 8x − 9 = 79
e.g. 2x + 1 = 7 is
a linear equation Solve Think Apply
but 3x2 = 5x – 2
is not because
a 5x + 7 = 37 Step 1: Subtract 7 Perform the same
its highest power 5x + 7 − 7 = 37 − 7 from both sides, operation on both
of x is 2 5x = 30 then divide both sides of the equation
solution 5x = __
__ 30 sides by 5. to keep equivalent
the value of the
5 5
Step 2: Substituting equations in each step.
pronumeral x=6
x = 6 gives 37, Always substitute the
that makes an Check:
which is correct. answer back into the
equation a true (5 × 6) + 7 = 30 + 7 = 37
statement; e.g. equation to check it
x = 6 is correct.
the solution of is correct. Answers
2x + 1 = 7 is x = 3 b 8x − 9 = 79 Add 9 to both sides,
are not always whole
8x − 9 + 9 = 79 + 9 giving 8x = 88, then
numbers.
8x = 88 divide by 8 to get
8x 88
__ = __ x = 11. Substitute
8 8 x = 11 to get 79,
x = 11
which shows that
Check:
x = 11 is correct.
(8 × 11) − 9 = 88 − 9 = 79
x = 11 is correct.

EXERCISE 3B Solving linear equations
1 Complete to solve these equations.
a 7x − 3 = 32 b 4x + 7 = 15
7x − 3 + ____ = 32 + 3 4x + 7 − 7 = 15 − ____
7x = ____ ____ = 8
35 □ __
7x = __
__ __ = 8
7 □ 4 □
x = ____ x=2
2 Solve the following equations.

a 3x − 9 = 3 b 4p + 8 = 24 c 6x − 2 = 82
d 6x + 7 = 61 e 4p + 12 = 52 f 5y − 6 = 44
g 2x − 32 = 16 h 11p − 10 = 34 i 7m + 8 = 50
j 4q − 21 = 115 k 8s − 12 = 252 l 10r − 30 = 100
m 7T − 8 = 27 n 11s + 16 = 115 o 4m + 9 = 73
EXAMPLE 3B–2 Checking whether a given value is a solution to an equation

Substitute the given value into the equation to check if it is a solution to the equation.
a 3x − 9 = 36 [x = 11] b 49 − 5x = 29 [x = 4]
Solve Think Apply

a 3x − 9 = (3 × 11) − 9 Substitute x = 11 into 3x − 9; Substitute the given value
= 33 − 9 the answer is 24. into the left-hand side of the
= 24 But 24 ≠ 36, so x = 11 is not equation.
≠ 36 the solution. If both sides of the equation
x = 11 is not the solution. have the same number, then that
b 49 − 5x = 49 − (5 × 4) Substitute x = 4 into 49 − 5x value is a solution.
= 49 − 20 to get 29. If the two sides are not the
= 29 This means x = 4 is the correct same, then it is not a solution.
x = 4 is the solution. solution.
3 Complete the following to check whether:

a x = 5 is a solution to 7x – 3 = 28 b a = 8 is a solution to 7 + 3a = 31.
7x − 3 = (7 × ____) − 3 7 + 3a = 7 + (3 × ____)
= 35 − 3 = 7 + ____
= ____ = 31
x = 5 is ___________. a = 8 is ____________.
4 Substitute the given value for the pronumeral into the equation to determine if it is a solution to the equation.
a 4x + 8 = 60 [x = 13] b 5x − 9 = 11 [x = 3] c 3x + 4 = 13 [x = 3]
d 9 − 2p = −15 [p = 12] e 10 + 5m = −20 [m = −6] f 22 + 3c = 46 [c = 7]
g 6d − 5 = 31 [d = 9] h 11y − 72 = −193 [y = −11] i 14q + 18 = 116 [q = 7]
ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 3B–3 Solving linear equations containing a negative
pronumeral term
Solve the following.
a 9 − 7x = 5 b 17 = 8 − 4x
Solve Think Apply

a 9 − 7x = 5 First, subtract 9 from both sides, The solving process is the same
9 − 7x − 9 = 5 − 9 then divide both sides by −7 to whether the equation appears as
− 7x = −4 get x = __47 . 9 – 7x = 5 or as –7x + 9 = 5, so we
− 7x = ___
_____ −4 start by subtracting 9 from each side.
−7 −7
4 Similarly, 17 = 8 – 4x is the same as
x = __
7 8 – 4x = 17 or –4x + 8 = 17, so we
b 17 = 8 − 4x First, subtract 8 from both sides, subtract 8 from each side.
17 − 8 = 8 − 4x − 8 then divide by −4. It doesn’t The strategy is to have the pronumeral
9 = −4x matter which side of the equation on one side of the equation and the
−4x
9 = ____
___ the −4x and 9 are on. numbers on the other side.
−4 −4 The answer is x = −2__14 .
9=x
−__
4
9
x = −__
4
or x = −2__14
5 Complete to solve these equations.

a 6 − 5x = 14 b −11 = 7 + 5x
6 − 5x − 6 = 14 − ____ −11 − ____ = 7 + 5x − ____
−5x = ___
____ □
−18 = ____
−5 −5
____ = ___8 −18 = ____
__ 5x
−5 □ □
x = ____ x = ____
6 Solve the following for x.

a 5 = 3x + 7 b 6x − 7 = −1 c −1 = 2x + 6
d 6 − x = −5 e 3 − 4x = 15 f 3 − 2x = 7
g 5 − 4x = −7 h 3 − 7x = −2 i 17 − 2x = −1
j 11 = 3 − 2x k 15 − 2x = −1 l 8 = 3 − 2x
m 6 = −1 − 7x n −15 = 3 − 6x o 11 = −4 − 3x
EXAMPLE 3B–4 Solving a linear equation

m − 5 = −2.
Solve __
3
Solve Think Apply
m − 5 = −2
__ Add 5 to both sides, then multiply Continue to use the same
3
m − 5 + 5 = −2 + 5
__ both sides by 3 to get m = 9. technique of adding or subtracting
3 m=3
__ first before multiplying or
3 dividing.
m×3=3×3
__
3
m=9

7 Complete to solve the equation.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING x+3=7
__
5
x + 3 − ____ = 7 − ____
__
5
x = ____
__
5
x × ____ = 4 × 5
__
5
x = ____
8 Solve each of these equations for x.

a __x + 3 = 8
2
b x−1=4
__
3
c x + 2 = −3
__
5
d x + 3 = −4
__
6
e x−2=4
__
7
f x − 6 = −1
___
10
9 Check the given solution by substitution and
state whether or not it is correct.
a 2x + 8 = 15 [x = 7]
b 7 − 5x = 9 [x = −__25 ]
c −15 = 6 − 7x [x = 3]
d __x − 3 = 6 [x = __95 ]
5
EXAMPLE 3B–5 Solving a linear equation resulting from substitution

Given y = 5x − 3, find x when y = −18.
Solve Think Apply

y = 5x − 3 First, substitute the value for y, giving A single equation with two different
−18 = 5x − 3 an equation that can be solved. pronumerals can’t be solved unless
−18 + 3 = 5x − 3 + 3 Add 3 to both sides, simplify, then one value is known.
−15 = 5x divide both sides by 5. Substitute that value and solve the
−15 = __
____ 5x resulting equation in the usual way.
5 5
x = −3
10 Given y = 7x + 11, complete the following to find x when y = −3.

____ = 7x + 11
−3 −11 = 7x + 11−____
____ = 7x
7x
14 = __
−__
7 □
x = ____
ALGEBRA
11 a Given y = 3x − 5, find x when y = −14. b Given y = 4x + 2, find x when y = 11.

c Given y = 7 − 5x, find x when y = 8. d Given y = 4 − 3x, find x when y = −3.
e Given y = 5 − 7x, find x when y = −5. f Given y = 3x − 5, find x when y = 0.

EXAMPLE 3B–6 Developing and solving an equation from a worded description
When five is subtracted from twice a number the answer is three. Write an equation and solve it to find the
original number
Solve Think Apply

Let the original number be x. Twice the number is 2x. Begin by defining the variable so
The equation becomes: Subtracting 5 gives 2x – 5. Form that you can ensure the answer
2x − 5 = 3 the equation using 2x – 5 and 3. makes sense. Form the equation
2x − 5 + 5 = 3 + 5 Now solve the equation. using the information in the
2x = 8 Add 5 to both sides. question. After solving, make
__ 8
2x = __ Divide both sides by 2. sure the answer makes sense in
2 2
Checking: 2 × 4 – 5 = 3, the context of the question.
x=4
therefore it is correct.
The original number is 4.
12 By first forming an equation, solve each of the following worded questions.

a When five is subtracted from three times a number, the answer is thirteen. Find the original number.
b When seven is subtracted from four times a number, the answer is thirteen. Find the original number.
c When nine is added to five times a number, the answer is thirty-four. Find the original number.
d When eight is added to seven times a number, the answer is twenty-nine, Find the original number.
consecutive
13 The sum of two consecutive integers is 275.
integers
a If the first number is x, write an algebraic expression for the second number. whole numbers
b Write an equation in terms of x to represent this problem. that follow one
c Solve the equation and find the two numbers. another in order,
with a difference
14 For each of these problems, form an equation to solve. of 1 between them
(e.g. 7 and 8; –4,
a Two consecutive integers add to 127. Find the numbers. –3 and –2)
b Three consecutive integers have a sum of 27. Find the smallest of the three numbers.
c Four consecutive integers have a sum of –6. Find the largest of them.
d Three consecutive even integers have a sum of 132. Find the smallest of the three numbers.
15 Tyler is saving to buy a cricket bat that costs $235. He is able to save $28 per
week and currently has $67. Follow the steps below to work out when he will be
able to buy the bat.
a Choose a pronumeral to represent the unknown quantity in the problem.
b Use the pronumeral to write an equation to represent the problem.
c Solve the equation and write your answer.
16 For each of these problems, form an equation to solve. Remember to clearly define the pronumeral you use
to represent the unknown variable.
a Rachel bought three equally-priced dresses online for a total cost of $196, which included the delivery
charge of $19. What is the cost of each dress?

b The cost of hiring a tennis court is $9 plus $14 per hour. For how many hours can you hire the tennis
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N court if you and your friends have a total of $85?
c Andrew and Todd scored a total of 37 goals between them in a basketball match. Todd scored five more
goals than Andrew. How many goals did Andrew score?
d Tina has a budget of $1200 for her birthday party. The cost of hiring a local hall is $325 and catering is
$28 per person. What is the maximum number of people that can attend?
17 The length of a rectangular playing field is 14 m longer than its width.

a If w represents the width of the field, write an expression for the length of the field in terms of w.
b Form an equation for the perimeter of the field in terms of w.
c If the perimeter of the field is 156 m, solve an equation to find the dimensions of the playing field.
18 In an AFL match, players can score points for their team in two ways. They can kick a goal, which is worth
six points, and they can score a behind, which is worth one point.
a Using appropriate variables, write an algebraic equation to calculate the total number of points scored
during an AFL game. Remember to carefully define your variables.
b Calculate the number of points scored if a team kicks 12 goals and 3 behinds.
c Calculate the number of points scored by both teams in each of the following games and identify the
winner. Show all working.
i Kangaroos: 6 goals and 12 behinds, Swans: 7 goals and 8 behinds
ii Eagles: 23 goals and 3 behinds, Suns: 17 goals and 25 behinds
d The scoring in the following games is incomplete. Calculate the number of behinds scored in each of the
games. Show all working.
i Cats: total points was 97, number of goals was 15
ii Power: total points was 128, number of goals was 19
e The scoring for the games below is also incomplete. Calculate the number of goals scored in each of the
games. Show all working.
i Saints: total points was 87, number of behinds was 9
ii Hawks: total points was 131, number of behinds was 17
f There has been some discussion about the possibility of changing the scoring system so that players can
receive three points if they hit the post instead of kicking a goal. How would this change your equation?
g If the change described in part f was implemented and a team scored 15 goals and 14 behinds, and hit
the post a number of times for a total score of 119 points, how many times did the ball hit the goalpost?
19 For each of these problems, form an equation to solve.

CHALLENGE
a When four is subtracted from one-third of a number, the answer is eight. What was the original number?
b When six is subtracted from one-fifth of a number, the answer is seven. Find the original number.
c A box of chocolates contains 24 chocolates that are mint, caramel or strawberry. There are four more
mint than caramel and twice as many strawberry as caramel. How many of the chocolates are caramel?
20 Hayley, Davina and Marcel go fishing. Davina catches four more fish than Marcel, and Hayley catches twice
as many fish as Marcel.
a Form an equation to find the number of fish each person catches. Explain why this problem cannot be
solved.
b Hayley believes they caught a total of 65 fish. Does this seem reasonable? Explain.
ALGEBRA

3C Solving further linear
equations
• Interactive 3C.1: Explore key ideas for solving more linear equations
• Interactive 3C.2: Explore equations with an unknown on both sides
• Video tutorial 3C: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 3C-3
• Spreadsheet 3C: Solve linear equations
• Worksheet 3C: Practise your skills with extra problems for solving equations
• Investigation 3C: Solve linear equations relating to costs at a cinema
To solve equations involving algebraic fractions, multiply both sides by the lowest common
multiple (LCM) of the denominators.
EXAMPLE 3C–1 Solving linear equations involving fractions

Solve the following for x.
a __x = __2
3 5
4
b = __x
__
7 3
Solve Think Apply
a __ 2
x = __ The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15 so To solve equations containing more
3 5
multiply both sides of the equation than one fraction, multiply both sides
2 × 15
x × 15 = __
__
3 5 by 15, to remove fractions. by the LCM of the denominators to
5x = 6 Divide both sides by 5 to solve. remove the fractions. Alternatively,
6
5x = __
___ multiply both sides by the product of
5 5 the denominators. Solve the resulting
x=6 __ equation in the normal manner.
5
or x = 1__15
b 4 = __
__ x The LCM of 7 and 3 is 21 so
7 3
multiply both sides of the equation
4 × 21 = __
__ x × 21
7 3 by 21. Divide both sides by 7 to
12 = 7x solve.
7x
12 = ___
___
7 7
x= 12
__
7
or x = 1__57

EXERCISE 3C Solving further linear equations
1 Complete the following to solve for x. 7
x = __
__
5 8
7 × ____
x × 40 = __
__
5 8
8x = ____
8x = __
__ 35
□ □
x = ____
a __x = __5 b __x = __1 c __ 1
x = __ d __x = __2 e 3
x = __
__ f 2
x = __
__
3 2 7 3 5 2 9 5 7 4 5 3
EXAMPLE 3C–2 Solving more linear equations involving fractions

Solve for x.
4x + 3 = −2
a _____ b 1 (2x − 1) = −4
__
5 3
Solve Think Apply
a 4x + 3 = ___
_____ −2 Multiply both sides of the When solving equations involving
5 1
4x + 3 × 5 = ___
_____ −2 × 5 equation by 5 to eliminate fractions, multiply both sides by
5 1 fractions. the same number, then expand any
4x + 3 = −10 Subtract 3 from both sides of the brackets and simplify. Solve the
4x + 3 −3 = −10 −3 equation, and then divide both resulting equation which should
4x = −13 sides by 4. not contain any fractions.
13
x = −__
4
or x = −3__14
b 1 (2x − 1) = −4
__ Multiply both sides of the
3
1 (2x − 1) × 3 = −4 × 3
__ equation by 3, then expand the
3 brackets.
2x − 1 = −12
Add 1 to both sides of the
2x − 1 + 1 = −12 + 1
equation, and then divide both
2x = −11
sides by 2.
11
x = −__
2
or x = −5__12
3 Complete the following to solve for x.

a 5x − 2 = 4
_____ b 1 (3x + 1) = 5
__
3 4
5x − 2 × ____ = 4 × ____
_____ 1 (3x + 1) × ____ = 5 × ____
__
3 4
5x − 2 = ____ 3x + ____ = ____
5x − 2 + ____ = 12 + ____ 3x + 1 − ____ = 20 − ____
5x = ____ 3x = ____
x = ____ x = ____

x − 2 = −3
a _____ x−1=8
b _____ c x + 5 = −5
_____
ALGEBRA
4 2 3
d 2x + 7 = −1
_____ e 1 (3x + 1) = −3
__ f 1 + 2x = 7
_____
3 2 7
1 − 2x = 0
g _____ h 1 (4 − 3x) = −2
__ i 1 (5 − 2x) = −1
__
2 5 4

EXAMPLE 3C–3 Solving linear equations with a pronumeral term on both sides
Solve these equations.

a 5x + 2 = 3x − 5 b 15 − 2x = 11 + x
Solve Think Apply
a 5x + 2 = 3x − 5 First, subtract 3x from When solving equations with
5x + 2 − 3x = 3x − 5 − 3x both sides of the equation. pronumerals on both sides, it
2x + 2 = −5 Then, subtract 2 from may be necessary to not only add
2x + 2 − 2 = −5 − 2 both sides. Finally, divide and subtract numbers from both
2x = −7 both sides by 2. sides, but also to add and subtract
−7
2x = ___
___ pronumerals from both sides.
2 2 The first step is to add or subtract
7
x = −__ the pronumerals to move them
2
or x = −3__12 to one side, it does not matter
which side. Next add or subtract
b 15 − 2x = 11 + x First, add 2x to both sides
to move the numbers to the other
15 − 2x + 2x = 11 + x + 2x of the equation. Then,
side of the equation from the
15 = 11 + 3x subtract 11 from both
pronumerals. Then solve as normal
15 − 11 = 11 + 3x − 11 sides. Finally, divide both
by multiplying or dividing.
4 = 3x sides by 3.
4 3x
___ = ___
3 3
x= 4
__
3
or x = 1__13
5 Complete to solve the following.

a 4x − 2 = 4 + 2x b 7 − 3x = 5x − 9
4x − 2 − ____ = 4 + 2x − 2x 7 − 3x − 5x = 5x − 9 − ____
2x − 2 = 4 7 − ____ = −9
2x − 2 + ____ = 4 + 2 7 − 8x − ____ = −9 − ____
2x = ____ ____ = −16
2x
__ = __6 −8x = ____
____ −16
□ 2 −8 □
x = ____ x = ____
6 Solve the following equations with integer solutions.

a 6x + 2 = 2x + 18 b 3x + 7 = 12 − 2x c 5 + x = 9 − 3x
d 4x − 4 = 5x − 1 e 3 − x = 2x + 9 f 9 − 2x = 3 − 5x
g 3x − 12 = x + 6 h 5x − 9 = 11 + 7x i 3x − 5 = 10 − 2x
7 Solve these equations.

a 6x + 7 = 4x − 2 b 5x + 3 = 2x + 7 c 5 + 2x = 11 − 3x
d 2x − 3 = 5x + 7 e 3 + x = 17 + 5x f 15 − 3x = 2 − 5x
g 2x + 5 = 9 − 3x h 4x − 5 = 5x + 9 i 5 − 7x = 3x + 7
j 5a + 3 = a − 3 k 4 − 3s = 2s + 15 l 9x − 4 = 3 + 5x
m 11a − 7 = 5a + 15 n 3y − 5 = −14 − 5y o 7p = 15 − 4p

EXAMPLE 3C–4 Checking solutions to linear equations
Substitute the value given in square brackets to check whether it is the solution to each equation.
a 2x − 5 = 10 − 3x [x = 3] b 5x + 2 = 2x − 7 [x = 2]
Solve Think Apply

a 2x − 5 = 2(3) − 5 Substitute x = 3 into both sides of When checking a solution,
=6−5 the equation. substitute the value into the
=1 Both sides of the equation equation and check that the two
10 − 3x = 10 − 3(3) are equal to 1, so x = 3 is the sides of the equation are equal.
= 10 − 9 solution. If they are not equal, the given
=1 value is not the solution.
x = 3 is the solution.
b 5x + 2 = 5(2) + 2 Substitute x = 2 into both sides of
= 10 + 2 the equation. One side is 12 and
= 12 the other side is −3, so x = 2 is
2x − 7 = 2(2) − 7 not the solution.
=4−7
= −3
x = 2 is not the solution.
8 Complete to show that x = 3 is the solution of 7 − 3x = x − 5.

7 − 3x = 7 − 3(____) = 7 − ____ = ____
x − 5 = ____ − 5 = −2
x = 3 ____ the solution.
9 Substitute the value given in square brackets to check whether it is the solution to the equation each time.
a 3x + 9 = 4 − 2x [x = −1] b 9a + 2 = 7a − 4 [a = −3]
c 7a − 5 = 3 − a [a = 2] d 15 − 2x = 6 + x [x = 3]
e 2x − 3 = 7 − 4x [x = 1__23 ] f 5x − 7 = 3 + x [x = 3__12 ]
EXAMPLE 3C–5 Solving a problem by first forming an equation to solve

If one more than twice a number is five more than the number, what is the number?
Solve Think Apply

Let the number be x. 2x + 1 is one more than twice the Carefully define the pronumeral.
The equation becomes: number. Form an equation and solve it.
2x + 1 = x + 5 x + 5 is five more than the number.
2x + 1 − x = x + 5 − x Form the equation using 2x + 1 and
x+1=5 x + 5.
x+1−1=5−1
x =4
The number is 4.
ALGEBRA

10 Form an equation and then solve it to find the number in each of these problems.
a Three more than twice a number is seven more than the number.
b Eight more than three times a number is four more than the number.
c Six more than twice a number is four more than four times the number.
d Nine less than five times a number is three less than twice the number.
5 (F − 32) where C represents the temperature in degrees
11 A formula for converting temperature is C = __
9
Celsius (°C) and F represents the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
a For C = 30, write the formula as a linear equation involving the variable F.
b Solve your linear equation to find F.
c What is the equivalent temperature in degrees Fahrenheit for a temperature of 30°C?
d Solve a linear equation to find the equivalent temperature in degrees Fahrenheit for a temperature of
18°C.
e Which temperature is higher: 25°C or 76°F? Show steps of working to justify your answer.
12 The number of biscuits in a packet is

unknown. However, Lisa can fill the family
biscuit barrel with six more biscuits than the
contents of two packets, or five less biscuits
than the contents of three packets.
a If n represents the number of biscuits in
a packet, which equation (A, B, C or D)
best matches this situation?
A 2n – 6 = 3n – 5
B 2n – 6 = 3n + 5
C 2n + 6 = 3n – 5
D 2n + 6 = 3n + 5
b Solve the equation to find the number of
biscuits in a packet.
13 Kristen and Daniel have the same amount of money. Kristen buys 5 kg of cherries and has $2 left over.
Daniel buys 2 kg of cherries and has $20 left over.
a Write an equation to represent this situation.
b Solve the equation to find the cost of 1 kg of cherries.
14 James and Sue have the same amount of

money. James buys seven sushi rolls and has
$1.50 left over. Sue buys four sushi rolls and
has $12 left over. Form an equation and then
solve it to find the cost of a sushi roll.
15 The average of Hayden’s four test results

for the semester is 78%. He remembers that
three of his test results were 91%, 69% and
88%. Form an equation and then solve it to work out the result he received in the fourth test.
16 For three consecutive even integers, the sum of the two smaller numbers is equal to six more than the largest
number. Form an equation and then solve it to find the integers.

17 Use a spreadsheet program to solve the equation 3x − 7 = 9 − x, given that the solution is an integer.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N The spreadsheet needs to have three columns labelled x, 3x − 7 and 9 − x.
In cell A1 enter x, in cell B1 enter 3x − 7, in cell C1 enter 9 − x, in cell A2 enter 0, in cell B2
enter =A2*3−7 and in cell C2 enter =9−A2.
A B C
1 x 3x − 7 9−x
2 0 −7 9
3 1
4 2
5 3
6 4
7 5
8 6
Use the fill down command to find the values for each side of the equation. The answer is the value of x that
gives the same value in columns B and C.
18 Change the spreadsheet in question 17 to solve each of these equations with positive integer solutions.
a 5x − 3 = 53 − 2x b 3x + 5 = 35 − 2x c 19 − 2x = 7x – 44
d 6x + 11 = 41 − 4x e 3x − 17 = 33 − 7x f 9x + 15 = 79 − 7x
19 Use a spreadsheet to solve these equations with negative integer solutions.

a 4x − 3 = 13 + 6x b 7x − 3 = −25 + 5x c 8 − 7x = 2 − 8x
20 Explain how to modify the spreadsheet used in questions 18 and 19 to solve equations that do not have
integer solutions.
21 Solve these equations using a spreadsheet.

a 3x − 7 = 6 − 2x b 5x + 23 = 2x − 8 c 8 − 7x = 8x + 59
22 Solve the following problems by first forming an equation.

CHALLENGE
a A man is currently three times as old as his son. In 11 years from now he will be twice as old as his son
will be then. How old is his son now?
b At present Jen is 8 years older than Wesley. In 3 years from now, Jen’s age will be double Wesley’s age.
How old is Wesley?
c The sum of Kelly and Sam’s ages is 45 years. If Kelly’s age was doubled, it would be 5 years more than
three times Sam’s age. How old is Sam?
23 Solve the following linear equations for x.

4x + 1 = __
a _____ 1 3x + 1 = __
b _____ 2 7x − 2 = −__
c _____ 2
3 2 5 3 4 5
2x + 1 = __
d _____ 3 3x + 1 = __
e _____ 3 3x + 2 = x − __
f _____ 1
5 4 4 5 5 3
g 1 −
_____x =x+ 1
__ h x +
_____ 1 = x
__ i 2x −
_____1 = 3x
__
5 3 2 7 4 5
ALGEBRA

3D Finding the value of a
variable in a formula
• Worksheet 3D: Practise your skills with extra problems for solving equations
• Investigation 3D.1: Write and solve equations relating to a circus scenario
• Investigation 3D.2: Investigate the concept of a balanced linear equation
We know that a formula links two or more variables according to a rule. Each variable can be
represented by a pronumeral. The pronumeral that is expressed in terms of the others is called
the subject of the formula. If the pronumeral to be found is the subject of the formula, its value
is found directly by substitution as in Topic 3A.
If the pronumeral to be found is not the subject of the formula, there are two methods
for finding its value:
1 substitute the known values into the formula and solve the resulting equation
2 rearrange the formula, so that the subject of the formula is the pronumeral to be
found and then substitute the known values. To rearrange the formula to change its
subject, we use the same rules as those used for solving equations.
EXAMPLE 3D–1 Substituting known values into a formula and solving

the resulting equation
a Find the value of t when v = 117, u = 5, a = 8 and v = u + at.
b Find the value of N when R = 23, I = 4 and R = __I + 1.
N
Solve Think Apply
a v = u + at In the formula, replace v Substitute the given values

117 = 5 + 8t with 117, u with 5 and a with into the formula and solve the
112 = 8t 8. Solve the resulting equation resulting equation.
112 = t
____ by adding 5 to both sides and
8 then dividing both sides by 8.
t = 14
b I +1
R = __ Replace R with 23 and I with
N
4. Solve the resulting equation
4 +1
23 = __
N by subtracting 1 from both
4 sides, multiplying both sides by
22 = __
N N and then dividing both sides
22N = 4
by 22.
4
N = __
22
2
N = __
11

EXERCISE 3D Finding the value of a variable in a
formula
1 If v = u + at find:
a t when v = 102, u = 18 and a = 7 b a when v = 54, u = 12 and t = 14
2 Use the formula d = __12 ct to find the value of:

a c when d = 100 and t = 8 b t when d = 320 and c = 16
5k , find k when M = 15.
3 If M = __
18
4 If V 2 = gR, find R when V = 12 and g = 10.
m , find m when b = 23 and h = 1.63.
5 If b = __
h2
6 Use the formula I = Prn to find the value of:
a P when I = 19 500, r = 0.03 and n = 25 6
b n when I = 2100, P = 5000 and r = ___
100
7 Given s = ut + __12 at2, find u when s = 360, t = 8 and a = 10.
n (a + l), find a when S = 560, n = 20 and l = 53.
8 If S = __
2
n [2a + (n – 1)d], find the value of a when S = 610, d = 3 and n =20.
9 If S = __
2
360 to find n when A = 120.
10 Use the formula A = 180 – ___ n
2Rn to find the value of:
11 Use the formula a = ___
n+1
a R when a = 12 and n = 24 b R when a = 19.5 and n = 39
E to find the value of:
12 Use the formula I = ___
R+r
a E when I = 8, R = 15 and r = 3 b R when I = 2, E = 24 and r = 3
EXAMPLE 3D–2 Changing the subject of a formula (one step with two
pronumerals)
Make x the subject of each formula below.
a x+3=y b 3x = p c __x = t d x−5=r
2
Solve
a x+3=y b 3x = p c x=t
__ d x−5=r
2
x+3−3=y−3 p
3x = __
__ x×2=t ×2
__ x−5+5=r+5
x=y−3 3 3 2 x=r+5
p
__ x = 2t
x=
3
Apply
Apply the rules for solving equations to rearrange the formula so that x is the subject.
ALGEBRA

13 Make x the subject of each of these formulas.
a x+2=y b x+5=y c y=x+8 d 5x = p

e 7x = q f r = 2x g x=t
__ h __x = r
3 5
i x
m = __ j x−3=p k x−7=m l z=x–1
8
EXAMPLE 3D–3 Changing the subject of a formula (one step with three
pronumerals)
a x+a=b b x−k=t c mx = z x
d __
w=p
Solve
a x+a=b b x−k=t
x+a−a=b−a x−k+k=t+k
x=b–a x=t+k
c mx = z d x
__
w=p
mx = __
___ z x
__
m m w×w=p×w
z x = pw
x = __
m
Apply
Apply the rules for solving equations to rearrange the formula so that x is the subject.
14 Make x the subject of each formula below.

a x+y=z b x+n=m c x−p=q d x−k=n
e ax = c f dx = e g _x = w h _x = t
v k
i p=x+q j m=x−k k a = bx l x
t = __
b
EXAMPLE 3D–4 Changing the subject of a formula (one step with four
pronumerals)
Make x the subject of each formula.
a __ax = __bc b _xz = __
w
y
Solve Think Apply
a x __
__ b Multiply both sides of the equation Apply the rules for solving
a=c
x
__ b
__ by a and simplify. equations to rearrange the formula
a×a=c×a so that x is the subject.
ba or __
x = __ ab
c c
b w
zx = __ Divide both sides of the equation
y
zx __
__ 1 w 1 by z and simplify. To divide by z,
× z = y × __
__ 1.
1 z multiply by its reciprocal __
z
w
__
x = yz

x p
a __
m=q
__ b _xt = __
k
m c _xy = __a
b
d ax = _kt e zx = __de m
f kx = __
n

EXAMPLE 3D–5 Changing the subject of a formula (two steps)
a y = 2x + 3 b m = 4 − 3x c y = mx + b
Solve Think Apply
a 2x + 3 = y Subtract 3 from both sides Apply the rules for solving

2x + 3 − 3 = y − 3 of the equation, then divide equations to rearrange the formula
2x = y − 3 both sides by 2. so that x is the subject.
y−3
2x = _____
__
2 2
y−3
_____
x=
2
b 4 − 3x = m Subtract 4 from both sides

4 − 3x − 4 = m − 4 of the equation, then divide
−3x = m − 4 both sides by −3. The
−3x m−4
____ = ______ expression −(m − 4) is
−3 −3 the same as −1(m − 4)
−(m − 4)
x = _________ or −1 × m − 1 × −4 or
3
−m + 4 −m + 4.
x = _______
3
c mx + b = y Subtract b from both sides
mx + b − b = y − b of the equation, then divide
mx = y − b both sides by m.
y−b
mx = _____
___
m m
−b
y_____
x= m

a y = 3x + 2 b y = 5x + 1 c y = 2x + 5 d y = 7x − 4
e y = 6x − 5 f y = 3x − 5 g m = 3 + 2x h m = 5 + 3x
i m = 7 + 5x j m = 6 − 5x k m = 4 − 3x l m = −8 − 6x
m y = mx + 4 n y = mx − 3 o y = mx + c p y = mzx
17 Make y the subject of each of these equations.

a a + by = c b p + qy = r c xy − p = r
d a − b = cy e x − ky = t f c = 4 − ry
g a + by + r = 0 h k = r − py i r + px = qy
I + 1, find the value of N when:
18 Given R = __
N
CHALLENGE
a R = 3 and I = 7 b R = 11 and I = 5
__
√ __
l
19 Use t = __
g to find l when t = 1.3 and g = 10.
20 Use r = √__
V to find V when r = 3 and k = 4.2.
3
ALGEBRA
k
21 Use the formula E = __12 mv2 to find the value of v when E = 135 and m = 2.8. Give your answer correct to
one decimal place.

3E Travel calculations
• Video tutorial 3E: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 3E-1
• Investigation 3E: Investigate travel calculations for constant speed
average speed The formula for the average speed of an object is given below. This formula is used to
calculated by calculate the average speed, distance and time travelled.
dividing the
distance travelled distance travelled
Average speed = _____________
during a time time taken
interval by the D
This is usually written as S = __
length of the T
time interval; e.g. where S is the average speed, D is the distance travelled and T is the time taken.
average speed of So it follows that D = S × T, and T = __D.
a car that travels
S
120 km in 2 hours
When drivers react to situations in which they need to stop a motor vehicle, the total stopping
is 60km/h
distance of the vehicle depends on the distance travelled while the driver reacts and the
total stopping
distance travelled after applying the brakes.
distance
total distance
travelled in the The distance a car travels in the time it takes to stop is:
time it takes for
a driver to react, Total stopping distance = reaction-time distance + braking distance
apply the brakes
and for the car to
The reaction-time distance is the distance travelled in
come to a stop
the time it takes a driver to react to a situation; that
reaction-time
is, to realise there is a problem and move his or her
distance
distance travelled foot to the brake. The usual reaction time, for drivers
in the time it takes unaffected by alcohol, drugs or fatigue has been
a driver to react found to be about 2.5 s.
and move his or
her foot to apply
The braking distance is the distance a car travels
the brakes after the brakes have been applied. This distance
braking distance depends on (the square of) the speed of the car.
distance a motor Note: Factors such as the condition of the road (wet
vehicle travels or dry) and the condition of the car’s brakes and
between the
tyres, as well as the state of the driver, all have an
time the brakes
are first applied effect on the total stopping distance.
and when the
vehicle comes to a
The braking distance is a function of the square of the speed of the car. For a car with
complete stop
good brakes and tyres, travelling in dry conditions on a good road, the relationship can
be approximated by the formula d = 0.01v2, where d is the braking distance in metres
and v is the speed of the car in km/h.
For the same car travelling on a slippery road, the formula for braking distance
becomes d = 0.014v2.

EXAMPLE 3E–1 Calculating average speed, distance and time
a A car travels 232 km in 4 hours and 17 minutes. Calculate its average speed.
b A train averages 83 km/h for 2 hours and 24 minutes. How far does it travel?
c If a motorcyclist can average 52 km/h, how long will it take her to travel 34 km?
Solve Think Apply
a 232 km
S = _______ Change 17 minutes to hours. D
S = __
4.283 33... h T
17 min = (17 ÷ 60) h = 0.283 33... h
= 54.16... km/h
4 h 17 min = 4.283 33... hours
= 54 km/h (to the nearest whole
Or use the degrees, minutes, seconds key on
number)
your calculator.
b D = 83 km/h × 2.4 h Change 24 minutes to hours. D=S×T
= 199.2 km 24 min = (24 ÷ 60) h = 0.4 h
c 34 km
T = __ 0.6538... hours = (0.653 8... × 60) min D
T = __
52 km/h S
= 39.23... min
= 0.6538... hours
= 39 min (to the nearest minute)
EXERCISE 3E Travel calculations

1 Calculate the average speed for these distances and times.
a 185 km is travelled in 4 h b 720 km is travelled in 9 h and 50 min

c 154 km is travelled in 3 h and 15 min d 272 km is travelled in 4 h and 35 min
2 a Calculate the distance travelled in 3 h and 30 min at an average speed of 64 km/h.
b Calculate the distance travelled in 3 h and 20 min at an average speed of 56 km/h.
c Calculate the distance travelled in 5 h and 47 min at an average speed of 82 km/h.
d Calculate the distance travelled in 2 h and 13 min at an average speed of 75 km/h.
3 How long will it take to travel:
a 486 km at 60 km/h? b 298 km at 74 km/h?
c 365 km at 82 km/h? d 88 km at 95 km/h?
EXAMPLE 3E–2 Converting units of speed

Convert:
a 65 km/h to m/s b 9.8 m/s to km/h.
Solve Think Apply
a 65 × 1000 m/s
65 km/h = ________ 65 km = (65 × 1000) m and Change kilometres to metres (by
60 × 60 multiplying by 1000), change
= 18.1 m/s 1 h = (60 × 60) s
hours to seconds (by multiplying
(to one decimal place)
by 60 × 60) and divide.
b 9.8 × 60 × 60 km/h 9.8 m in 1 s
9.8 m/s = ___________ Change m/s to m/h by
1000
= (9.8 × 60) m in 1 min multiplying by 60 × 60. Change
= 35.28 km/h
= (9.8 × 60 × 60) m in 1 h metres to kilometres by dividing
ALGEBRA
Divide by 1000 to change by 1000.

metres into kilometres.

4 Complete the following to convert the units of speed.
70 × □ 8×□×□
a 70 km/h = ______ b 8 m/s = _________
□×□ □
= ____m/s (to one decimal place) = ____km/h
5 Convert each of the following to m/s, correct to one decimal place.

a 45 km/h b 76 km/h c 110 km/h
6 Convert each of the following to km/h.

a 15 m/s b 12.5 m/s c 25 m/s
EXAMPLE 3E–3 Calculating reaction-time distance

Calculate the reaction-time distance for a car travelling at 60 km/h. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 s.
Solve Think Apply

Reaction-time distance 60 × 1000 Convert the speed to m/s and use
60 km/h = ________
60 × 60
m/s
60 × 1000 × 2.5
= ______ D = S × T where T = 2.5 s. T is the
60 × 60 Multiply the speed in m/s by the
time it takes the driver to react.
≈ 42 m reaction time of 2.5 s.
7 Calculate the reaction-time distance for a car travelling at 80 km/h. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 s.
9 a Use the results of questions 7 and 8 to draw a (straight-line) graph of the relationship between reaction-
time distance (m) and speed (km/h), given a reaction time of 2.5 s.
b Use the graph to estimate the reaction-time distances for cars travelling at these speeds.
i 120 km/h ii 45 km/h
c If the speed of a car increases by 10 km/h, what is the increase in the stopping distance?
EXAMPLE 3E–4 Calculating braking distance

Calculate the braking distance for a car travelling in dry conditions at 60 km/h.
Solve Think Apply

Braking distance = 0.01 × 602 Substitute v = 60 into the Substitute the value of v into the
= 36 m formula d = 0.01v2. dry conditions formula.
10 Calculate the braking distance for a car travelling at 80 km/h in good conditions.
11 a Calculate the braking distance for a car travelling at 100 km/h in good conditions.
b What is the braking distance for a car travelling at 100 km/h in wet conditions?
c What is the difference between the braking distances at 100 km/h in good conditions and in wet
conditions?

EXAMPLE 3E–5 Calculating total stopping distance
Find the total stopping distance, to the nearest metre, for a car travelling at 70 km/h in good conditions,
assuming a reaction time of 2.5 s.
Solve Think Apply

Total stopping distance Reaction-time distance Add the reaction-time
70 × 1000 × 2.5 + 0.01 × 702
= ______ 70 ×1000 × 2.5 = 48.611 ... m
= _______ distance to the braking
60 × 60 60 × 60
distance to find the
= 97.611 ... m Braking distance = 0.01 × 702 = 49 m
stopping distance.
= 98 m (to the nearest metre)
12 Complete the following to find the total stopping distance for a car travelling at 90 km/h in good conditions,
assuming a reaction time of 2.5 s.
□
Stopping distance = ______ × 2.5 + 0.01 × ____2
□×□
= ____ m (to the nearest metre)
13 Find the total stopping distance for a car travelling at 110 km/h in good conditions, assuming a reaction time
of 2.5 s.
14 a If a driver affected by fatigue has a reaction time of 3.5 s, what will be the reaction-time distance of a
car being driven by this driver at 60 km/h?

b For this driver, what is the difference between the stopping distance with a reaction time of 3.5 s and the
stopping distance with a reaction time of 2.5 s?
15 If a driver is affected by alcohol and has a reaction time of 4.5 s, what difference will this make to the
reaction-time distance of a car travelling at 100 km/h compared with the usual reaction time of 2.5 s?
16 The reaction-time distance, d m, for a car travelling at v km/h, assuming a reaction time of t s, can be
approximated using the formula d = 0.28vt. Use this formula to check your answers for questions 14 and 15.
17 If the speed of a car increases from 50 km/h to 60 km/h, what is the increase in total stopping distance?
18 Find the stopping distance for a car travelling at 70 km/h in good conditions. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 s,
and use the formula d = 0.7v + 0.01v 2, where d is the stopping distance (m) and v is the speed (km/h).
19 a Use the formula d = 0.7v + 0.01v 2, where d is the stopping distance in metres and v is the speed in
km/h, to complete the following table.
Speed (km/h) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Stopping distance (m) 0.7 × 20 + 0.01 × 202 = 18
b Use the information in the completed table from part a to graph the relationship between speed and
stopping distance. (Join the points with a smooth curve.)
c Using your graph from part b, estimate the stopping distance for a car travelling at these speeds.
i 50 km/h ii 120 km/h
20 For a driver under the influence of alcohol and driving in poor road conditions, the formula for stopping
CHALLENGE
distance becomes d = 1.2v + 0.018v2.

a Prepare a table similar to the one in question 19. Use the values from your completed table to draw,
ALGEBRA
on the same set of axes as the graph from question 19, a graph of the relationship between speed and
stopping distance for a driver under the influence of alcohol.
b Compare your graphs to find the difference in stopping distances at:
i 50 km/h ii 60 km/h iii 110 km/h.

3F Blood alcohol content
• Spreadsheet 3F: Calculate blood alcohol content
blood alcohol Blood alcohol content (BAC) is a measure of the concentration of alcohol in a person’s
content (BAC) blood. It is expressed as a percentage mass per unit of volume.
percentage 0.02
concentration
For example, a person with a BAC of 0.02 (%) has ____
100
g of alcohol in every millilitre of their
of alcohol in a blood. This is equivalent to 0.02 g/100 mL or 20 mg/100 mL.
person’s blood; A BAC measure can be estimated using tables, formulas and on-line calculators; but it is very
e.g. a BAC of 0.05
important to remember that these are only approximations because they are based on average
(%) is 0.05 g of
alcohol in every values and do not apply equally to everyone.
100 mL of blood A person’s BAC reading is affected by factors such as whether the person is male or female, how
standard drink much the person drank, the length of time that the person spent drinking and the length of time
any drink that since his or her last drink, the person’s weight, whether the person is physically fit, the state of
contains 10 g of the person’s liver, whether the person is a regular drinker, or the person’s mood at the time.
alcohol
The only way to measure a person’s BAC accurately is with an approved breath analysing unit
known as a ‘breathalyser’.
An estimate of a person’s BAC can be determined by counting the number of standard drinks
consumed. A standard drink is any drink that contains 10 g of alcohol. A standard drink
always contains the same amount of alcohol irrespective of the container size or the type of
drink (beer, wine or spirits).
The number of standard drinks in a container can be calculated using the formula:
N = 0.789 × V × A
where N = number of standard drinks
V = the volume of the container in litres
A = percentage of alcohol (% alc/vol) in the drink. (This is stated on the
container.)
Note: 0.789 is the specific gravity of ethyl alcohol, the type of alcohol used in
beverages.
EXAMPLE 3F–1 Calculating the number of standard drinks

Calculate the number of standard drinks in a 150 mL glass of red wine, given that the alcohol content of the
wine is 14.5% alc/vol.
Solve Think Apply

N = 0.789 × V × A The volume of the glass is 150 mL or Convert the volume of the
= 0.789 × 0.15 × 14.5 0.15 L. So V = 0.15. container to litres and substitute the
≈ 1.7 The alcohol content is 14.5% alc/vol. values of V and A into the formula
So A = 14.5. N = 0.789 × V × A.

EXERCISE 3F Blood alcohol content
1 Complete the following to calculate the number of standard drinks in these beers:
a a 375 mL stubby of full-strength beer with b a 375 mL stubby of light beer with an alcohol
an alcohol content of 4.8% alc/vol content of 2.7% alc/vol
N = 0.789 × V × A N = 0.789 × V × A
= 0.789 × ____ × 4.8 = 0.789 × 0.375 × ____
= ____ = ____
2 Calculate (to one decimal place) the number of standard drinks in:
a a 120 mL glass of wine with an alcohol content of 12% alc/vol
b a 90 mL glass of fortified wine with an alcohol content of 16.5% alc/vol
c a 375 mL can of bourbon and coke with an alcohol content of 6% alc/vol
d a 750 mL bottle of white wine with an alcohol content of 11.5% alc/vol
e a 275 mL bottle of vodka and orange with an alcohol content of 5% alc/vol
f a six-pack (6 × 330 mL) of full strength beer with an alcohol content of 4.9% alc/vol.
An estimate of a person’s BAC can be found using these formulas:

10N − 7.5H and
BACmale = _________ 10N − 7.5H
BACfemale = _________
6.8M 5.5M
where N = number of standard drinks consumed
H = number of hours spent drinking
M = person’s mass in kg
Note: One standard drink per hour will raise BAC by between 0.01% and 0.03%. A person’s BAC will increase
at a greater rate if the person:
• is female • is unfit
• is drinking highly carbonated drinks • has not eaten recently
• has a low body weight • has an unhealthy liver.
EXAMPLE 3F–2 Calculating blood alcohol content (BAC)

Calculate, correct to two decimal places, the BAC of:
a a 78 kg male who has consumed five standard drinks in 3 hours
b a 46 kg female who has consumed four standard drinks in 4 hours.
Solve Think Apply
a 10N − 7.5H
BAC male = _________ Substitute N = 5, H = 3 and Substitute the number of
6.8M standard drinks consumed, the
10 × 5 − 7.5 × 3 M = 78 into the formula
= _____________
6.8 × 78 10N−7.5H number of hours spent drinking
BAC male = ________
≈ 0.05 6.8M and the mass of the person into
b 10N − 7.5H the relevant formula.
BAC female = __________ Substitute N = 4, H = 4 and
5.5M
10 × 4 − 7.5 × 4 M = 46 into the formula
= _____________
5.5 × 46 10N−7.5H
BAC female = ________
≈ 0.04 5.5M
ALGEBRA

3 Complete the following, using the formulas given in Example 3F–2, to calculate the BAC of:
a an 83 kg male who has consumed six standard b a 58 kg female who has consumed five
drinks in 3 hours standard drinks in 4 hours
10N − 7.5H
BACmale = _________ 10N − 7.5H
BACfemale = _________
6.8M 5.5M
10 × □ − 7.5 × □ 10 × □ − 7.5 × □
= ______________ = ______________
6.8 × □ 5.5 × □
= ____ = ____
4 Use the formulas for calculating BAC to complete the following table.
Number of standard Number of hours
Gender Mass (kg) drinks consumed spent drinking BAC (%)
a Male 70 3 2
b Female 50 4 2
c Male 95 6 3
d Female 57 2 2
5 An 80 kg adult male wants to keep his BAC ≤ 0.05. Complete the following to find how many drinks he can
consume in 5 hours to achieve this.
Let BAC = 0.05.
10N − 7.5 × 5
So: 0.05 = ___________
6.8 × 80
10N − □
= _______
□
____ = 10N − ____
____ = 10N
N = ____
If he has ____ standard drinks, his BAC = 0.05.
For his BAC < 0.05, he can have up to ____ standard drinks.
6 A 56 kg woman wants a BAC that is less then 0.05. How many drinks can she consume in 3 hours?
7 A rule of thumb can be used by the holder of a full drivers’ licence to stay under the 0.05 legal limit in NSW:
For males: no more than two standard drinks in the first hour and one standard drink per hour after that.
For females: no more than one standard drink per hour.
Use this rule of thumb to calculate the maximum number of standard drinks that can be consumed by a
person who wants to stay under 0.05 BAC if the person is:
a a male and drinking for 4 hours b a male and drinking for 6 hours
c a female and drinking for 4 hours d a female and drinking for 6 hours
8 Use the rule of thumb from question 7 to calculate the answers to questions 5 and 6.
Note: After drinking ceases, the only thing that will reduce BAC is the passing of time. Drinking coffee,
exercising, taking a cold shower or inducing vomiting will not reduce BAC. Alcohol is eliminated from
the body by the liver at a rate between 4 g/h and 12 g/h, or at an average of 7.5 g/h or 0.75 standard
drinks per hour (since a standard drink contains 10 g of alcohol), and can vary considerably depending
on the person’s health. This means that it can take the liver more than an hour to eliminate one
standard drink.

EXAMPLE 3F–3 Calculating time needed to eliminate one standard drink
If a person’s liver can break down alcohol at the rate of 6 g/h, how long will it take for this person’s body to
eliminate one standard drink?
Solve Think Apply

Time needed One standard drink contains 10 g of alcohol. If the rate at which the liver eliminates
10 h
= __ If the liver can eliminate 6 g every hour, alcohol is given in g/h, then time in
6
then the time needed is (10 ÷ 6) hours. hours needed to eliminate one standard
= 1.666... h 10
drink is _____________ .
= 1 h 40 min rate of elimination
9 Calculate the time it takes different people’s bodies to eliminate one standard drink if their livers break down
alcohol at these rates.
a 5 g/h b 10 g/h c 4 g/h d 12 g/h e 7.5 g/h
The liver breaks down alcohol at an average rate of 0.75 standard drinks per hour.
BAC
A formula that can be used to calculate the time it takes for BAC to fall to zero is: T = _____
0.015
where T = the number of hours the drinker must wait.
10 Complete the following to calculate how long a person must wait for BAC to drop to zero from 0.05%.
BAC = _____□
T = _____ = ____ h = ____ h ____ min
0.015 0.015
11 Calculate how long a person must wait for BAC to drop to zero from these levels.
a 0.04% b 0.02% c 0.06% d 0.035%
12 a Calculate the BAC for an 80 kg male and a 52 kg female, both with provisional licences, who consume
four standard drinks in 3 hours.

b A zero BAC is a requirement of NSW law for all learner and provisional drivers. How long would the
two people described in part a need to wait before they could legally drive a motor vehicle?
13 Damien and Nicole go to a party and start drinking at 8:00 pm. Damien drinks eight schooners of full
strength beer (12 standard drinks) over the next 5 hours. Nicole has six mixed drinks (9 standard drinks) in
the same time. Damien has a mass of 86.6 kg and Nicole’s mass is 56.1 kg.
a Calculate the BAC of both Damien and Nicole at 1:00 am.
b At what time will they be able to legally drive if they both have provisional licences?
14 Ben goes to a party and consumes two stubbies (375 mL) of full strength beer (4.9% alc/vol) in the first hour
and one stubby per hour for the next 3 hours.
a Calculate the number of standard drinks he has consumed.
b Use the formula to calculate his BAC if his mass is 72 kg.
c How long will it be before Ben’s BAC drops to zero?
15 Create a spreadsheet to show the blood alcohol content for a 75 kg male and a 55 kg female, where N is
CHALLENGE
the number of standard drinks consumed compared with the number of hours spent drinking. Investigate
what the BAC would be for a given number of standard drinks in a given time. Remember it is only an
ALGEBRA
approximation! (You may like to refer to the spreadsheet supplied in your obook assess.)

3G Medication calculations
• Spreadsheet 3G: Calculate medication dosage for children
This section examines dosages of various medications. Some terms are defined here.
• The dose is the amount of drug taken at any one time.
• The dosage regimen is the frequency at which the drug doses are given.
• The total daily dose is calculated from the dose and the number of times the dose is taken.
• The dosage form is the physical form of a dose of the drug. Common dosage forms
include tablets, capsules, creams, ointments, aerosols and patches.
• The optimal dosage is the dosage that gives the desired effect with minimal side effects.
EXERCISE 3G Medication calculations

1 The dosage for a particular painkiller is as follows.
Age: 7–12 years: __12 −1 tablet every 4–6 hours (maximum 4 tablets in 24 hours)
Age: 12 years–adult: 1–2 tablets every 4–6 hours (maximum 8 tablets in 24 hours)
a How many tablets can an adult take in one dose?
b An adult plans to take two tablets every 4 hours for 24 hours.
i How many tablets would that person take over 24 hours? Why shouldn’t they do this?
ii How many doses of two tablets can be taken over 24 hours?
c A child takes __12 a tablet every 4 hours for 24 hours. Has the maximum dosage been exceeded? Explain.
2 For a very strong painkiller, dosage for adults and children from 12 years is: two caplets, then 1–2 caplets
every 4–6 hours as necessary. (Maximum 6 caplets in 24 hours.)
a An adult takes two caplets now and then two more after 4 hours. How many more caplets can that
person take in that 24-hour period?
b Is two caplets initially, two more after 4 hours and two more after 6 hours, then no more, an acceptable
dosage? Explain your answer.
There are three different formulas that can be used to calculate dosage for children, depending on the age
of the child.
age (in months) × adult dosage
Fried’s formula for children 1 to 2 years old is: Dosage = ______________________
150
or D = mA
___ where D = infant dosage, m = age of infant in months and A = adult dosage.
150
age of child (in years) × adult dosage
Young’s formula for children 1 to 12 years old is: Dosage = __________________________
age of child (in years) + 12
yA
_____
or D = where y = age of child in years and A = adult dosage.
y + 12
child’s weight (in kilograms) × adult dose
Clark’s formula for children of any age is: Dosage = _______________________
70
or D = kA
__ where k = mass of child in kilograms and A = adult dosage.
70

EXAMPLE 3G–1 Using Fried’s formula to calculate medication dosage
The adult dose of a medication is 40 mL. Use Fried’s formula for children 1 to 2 years old to calculate the
dosage for a 20-month-old child.
Solve Think Apply

20 × 40 = 5.3 mL
Dose = ______ mA
Use the formula D = ___ Ensure that the units are correct
150 150 for the formula; that is, age is in
and substitute m = 20 months
and A = 40 mL. months.
3 Use Fried’s formula to calculate each child’s dosage below.

a adult dose of 50 mL, child’s age 15 months b adult dose of 40 mL, child’s age 21 months
c adult dose of 30 mL, child’s age 18 months d adult dose of 50 mL, child’s age 13 months
e adult dose of 100 mL, child’s age 17 months f adult dose of 80 mL, child’s age 23 months
4 a A child aged 17 months is given a dosage of 6 mL. Use Fried’s formula to calculate the adult dosage.
b A child aged 11 months is given a dosage of 7 mL. Use Fried’s formula to calculate the adult dosage.
EXAMPLE 3G–2 Using Young’s formula to calculate medication dosage

Use Young’s formula to calculate the dosage for a 5__12 -year-old child if the adult dose is 60 mL.
Solve Think Apply

5.5 × 60 yA
Dose = _______ Use the formula D = _____ Check the units before substituting.
5.5 + 12 y + 12
Some formulas use age in years, others
≈19 mL where y = 5.5 and A = 60 mL.
use age in months.
5 Use Young’s formula to calculate each child’s dosage, to the nearest millilitre.
a adult dose of 50 mL, child’s age 6 years d adult dose of 20 mL, child’s age 7.5 years
b adult dose of 40 mL, child’s age 8 years e adult dose of 100 mL, child’s age 6.2 years
c adult dose of 80 mL, child’s age 4.5 years f adult dose of 75 mL, child’s age 8.4 years
6 a Use Young’s formula to calculate the adult dose if the dosage for an 8-year-old child was 10 mL.
b Use Young’s formula to calculate the adult dose if the dosage for a 6-year-old child was 5 mL.
EXAMPLE 3G–3 Using Clark’s formula to calculate medication dosage

Use Clark’s formula to calculate the dosage for a child weighing 19 kg. The adult dose is 50 mL
Solve Think Apply

19 × 50
Dose = ______ kA where
Use the formula D = __ Check units before substituting.
70 70
The formula uses 70 kg as the average
≈14 mL k = 19 and A = 50.
adult weight.
7 Use Clark’s formula to calculate each child’s dosage, to the nearest millilitre.
a adult dosage of 18 mL, child’s weight 40 kg b adult dosage of 27 mL, child’s weight 60 kg
ALGEBRA
c adult dosage of 51 mL, child’s weight 80 kg d adult dosage of 39 mL, child’s weight 75 kg
e adult dosage of 32 mL, child’s weight 100 kg f adult dosage of 40 mL, child’s weight 35 kg

8 a Use Clark’s formula to calculate the adult dose if a 35 kg child has a dose of 18 mL.
b Use Clark’s formula to calculate the adult dose if a 25 kg child has a dose of 17 mL.
c Use Clark’s formula to calculate the weight of a child receiving a dose of 40 mL, given that the adult
dose is 140 mL.
EXAMPLE 3G–4 Calculating flow rate in millilitres per hour

A patient is to receive 1.6 L of fluid over 10 h. What is the flow rate in mL/h?
Solve Think Apply

volume (mL)
Flow rate = _________ Convert 1.6 L to mL by Ensure that units are converted
time (h) multiplying by 1000. before dividing to find the rate.
1600 mL
= _______
10 h
= 160 mL/h
9 Calculate the flow rate in mL/h for these volumes of fluid and these times.
a volume of 1.4 L over 8 h b volume of 1.7 L over 5 h
c volume of 0.8 L over 6 h d volume of 0.6 L over 5 h
e volume of 0.085 L over 3 h f volume of 4.26 L over 12 h
10 a The flow rate is 150 mL/h for 6 h. How much fluid is delivered? Give your answer in litres.
b The flow rate is 200 mL/h for 7 h. How much fluid is delivered? Give your answer in litres.
c The flow rate is 180 mL/h and 600 mL is delivered. For how long was the fluid delivered?
EXAMPLE 3G–5 Calculating flow rate in drops per minute

A patient is to receive 1.2 L of fluid over 4 h through an intravenous drip. There are 15 drops/mL. How
many drops per minute are required?
Solve Think Apply

1200 mL = 5 mL/min
Flow rate = _______ Convert 1.2 L to mL by The unit for drops/min is actually
240 min multiplying by 1000. gtt/min. Large drops per mL are
Drops = 5 × 15 drops/min
Convert 4 h to minutes by called ‘macrodrips’ and are used if
= 75 drops/min
multiplying by 60. the rate is greater than 100 mL/h.
11 Calculate the number of drops per minute required at a rate of

15 drops/mL in these situations.
a volume of 1.4 L over 7 h
b volume of 1.5 L over 6 h
c volume of 800 mL over 4 h
d volume of 600 mL over 2 h
e volume of 750 mL over 5 h
f volume of 900 mL over 6 h
12 What is the drip rate per minute for:

a 1.3 L of fluid over 6 h with a drip size giving 12 drops/mL?
b 850 mL of fluid over 5 h with a drip size giving 8 drops/mL?

EXAMPLE 3G–6 Calculating delivery time for an intravenous drip
An intravenous drip is delivering 30 drops/min. There are 20 drops/mL and 900 mL of liquid to be
delivered. How long will the drip take to deliver the required dose?
Solve Think Apply

Number of drops = 900 × 20 First calculate the number of Be aware of the units and convert
= 18 000 drops needed. Calculate the time where necessary.
18 000 min using number of drops/min. The drop size can be varied as
Time = _____
30 Divide minutes by 60 to convert well as the drop rate.
= 600 min
to hours.
= 10 h
13 Calculate the time it will take to deliver intravenous liquid at these rates.
a 800 mL delivered at 20 drops/min and there are 15 drops/mL
b 600 mL delivered at 15 drops/min and there are 10 drops/mL
c 500 mL delivered at 10 drops/min and there are 12 drops/mL
d 1.2 L delivered at 25 drops/min and there are 20 drops/mL
e 1.5 L delivered at 15 drops/min and there are 12 drops/mL
f 1.8 L delivered at 20 drops/min and there are 15 drops/mL
14 A sick child requires medication. The adult dose of the medication is 20 mL. The child is 16 months old and
has a mass of 7.9 kg.

a Find the dosage using Fried’s rule. c Find the dosage using Clark’s rule.
b Find the dosage using Young’s rule. d How much would you give the child? Explain.
15 Repeat question 14 for a 20-month-old child weighing 12 kg, given that the adult dose of the medication
is 30 mL.
16 A child is 10 years of age and requires a dose of a medicine for which the adult dosage would be 50 mL.
The dosage is calculated using Fried’s rule, without realising that rule is used for children under 2 years
only. A dose could be an overdose if it is double the correct dose.
a Calculate the dosage according to Fried’s rule.
b Calculate the correct dosage using Young’s rule.
c If the entire amount calculated using Fried’s rule is taken at the one time, has the child received an
overdose? Explain.
d The dosage is given through a drip at 20 drops per minute with 15 drops per millilitre. At what time
should the drip be stopped to result in the correct dosage being given?
17 Create a spreadsheet to calculate the A B

CHALLENGE
dosage for children under 12 years 1 Calculation of medicine dosage for child 12 years or less.
of age. Fried’s rule is applicable for 2 Child's information
children under 2 years, Young’s formula
3 Age in months 11
is for children 1 to 12 years and Clark’s
formula is for children of any age. Set 4 Weight in kilograms 6.2
your spreadsheet up so, when you enter 5 Adult dosage in millilitres 40
the three variables for the child, the 6 Child dosage in millilitres
ALGEBRA
spreadsheet calculates the dosage. (You

7 Fried’s rule Young’s rule Clark’s rule
may like to refer to the spreadsheet
supplied in your obook assess.) 8 2.9 Not suitable 3.5

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW FORMUL AS AND EQUATIONS
✔ substitute for pronumerals and evaluate expressions
✔ find the value of the subject of a formula by substituting for variables
✔ solve linear equations
✔ solve equations by substitution into formulas
✔ change the subject of a formula
✔ solve problems related to speed, distance and time
✔ calculate the distance a motor vehicle travels in the time it takes to bring it to a stop
✔ calculate the number of standard drinks in a container, the BAC for males and females, and the time it takes for
someone’s BAC to fall to zero
✔ calculate medical dosages.

3A a − 5b ?
1 Let a = 7 and b = −3. What is the value of ______
2
8 7
A 64 B 3 C 50 __ D 8
8
3A 2 What is the value of s = ut + __12 at 2 if u = 0, t = 5 and a = 10?
A 125 B 130 C 2500 D 2505
3A 3 The volume of a cone with h = 10 and r = 3 is calculated using V = __13 πr2h. Which value is closest to the
volume?
A 31 B 94 C 314 D 30
3B 4 What is the solution to p − 16 = 42?

A p = 26 B p = 36 C p = 48 D p = 58
3B 5 What is the solution to 11x − 10 = 25?

A x = 25 B x = 3__ 2 11
C x = __ 15
D x = __
11 35 11
3B 6 Which equation has solution x = −3?
A 3x − 7 = 2 B 4x − 3 = 15 C x+5=8 D 5x + 2 = −13
3B 7 Which equation does not have x = 4 as a solution?

A x−4=0 B __x = 16 C 4x = 16 D x+5=9
4
3C 8 What is the solution to 3a +
_____4 = 2?
5
A a=2 B a=3 C a=4 D a=5
3C 9 What is the solution to 7x − 3 = 4x + 9?

A x=2 B x=3 C x=4 D x=5
3D 10 Using the formula V = IR − E, what is the value of I when V = 13, R = 4 and E = 7?

A 1__12 B __14 C 5 D __23

3D 11 The formula V = IR – E is rearranged to make R the subject. What is the new formula?
V+E
A R = _____ V−I
B R = _____ C R = __ E E−V
D R = _____
I E VI I
3E 12 A car travels 280 km in 3 h 25 min. What is its average speed?
A 86 km/h B 82 km/h C 93 km/h D 42 km/h
3E 13 What is 70 km/h expressed in m/s?

A 1.2 m/s B 0.02 m/s C 1167 m/s D 19.4 m/s
3E 14 What is 15 m/s expressed in km/h?

A 250 km/h B 4.2 km/h C 54 km/h D 41.7 km/h
3E 15 What is the distance a car travels in 2.8 s at 80 km/h?

A 6.2 m B 7.9 m C 62.2 m D 373.3 m
3F 16 Paul goes to a party and consumes three stubbies (375 mL) of full strength beer (4.9% alc/vol) in the first hour
and one stubby per hour for the next 4 hours. Approximately, how many standard drinks has he consumed?
A 1.4 B 4.3 C 5.8 D 10.1
3F 17 A 75 kg woman consumes seven standard drinks in 4 hours. What is her BAC?

A 0.078 B 0.097 C 0.010 D 0.012
3G 18 The adult dose of a medication is 50 mL. Using Fried’s formula below, what is the dosage for a
1-year-old child?
age (in months) × adult dose
Child dose = ____________________
150
A 4 mL B 0.3 mL C 3 mL D 0.4 mL
3G 19 A patient is to receive 1.2 L of fluid over 8 h. What is the flow rate in mL/h?
A 9.6 mL/h B 15 mL/h C 150 mL/h D 6.6 mL/h
3G 20 A patient is to receive 800 mL of liquid through an intravenous drip delivering 25 drops/min. If there are
16 drops/mL, how long will it take to deliver the required dose?
A 0.52 h B 8 h 32 min C 12 h D 20 h 50 min
REVIEW SET 1
1 If x = 4 and y = 6, find the value of 3x − 5y.
4 πr 3, where r is the radius. Find the volume of a
2 The volume, V, of a sphere is found using the formula V = __
3
sphere with radius:
a 7 cm b 3.5 cm c 0.6 m
3 The formula for converting temperature measurements from degrees Celsius, C, to degrees Fahrenheit, F, is
9 C + 32. Find F when:
F = __
5
a C = 200° b C = 20° c C = 55°

x
__
a d − 8 = 36 b x + 9 = 20 c = 72
ALGEBRA
8
d 11x = 55 e 4x − 7 = 39 f 3x − 12 = 60
g 10 + 8n = 72 h 12 − 6c = 85 i 3(2x + 1) = 4

5 Use the formula E = __12 mv2 to find the value of E when m = 50 and v = 20.

a 3x = t b y = mx − 7 c x+d
a = _____
c
7 For a car travelling on a slippery road, the formula for braking distance becomes d = 0.015v 2. What is the
braking distance of a car travelling at 100 km/h on this road?
8 A train averages 84 km/h for 2 h 36 min. How far does it travel?
9 Calculate how long an average person must wait for BAC to drop to zero from 0.07%.
10 Use Fried’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a 9-month-old child if the adult dose is 60 mL.
11 Use Young’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a 6__12 -year-old child if the adult dose is 45 mL.
12 A patient is to receive 1.5 L of fluid over 6 h through an intravenous drip. If there are 12 drops/mL, how many
drops per minute are required to deliver the dose?
REVIEW SET 2
1 If x = −2 and y = 3 find the value of 5x − 7y.
2 The surface area, A, of a sphere is found using the formula A = 4πr 2, where r is the radius. Find the surface
area of a sphere with radius:
a 4 cm b 7.5 cm c 0.8 m
3 The formula for converting temperature measurements from degrees Fahrenheit, F, to degrees Celsius, C, is
5 (F – 32). Find C when:
C = __
9
a F = 248° b F = 50° c F = 32°

x
__
a d − 9 = 23 b x + 4 = 65 c 3
=5
d 11x = 121 e 3x − 7 = 30 f 4x − 12 = 15
g 12 − 9c = 43 h 7(2x + 5) = 4 i 4x − 2 = x + 9
5 Use the formula A = __12 bh to find b, given that A = 72 and h = 8.

a x+y=m b n = k − 3x c m = _xk − 4
7 A car travels 252 km in 4 h 19 min. Calculate its average speed.
8 Calculate the BAC of a 98 kg male who has consumed six standard drinks in 4 hours.
9 Use Young’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a 7__12 -year-old child if the adult dose is 25 mL.
10 Use Clark’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a child weighing 15 kg. The adult dose is 30 mL.
11 A patient is to receive 600 mL of saline solution. An intravenous drip delivers 30 drops/min and there are
12 drops/mL. How long will it take to deliver the required dose?

REVIEW SET 3
1 Given x = −5 and y = 8, find the value of 4x 2 − 6y.
2 The surface area, A, of a cylinder is found using the formula A = 2πr (r + h), where r is the radius and h is the
height. Find the surface area of a cylinder with radius 15 cm and height 10 cm.
__
L
3 The time T s for a pendulum of length L m to swing back and forth once is give by the formula T = 2π __
g √
where g ≈ 10 m/s . Find how long it takes for a pendulum of length 2.5 m to swing back and forth once.
2

x
__
a d − 9 = 11 b x + 4 = 14 c 3
=2
d 11x = 77 e 3x − 8 = 12 f 7x − 12 = 19
g 14 + 3n = 23 h 23 − 4c = 11 i 2(4x + 5) = 12
5 Use the formula T = a + (n − 1)d to find n, given that T = 41, a = 3 and d = 2.

a _xy = t b y = k − mx c x−t=y
____
w
7 Find the total stopping distance for a car travelling at 90 km/h in good conditions. Assume a reaction time of
2.5 s and a braking distance of d = 0.01v 2.
8 Calculate the number of standard drinks in a 120 mL glass of red wine, given that the alcohol content of the
wine is 14.6% alc/vol.
9 a Calculate the BAC of a 76 kg male who has consumed five standard drinks in 3 hours.
b Calculate the BAC of a 52 kg female who has consumed four standard drinks in 4 hours.
10 Calculate how long an average person must wait for BAC to drop to 0 from 0.06%.
11 a Calculate the BAC for a 75 kg male and a 53 kg female, both with provisional licences, who consume four
standard drinks in 3 hours.
b A zero BAC is a requirement of NSW law for all learner and provisional drivers. How long would the two
people have to wait before they could legally drive a motor vehicle?
12 What is the drip rate per minute for 1.25 L of fluid over 8 h, with a drip size giving 14 drops/mL?
13 Use Clark’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a child weighing 38 kg, given the adult dose
is 35 mL.
ALGEBRA

REVIEW SET 4
1 Given x = 12 and y = −4, find the value of 6x 2 − 11y.
2 The volume, V, of a cylinder is found using the formula V = πr 2h, where r is the radius and h is the height.
Find the volume of a cylinder with radius 12 cm and height 25 cm.
3 A formula for calculating the bend allowance, in millimetres, of sheet metal is B = 2π(R + __
2 ) 360
T × ___ A
where B is the bend allowance, T is the thickness in millimetres, A is the number of degrees in the angle of
bend, and R is the radius of curvature in millimetres. Find B when T = 1.5, R = 4 and A = 113.

a d − 5 = 11 b x + 7 = 14 c x=2
__
6
d 7x = 77 e 3x − 4 = 92 f 8x − 12 = 11
g 11 + 7n = 53 h 27 − 9c = 31 i 4(3x + 5) = 13
m to find m if b = 31.25 and h = 1.6.
5 Use the formula b = __
h2
2Rn to find the value of R when a = 95 and n = 19.
6 Use the formula a = _____
n+1
7 If a cyclist can average 15 km/h, how long will it take her to travel 28 km?

a 55 km/h to m/s b 21.4 m/s to km/h
10 Use the formula d = 0.01v 2 to calculate the braking distance for a car travelling at 80 km/h in good conditions.
11 Find the total stopping distance for a car travelling at 80 km/h in good conditions.
Use the formula d = 0.7v + 0.01v 2, where d is the stopping distance in metres and v is the speed in km/h.
12 For a driver under the influence of alcohol and driving in poor road conditions, the formula for the stopping
distance of a car becomes d = 1.1v + 0.018v 2.
a Calculate the stopping distance to the nearest metre to complete the table for this driver.
Speed (km/h) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Stopping distance (m)
b Use the table from part a to draw a graph of the relationship between speed and stopping distance.
c From the graph drawn for part b estimate the stopping distance if the car is travelling:
i 50 km/h ii 70 km/h iii 110 km/h
13 Use Young’s formula to calculate the dosage of medicine for a 10-year-old child. The adult dose is 20 mL.
14 A patient is to receive 1.1 L of fluid over 9 h.

a What is the flow rate in mL/h?
b Find the drip rate in drops/min if there are 18 drops/mL.

1 a i Solve __5x = −3. (1 mark)
________
ii Find the value of √10a + 2b when a = 5 and b = 7. (2 marks)
b The body mass index, b, is used to determine whether a person’s mass is within the
acceptable range of 21 < b < 25. To calculate her body mass index, Stella used the
m
formula b = __ , where m = mass in kilograms and h = height in metres.
h2
Here are her calculations.
m
b = __
h2
When m = 55 kg and h = 168 cm,
55
b = _____
(168)2
= 0.001 95
i Explain the error in her calculations. (1 mark)
ii Calculate the correct value of b. (1 mark)
iii Is Stella in the healthy mass range? Explain. (1 mark)
c George’s solution to the equation 6 − 5x = 8 is shown below.
6 − 5x = 8
6 − 5x + 6 = 8 + 6
−5x = 14
x=8
He has made some errors. Identify the errors and find the correct solution. (2 marks)
d The total stopping distance, d metres, of a car travelling at v km/h under good conditions
is given by the formula d = 0.7v + 0.01v2.
i Calculate the stopping distance of a car travelling at 60 km/h. (1 mark)
ii If the speed of the car is increased by 10 km/h, what is the increase in the stopping
distance? (2 marks)
e Harry goes to a party and drinks seven standard drinks over 4 hours.
10N −7.5H to calculate Harry’s blood alcohol content
i Use the formula BACmale = _________
6.8M
after 4 hours if his mass is 78 kg. (2 marks)
ii Use the formula T = _____BAC to find how long it will take for his BAC to drop to zero. (1 mark)
0.015
f Use Young’s formula below to calculate the dosage of medicine for a 4__12 -year-old child,
given the adult dose is 100 mL.
age of child (in years) × adult dosage
Dosage for children 1 to 12 years = __________________________ (1 mark)
age of child (in years) + 12
TOTAL: 15 marks
ALGEBRA

Chapters 1–3 CUMUL ATIVE REVIEW
1 a Pauline earns $56 028 per annum. Calculate her weekly pay.
b Fielding is a junior and is paid $16.58 per hour. He works 5 hours per day, six days a week. Find his pay
for 1 year.
c Louise is paid $24.40 per hour. Calculate her weekly wage if she works 40 hours at normal time and
8 hours overtime at time-and-a-half.
d Hunter works in a timber yard and is paid $28.40 per hour. He receives a dust allowance
of $12.50 per day. Find his pay for a 5-day, 37-hour week.
e An art salesperson is paid 6.2% of the selling price of any works he sells. Find his commission on a
painting that sells for $6250.
f Endora received a 17 __12 % holiday loading on 4 weeks normal wages. She normally works a 32-hour
week. Her 4 weeks holiday pay with loading is $2185.70.
i Find her normal weekly pay.
ii Find her normal hourly pay rate.
g A factory worker is paid $5.35 for each garment completed. Calculate his wage if he completes
324 garments.
h Micky earns $968 per week. His employer pays superannuation of 9.5% of that amount on his behalf
and Micky contributes 3% of his salary to his superannuation fund.
i What is Micky’s weekly income less his superannuation contribution?
ii What is the total weekly amount paid into Micky’s superannuation fund?
i Harry and Sally are a couple entitled to the age pension. They have a combined income of $522.00 per
fortnight. The full pension would be $609.30 each per fortnight. Calculate the total pension paid to
Harry and Sally. Use the tables in Topic 1D to help you.
2 a Giselle uses the following information to calculate her taxable income: wages $47 220, interest $385,
bonus $3000, tax agent fee $180, work-related car expenses $1255 and donations to charity $600.
Calculate Giselle’s taxable income.
b The Medicare levy is 2% of taxable income for taxable incomes over $26 668. Calculate the Medicare
levy payable on a taxable income of $41 894.
c Use the following table, showing the tax rates for 2017–18, to calculate the tax payable on these incomes.
i $62 889 ii $37 699 iii $19 369 iv $3522
Taxable income Tax on this income
0–$18 200 Nil
$18 201–$37 000 19c for each $1 over $18 200
$37 001–$87 000 $3572 plus 32.5c for each $1 over $37 000
$87 001–$180 000 $19 822 plus 37c for each $1 over $87 000
$180 001 and over $54 232 plus 45c for each $1 over $180 000
d Simon earns $29 996 p.a. as a cocktail attendant and $17 560 as a part-time singer. He has tax deductions
of $3561 and, throughout the year, pays a total of $8725 in tax instalments. Find:
i his total income ii his taxable income
iii the Medicare levy he must pay iv tax payable on his taxable income
v his tax refund or balance payable.
03A_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 114 19/10/2017 10:19 AM

3 a Round 4263.091 to:
CUMUL ATIVE RE VIE W

i the nearest 100 ii the nearest whole number iii two decimal places
iv three significant figures v five significant figures vi one significant figure
b Are the following numbers in scientific notation?
i 6 × 10 000 ii 15 × 108 iii 2.04 × 10−6
c Express the following in scientific notation.
i 105 000 ii 0.000 062 7 iii 45.6
d Calculate the following, writing the answers in scientific notation.
i (4.1 × 108) × (7 × 105) ii (8 × 105)3 iii (6.24 × 10–3) ÷ (1.43 × 10–7)
e Convert the following.
i 6.73 km = ____ m ii 1750 cm = ____ m iii 4.3 g = ____ mg
iv 47 000 kg = ____ t v 6.35 L = ____ mL vi 90 mL = ____ L
vii 3.2 Gm = ____ m viii 52 ML = ____ kL ix 16 500 cm2 = ____ m2
f For the measurement 6.8 m, find:
i the precision ii the absolute error
iii the lower and upper bounds of the true measurement
iv the percentage error (to one decimal place).
4 a Given x = −5 and y = 8, find the value of 4x2 − 6y.

b The surface area, A, of a cylinder is found using the formula A = 2πr(r + h), where r is the radius and
h is the height. Find the surface area of a cylinder with radius 12 cm and height 8 cm.
5 Solve each of the following equations.

a d − 9 = 12 b x + 4 = 12 c x = 6
__
3
d 11x = 55 e 3x − 8 = 19 f 7x − 12 = 16
g 14 + 3n = 29 h 23 − 4c = 14 i 4x + 1 = __
______ 1
5 7
( pm ) 2
6 a If m = 10, n = 15 and p = −6, find the value of ______
n . ___
b If A = 750 and h = 12.6, find r correct to one decimal place given that r = √__
A.
πh
7 Solve each of the following equations.
a 6x = 96 b __x = − 2 c x−5=8
4
d x+6=9 e 3x − 5 = 7 f 4 − 2x = −8
g 7 − 3x = 4 − 5x h 4 = 7
− __ i x − 5 = 11
_____
x 2
8 Make y the subject of each of these equations.
y y−x
a __ = p b x = 4 − 3y c _____
w =2
3
9 Find the total stopping distance, to the nearest metre, for a car travelling at 80 km/h in slippery conditions.
Assume a reaction time of 2.5 s and use the formula d = 0.014v2, where d is the braking distance in metres
and v is the speed of the car in km/h. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
10 Lisa goes to a party and drinks four standard drinks over 2 hours. Use the formulas in Topic 3F to help you
answer the following.
a Calculate Lisa’s estimated blood alcohol content (BAC) after 2 hours if her mass is 60 kg.
b Find how long it will be until her BAC drops to zero?

4
Classifying data
and sampling
▶ classifying data as categorical or numerical
▶ identifying the target population
▶ investigating bias in sampling, including
self-selected sampling
▶ choosing a random sample
▶ choosing a stratified random sample
▶ choosing a systematic sample
▶ determining the suitability of sample types for a
given situation
▶ evaluating the effect of a sample size in
estimating the nature of a population.
MS-S1 Data Analysis S1.1

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

4A 1 What type of data is ‘the eye colour of students 4C 5 What are the grid references 4
in a class’? for the shaded region? 3
A numerical B systematic A (3, 1) B (1, 2) 2
1
C central D categorical C (2, 3) D (3, 2)
1 2 3 4
4A 2 A survey is conducted to find the number of 4D 6 What is 16 as a fraction of 40, in its simplest
children in a family. What type of data is being form?
collected? 16
A ___ B ___8
40 20
A categorical ordinal 4
C ___ D __2
B categorical nominal 10 5
4D 5
7 What is × 30?
__
C numerical discrete 8
D numerical continuous A 3__3 B 6
4
4B 3 What is the term given to data collected from C 18__3 D 48
4
every member of a population? 4D 8 What is 17 as a percentage of 25?
A sample B census A 17% B 25%
C number D category C 68% D 147%
4B 4 Which of the following survey questions 4D 9 What is 35% of 160?
indicate bias in the collection process?
A 125 B 56
A What type of music do you like listening to? C 22 D 5
B Do you like classical music?
C Pop is your favourite style of music, isn’t it? 4E 10 What is the next number in the sequence
17, 38, 59, 80, …?
D I like to listen to hip hop. Circle your
opinion of this statement. A 21 B 81
1 strongly agree C 101 D 111
2 agree 4E 11 What is the hundredth term in the sequence
3 disagree 5, 8, 11, 14, …?
4 strongly disagree A 305 B 302
C 300 D 100
Q1–2 Support sheet 4A.1 Types of data
Q3 Support sheet 4B.1 Populations and samples
Q4 Support sheet 4B.2 Survey questions
Q5 Support sheet 4C.1 Grid references
Q6 Support sheet 4D.1 Writing and simplifying fractions
Q7 Support sheet 4D.2 Multiplying fractions
Q8–9 Support sheet 4D.3 Calculating percentages
Q10–11 Support sheet 4E.1 Number patterns
Chapter 4 Classifying data and sampling 117

4A Collecting and
classifying data
• Interactive 4A: Explore key ideas for classifying data
statistics Statistics is the science of collecting facts and information. The information is organised in
the study of a form that can be analysed easily and conclusions and predictions can accurately be based
collecting,
on. The facts or pieces of information collected are called data. Data may be collected by
organising,
analysing and
counting, measuring and asking questions.
interpreting data The process of statistical inquiry includes the following steps:
data • identifying a problem and posing a statistical question
pieces of collected
information
• collecting or obtaining data
• representing and analysing that data
• communicating and interpreting the findings.
In this chapter we will investigate the first two of these steps.
Questioning can be by interview, either in person or by phone, or by questionnaire. The usefulness
of the responses to the questions asked will depend on the relevance, clarity and structure of the
questions. Questions should use simple language, be unambiguous so that there can be no doubt
about their meaning, and they should be free from bias; that is, free from unfair influence.
The main types of questions used in questionnaires are:
• Free-response or open-ended questions
• Yes or No questions
• True or False questions
• Tick-a-box type questions
• Response scale questions
• Continuum scale questions
Here are some examples of these question types that could be used to start an investigation into
the school uniform, with a discussion of some of the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
Free-response: ‘What do you like/dislike about the present school uniform?’
This question would possibly collect a lot of information, but, because there would be many
different responses, it might be difficult to organise and interpret the responses.
Yes or No: ‘Would you like to change the present school uniform?’
The responses to this question will indicate whether there is a desire to change the uniform,
but will not indicate what changes, if any, are wanted. (This, of course, could be done by
asking further questions.)
True or False: ‘The present school uniform is satisfactory.’
As for the Yes and No questions, the responses will not indicate any changes wanted.

Tick a box: ‘Which of the following items of school uniform would you like to see changed?’
variable
Boys: Shirt Trousers Shoes Pullover
(statistics)
Girls: Blouse Skirt Shoes Pullover a particular
characteristic that
The responses to this question will give information about the particular changes wanted.
we are interested
Response scale: ‘Circle the response that most closely agrees with your opinion of the present in when collecting
school uniform.’ data
1 Strongly like 2 Like 3 No opinion 4 Dislike 5 Strongly dislike categorical

variable
The responses to this question will give a clearer indication of the depth of feeling concerning a qualitative
a change, but will not indicate what changes, if any, are wanted. characteristic
Continuum scale: ‘I like the present school uniform.’ Place a cross on the line below to of data that
can be divided
indicate your opinion of this statement.
into groups (or
categories)
strongly agree strongly disagree
nominal variable
Again, the responses will not indicate what changes, if any, are wanted. type of categorical
When writing questionnaires, the questions should be simple and straightforward so that there variable for which
the categories
is only one interpretation possible. They should show respect for the privacy of individuals,
are named but
should not involve any calculations and should avoid any bias (for example, ‘Do you agree not ordered; e.g.
that …?’ type questions). In general, the simpler the question and the more precise the hair colour
response required, the more accurate the data collected will be. It is a good idea to trial your ordinal variable
questions on a few people to check that the questions are achieving the purpose for which you type of categorical
are designing them. variable for which
the categories are
When collecting data, we are interested in a particular property or characteristic of a group of ordered on a scale
people or objects. The particular characteristic that we are interested in is called the variable. or as a ranking;
A categorical variable is one that describes a characteristic. It can be divided into categories. e.g. rating system
from poor 1–5
For example, colour, quality and gender are categorical variables. Categorical variables can be
nominal or ordinal. numerical
variable
a quantitative
Categorical variables characteristic
A nominal variable is a qualitative variable that names categories into which the data of data that can
be counted or
can be sorted. There is no order within the categories. For example, eye colour could
measured
be blue, brown, grey, green or hazel.
discrete variable
An ordinal variable is a qualitative variable that does have an intrinsic order. These type of numerical
variables are often presented as scales or rankings. For example, the quality of work variable that is
could be poor, satisfactory, good or excellent. exact, usually
resulting from
counting; e.g.
A numerical variable is one that has a numerical value. Numerical variables can be either number of pets in
discrete or continuous. a family
continuous
Numerical variables variable

type of numerical
A discrete variable takes exact numerical values. It is often the result of counting. For
variable within a
example, the number of children in a family, the marks in a test, or shoe sizes. range of values,
A continuous variable takes any numerical value within a certain range. It is usually usually resulting
the result of measuring. For example, if the mass of a student is given as 48 kg, the from measuring;
e.g. heights of
exact mass could be anywhere between 47.5 and 48.5 kg. Mass is a continuous variable.
students

EXERCISE 4A Classification of data
1 List some advantages and disadvantages of the following methods for collecting information from people.
You could consider factors such as time, cost, the response rate (the number of people prepared to respond
to the questions) and the truthfulness of answers. Discuss your answers with the class.
a personal interviews b phone interviews c questionnaires
2 For each of the following investigations, write a short questionnaire

using each of the different types of questions discussed on the
previous pages.
a an investigation of what change, if any, students would like to
make to your school uniform (considering how many students
want a change, boys/girls, juniors/seniors, which items, etc.)
b an investigation of which are the most popular radio stations and
why (considering types of programs, types of music, boys/girls,
when they listen, how often, etc.)
c an investigation of whether students are satisfied with the food
available at the school canteen (considering who uses the canteen
when, how often, how much is spent, types of food, etc.)
3 Trial your questionnaires from question 2 on a small group and, if necessary, modify the questions.
EXAMPLE 4A–1 Classifying data

Classify the following variables as categorical nominal, categorical ordinal, numerical discrete or numerical
continuous.
a the number of heads when three coins are tossed
b the brands of toothpaste used by the students in a class
c the heights of a group of 15-year-old children
d the energy star ratings of refrigerators
Solve Think Apply
a numerical The values of the variables are obtained by A numerical discrete variable is
discrete counting the number of heads. The result can one that only takes exact or distinct
only be one of the exact values 0, 1, 2 or 3. It values.
is numerical discrete data.
b categorical The variable describes the brands (names) of A categorical nominal variable is
nominal the toothpaste used. one that names the categories (such
as brands of toothpaste). It cannot
be ordered.
c numerical This is numerical data obtained by measuring. A numerical continuous variable
continuous The results can take any value between certain is one that can take any value in a
limits determined by the degree of accuracy given range.
of the measuring device. It is numerical
continuous data.
d categorical This variable ranks (orders) the relative An ordinal variable is a qualitative
ordinal efficiency of refrigerators. variable with an intrinsic order.

4 For each of the following investigations, classify the
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING variable as categorical nominal, categorical ordinal,
numerical discrete or numerical continuous.
a the number of goals scored weekly by a
netball team
b the heights of the members of a football team
c the most popular radio stations
d the numbers of children in Australian families
e the number of loaves of bread bought each
week by a family
f the types of pets owned by students in a class
g the energy ratings of different washing machines
h the number of leaves on the stems of different
plants
i the amount of sunshine each day
j the number of people who die from cancer
each year
k students’ opinions of their school uniform
(like, no opinion, dislike)
l the amount of rainfall in each month of the year
m the countries of origin of immigrants
n the sizes of apples picked (small, medium, large)
o the numbers of pets owned by the students in a class
p the genders of school principals
q the health of patients after being given medication (worse, no different, better)
5 Give three of your own examples of:

a categorical nominal data
b categorical ordinal data
c numerical discrete data
d numerical continuous data.
Discuss your examples with the class. Be prepared to justify your answers.
6 Design a short questionnaire to investigate the use of calculators by students in your class. Include at least
one question for collecting information about each of categorical nominal, categorical ordinal, numerical
discrete and numerical continuous variables.
7 Write a short questionnaire to investigate use of the school canteen by members of your school population
and others. Include at least one question for collecting information about each of categorical nominal,
categorical ordinal, numerical discrete and numerical continuous variables.
8 Have you ever taken part in market research? Explain what market research is and how market research
CHALLENGE
companies use statistics. Write a short report.
9 What statistics does the World Health Organization (WHO) collect and how are they used? The internet
address is www.who.int
10 The United Nations collects statistics. Research what data is collected and how they are used. The internet
address is www.un.org

4B Census or sample and
self-selected sampling
• Investigation 4B: Develop an understanding of the National Census
population One of the first decisions to be made when collecting data is deciding from whom, or what,
entire group the information is to be collected. The target population is the entire group about whom,
about whom, or from which, information is sought. For instance, if we were interested in collecting
or from which,
information
information about the cleanliness of trains, the target population would be all commuters who
is sought use rail transport. If we wanted to determine the most popular colour for new cars purchased
census
in one particular year, the target population would be all new cars sold in that year.
involves colllecting There are two ways of collecting the information: a census or a sample.
information about
every member A census involves collecting data about every individual in the whole population.
of the entire The individuals may be people or objects. A census is detailed and accurate but is
population
expensive, time-consuming and often impractical.
sample
involves collecting A sample involves collecting data about a portion of the population. It is cheaper and
information about quicker than a census but is not as detailed or as accurate. Conclusions drawn from
a small selection samples always involve some degree of error.
from a population
biased sample The most common way of collecting information is by using a sample. The purpose of
when the method a sample is to provide an estimate of a particular characteristic of the whole population.
of collecting Therefore, the challenge in selecting a sample is to make it as free from prejudice (bias) as
data produces a
possible and large enough to be representative of the whole population.
sample that does
not accurately
reflect the A biased sample is one in which the data has been unfairly influenced by the
characteristics of collection process and is not truly representative of the whole population.
the population
EXERCISE 4B Target population and census or

sample
1 What would be the target population if we wanted to:
a investigate the suitability of bus timetables on a certain route?
b collect information about the effects of road tax on company profits?
c investigate the success of a new treatment for ticks and fleas on dogs?
d investigate bank charges?

EXAMPLE 4B–1 Deciding whether a census or sample would be used
Would a census or a sample be used to investigate:
a the length of time an electric light globe will last?
b the causes of car accidents in New South Wales?
c the number of people who use Britex toothpaste?
Solve Think Apply
a Sample It is obviously impractical to test A sample collects data about a
every light globe produced – there subset of the population.
would be none left for sale!
b Census An accurate analysis of all A census would collect
accidents would be required. information about every accident.
c Sample It would be very time consuming A sample collects data about a
to interview the whole population subset of the population.
to find out who uses, or does not
use, Britex toothpaste.
2 State whether a census or a sample would be used for each of the following investigations. Discuss any
problems in collecting such data with the class.
a the number of goals scored weekly by a netball team
b the heights of the members of a football team
c the most popular radio stations
d the number of children in Australian families
e the number of loaves of bread bought each week by a family
f the types of pets owned by students in a class
g the energy ratings of different washing machines
h the number of leaves on the stems of different plants
i the amount of sunshine each day
j the number of people who die from cancer
each year
k students’ opinion of their school uniform (like,
no opinion, dislike)
l the amount of rainfall in each month of
the year
m the countries of origin of immigrants
n the sizes of apples picked (small,
medium, large)
o the numbers of pets owned by the students in
a class
p the genders of school principals
q the health of patients after being given
medication (worse, no different, better)
3 Give three examples of data that would be

collected using:
a a census
b a sample.

EXAMPLE 4B–2 Identifying possible bias in a survey
Suggest the possible bias in each of the following surveys.

a a phone survey during a week day
b a survey of people on a train station
c a survey of a football crowd
d a survey of 10 people who have been tested with a new drug developed to cure the common cold
Solve Think Apply
a The sample would be biased towards The sample does not include The sample is not
people who are at home during the day. people who go out to work. representative of the
b The sample would be biased towards The sample does not include whole population or
people who catch the train. people who use other forms of is not large enough
transport or work at home. to be representative
of the population.
c The sample would be biased towards Most probably more males than
people who attend football matches. females attend football matches.
d The sample is not large enough. As only 10 people were tested, a
valid conclusion cannot be made.
4 Explain and discuss any possible bias in the following samples.

a a phone survey on a Saturday night b a survey of the people at a bus stop
c a survey of people at the beach d people selected from the electoral roll
e a survey of businesses selected from the Yellow Pages phone directory
5 Discuss and comment on any possible bias in the following situations.

a Year 7 students are interviewed about changes to the school uniform.
b Motorists stopped in peak hour are interviewed about traffic problems.
c Real-estate agents are interviewed about the prices of houses.
d Politicians are interviewed about the state of the country’s economy.
e A survey of 20 people indicated that 80% of people watch the Channel 9 News.
f A company marketing team claims that four out of five dentists recommend its brand of toothbrush.
g An advertisement claims that ‘Dog breeders recommend Buddy dog food’.
EXAMPLE 4B–3 Selecting a sample to support a point of view

People may use biased samples to enhance their product claims or to support a point of view. For example,
if you wanted the local council to upgrade its swimming pools, what sample of people would you choose to
survey?
Solve Think Apply

A sample of people at the You would expect the people The sample is not representative
swimming pool. who use the pool to be biased of the whole population.
favourably towards this proposal.
6 Discuss and describe the sample you would choose if you wanted to gather support to:
a stop smoking in public places b improve the local bus service
c increase the number of books in the library d improve the school’s senior common room.

self-selected
A self-selected sample (or a voluntary response sample) is a sample that the
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N sample
participants choose to be part of. They are not directly approached by the researcher to sample in which
participate in the survey/research. A radio phone-in survey is a common example of a participants
self-selected sample. choose to take
part by responding
to a request for
This type of sampling is useful when we want people (or organisations) to volunteer to take
volunteers
part in research. There may be a wide range of reasons why people do this. They may have
strong opinions about the research topic, or a specific interest in the research and its findings,
or may simply want to assist a researcher.
Participants usually select themselves to be part of a study by responding to an advertisement in a newspaper,
magazine, journal or an online noticeboard. The volunteers are then checked to make sure that their participation
would be relevant to the study. For example, for a study of type 1 diabetes in 20-to-30-year-old males the
researcher would check that the volunteers do satisfy all of the criteria before accepting them.
Advantages: Since the volunteers contact the researcher, this can reduce the time and expense of finding suitable
subjects who meet the selection criteria. Volunteers are likely to be committed to taking part in the study, which
can help ensure attendance; for example, at focus group meetings. They may also show a greater willingness to
provide more insight into the subject of the research by giving full detailed responses to open-ended questions.
Disadvantages: Because the people chosen are volunteers, there is likely to be a degree of self-selection bias.
For example, people volunteering to answer a questionnaire on a proposal to reduce company tax, may have
extreme political views on this and may wish to push their point of view. This can either lead to the sample not
being representative of the population being studied, or could exaggerate some particular finding from the study.
Despite the potential disadvantages of self-selection sampling, it is a popular and effective sampling strategy in
experimental research settings.
7 Read the text above and answer the questions below.

a Write a definition of what is meant by a self-selected sample.
b What other term is sometimes used to describe this type of sample?
c Describe the process of creating a self-selected sample.
d List three advantages of a self-selected sample.
e List three disadvantages of a self-selected sample.
8 The careers adviser at your school wants to gain an insight into the career goals of the students in their final
year at school. She puts a notice in the school newsletter asking for volunteers.
a What type of sample is this?
b Describe the process the careers adviser could use to find this information.
c Does this process introduce any bias into the sample? For example, consider the number of boys and
girls selected. Discuss with your class.
9 The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is responsible for the Australian census. Research the role of
CHALLENGE
the ABS and the information collected by the ABS. (The ABS produces year books and many other free
publications. The ABS can be found on the internet at www.abs.gov.au)
a How often is the Australian census taken? What information is collected in the census?
b What information is openly made available?
c How is the information used by governments and businesses?
10 Investigate the aims and purpose of Choice magazine. How does this publication use statistics? Give some
examples. How do the researchers avoid bias in their results? (Choice magazine is probably available in
your school library or can be found on the internet at www.choice.com.au)

4C Random sampling
• Spreadsheet 4C: Generate random numbers
• Investigation 4C: Investigate the effect of sample size
random sample In a random sample, each member of the population

sample in which has an equal chance of being selected. There are a
each member of
number of ways in which a random sample may be
the population has
an equal chance
taken. For example, suppose we wanted to choose
of being selected a random sample of 10 students from a class of 30.
We could:
• write the students’ names on pieces of paper, place
the names in a hat, mix them and draw 10 names
• write the students’ names on cards, shuffle the
cards and deal 10
• assign the numbers 1 to 30 to each member of the
class. Select 10 random numbers from 1 to 30 using
a list of random numbers (see below). The students
whose numbers are selected form the sample.
(Note: since we are selecting a sample of students, we reject any repeated number.)
If the population is large, we can use random numbers generated by tables, calculators or
computers.
The following list is an excerpt from a table of random numbers.
48047 45381 33232 35178 46971 85879 31458 22016
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691
58547 01331 62538 79181 33071 63766 73613 24470
85566 81574 71965 20977 48005 83418 58738 98771
40942 42373 38710 39916 08187 00133 16288 64277
80553 58331 62724 74004 09344 91315 25791 40296
27328 85758 45342 98884 36034 79836 94902 80442
64584 20776 86792 42340 83522 62139 14038 88433

EXAMPLE 4C–1 Using a list of random numbers to select a random sample
Use the list of random numbers on the opposite page to select a random sample of five different:
a one-digit numbers b two-digit numbers c three-digit numbers.
Solve/Think Apply
a Start at any digit in the table, say the 7 in row 5 and 16 digits across, as Start at any digit and
shown. select groups of one,
Select the numbers to the right, left, down or up until you have five two or three digits by
different numbers. moving right, left, up or
Moving to the right generates the random numbers 7, 9, 1, 8 and 1. down.
Since 1 is a repeated number, continue to the next number (3). Note: if you run out
Therefore, the random sample of five different numbers is 7, 9, 1, 8, 3. of digits in a row (or
Moving to the left generates the random numbers 7, 8, 3, 5, 2. column), continue by
Moving down the column generates the random numbers 7, 2, 3, 7, 9. moving down (or up) to
Since 7 is a repeated number, continue to the next number (4). the next row, or across
Therefore, the random sample of five different numbers is 7, 2, 3, 9, 4. (left or right) to the next
Moving up the column generates the random numbers 7, 4, 5, 9, 3. column.
Any of these sets of numbers would be satisfactory. If, for example, a three-
b Start at any digit, say the 6 in row 5 and 11 digits across. digit number such as
Select pairs of digits by moving to the right, left, down or up. 005 is generated, it is
Moving to the right generates 62, 53, 87, 91, 81. read as the number 5.
Moving to the left generates 62, 31, 13, 70, 54. If a number has already
Moving down generates 62, 71, 38, 62, 45. been selected, reject it
Rejecting the repeated 62, the random sample of five different numbers is and continue to the next
62, 71, 38, 45, 86. number.
Moving up generates 62, 13, 89, 96, 33.
c Start at any digit, say the 8 in row 6 and 22 digits across.
Select groups of three digits by moving to the right, left, down or up.
Moving to the right generates 800, 583, 418, 587, 389.
Moving to the left generates 800, 774, 209, 965, 471.
Moving down generates 800, 818, 934, 603, 352.
Moving up generates 800, 307, 381, 252, 886.
EXERCISE 4C Random sampling

For questions 1–6 in this exercise, use the list of random numbers on the opposite page.
1 Start at the 2 in row 6 and 16 digits across, and select five random one-digit numbers by moving:
a to the right b to the left c down the column d up the column.
2 Use the method in question 1 to select five two-digit random numbers.
3 Use the method in question 1 to select five three-digit random numbers.
4 Select 20 one-digit random numbers.

a Check the randomness of these numbers by counting the number of odd numbers. Are about half of all
the numbers odd numbers?
b How many of the numbers are:
i less than 5? ii greater than 5? iii equal to 5?

EXAMPLE 4C–2 Selecting a random sample of five students from a group of
60 students
Use the list of random numbers on page 126 to select five students at random from a group of 60 students.
Solve/ Think Apply

We assign each student a number from 1 to 60 and Choose two-digit numbers, as shown in Example
then select five random two-digit numbers from the 4C-1, rejecting any that are larger than 60 or any
list of random numbers. number that is repeated.
Start at any digit, say the 2 in row 3 and 24 digits If selecting a random sample from a group with less
across. than 10 items, use one-digit random numbers.
Move across the row to the right. The first two- If selecting a random sample from a group with less
digit number is 29. The next is 68, but this is larger than 100 items, use two-digit random numbers.
than 60, so we reject it. The next number is 24, etc. If selecting a random sample from a group with less
We reject the repeated appearance of 49 and any than 1000 items, use three-digit random numbers.
numbers larger than 60.
Our final list will be 29, 24, 49, 01, 32.
5 Start at the 2 in row 4 and 6 digits across, then move across the row to the right to select 10 students at
random from a group of:
a 80 students b 35 students.
6 Start at the 1 in row 6 and 12 digits across, then move down the column, to select 10 students at random
from a group of:
a 700 students b 280 students
7 A factory supervisor wishes to interview a sample of workers about

the use of safety equipment.
a Explain two methods that she could use to choose a random
sample of five from the 25 factory workers.
b Which workers would be selected if she used this list of random
numbers and started at the first number?
49246 36704 13499 48926 61279 36535
32337 15455 26345 95085 05701 30998
95907 47062 44630 49743 60358 26022
8 A supermarket manager wants a sample of his shop assistants to

complete a questionnaire about rosters.
a Explain how 10 shop assistants could be selected at random from the 70 employed by the supermarket.
b Which shop assistants would be selected if the manager used the list of random numbers from
question 7 and also started at the first number?
9 Explain how a random sample of 100 students could be selected from a school of 760 students.

10 A medical researcher wants to collect data from a random sample of hospitals in NSW that perform heart
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING bypass surgery.
a Explain how he could select a random sample of six hospitals from the 12 that perform this type of
surgery.
b Which hospitals would be selected if the researcher used the following list of random numbers to do
this, starting with the first digit?
48047 45381 33232 35178
46971 85879 31458 22016
08695 58112 96070 91910 8
7
18868 52251 99827 32581
6
5
11 a Use the list of random numbers from question 7 to select 10 squares at
4
random from the grid shown. For example, starting at the first pair of 3
digits and moving right, the first suitable ordered pair is (2, 4), the next 2
is (6, 3), etc. 1
b Copy the grid and shade the squares selected. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Generating random numbers by calculator

Most modern scientific calculators have a random number generator. On Casio calculators this function key is
labelled RAN#. By pressing SHIFT . (RAN#) 5 the calculator produces a random number
from 0 to 0.999.
To obtain another random number it is only necessary to press 5 again.
To obtain a one-digit random number press SHIFT . 3 10 5 and truncate the digits after the decimal
point, to produce an integer.
(Truncate means to shorten by cutting off a part.)
To obtain a two-digit random number press SHIFT . 3 100 5 and truncate the digits after the
decimal point, to produce an integer.
To obtain a three-digit random numbers press SHIFT . 3 1000 5 and truncate the digits after the
decimal point, to produce an integer.
To obtain a random number from a to b press SHIFT . 3 (b ] a) 1 a 5
12 Use your calculator for the following questions.
a Produce a list of 20 one-digit numbers.
b Produce a list of 20 two-digit numbers.
c i Produce a list of 20 three-digit numbers.
ii Are about half the numbers odd?
iii Are about half the numbers less than 500?

iv Should the answers for parts ii and iii always be ‘yes’?
13 Produce a list of 10 random numbers:
a from 0 to 50 b from 10 to 50 c from 1 to 100
d from 50 to 100 e so 50 ≤ number ≤ 60 f so 15 ≤ number ≤ 45

Generating random numbers by computer
Random numbers can be generated using a spreadsheet. The following instructions apply to Microsoft Excel.
Random numbers from 0 to 0.999… are generated using the RAND function.
To produce a list of one-digit random numbers:
• format cells to 0 decimal places
• type into the formula bar: =TRUNC(RAND()*10)
• press enter; highlight the first cell and drag down (or across) as many cells as needed and select Fill Down
(or Fill Right).
The number of cells needed = the number of random numbers needed.
The TRUNC function truncates a number to an integer by removing the decimal part of the number.
To produce a list of two-digit random numbers:
• press enter; highlight the first cell and drag down (or across) as many cells as needed and
select Fill Down (or Fill Right).
To produce a list of three-digit random numbers:
• continue as above for two-digit random numbers.
To produce a list of random numbers from a to b:
• replace a and b with your chosen values and type into the formula bar: =TRUNC(RAND()*(b–a)+a)
• continue as above for two-digit random numbers.
14 Create a spreadsheet using the instructions above. An example of this is shown below.
A B C
1 Two-digit numbers Three-digit numbers Numbers from 30 to 45
2
3 92 333 32
4 99 675 31
5 61 955 44
6 81 967 43
7 8 297 30
8 70 682 44
9 47 510 40
10 51 989 35
11 47 826 44
12 73 948 31
13
The formula in cell A3 is =TRUNC(RAND()*100)
The formula in cell B3 is =TRUNC(RAND()*1000)
The formula in cell C3 is =TRUNC(RAND()*(45–30)+30)

15 Use a spreadsheet to produce a list of 20 random numbers that are:
a one-digit numbers b two-digit numbers c three-digit numbers
16 Use a spreadsheet and Fill Down and Fill Right to make a table of single-digit random numbers.
17 Use a spreadsheet to produce a list of 10 random numbers:

a from 0 to 50 b from 10 to 50 c from 1 to 100
d from 50 to 100 e so 50 ≤ number ≤ 60 f so 15 ≤ number ≤ 45
18 A gardener spreads flower seeds over a large plot of ground. To estimate the number of seeds that germinate,
he divides the plot of land into eighty squares, measuring 1 m by 1 m, as shown in this grid.
He selects 10 squares at random and counts the number of seedlings in
each square. By using the numbers he counted to find an average number
8
of seedlings per square, he can estimate the total number of seedlings in 7
the garden. 6
a Explain how the gardener could select a random sample of 10 squares. 5
b Use a list of random numbers to select 10 squares at random. 4
3
c If the numbers of seedlings in the squares selected are 21, 17, 18, 13,
2
27, 9, 22, 10, 18, 25: 1
i calculate the average number of seedlings per square 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ii estimate the total number of seedlings in the plot.
19 A school principal wishes to select a random sample of teachers to find out the amount of homework that is
being set each day for Year 11 students.
a Explain two methods that the principal could use to choose a random sample of 10 teachers from the
62 teachers on the staff.
b Which teachers would be selected if the principal used the following list of random numbers to do this,
starting with the first digit?
49246 36701 13499 48926 61279 36535 32337 15455 26345
95085 05701 30998 95907 47062 44630 49743 60358 26022
c If the number of minutes of homework set by the teachers selected is 20, 45, 30, 35, 40, 20, 25,
15, 50, 25, calculate the average amount of homework set by these teachers.
d If each Year 11 student has six teachers, estimate the total amount of homework each student is set
each day.
20 Complete this class activity.

a Assign a number to each student in your class.
b Write your age, in years and months on the board, next to the number assigned to you.
c Choose a random sample of five students from your class.
d Calculate the average age of the five students in your sample.
e Write your sample average on the board and compare the average of your sample with the averages of
the other students’ samples.
f Calculate the average age of the class using the information on the board.
g Compare the sample averages with the actual class average. Discuss and comment on any findings.
h Find the average of the sample averages. How does this compare with the actual class average (from part f )?
Discuss with the class.
21 Find out how geographers use grid sampling to determine percentages of land types.

4D Stratified random sampling
When we select a random sample of 10 students from a mixed class of 30 students, it is

stratified random possible to get, for example, 10 boys. Similarly, when we select a random sample of
sample 80 students from a school of 950, it is possible that we could get 80 students from the same
sample made
up of random
year group. If it is important for our purpose to have a proportional mix, then simple random
samples taken sampling may not produce a satisfactory sample. In these cases we can use a stratified
from subgroups random sample.
(strata) of the
For a stratified random sample, the population is divided up into subgroups (strata), based
population,
proportional to on different characteristics such as age, gender, income, and so on. The stratified random
the relative size of sample is made up of random samples from each subgroup. The size of each random sample is
each subgroup proportional to the relative size of the subgroup in the population.
EXERCISE 4D Stratified random sampling

1 Complete the following to calculate the proportion of boys and girls that should be chosen in a stratified
random sample of students selected on the basis of gender, if there are 75 boys and 65 girls.
□
75 = ___ □ □
Proportion of boys = ____ or ___% Proportion of girls = ___ = ___ or ___%
140 28 140 28
2 Calculate the proportion of boys and girls that should be chosen in a stratified random sample of students
selected on the basis of gender, if there are 180 students, of which 76 are boys and 104 are girls.
EXAMPLE 4D–1 Selecting a stratified random sample based on year groups

A school of 950 students is made up of the following numbers of students at each year level.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of students 130 165 180 190 150 135
a If a stratified random sample is to be taken on the basis of these subgroups (school years), how many
students should be chosen from each year if we want a stratified random sample of 80 students?
b Explain how to obtain this sample.
Solve Think Apply
130 The proportion of Determine the
a Number of Year 7 students = ___
950
× 80 ≈ 11
165
___ students in Year 7 is proportion and,
Number of Year 8 students = 950 × 80 ≈ 14 130
130 out of 950 or ___
950
. therefore, the
180
Number of Year 9 students = ___
950
× 80 ≈ 15 So, the number of number of students
190
Number of Year 10 students = ___
950
× 80 = 16 Year 7 students to be to be selected from
130
150
Number of Year 11 students = ___ × 80 ≈ 13 selected is ___
950
× 80. each year group.
950
135 Repeat the calculation The stratified
Number of Year 12 students = ___ × 80 ≈ 11
950 for each year group. sample is then
b We select a random sample of 11 Year 7 students, made up of random
14 Year 8 students, 15 Year 9 students, 16 Year 10 samples from each
students, 13 Year 11 students and 11 Year 12 students. year group.

3 A school of 859 students is made up of the following numbers of students at each year level.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
a If a stratified random sample is to be taken on the basis of these subgroups (school years), what
proportion of students should be chosen from each year?
b How many students should be chosen from each year if we want a stratified random sample of 60 students?
c Explain how to obtain this sample.
4 A school of 439 students is made up of the following numbers of students at each year level.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
a If a stratified random sample is to be taken on the basis of these subgroups (school years), what
proportion of students should be chosen from each year?
b How many students should be chosen from each year if we want a stratified random sample of
40 students?
5 In Year 11 at Greengate High School there are 69 girls and 51 boys.

a In a stratified random sample that is selected on the basis of gender, what proportion of girls and boys
should be in the sample?
b How many girls and boys should we select for a stratified random sample of 40 students?
6 The ages of people who live in a small country town are shown in the following table. It is proposed to do a
dental check by choosing a stratified random sample of the population on the basis of these age groups.
Age 0–9 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70+
Number of people 180 835 260 350 280 250 200 120
a What proportion of each age group should be included in the sample?
b What number of people in each age group should be selected for a sample of 40?
7 Discuss what subgroups could be used in a stratified random

sample to investigate:
a the number of people with private healthcare cover
b the political party that people intend to vote for at the
next election.
8 Of the 150 students in Year 11, 87 travel to school by bus,

CHALLENGE
23 ride bicycles, 30 travel by private car and 10 walk. In

order to find their average time of travel to school, it is
decided to take a stratified random sample on the basis of
these subgroups (methods of travel).
a What proportion of each subgroup should be in the
sample?
b How many of each subgroup should be in a sample of
30 students?

4E Systematic sampling
systematic
sample
sample chosen in In systematic sampling, a sample is chosen in a systematic way. To obtain a systematic
a methodical way
when members of
sample, each member of the population is assigned a number, the first number is selected at
the population are random, and then we select every nth number; that is, we select numbers at regular intervals.
put in order, the The value of n, the size of the regular interval, depends on the size of the sample wanted and
first number is the size of the population.
chosen at random
and then every nth For example, to find the interval size when selecting a systematic sample of 20 items from
number is chosen a population of 240 items, we calculate 240 ÷ 20 = 12. That is, we should select every
for the sample 12th item.
EXERCISE 4E Systematic sampling

1 A machine produces 300 items per day. At what interval should we select items to obtain a systematic
sample of:
a 25 items? b 50 items? c 10 items? d 15 items?
2 An electoral roll has 1200 names on it. At what interval should we select names to obtain a systematic
sample of:
a 100 names? b 200 names? c 150 names? d 40 names?
EXAMPLE 4E–1 Explaining how to select a systematic sample

Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of 10 students from a year level of 150 students.
Solve Think Apply
150 ÷ 10 = 15, Assign the numbers 1 to 150 to each student. Divide Assign the numbers 1
so start at any the size of the population by the size of the sample to 150 to the students.
number then select wanted: 150 ÷ 10 = 15. Start at any number then Divide the size of the
every 15th number. select every 15th number. For example: population by the sample
1 If we started at the student who was assigned size to get the interval
number 7, then we would select the numbers 7, 22, size. Start at any random
37, 52, 67, 82, 97, 112, 127, 142 to form our sample. number and select
2 If we started at the student who was assigned number students at the interval
24 we would select the numbers 24, 39, 54, 69, 84, size.
99, 114, 129, 144, 9 (because 159 would have been
the next number, but there are only 150 numbers, so
we start at the beginning again and 159 – 150 = 9).
3 If we started at the student with the number 56, then
we would select the numbers 56, 71, 86, 101, 116,
131, 146, 11 (which is 161 – 150 = 11), 26, 41.
Note: in the ‘Think’ examples 2 and 3 above we need
to go back to the start of the list.

3 a Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of 10 students from a year level of 200 students.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING b Which students would be selected if we started at the student numbered:
i 10? ii 15? iii 30? iv 45? v 113?
4 a Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of 15 names from a roll of 180 names.
b Which names would be selected if we started at the name numbered:
i 5? ii 10? iii 25? iv 50? v 120?
EXAMPLE 4E–2 Selecting a systematic sample from different populations

Explain how to select a systematic sample of 20 names from a list of:
a 146 names b 156 names.
Solve Think Apply
a 146 ÷ 20 = 7.3 ≈ 7 Assign the numbers 1 to 146 to the names.

Assign numbers to each
Start at any number and Population size is 146, sample size is 20.
name. Divide the population
select every 7th number 146 ÷ 20 = 7.3. Round 7.3 to the nearestsize by the sample size.
until we have a sample of whole number to get the interval size Round to the nearest whole
20 names. (n = 7). number. Start at any random
number and select names at
b 156 ÷ 20 = 7.8 ≈ 8 Assign the numbers 1 to 156 to the names.
intervals according to the
Start at any number and Population size is 156, sample size is 20.
interval size.
select every 8th number 156 ÷ 20 = 7.8. Round 7.8 to the nearest
until we have a sample of whole number to get the interval size
20 names. (n = 8).
5 Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of 10 names from a list of:

a 62 names b 87 names c 124 names d 239 names e 185 names.
6 A machine produces 200 numbered engine parts in a day.

a At what intervals should a part be selected for a quality check if a systematic sample is required each
day of:
i 5 parts? ii 12 parts?
b Choose a starting number at random and write the numbers of the engine parts you would select for each
sample in part a.
7 A physical education teacher has a class of 30 students. At the start of the day’s lesson he wants to use a
systematic sample to select the captains of six teams with equal numbers of students in each team.
a Explain how he would do this.
b The teacher tosses two dice and uses the total, 9, as the number for the first captain selected. Which
other students will be selected as captains?
c For the second half of the lesson the teacher requires five teams of equal size. If he again starts with
student number 9 as the first captain selected, which other students will be selected as captains?
8 An army battalion consists of 600 men and women.

CHALLENGE
a A systematic sample of 10 soldiers is to be selected for a health check. Explain how this could be done.
b If the first soldier, selected at random, is number 23, list the numbers of the other soldiers selected.
c i Which soldiers should be selected for a health check if a systematic sample of 50 soldiers is
required?
ii If the first soldier selected is number 17, what will be the number of the last soldier selected?

4F Suitability
of sample types
• Interactive 4F: Explore key ideas for methods of sampling
• Worksheet 4F: Practise your skills with extra problems for sample types
• Investigation 4F: Investigate differences between three sample types
A good sample is one that has almost exactly the same characteristics as the total population.
We say that a good sample is ‘representative’ of the population. In this section we will decide
which sampling methods are most suitable in given situations and investigate the effect the
size of a sample has on how well it represents the whole population.
Sampling methods
Random sampling: each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample.
Stratified random sampling: the population is divided into subgroups and then a
random sample, proportional to the relative size of each subgroup, is taken from each
subgroup.
Self-selected sampling: the participants choose to be part of the sample by responding
to a request for volunteers.
Systematic sampling: the sample is chosen in a systematic way, with the first number
being selected at random from the population and then further numbers being selected
at regular intervals from the first number.
EXERCISE 4F Suitability of sample types

1 Discuss which sampling methods would be suitable for the following situations.
a A machine produces 5000 bolts in a day. A sample of 50 bolts per day is required for a
quality-control check.
b There are 600 people on a town’s electoral roll. A sample of 40 people is required to complete a
questionnaire.
c A sample of people is wanted to investigate average weekly expenditure on food.
d A sample is wanted of the people attending a football game.
e The school principal wants a sample of teachers to estimate how much homework is set each night.
f A shoe company employs five machinists. A weekly quality-control check of their work is required.
g A medical journal advertises for volunteers from the profession to participate in a research project.
h A sample of Year 11 students is required to estimate the number of left-handed people in the group.
i A grid sample is required by a geographer to estimate the proportions of various types of land use (for
example, grazing, crops, forest, buildings).
j A sample is wanted in order to estimate the average weekly income of senior students.

2 The 200 students in Years 11 and 12 of a high school were asked whether or not they had ever smoked a
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING cigarette. Using y for yes and n for no, the replies (as they were received) were as follows.
nnnny nnnyn ynnnn yynyy ynyny ynnyn nyynn yynyn ynnyn yynyy
nnyyy yyyyy nnnyy nnnnn nnyny yynny nynnn ynyyn nnyny ynyyy
ynnnn yyyyn yynnn nynyn nynnn yynny nyynn yynyn ynynn nyyyn
ynnyy nyyny ynynn nyynn nnnyy ynyyn yyyny ynnyy nnyny ynnnn
a Is this a census or a sample?
b Is the data categorical or numerical?
c Calculate the proportion of all students who said they had smoked.
d What proportion of the following number of students said they had smoked? Are these samples
representative of all Year 11 and 12 students at the school?
i the first 5 students ii the first 10 students
e Using a table, calculator or computer, generate a set of random numbers to select a random sample of
the following number of students from the 200 students above, and calculate the proportion of each
sample who said that they had smoked.
i 5 ii 10 iii 20 iv 40
f Obtain a systematic sample of the following number of students from the 200 students above, and
calculate the proportion of each sample who said that they had smoked.
i 5 ii 10 iii 20 iv 40
When arranged within the categories male and female, the replies are:
Male nnyny nnnny ynyyy nyynn yynyn ynnyn yynyy ynyyy yyynn
nnynn nnyny nyynn nnyny nnynn nyynn ynyyn nnyny ynnyn
yynyn ynynn nyyyn yyyny ynn
Female nnyyy yynyy nnnyy nynnn nnyny yynny nynnn ynyyn nnyny
ynnyy nyyny ynynn nyynn nnnyy ynyyn ynnyy nnyny nn
g On the basis of gender, select a stratified random sample of each of the following numbers of students,
and calculate the proportion of each sample who said they had smoked.
i 5 ii 10 iii 20 iv 40
h Comment on whether or not the samples in parts e, f and g are representative of the whole population.
What effect does the size of the sample have on estimating the responses of the total population?

EXAMPLE 4F–1 Estimating the responses of a population from a
representative sample
A sample of 50 people is chosen from a population of 70 000 people. The sample was carefully chosen to
be representative of the entire population. The people in the sample were asked the following questions.
Their responses are shown in the table.
Yes responses No responses Unsure responses

Should a new cinema be 21 8 21
built in the centre of town?
Is the public transport 18 27 5
system adequate?
a Calculate the percentage of the sample who answered ‘Yes’ to a new cinema.
b Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would want a new cinema.
c Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would think the public transport system
is inadequate.
d Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would be unsure about whether the
public transport system is adequate.
Solve Think Apply

a 21 × 100% = 42%
__ 21 of the 50 people surveyed said A sample does not have to be large
50
‘Yes’ to the new cinema. to be representative of the entire
b 42 × 70 000 = 29 400
___ The sample is representative of the population. If the sample is chosen
100
entire population. Find 42% of the so that it is representative, then
entire population. the results of the sample can be
applied to the entire population.
c 27
__ × 70 000 = 37 800 27 people surveyed thought
50
the public transport system
27
was inadequate. Find __50
of the
population of 70 000.
d 5
__ × 70 000 = 7000 Of the 50 surveyed, 5 people were
50 5
unsure. Find __
50
of the population
of 70 000.
3 A sample of 20 people is chosen from a population of 4000 people. The sample was carefully chosen to be
representative of the entire population. The people in the sample were asked the following questions. The
results are shown in the table.
Should a new fast-food restaurant be built 12 6 2
in the centre of town?
Is the access to childcare adequate? 5 7 8
a Calculate the percentage of the sample who said ‘Yes’ to a new fast-food restaurant.
12 × 100 = ___
Percentage = __
□
b Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would want a new fast-food restaurant.
60
Number = __
□
× ___= ___

c Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would think access to childcare is adequate.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING 5
Adequate childcare = __ × ___= ___
□
d Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would be unsure about the access to childcare.
□
Unsure = ___ × ___ = ___
20
4 A sample of 40 people is chosen from a population of 50 000 people. The sample was carefully chosen to be
representative of the entire population. The people in the sample were surveyed on the following questions.
The results are shown in the table.
Should a new skate park be built in the 8 25 7
town centre?
Are there enough parks? 28 3 9
a Calculate the percentage of the sample who said ‘No’ to a new skate park.
b Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would not want a new skate park.
c Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would think there are enough parks.
d Estimate the number of people from the entire population who would answer ‘No’ to the question
‘Are there enough parks?’
5 A sample is selected from a school population of 800. The 40 students chosen are representative of the
entire school population. Of the students surveyed, 28 said they were happy with the school uniform and the
rest were not.
a Calculate the percentage of the sample who are happy with the uniform.
b How many students from the entire school population would be happy with the uniform?
c How many students from the entire school population would be unhappy with the uniform?
6 A sample is selected from a school population of 600. The 20 students chosen are representative of the entire
school population. Of the students surveyed, 6 said they were happy with the school canteen and the rest were not.
a What percentage of the students in the sample are happy with the school canteen?
b How many students from the entire school population would be happy with the school canteen?
c How many students from the entire school population would be unhappy with the school canteen?
7 State whether you think the following samples would be satisfactory in estimating the nature of the whole
population.
a Using the proportion of boys and girls in your class to estimate the proportion of boys and girls
in Year 11 at your school.
b Using the proportion of boys and girls in your class to estimate the proportion of boys and girls
in Year 11 across the state.
8 Write a short analysis of the following statistical statements. Is there anything misleading about them?
a Four out of five dentists recommend Britex toothpaste.
b A newspaper reported that 10% of the Citico Company workforce had been dismissed.
c Of the two major political parties, one claimed that unemployment was rising and the other claimed that
employment was rising. Could both be correct?
9 Investigate the contribution made to statistics by the following people: John Graunt, Carl Friedrich Gauss,
RESEARCH
Florence Nightingale, Sir Ronald Fisher, W. Edwards Deming and John Tukey. Justify why their contribution
to statistics is so important.

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW CL ASSIFYING DATA AND SAMPLING
✔ classify data as nominal, ordinal, discrete or continuous
✔ identify whether a census or a sample is appropriate for data collection
✔ recognise that the purpose of a sample is to estimate a particular characteristic of the whole population
✔ understand the concept of bias in a sample
✔ describe and use random, stratified, self-selected and systematic samples to collect data
✔ generate random numbers using a table, calculator or spreadsheet to establish random samples
✔ determine the appropriate sample type for a given situation.

4A 1 Which of the following is not an example of a numerical continuous variable?
A heights of students B wages of workers C daily temperatures D time to get to work
4B 2 Which of the following is an example of data that could not be collected by a census?
A the life of a light globe B the number of vehicle accidents caused by speed
C the number of tries scored by a rugby team D the age of school teachers in NSW
4B 3 Which of the following samples are not biased?

A a phone survey on a Friday night
B a survey of the audience at the opera
C 10 students are selected from a class by writing all names on slips of paper, putting them in a hat, shaking
them and then selecting 10 slips
D a factory tests a sample of its products every Friday afternoon
4B 4 Which of the following is an example of a self-selected sample?

A a researcher stands at the entrance to a bank and asks the first five people who arrive to participate in
her survey
B from an alphabetical list of names, one is chosen at random and then every tenth name is selected
C a deck of cards is shuffled and then one card is selected at random
D five people respond to a phone-in poll on radio
4C 5 Use the line of random numbers below to answer this question.

40942 42373 38710 39916 08187 00133 16288 64277
Starting at the first digit (4) and moving to the right, the first two-digit number less than 20 is:
A 3 B 9 C 10 D 16
4D 6 Of the 150 students in Year 11, 70 are boys and 80 are girls. In a stratified random sample based on gender, the
proportion of boys who should be chosen is:
8
A __78 B __ 7
15
C __ 15
D __87
4D 7 For the information in question 6, the number of girls who should be chosen for a sample of 60 students is:
A 53 B 28 C 32 D 69

4E 8 A machine produces 6000 items in a week. To obtain a systematic sample of 200, we could start with the 50th
item and then select the items numbered:
A 80, 110, 140, 170, … B 200, 400, 600, 800, …
C 110, 170, 230, 300, … D 250, 450, 650, 850, …
4F 9 To investigate the average time it takes for Year 11 students to get to school, the most suitable sample type would be:
A a random sample B a stratified random sample based on mode of travel
C a systematic sample D a self-selected sample.
4F 10 To estimate the number of boys and girls in Year 11 in NSW, a suitable sample would be the number of boys
and girls in:
A your class B the mathematics classes at your school
C Year 11 at your school D Year 11 in a selection of schools in different
regions.
4F 11 A sample is selected from a school population of 900. The 30 students chosen are representative of the entire
school population. Of the students surveyed, 25 said they were happy with the school canteen and the rest were
not. How many students from the entire school population would not be happy with the school canteen?
A 5 B 25 C 150 D 750
REVIEW SET 1
1 Classify this data as categorical nominal, categorical
ordinal, numerical discrete or numerical continuous.
a number of cloudy days each month
b heights of the girls in a netball team
c dress sizes (small, medium, large, etc.) in a store
d types of fish caught by anglers
2 State whether a census or a sample would be used for

each of the investigations in question 1.
3 Comment on any possible bias in the following situations:

a a phone survey on Saturday night
b a questionnaire is sent to a sample of people chosen
from the electoral roll.
4 Explain how a random sample of 12 students could be

chosen from a class of 30.
5 a Use the list of random numbers given below to find a random selection of five squares from the grid shown.
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581

ANALYSIS
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829

10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691
b Copy the grid and shade the squares selected. 5
STATISTICAL
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5

6 A school population is made up of the following numbers of
students at each year level. A stratified random sample on the
basis of year groups is to be taken.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
a What proportion of each year should be selected?
b How many from each year should be selected for a sample of
100 students?
7 Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of 20 students from a school roll of 300.
8 Give two examples of a self-selected sample.
9 A sample of 20 students is selected from a school population of 400 students. The sample chosen is
representative of the entire school population. Of the students surveyed, six said they were happy with the
school uniform and the rest were not.
a What percentage of the students from the sample are happy with the uniform?
b How many students from the entire school population would be happy with the uniform?
c How many students from the entire school population would be unhappy with the uniform?
10 The manager of a bus depot wants a sample of drivers to complete a questionnaire about duty rosters.
a Explain how eight drivers could be selected at random from the 74 who work at the depot.
b Which drivers would be selected if the manager used the list of random numbers given in question 5, by
starting at the first digit in the second row and moving to the right?
11 State whether or not you think the size of the following samples would be satisfactory for estimating the
characteristics of the whole population.
a Using the number of students in your class who approve of the school uniform to estimate approval of the
school uniform by all Year 11 students (consider three classes, six classes, etc.)
b Using the cars passing the front of the school to estimate the most popular colours of cars
REVIEW SET 2
1 Write two examples of categorical data (one categorical nominal data and one categorical ordinal date).
2 Would a census or a sample be used to investigate:

a the number of people who use Freshspray deodorant?
b the consumption of alcohol by senior students in your school?
3 Describe the sample you would choose if you wanted to gather support for:
a improved netball facilities at the local park
b more lines for serving senior students at the school canteen.
4 Describe samples with the opposite bias to those in question 3.
5 Choose five random three-digit numbers less than 200 from the table below. Start at the first digit and move right.
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691

6 This table shows the number of pairs of shoes each of four machinists produces in a week. The factory manager
wants to carry out a quality check using a stratified random sample of the shoes produced by each machinist.
Machinist Vince Sophie Talia Mohammed
Pairs of shoes 56 43 51 50
a What proportion of shoes from each machinist should be checked?
b How many shoes produced by each machinist should be selected for a sample of 20 shoes?
7 A university administrator places an advertisement on an online notice board asking final year students to
volunteer for a series of focus studies on access to tutors. What type of sampling is this?
8 List the steps you would use to produce one-digit numbers on your calculator.
9 Explain two methods that could be used to choose a random sample of six students from a class of 24.
REVIEW SET 3
1 Classify the following as categorical nominal, categorical ordinal, numerical discrete or numerical continuous.
a the eye colours of a group of students b the amount of sunshine each day
c the numbers of children in families d the quality of dishwashers (poor, satisfactory, good)
2 Give an example of data that could be collected using a:

a census b sample.
3 Describe a suitable sample to survey if you wanted to collect data about the:
a punctuality of the local bus service
b cleanliness of the council swimming pool.
4 a A machine produces 300 numbered engine parts in a day. At what

intervals should a part be selected for a quality check if a systematic
sample is required each day of:
i 20 parts? ii 12 parts?
b Choose a starting number at random and write the numbers of the
engine parts you would select for each sample in part a.
5 Write two advantages and two disadvantages of a self-selected sample.
6 A sample of 15 students is selected from a school population of 300 students. The students chosen represent the entire
school population. Of the students surveyed, 12 said they were happy with the school canteen and the rest were not.
a What percentage of the students in the sample are happy with the school canteen?
b How many students from the entire school population would be happy with the school canteen?
c How many students from the entire school population would be unhappy with the school canteen?
7 Outline the steps you would use to produce a list of random numbers from 1 to 100 using an Excel spreadsheet.
ANALYSIS
8 Use your calculator to obtain 10 random numbers between, and including, 60 and 80.
9 State whether or not you think the size of the following samples would be satisfactory in estimating the
STATISTICAL
characteristic of the whole population.

a Surveying the people at a bus stop to estimate the suitability of timetables for all users of the bus route
(consider the number of bus stops on the route)
b Surveying the people in a train carriage to estimate the cleanliness of all trains

REVIEW SET 4
1 A television station invites viewers to phone in their response to a question. What type of sample is this?
2 Write two examples of discrete data.
3 State the advantages and disadvantages of using a census to collect information.
4 Comment on any possible bias in the following samples.

a Car tyre distributors are interviewed about the best-value tyre to buy.
b A systematic sample is taken of the people listed on the first five pages of the telephone directory.
5 A factory has 120 employees. A sample of 25 employees is to be chosen to complete a questionnaire.

a Explain how a random sample using a table of random numbers could be used to select the sample.
b Explain how to obtain a random sample without using random numbers.
c Explain how to obtain a systematic sample of employees.
6 Explain the meaning of the term ‘bias’.
7 What is the purpose and characteristics of a good sample?
8 The list of random numbers below is to be used to select five random numbers less than 200. List the first five
numbers selected if you start at the first digit (0) and move to the right.
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691
9 A factory supervisor wants to interview a sample of workers about the use of the new equipment in the factory.
a Explain how five workers could be selected at random from the 24 who work at the factory.
b Which workers would be selected if the supervisor used the list of random numbers given in question 8, by
starting at the first digit in the first row and moving to the right?

1 a Classify the following data as categorical nominal, categorical ordinal, numerical discrete
or numerical continuous.
i marks scored in the yearly examination (1 mark)
ii favourite ice-cream flavour (1 mark)
b State whether a census or a sample would be more appropriate to use to collect
the following data.
i the number of left-handed children in Sydney primary schools (1 mark)
ii the number of motorcyclists killed on NSW roads in a year (1 mark)
c The list of random numbers below is to be used to select five random numbers less than 80.
List the first five numbers selected if you start at the first digit in the second row (9) and
move to the right.
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691 (1 mark)
d The manager of a bus depot wants a sample of drivers to complete a questionnaire
on duty rosters.
i Explain two methods that could be used to choose six drivers at random from the
48 drivers who work at the depot. (2 marks)
ii Explain the likely bias if a self-selected sample was used to choose the six drivers. (1 mark)
e There are 67 boys and 53 girls in Year 11 at a high school. A stratified random sample is
to be selected based on gender.
i What proportion of boys and girls should be selected? (1 mark)
ii How many boys and how many girls should be selected for a stratified random sample
of 30 students? (2 marks)
f Explain how to obtain the sample in part e. (1 mark)
g A machine produces 600 numbered electrical parts each day. A systematic sample of
20 parts each day is required for a quality check.
i At what intervals should parts be selected? (1 mark)
ii If the first part selected at random is the 37th , what is the number of the last part
selected for the sample? (1 mark)
h A sample is selected from a school population of 700. The 28 students chosen are
representative of the entire school population. Of the students surveyed, 11 said they
were happy with the school canteen and the rest were not.
How many of the students from the entire school population would be unhappy
with the school canteen? (1 mark) FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
TOTAL: 15 marks

5
Perimeter, area
and volume
▶ calculating the perimeter of simple and
complex shapes
▶ calculating the area of triangles, quadrilaterals,
circles, sectors and composite shapes
▶ calculating perimeter and area of irregularly
shaped blocks of land
▶ solving practical area problems
▶ calculating the surface area of prisms, cylinders,
spheres and composite solids
▶ calculating the volume of right prisms, cylinders,
spheres and composite solids
▶ converting between units of volume and capacity.
MEASUREMENT

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

5A
2A 1 What is 3.7 m converted to centimetres? 5B 7 What is the area of the triangle shown in
question 6?
A 0.0037 cm B 0.037 cm
C 370 cm D 3700 cm A 64 cm2 B 120 cm2
C 240 cm2 D 288 cm2
5A 2 What is the 5 cm 4 cm
perimeter of this 5C 8 This composite shape can be divided into two
shape? simpler shapes. What are the names of the two
5 cm simpler shapes?
A 18 cm
6 cm
B 20 cm
C 23 cm 3 cm
D 1800 cm 6 cm
4 cm
5A 3 What is the length of the 15 m
5m
side labelled x in this
x 7 cm
triangle?
A 10 m B 14.1 m A rectangle and parallelogram
C 15.8 m D 75 m B rectangle and trapezium
C rectangle and triangle
5A 4 A circle is divided into three equal sectors.
D square and trapezium
What is the size of each sector angle?
5G 9 This rectangular prism is made up of blocks.
A 360° B 180°
Each block is 1 cm long, 1 cm wide and 1 cm
C 120° D 60°
high. What is the volume of this prism?
5B 5 What is the area of a rectangle with length 8 cm
and breadth 3 cm?
A 11 cm2 B 22 cm2
C 24 cm2 D 48 cm2
5B 6 What is the 15 cm
perpendicular height A 7 cm3 B 8 cm3
of this triangle? 16 cm C 12 cm3 D 24 cm3
A 15 cm B 16 cm
C 18 cm D 30 cm
Q1 Support sheet 5A.1 Converting units of length
Q2 Support sheet 5A.2 Finding perimeter
Q3 Support sheet 5A.3 Pythagoras’ theorem
Q4 Support sheet 5A.4 Circles and sectors
Q5 Support sheet 5B.1 Area of a rectangle
Q6–7 Support sheet 5B.2 Area of a triangle
Q8 Support sheet 5C.1 Identifying simple shapes within composite shapes
Q9 Support sheet 5G.1 Finding volume
Chapter 5 Perimeter, area and volume 147

5A Perimeter
• Interactive 5A.1: Explore key ideas for perimeter
• Interactive 5A.2: Explore key ideas for circumference of a circle
• Worksheet 5A: Practise your skills with extra problems for perimeter
perimeter
the distance
around the
The perimeter of a closed figure is the distance around its boundary. The boundary may consist
boundary of a of straight or curved sides. The perimeter of a figure is found by adding the lengths of all its sides.
closed figure All measurements must be expressed in the same unit before the side lengths are added.
EXAMPLE 5A–1 Calculating the perimeter after converting units

Calculate the perimeter of this figure, in millimetres
3.8 cm
32 mm
Solve Think Apply

Convert 3.8 cm to 38 mm. 1 cm = 10 mm Convert units so all the sides are
P = 32 + 2 × 38 3.8 × 10 = 38 mm expressed in the same unit.
= 108 mm Multiply 38 by 2 because there are two Sides marked with identical
sides marked as equal. markings are of equal length.
EXERCISE 5A Perimeter
1 Calculate the perimeter of each of these shapes, in millimetres.
a 3.6 cm b 9 mm c 8.1 cm
5.3 cm
1.7 cm 4.7 cm
15 mm
24 mm
11.6 cm 31 mm
2.2 cm
2 Calculate the perimeter of each of these rectangles. Give the answers in centimetres.
a b 45 mm c
11 mm 14.7 cm
2.8 cm 2.1 cm
21 mm

5 Complete the following to find the perimeter of this figure. All measurements are in centimetres.
x = 6 + ____ = ____ y
y = ____ − 7 = ____
6
P = 15 + 3 + 7 + 6 + ____ + ____ x 7
= ____ cm
3
15
7 Find the unknown side lengths and calculate the perimeter of each of these figures. All measurements are in
centimetres.
a 53 b 11 c 17
14 x
9
y 5
x 26 34 9 y
y
15
17 11
8 12
28 12 x 7
EXAMPLE 5A–2 Using Pythagoras’ theorem to find perimeter

Find the perimeter of each of the following figures.
a 5 cm b
13 cm
x 8 cm
6 cm 5 cm
Solve Think Apply

a x2 = 5___
2
+ 62 = 61 Use Pythagoras’ theorem If any side length of a right-angled triangle
x = √61 ≈ 7.8 cm to find the hypotenuse. is unknown, it can be calculated using
P = 7.8 + 6 + 3 × 5 Then add all sides. Pythagoras’ theorem.
= 28.8 cm For finding the hypotenuse use
b x2 = 132
− 82 = 105 Use Pythagoras’ theorem c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the hypotenuse
____
x = √105 ≈ 10.2 cm to find the third side of and a and b are the two shorter sides.
P = 10.2 + 8 + 13 + 2 × 5 the triangle. For finding a shorter side use a2 = c2 − b2.
= 41.2 cm Then add all sides.
5 Find x and calculate the perimeter of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
19 cm 28 cm
x
MEASUREMENT
8 cm x
15 cm 7 cm 8 cm
x 24 cm

6 A rhombus has diagonals measuring 24 cm and 10 cm, as shown. 24 cm
a Calculate the side length of the rhombus.

b Calculate the perimeter of the rhombus.
10 cm
Circumference (or perimeter) of a circle:

Circumference = π × diameter or Circumference = 2 × π × radius
C = πd C = 2πr
d r
EXAMPLE 5A–3 Calculating the circumference of circles

Find the circumference (perimeter) of each of these circles, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
4.2 cm
6 cm 84 mm
Solve Think Apply

a C = πd Use the formula C = πd because the Because the diameter and radius are
=π×6 diameter is given. related by d = 2r, either formula can
≈ 18.8 cm be used at any time. Simply convert
b C = 2πr Use the formula C = 2πr because the the diameter or radius to suit the
= 2 × π × 4.2 radius is given. formula used. This means only one
≈ 26.4 cm formula needs to be learnt.
c C = 2πr The formula C = 2πr can be used even
= 2 × π × 42 when the diameter is given.
≈ 263.9 mm
7 Complete the following to find the circumference of this circle in two ways.
a C = πd b C = 2πr
12 cm
= π × ____ r = ____ ÷ 2 = ____
≈ ____ cm C = 2 × ____ × 6
≈ ____ cm
8 Calculate the circumference of each of these circles, correct to one decimal place.
a b c d
9m 6.8 m
18.1 m
3.2 m
e diameter = 12.6 m f radius = 7.9 m g radius = 2.5 m h diameter = 8.64 m

EXAMPLE 5A–4 Finding the perimeter of figures containing part of a circle
Find the perimeter of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place.
a b
6 cm
40 m
Solve Think Apply

a Curved part = πd ÷ 2 A semicircle is half a circle, so Divide the circumference
=π×6÷2 divide the circumference of a whole of a whole circle
≈ 9.4 cm circle by 2 to find its arc length. Adddepending on what part
P ≈ 9.4 + 6 the diameter to this length. of the circumference is
= 15.4 cm required. Sometimes there
b Curved part = π × 40 The two semicircles make one whole are two equal semicircles
≈ 125.7 m circle. Markings show all sides of the making one circle.
P ≈ 125.7 + 2 × 40 square are equal, so the diameter of Remember to add all
= 205.7 m the circle is 40 m. Add all lengths. lengths.
9 Find the perimeter of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place.
a b c d
18 m 20 m
8 cm 20 m
10 cm 20 m
a b c d
5 cm
20 cm
6 cm
10 m 10 cm
11 Find the perimeter of each of these figures, correct to four significant figures.
a b c
5m 5m
6 cm 4 cm
MEASUREMENT
20 m

EXAMPLE 5A–5 Finding the perimeter of a sector
a Determine what fraction of a circle is drawn.

b Determine the perimeter of the sector,
correct to one decimal place.
70°
6.8 cm
Solve Think Apply

70° 7 There are 360° in a circle. Calculate the fraction of the circle
a Fraction = ____
360°
= __
36
The fraction is the sector by dividing the sector angle by
b Curved part angle 70° divided by 360°, then multiply by the normal
7
= __
36
of circumference of circle 360°. circumference formula to obtain the
7
= __
36
× 2πr length of the curved part.
7
= __ × 2 × π × 6.8 Remember to add all lengths.
36
= 8.307...
≈ 8.3 cm
P ≈ 8.3 + 6.8 + 6.8
= 21.9 cm
12 a Complete the following to determine what fraction of a circle is drawn on the right.
□º
Fraction = ____
360 º
= ____
b Determine the perimeter of the sector shown, correct to one decimal place. 15°
1 × 2 × π ×___+ 7.2 +___ ≈___ cm
P = __ 7.2 cm
□
13 Determine what fraction of a circle is drawn each time, then calculate the perimeter of each sector, correct to
one decimal place.
a b c
15° 30°
45°
6.4 cm 7.2 cm
5.3 cm
d e f
290°
120°
8.3 cm
7.8 cm
15.3 cm
a b 2.4 m c
65°
5.4 m
72°
m
6c
60°
60° 60°
7 cm 3 cm 12 cm

15 A kite has diagonals as shown.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Calculate the length of one short side of the kite.
b Calculate the length of one long side of the kite. 10 cm
12 cm 3 cm
c Calculate the perimeter of the kite.
16 Find the total length of ribbon used to gift wrap a box as

10 cm
shown. An extra 15 cm is required for the knot and bow.
20 cm
15 cm
17 The frame of a tool shed consists of square galvanised tubing that costs
$4.65 a metre. Find the total cost of the tubing needed to make the frame 2m
of this shed.
4m
3m
18 a Find the lengths of the paths from A to B along the four small
semicircles of equal diameter, and along the larger semicircle,
correct to two decimal places.
b Which distance is shorter?
c What is the difference between the lengths of the two paths? A
8m
B
19 A farmer decides to fence a 400 m by 350 m paddock with a

four-strand wire fence. Find the total cost of the wire required,
given that single strand wire costs 12.4 cents per metre.
20 A circular plate has a circumference of 50 cm. Find its radius, correct to one decimal place.
CHALLENGE
21 Georgette runs around a circular track with a circumference of 200 m. Find the radius of the track,
to one decimal place.
22 A satellite has a circular orbit 800 km above the Earth’s surface.

a If the radius of the Earth is 6400 km, find the radius of the orbit of the satellite.
b Find the circumference of the satellite’s orbit, to the nearest kilometre.
c If the satellite makes one orbit in a day, find the speed of the satellite.
23 The production director of a newspaper

company decides that a plastic wrapper needs
to be placed around its newspapers. Each
wrapper is 50% longer than the circumference
MEASUREMENT
of the rolled-up paper, and the average diameter

of a rolled-up paper is 5 cm. Find the number
of kilometres of wrapper required to wrap the
275 000 newspapers printed daily. Give your
answer correct to two decimal places.

5B Area of simple shapes
• Interactive 5B.1: Explore key ideas for area of a parallelogram
• Interactive 5B.2: Explore key ideas for area of a triangle
• Interactive 5B.3: Explore key ideas for area of a circle
• Worksheet 5B: Practise your skills with extra problems for area
• Investigation 5B: Investigate finding maximum area given the perimeter
Rectangle
Area = length × breadth breadth
A = lb
length
Parallelogram
Area = base × height height
A = bh
base
Triangle
Area = __12 × base × height height height height
A = __12 bh
base base base
Rhombus
y
Area = __12 product of the lengths of the diagonals
A = __12 xy, where x and y are the lengths of the diagonals x
Kite
y
Area = __12 product of the lengths of the diagonals
A = __12 xy, where x and y are the lengths of the diagonals
x
a
Trapezium
Area = __12 × height × sum of the parallel sides
height
A = __12 h(a + b)
or A = (_____
2 )
a+b
h or A = __h2 (a + b) b
Circle
r
Area = π × radius squared
A = πr 2
Sector
Area = fraction of circle × area of circle
a
A = ____
360º
× πr 2 a
r

EXAMPLE 5B–1 Finding the area of a rectangle
Find the area of the rectangle shown.
3.4 cm
6.8 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = 6.8 × 3.4 cm2 Area = length × breadth Multiply side lengths to find the area.
= 23.12 cm2 = lb
EXERCISE 5B Area of simple shapes

1 Find the area of each of these rectangles.
a b c d
12.9 cm 10.3 cm
7 cm
1.3 cm
4.7 cm 8 cm 3.7 cm
EXAMPLE 5B–2 Finding the area of a triangle

Find the area of each of these triangles.
a b c 2.5 cm
8m 3m
5m
6 cm
12 m
Solve Think Apply
a A = __12 × 12 × 5 = 30 m2 Area = __12 × base × height The area of a triangle is half the
area of the rectangle with the
= __12 bh
b A = __12 × 8 × 3 = 12 m2 same base and height.
c A = __12 × 2.5 × 6 = 7.5 cm2
2 Find the area of each of these triangles.

a 9m b c d
4m 5 cm 50 m 8 cm
MEASUREMENT
2 cm
32 m 5 cm

EXAMPLE 5B–3 Finding the area of a parallelogram
Find the area of this parallelogram.
4 cm
10 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = 10 × 4 Area = base × height The height is the perpendicular distance between the two parallel
= 40 cm2 = bh sides.
3 Find the area of each of these parallelograms.

a b
20 mm 15 mm
3m
50 mm
m
c d
5m
12 cm
25 m 3m
5 cm 9 cm
EXAMPLE 5B–4 Finding the area of a rhombus

Find the area of a rhombus with diagonals of length 5 cm and 7 cm.
7 cm
5 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = __12 × 5 × 7 Area = __12 product of the lengths of the diagonals A rhombus has two congruent
triangles, so the area formula is
= 17.5 cm2 = __12 xy
similar to that for a triangle.
4 Find the area of each rhombus below.

a b c d
3.6
m
3k
6.3 m
m
4 mm
1.5 m 12 mm
11 km
9.5 m

EXAMPLE 5B–5 Finding the area of a kite
Find the area of this kite.
5 cm
8 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = __12 × 5 × 8 Area = __12 product of the lengths of the The diagonals are perpendicular. The
= 20 cm2 diagonals formula is the same as for a rhombus.
= __12 xy
5 Find the area of each kite below.

a 6 cm
b 4.8 m c d
3 km 1.8 km
15 cm
115 mm
m
38m
11.6 m
EXAMPLE 5B–6 Finding the area of a trapezium

Find the area of this trapezium. First identify the height, then use the 11 m
formula.
4m
16 m
Solve Think Apply
A = __12 × 4(11 + 16) 1 × height × sum of the parallel sides

Area =__ The height of the trapezium is
2
= 54 m2 perpendicular to the parallel
A = __12 h(a + b)
sides.
6 Find the area of each of these trapeziums. Identify the height first.
a b 16 cm
6 cm
3 cm 7 cm 7 cm
12 m
c d
MEASUREMENT
20 m
35 mm 50 mm
1m
3m
28 mm

EXAMPLE 5B–7 Calculating the area of a circle
Calculate the area of each of these circles, correct to one decimal place.
a b
7 cm 11 cm
Solve Think Apply

a A = π × 72 ≈ 153.9 cm2 A = πr2 The formula for the
Substitute r = 7 into πr2. area of a circle requires
Calculator: π × 7 x2 = the radius. If the
diameter is given, halve
b A = π × 5.52 ≈ 95.0 cm2 Halve the given diameter
it to find the radius.
of 11 to get r = 5.5.
Calculator: π × 5.5 x2 = Substitute into πr2.
7 Calculate the area of each of these circles, correct to one decimal place.
a b c d
9 cm 10 cm
5 cm
15 cm
e f g h
13 cm 7 cm 18 cm 22 cm
EXAMPLE 5B–8 Finding the area of a sector

a Determine what fraction of a circle is drawn.
b Determine the area to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
70°
6.8 cm
Solve Think Apply

a 70°
Fraction = ____ 7
= __ There are 360° in a circle. The Calculate the fraction of the circle
360° 36
fraction is the sector angle 70° by dividing the sector angle by
b 7
Area = __ of area of circle divided by 360°. 360°, then multiply by the area of
36
7
= __ × πr2 the circle.
36
7
= __
36
× π × (6.8)2
= 28.246...
≈ 28 cm2

8 a Complete the following to determine what fraction of a circle is drawn on the right.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING □°
Fraction = ____ = ___
360°
b Determine the area of the sector to the nearest square centimetre (cm2). 15°
1 × π × (___)2
A = __
□ 7.2 cm
≈ ___
9 Determine the fraction of a circle that is drawn each time, then calculate each area to the nearest cm2.
a b c
15° 30°
45°
6.4 cm 7.2 cm
5.3 cm
d e f
120°
11 cm
7.8 cm
15.3 cm
g h i
45° 290°
60° 6.2 cm 6.8 cm
9.3 cm
10 a A square has an area of 81 cm2. Find the side length.

b A rectangle has an area of 56 cm2. Find the rectangle's length if its breadth is 7 cm.
c A rhombus has an area of 72 cm2. If one diagonal is 18 cm long, how long is the other diagonal?
d Find the radius of a circle with an area of 100 m2.
11 A farm covers land in the shape of a trapezium. The length of the northern boundary of the farm is 265 m
and the length of the southern boundary is 180 m. The perpendicular distance from the northern end to the
southern end is 90 m.
a Find the area of the farm to the nearest square metre.
b Write your answer for part a to the nearest hectare. (Hint: 1 ha = 10 000 m2).
c The farmer decides to purchase her neighbour’s farm, which is in the shape of a rectangle but has the
same area as her farm. What are possible dimensions (in metres) of her neighbour’s farm?
12 A crop duster can carry 480 kg of fertiliser in its tanks. The pilot
is required to fertilise a rectangular field of dimensions 2.8 km by
1.4 km. How many flights will be necessary if the fertiliser is to be
spread at the rate of 40 kg/ha?
13 A circular drink coaster has a circumference of 28 cm. Calculate its

CHALLENGE
area to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
14 A cafe has square tables of side-length 1.3 m. They are covered by

round tablecloths of diameter 1.9 m. What percentage of the tablecloth
hangs over the edges of the table?

5C Area of composite figures
• Interactive 5C: Explore key ideas for area of composite figures
• Worksheet 5C: Practise your skills with extra problems for area of shapes
• Investigation 5C: Identify using area or perimeter to solve problems
Composite figures are made up of more than one plane shape. To find the area of a composite
figure, first divide the figure into its component shapes and then add or subtract the areas.
EXAMPLE 5C–1 Finding the area of a composite figure

Find the shaded area of each of these figures.
a b
4 cm
5m
6 cm 2m
3m 3m
8 cm
Solve Think Apply

a Area = A rectangle + A triangle The figure is made up of a rectangle and Divide the composite
= 8 × 6 + __12 × 8 × 4 a triangle. The rectangle has length 8 cm figure into its component
= 64 cm2 and breadth 6 cm. The triangle has base shapes. Find all the areas,
8 cm and height 4 cm. then add or subtract.
b Area = A large rectangle − A square Subtract the area of the small rectangle
=5×8−2×2 (square) from the area of the large
= 36 m2 rectangle.
EXERCISE 5C Area of composite figures

1 Find the shaded area of each of these figures.
a b c
4 cm
5m
5m
2m
3m
10 cm
6m
4m 2m 4m
8 cm
d e f
5 cm 3m
8 cm 12 cm
9 cm
2 cm 5m
20 cm
10 cm
7m

2 Find the area of each of these composite figures made up of rectangles.
a b 10 cm c 4 cm
3 cm
3 cm
5 cm
15 cm 8 cm 14 cm
2 cm
6 cm 6 cm
16 cm 3 cm
d 3 cm e f 5m
2 cm
10 m 7m
5 cm 10 cm 5 cm
9 cm 9m 8m
8 cm
5 cm 6m
3 Find the shaded area of each of these figures, correct to two decimal places where necessary.
a b c
3m
6 cm 9 cm
2m
3 cm 2m
4m 5m
12 cm 7m
d e f
3 km 2 cm 1m
4 km 10 m
3 cm
6 cm 17 m
g h 3 cm i
4 cm 4 cm
8 cm 8 cm
4 cm
15 cm
9 cm 7 cm
j 23 cm k P Q l
m
8c
6c
7 cm
m
m
27c S R
18 cm 10 cm
11
cm
PR = 5 cm
10 cm SQ = 7 cm
MEASUREMENT

EXAMPLE 5C–2 Finding the area of a composite figure containing part of a circle
Calculate the area enclosed by this composite figure. Give your 27 cm

answer to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
13 cm
Solve Think Apply

The ends combine to make There are two semicircles Divide the
a circle with radius 6.5 cm. composite shape
Area 1 = πr2 Area 1 1 1 into simpler plane
= π × (6.5)2 shapes. Calculate the
= 132.732… cm2 and one rectangle. areas and add them
≈ 132.7 cm2 together.
27 cm Area 2
Area 2 = length × breadth 2
= 13 cm × 27 cm
= 351 cm2 Add the areas of the
Total area = Area 1 + Area 2 semicircles and the rectangle
Area 1
≈ 132.7 + 351 together.
= 483.7
13 cm
≈ 484 cm2
4 Calculate the area enclosed by each of these composite figures to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
a b c
15 cm
7.4 cm
19.6 cm
25 cm
8 cm 6.3 cm
5 Find the area of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place if necessary.
a b c
8 cm 5 cm
4 cm 11 cm
13.6 cm
d e f
x
6 cm
8.6 cm
8 cm
6.2 cm
g h i
8.5 cm 13 cm
x
10.3 cm
12 cm 9m
12 m

The shaded area in this diagram is called an annulus. An
annulus is the area between two circles with the same centre
but different radii. Circles with the same centre are concentric r
circles. The formula for the area of an annulus is R
annulus
A = πR2 − πr2 or A = π(R2 − r2) the area between
where R is the radius of the large circle, and r is the radius of two circles with
the same centre
the small circle.
but different radii
EXAMPLE 5C–3 Finding the area of an annulus

Calculate the area of this annulus to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
7 cm
3 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = π × 72 − π × 32 The radius of the large circle is 7 cm. The formula for the area of an annulus
= 125.663… The radius of the small circle is 3 cm. is A = πR2 − πr2, or A = π(R2 − r2),
≈ 126 cm 2 Area of the large circle is π × 72 and area where R is the radius of the large circle,
of the small circle is π × 32. and r is the radius of the small circle.
Subtract the area of the small circle from Substitute the value of the large and
the area of the large circle. small radii into the formula.
6 Calculate the area of each annulus below, to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
a b c
9 cm
3 cm 2 cm
6 cm 4 cm
10 cm
d e f
5 cm 4 cm
14 cm
8 cm
10 cm
7 cm
7 Calculate the area of each annulus below, to the nearest square centimetre (cm2).
a b c
5 cm 8 cm 7 cm 10 cm 11 cm 20 cm
MEASUREMENT
d e f
9 cm 15 cm 7 cm 12 cm 15 cm 19 cm

8 The diagram shows a stained glass window in a church.
a Calculate the area of the window, correct to two decimal places.

b The cost of replacing the window is $540/m2. Calculate the cost of of
replacing this window to the nearest dollar.
5m
3m
9 A 3 m wide path is placed around a circular pond that has a

diameter of 6 m.
Find the area of the path correct to one decimal place.
3m
6m
10 The race track shown shaded in the diagram on the right is to be

resurfaced.
a Calculate the area to be resurfaced, to the nearest square metre. 20 m 15 m
b Calculate the cost of the resurfacing, if the cost is $9.90/m2.
Give your answer to the nearest $10. 40 m

11 The diagram shows a pool surrounded by a
rectangular paved area.
a Calculate the paved area (correct to the nearest
square metre).
b If paving costs $34.90/m2, or part thereof,
calculate the cost of paving the area surrounding
the pool.
2.2 m
Pool 5m
4.2 m
9m
12 A clock shows the time is 8 o’clock. The clock’s minute-

CHALLENGE
hand is 9 cm long and its hour-hand is 6 cm long. As each

hand moves, it sweeps over an area of the clock face.
a What is the area covered by the hour-hand as it sweeps
through a full revolution?
b What is the area covered by the minute-hand as it
sweeps through a full revolution?
c What is the difference in the area covered by each hand
in a full revolution?
d If the tip of the minute-hand moves from 12 to 2
on the clock face, what is the area covered by the
minute-hand?
e If the tip of the hour-hand moves from 8 to 11 on the
clock face, what is the area covered by the hour-hand?
13 Determine the area of each shaded region below, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
3 cm
5 cm
15 mm
80°
7 cm 3 cm
d e f
6 cm 4 cm 10 cm
MEASUREMENT
10 cm 9 cm 15 cm
14 An arrow shape can be drawn using a rectangle and a triangle. Draw three different arrows that could have
an area of 50 cm2.

5D Perimeter and area
of irregular shapes
• Investigation 5D: Calculate the area of different parcels of land
offset Although the shapes of paddocks or fields might be plane shapes, they may not be shapes
a short distance whose perimeter and area can be calculated using simple formulas. But even irregularly
measured
shaped blocks can be dissected into familiar shapes for which formulas can be used. This
perpendicularly
from a main section demonstrates the calculations for perimeter and area of irregular shapes, including
survey line estimates for those with curved boundaries.
EXAMPLE 5D–1 Finding the area of a quadrilateral

Find the area of quadrilateral PQRS. Q
3m 1 R
P 2 5m
PR = 14 m
S
Solve Think Apply
Area = area of triangle 1 + area of triangle 2 Find the area of each triangle. Using the entire diagonal
= __12 × 14 × 3 + __12 × 14 × 5 The diagonal, PR, of the of the quadrilateral as
= 56 m2 quadrilateral is the base of the base measurement
both triangles and the offset means the areas of only
measurement is the height two triangles need to be
each time. calculated, instead of four.
EXERCISE 5D Perimeter and area of irregular shapes

1 Complete the following to find the area of ABCD. A
AC = 22 m
Area = area of triangle ABC + area of triangle ACD
= __12 × 22 × ____ + __12 × ____ × 18
B
= ____ m2 10 m
18 m
D C

2 Find the area of each of these quadrilaterals.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a b c U
PQ = 8 m 10 m
6m
5m R
T 12 m
P 5m S
2m TU = 28 m
Q
RS = 13 m
d e f
26 m 16
m
22 m 23 51 m
15 m m 10 m 48
20 m 12 m m
8m 63
18 m m
18 m
25 m
EXAMPLE 5D–2 Finding the perimeter of a quadrilateral

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to help you find the perimeter of quadrilateral Q
3m
PQRS, correct to one decimal place. 7m 2 R
1 12 m
8 m 3
4 10 m
P
Solve Think Apply
Triangle 1: (PQ) 2 = 8____

2
+ 72 = 113 Divide the quadrilateral into Divide the field
PQ = √113 ≈ 10.63 m four right-angled triangles. into right-angled
Triangle 2: (QR )2 = 7____
2
+ (12 + 3)2 = 274 To use Pythagoras’ theorem triangles. It might
QR = √274 ≈ 16.55 m to find QR, we need to add 12 be necessary
Triangle 3: (RS) 2 = 10 2
+ 32 = 109 and 3 to find the length of the to add the
____
RS = √109 ≈ 10.44 m third side. To use Pythagoras’ measurements of
Triangle 4: (PS) 2 = 10____
2
+ (8 + 12)2 = 500 theorem to find PS, we need to parts of sides to
PS = √500 ≈ 22.36 m add 8 and 12 to find the length find the whole side
Perimeter ≈ 10.63 + 16.55 + 10.44 + 22.36 of the third side. length for some
= 59.98 It is best not to round answers triangles.
≈ 60.0 m (to one decimal place) until all calculations are
complete.
3 Complete the following to find the perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD, C

5m 13 m
(BC ) 2 = 132
+ (5 + ____)2 = ____
____
(CD) 2 = 13____
2
+ ____2 = 290
15 m 11 m
BC = √569 ≈ ____ CD = √000 ≈ ____ B D
(AD )2 = ____
____
+ (15 + ____)2 = ____ (AB) 2 = ____
____
2
+ ____2 = ____ 12 m
AD = 000 ≈ ____
√ AB = 000 ≈ ____
√
A
MEASUREMENT
Perimeter ≈ 23.85 + ____ + ____ + ____ = ____ m
4 Calculate the perimeter of the quadrilaterals in questions 2d, 2e and 2f.

EXAMPLE 5D–3 Finding the area of a field involving triangles and trapeziums
Find the area of the field PQRST, to the nearest square metre. R
16 m
24 m
S X
17 m
32 m
Y Q
17 m 10 m
T Z
15 m
Solve Think Apply
Area of triangle RQP = __12 × RP × YQ RP = 16 + 17 + 10 + 15 Divide the whole

= 58 m field into suitable
= __12 × 58 × 32
For trapezium TSXZ: shapes and find
= 928 m2
Area = __12 × height × sum the area of each
Area of triangle PTZ = __12 × PZ × TZ
of the parallel shape. It might be
= __12 × 15 × 17 necessary to add
sides.
= 127.5 m2 the measurements
The height is
Area of triangle SRX = __12 × RX × SX of parts of sides to
17 + 10 = 27 m and
= __12 × 16 × 24 the parallel sides are find the whole side
= 192 m2 24 m and 17 m. length for some
Area of trapezium TSXZ = __12 × 27 × (24 + 17) Add all the areas. shapes.
= 553.5 m2
Total area = 928 + 127.5 + 553.5 + 192
= 1801 m2
5 Complete the following to find the area of the field MNOPQ. N

Area of triangle MQP = __12 × (10 + 12 + ____ + ____) × 16 = ____ m2 O
7m
Area of triangle MRN = __12 × 10 × ____ = ____ m2 11 m
S
M P
Area of triangle TOP = __12 × ____ × ____ = 28 m2 10 m R 12 m T 8m
3m
Area of NOTR = __12 × (12 + 3) × (____ + ____) 16 m
= __12 × ____ × ____ = ____ m2

Q
Total area = ____ + ____ + 28 + ____ = ____ m2
6 Find the area of each of the following fields, to the nearest square metre. All measurements are in metres.
a E b J c D
10 40
29 28 55
K E
Q R 25
A D 8 80 C
27 P 20 32 15 15
I 25 110
8 B
35 39 20 25
L 45
F
14 70
B
C
H
A

EXAMPLE 5D–4 Calculating the perimeter of a field involving triangles and
trapeziums
Calculate the perimeter of the field PQRST (shown in Example 5D-3), to the nearest metre.
Solve Think Apply
(SR)2 = 242
+ 162 = 832 Find the side lengths of Any trapeziums
____
SR = √832 ≈ 28.84 m each triangle (as we did need to be divided
in Example 5D-3). Divide into a rectangle
(RQ)2 = 322
+ (16 + 17)2 = 2113
_____ the trapezium TSXZ into a and right-angled
RQ = √2113 ≈ 45.97 m
rectangle and a right-angled triangle. Add
(QP)2 = 32 2
+ (10 + 15)2 = 1649
_____ triangle. or subtract
QP = √1649 ≈ 40.61 m The length, ZX, of the measurements to
(PT) 2 = 17 2
+ 152 = 514 triangle and the rectangle is: find side lengths.
____
PT = √514 ≈ 22.67 m 17 + 10 = 27.
The height of the triangle is:
(ST) 2 = (10 + 17)2 + (24 – 17)2 = 778
____ 24 – 17 = 7.
ST = √778 ≈ 27.89 m
Add all the side lengths.
Perimeter ≈ 28.84 + 45.97 + 40.61 + 22.67 + 27.89
= 165.98
≈ 166 m
7 Complete the following calculation to find the perimeter of field MNOPQ from question 5.
(MN) 2 = 10 2
____
+ ____2 = ____ (NO) 2 = (11 – ____)2 + (12 + ____)2 = ____
____
MN = √221 ≈ ____ m NO = √000 ≈ 15.52 m
(OP) 2 = ____
____
2
+ 82 = ____ (PQ)2 = (3____
+ ____)2 + 162 = ____
OP = √000 ≈ ____ m PQ = √377 ≈ ____ m
(QM )2 = ____
____
2
+ (10 + ____)2 = 740
QM = √740 ≈ ____ m
Perimeter ≈ ___ + 15.52 + ____ + ____ + ____
= ____
≈ ____ m
8 Find the perimeter of the field represented by each field diagram in question 6, to the nearest metre.
MEASUREMENT

Trapezoidal rule
If a field has a boundary that is not straight (for example a river) then its
area can be approximated by replacing the curved boundary with a straight
line, creating a trapezium. The area of the trapezium is then an estimate of
the area of the field. This is known as the Trapezoidal rule and is usually
df dl
written as:
A ≈ __h2 (df + dl)

h
where df and dl are the lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium and h is
the perpendicular distance between them. (df is the first length and dl is the
last length.)
EXAMPLE 5D–5 Estimating areas using the Trapezoidal rule

Use the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of the field shown. D
35 m
26 m
B 18 m C
Solve Think Apply

18 The area of the field can be
Area ≈ __
2
(26 + 35) D
estimated by finding the area of a
= 9 × 61 A trapezium. The Trapezoidal rule
= 549 m2
can be used, with df = 26 m,
35 m
26 m
dl = 35 m and h = 18 m.
B 18 m C
Draw a straight line from A to D. The required
area is approximately equal to the area of
trapezium ABCD.
Area of trapezium = __12 (a + b) × h
or A = __h2 (a + b)

9 Complete the following to estimate the area of this field
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING using the Trapezoidal rule.
□
Area ≈ __
2
(□ + 52)
= ____ × ____
= ____ m2 98 m
52 m
40 m
10 Use the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of each of the following fields.
a b c 56 m
33 m
66 m
28 m 76 m 81 m
43 m
74 m
52 m
EXAMPLE 5D–6 Estimating area using two applications of the Trapezoidal rule
The field in Example 5D-5 has been dissected as shown here. The baseline has D
F
been bisected at E and the length of the perpendicular offset EF is 31 m. Use
two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of the field. A
35 m
26 m 31 m
B 9m E 9m C
Solve Think Apply
Area ≈ __92 (26+31) + __92 (31 + 35) F

D Divide the total area into two strips
and apply the Trapezoidal rule to
= 4.5 × 57 + 4.5 × 66
A each strip. Add the results. To divide
= 256.5 + 297
the area into two or more strips, the
= 553.5 35 m baseline BC is divided into two or
≈ 534 m2 (to the nearest m2) 26 m 31 m
more equal intervals and the lengths
of the perpendicular offsets are
measured. Note: the more strips the
field is divided into, the closer the
MEASUREMENT
B 9m E 9m C estimate will be to the actual area.

Area of field ABCD
≈ area of trapezium ABEF
+ area of trapezium FECD

11 Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of each of the following fields.
a b c 21 m
8m
22 m
22 m
18 m
15 m 8m
28 m
10 m 10 m 63 m
42 m
37 m
15 m 15 m
d 62 m e f
19 m
48 m
19 m
28 m 31 m 48 m
43 m 25 m
36 m
22 m
10 m 10 m 16 m 16 m
12 This diagram shows an aerial view of a dam.

a Use the measurements and two applications of the Trapezoidal

Dam
rule to find the combined area of the dam and land.
145 m
b Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to find the
land area. 150 m
c Find the area of the dam. 60 m
d The average depth of water is 10 m. Give an estimate for the 25 m
volume of water in the dam. 120 m 120 m
13 a Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to find the area of

the dam shown below.
b If the average depth is 18 m, find an estimate for the volume of
water in the dam.
50 m 50 m
22 m 28 m
63 m
Dam
72 m
37 m
18 m
50 m 50 m

14 For the field shown on the right (used in Examples 5D-5 and 5D-6), the more D
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N strips the field is divided into the closer the estimate will be to the actual area.
To divide the area into two or more strips, the baseline BC is divided into two or
A
more equal intervals and the lengths of the perpendicular offsets are measured.
a If the field is divided into three strips as shown below left, use three
35 m
applications of the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of the field.
26 m
b If the field is divided into four strips as shown below right, use four
applications of the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of the field.
D D
B 18 m C
A
A
33 m
32 m 35 m 31 m 35 m
26 m 29 m 26 m
28 m
B 6m 6m 6m C B C
m
m
m
m
5
5
5
5
4.
4.
4.
4.
15 The diagram on the right shows the cross-section of a river. 5m 5m 5m 5m

CHALLENGE
a Use four applications of the Trapezoidal rule to find an

estimate of the area of the cross-section.
b If the water flows at 10 metres per minute, find the volume 8m 12 m 11 m 13 m 9m
of water passing a particular point on the river in 1 minute.
Hint: this is the same as finding the volume with a ‘height’
of 10 m.
c How much water flows past in 1 hour?
16 The diagram below shows the cross-section of

a river.
a Use four applications of the Trapezoidal
rule to find an estimate of the area of the
cross-section.
b If water flows past a particular point at
2 metres per minute, find the volume of
water passing that point in 10 minutes.
c How much water flows past in an hour?
8m 8m 8m 8m
5m 4m
14 m 12 m 17 m

5E Surface area of prisms
• Interactive 5E.1: Explore key ideas for surface area of a rectangular prism
• Interactive 5E.2: Explore key ideas for surface area of a triangular prism
• Interactive 5E.3: Explore key ideas for surface area of a pyramid
• Worksheet 5E.1: Practise your skills with extra problems for prisms
• Worksheet 5E.2: Calculate the surface area of pyramids
• Investigation 5E.1: Calculate quotes for painting different rooms
• Investigation 5E.2: Calculate the surface area of a tiered wedding cake
surface area The surface area of any shape refers to the sum of Back
the sum of the the areas of all the faces. This box has six faces: two Top
areas of all the
sides, a front and a back, and a top and a bottom.
three faces of a e
three-dimensional Sid
e Sid
solid Bottom
Front
net The net of a solid is a plane shape that can be folded to form the solid. The diagram below
a plane shape that shows a net of a cube.
can be folded to
form a solid
EXAMPLE 5E–1 Calculating the surface area of a cube

Calculate the surface area of this cube.
4 cm
Solve Think Apply
Surface area = 6 × area of one face All faces are identical. Count all faces. A cube
=6×4×4 Multiply the area of one always has six identical faces.
= 96 cm2 face by 6.

EXERCISE 5E Surface area of prisms
1 Calculate the surface area of each of these cubes.
a b c
3 cm
15 cm 12 cm
2 Calculate the surface area of cubes with sides of the following lengths.
a 4.8 cm b 17 mm c 0.31 m
3 Complete the following to calculate the surface area of this rectangular prism, given its net.
Hint: rectangular prisms have three pairs of equal rectangles: top and bottom, front and back, and the two sides.
Top
Back
5 cm
6 cm
10 cm 6 cm Side Bottom Side
Top and ___: A = 2 × 10 ×___ = ___ cm2

___ and back: A = ___ × 5 × ___ = ___ cm2 5 cm Front 5 cm
Two sides: A = 2 × ___ × ___ = ___ cm2
Surface area = ___ + ___ + 60 cm2 = ___ cm2 10 cm
EXAMPLE 5E–2 Calculating the surface area of a rectangular prism

Calculate the surface area of this rectangular prism.
4 cm
5 cm
7 cm
Solve Think Apply
Area of front and back = 2 × area of front Count and compare all faces.
=2×7×4 If some faces have the same
= 56 cm2 Rectangles dimensions, then the number of
Area of sides = 2 × area of one side calculations is reduced.
=2×5×4 A rectangular prism has three
= 40 cm2 pairs of identical faces.
Area of top and bottom = 2 × area of top Rectangles
MEASUREMENT
=2×7×5
= 70 cm2
Surface area = 56 + 40 + 70 Rectangles
= 166 cm2

4 Complete the following to calculate the surface area of this rectangular prism.
Area of front and _____ = 2 × 8 × ___ = ___ cm2

Area of both sides = 2 × ___ × 5 = ___ cm2
Area of ____ and bottom = 2 × ___ × 5 = ___ cm2 4 cm
Surface area = 64 + ___ + ___ = ___ cm 2 5 cm
8 cm
5 Calculate the surface area of each of these rectangular prisms.
a b c
4 cm
7 cm 15 cm
10 cm 3 cm
25 cm
8 cm
4 cm 8 cm
d e f
6 cm
8 cm 45 mm 2m
12 cm
30 m
130 m
60 mm
17 mm
6 Calculate the surface area of the rectangular prisms with the dimensions given. Drawing a diagram can help.
a Length 8 m, breadth 9 m and height 4 m
b Length 12 mm, breadth 15 mm and height 6 mm
c Length 15.3 m, breadth 6.4 m and height 4.3 m
EXAMPLE 5E–3 Calculating the surface area of a triangular prism

Calculate the surface area of this triangular prism.
4 cm
15 cm
6 cm
Solve Think Apply
A1 = 2 × area of one triangle Step 1: Surface area of All prisms are solid
two triangles objects that have
= 2 × __12 × 6 × 4
(front and back) one pair of identical
= 24 cm2 ends. All other
A2 = 2 × area of one side rectangle Triangles sides are rectangles.
= 2 _______
× length × ___
breadth The cross-section
Step 2: Surface area of
Breadth = √4 + 3 = √25 = 5 cm
2 2
is the same all
two rectangles
so: A2 = 2 × 15 × 5 along the prism's
(identical). Use
= 150 cm2 length. The shape
Pythagoras’
A3 = area of rectangular base of the ends give the
rule to find the
= 15 × 6 Rectangles prism its name (for
breadth of the
= 90 cm2 example, triangular
rectangle.
Total surface area prism).
Step 3: Surface
= 24 + 150 + 90
area of one
= 264 cm2 Rectangle
rectangle (base)

7 Calculate the surface area of each of these triangular prisms.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a b c
17 cm
10 cm 15 cm
8 cm
12 cm
25 cm
4 cm 16 cm
18 cm 12 cm
5 cm
d e f
41 cm
9 cm 5 cm
13 cm
12 cm 4 cm
15 cm
80 cm
8 cm 13.6 cm
5 cm
6 cm
EXAMPLE 5E–4 Calculating the surface area of a composite prism

Calculate the surface area of this composite prism.
10 cm
8 cm
6 cm
7 cm
12 cm
Solve Think Apply
A1= __12 × 12 × 8 Step 1: There are several

For the front and 1 Triangle pairs of faces
= 48 cm2
A2 = 12 × 6 back, find the of equal size.
2 Rectangle
= 72 cm2 composite area of Count the faces
Composite area = A1 + A2 the triangle and to ensure that
= 48 + 72 the rectangle and all areas are
= 120 cm2 multiply by 2. calculated.
Area front and back = 2 × 120 Step 2:
= 240 cm2 The sides are rectangles.
Area of sides = 2 × 7 × 6 Area of sides is two times l × b.
= 84 cm2 Step 3:
Area of roof = 2 × 10 × 7 The roof is rectangles.
= 140 cm2 Area of roof is two times l × b.
Area of base = 12 × 7 Step 4:
= 84 cm2 The base is a rectangle.
Total surface area Area is l × b.
= area of front and back + area of sides
+ area of roof + area of base
MEASUREMENT
= 240 + 84 + 140 + 84
= 548 cm2

8 Calculate the total surface area of each of these composite prisms.
a b 17 cm c 5.7 cm
8 cm
8 cm 18.2 cm
28 cm
9 cm 6.2 cm
12 cm 7 cm
32.9 cm
4 cm
15 cm
3 cm
5 cm
d 12 e 38 cm 17.8 cm
.9 f
cm
9.2 cm 17 cm
12.3 cm 33 cm
6.4 cm 50 cm 15 cm 26 cm
18.1 cm
29 cm
8 cm
14 cm
9 A gift box measures 10 cm by 12 cm by 20 cm.

a Calculate its total surface area.

b Gift wrapping paper costs $3.50 a sheet. If each sheet covers 290 cm2, calculate
the total cost of wrapping the gift box. (Remember: you must purchase complete
sheets.)
10 a Two rooms with the following dimensions are to be painted. Which room has the greater wall area?
2.3 m
5.6 m
2.2 m
2m
6.3 m
3.1 m
Room A Room B
b A 4 L tin of paint covers approximately 10 square metres and costs $54.95. Calculate the number
of 4 L tins of paint needed to paint room B.
c Calculate the cost of purchasing paint for room B.
11 A floorless tent is to be made with dimensions as shown.

How much material is needed to make the tent? (Ignore
overlaps for seams, etc.)
1m 2.2 m
1.5 m

12 Which of these cereal boxes has the greater surface area?
26 cm
12 cm
9 cm 22.5 cm 15.5 cm
5.5 cm
13 The interior walls and floor of an in-ground swimming pool are to

be repainted.
a Calculate the total surface area of the four walls and floor of
the pool.
b How many cans of paint are needed if one can covers 70 m2?
c What is the cost of repainting, if each can costs $82.50?
2.3 m 20 m
9m
14 The packaging of a 100 g Toblerone bar has the following

dimensions: base = 3.5 cm, height = 3.2 cm and length = 21.0 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of the packet.
b To make each packet, flaps 1.5 cm wide must be added, as
shown below on the net of the solid, so that it can be glued
together. How much cardboard is needed to make this packet?
1.5 cm
21 cm
cm 3.5 cm 3.2 cm cm
1.5 1.5
15 A grain storage chute is designed as shown below. Calculate the 1.8 m

CHALLENGE
area of metal needed to make the chute. (Ignore the thickness of 2.8 m
the metal.)
2.1 m
1.2 m
MEASUREMENT
0.9 m
2.8 m
1.2 m 0.6 m
16 As an extension task, access worksheet 5E.2 from your obook assess to calculate the surface area of
pyramids.

5F Surface area of cylinders
and spheres
• Interactive 5F: Explore key ideas for surface area of a cylinder
• Worksheet 5F: Practise your skills with extra problems for cylinders and spheres
In order to find formulas for the surface area of an open cylinder (open ends) and for a closed
cylinder (closed ends), we can examine the following diagrams.
An open cylinder that has been cut perpendicular to the base, and folded out, forms a
rectangle. The width of the rectangle is equal to the height of the cylinder. The length of the
rectangle is equal to the circumference of the circle that formed the top or bottom.
r
h
h
2πr
Cut
The circumference of a circle is given by C = 2πr. Therefore the area of the curved surface of
the cylinder is given by A = 2πrh.
A closed cylinder has a circle on both ends. The diagram below shows a closed cylinder that
has been cut perpendicular to the base and unfolded.
A = 2 × area of circle + area of rectangle
= 2 × πr2 + 2πr × h
= 2πr2 + 2πrh
h h
2πr
Cut r
The surface area of a cylinder of radius r and height h, open at both ends, is given by
A = 2πrh.
The surface area of a cylinder, of radius r and height h, closed at both ends, is given by
A = 2πr2 + 2πrh.

EXAMPLE 5F–1 Finding the surface area of an open cylinder
Find the outer surface area of this open cylinder, correct to one decimal place. 5 cm
Open
12 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = 2πrh Use A = 2πrh, The cylinder is open at both ends, so only the curved surface
= 2 × π × 5 × 12 where r = 5 and area needs to be calculated.
= 376.991… h = 12. Use the formula A = 2πrh.
≈ 377.0 cm2
EXERCISE 5F Surface area of cylinders and spheres

1 Complete the following to find the outer surface area of this open cylinder, 4 cm

A = 2πrh
9 cm
= 2 × π × ___ × ___
= ___ …
≈ ___ cm2
2 Find the outer surface area of each of these open cylinders, correct to one decimal place.
a 5 cm b c 12 cm
14 cm
17 cm
23 cm
4.6 cm
d 4.2 cm e f
8 cm
9.7 cm
8.6 cm
20 cm 1.65 cm
3 Complete the following to calculate the outer surface area of this open cylinder,
MEASUREMENT
Diameter = ___ so radius = ___

8 cm
A = 2πrh
= 2 × π × ___ × ___
= ___ …
12 cm
≈ ___ cm2

4 Find the outer surface area of each of these open cylinders, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
15 cm
25 cm 12 cm
27 cm
25 cm
12 cm
d e f
19 cm
10.5 cm
2.98 cm
12.34 cm
23 cm
9.2 cm
5 Find the outer surface area of the open cylinders with these dimensions, correct to one decimal place.
a Radius = 4 cm, Height = 12 cm b Diameter = 18 cm, Height = 13 cm
c Radius = 3 cm, Height = 5 cm d Diameter = 11.2 cm, Height = 23.6 cm
EXAMPLE 5F–2 Finding the surface area of a closed cylinder

Calculate the surface areas of these closed cylinders, correct to one decimal place.
a 4 cm b
18 cm 3.6 mm
12.4 mm
Solve Think Apply

a A = 2πrh + 2πr2 Use A = 2πrh + 2πr2 The cylinders are closed,
= 2 × π × 4 × 18 + 2 × π × 42 with r = 4 and h = 18. so the area of the top and
= 552.920… bottom circles is added to
≈ 552.9 cm2 the curved surface area.
b A = 2πrh + 2πr2 Halve the diameter
= 2 × π × 1.8 × 12.4 + 2 × π × 1.82 of 3.6 mm to find the
= 160.598… radius. r = 1.8 mm
≈ 160.6 mm2 h = 12.4 mm
6 Complete the following to calculate the surface area of this closed cylinder,
Radius = ___ ÷ 2 = ___
A = 2πrh + 2πr2 17.6 cm
= 2 × π × ___ × 17.6 + 2 × π × (___)2
= ___
≈ ___ cm2 15.8 cm

7 Find the surface area of each of these closed cylinders, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
13 cm 20 cm
25 cm
3 cm
20 cm 8 cm
d e 13.2 cm f
17 cm
11.4 m
38 cm
24.6 cm
3.2 m
The surface area of a sphere of radius r is given by A = 4πr2.

r
EXAMPLE 5F–3 Finding the surface area of a sphere with given radius
Find the surface area of this sphere, correct to one decimal place.
3 mm
Solve Think Apply
A = 4πr2 Use A = 4πr2 The only variable in the formula is the radius.
= 4 × π × 32 with r = 3 mm.
= 113.097…
≈ 113.1 mm2
8 Find the surface area of each of these spheres, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
MEASUREMENT
12 cm 0.5 m 65 mm

EXAMPLE 5F–4 Finding the surface area of a sphere with given diameter
Find the surface area of this sphere, correct to one decimal place.
12.4 cm
Solve Think Apply
A = 4πr2 Diameter is 12.4 cm so r = 6.2 cm. The only variable in the formula is
= 4 × π × (6.2)2 the radius. If the diameter is given,
= 483.051… halve it to find the radius.
≈ 483.1 cm2
9 Complete the following to find the surface area of this sphere, correct to
one decimal place.
r = ___ ÷ 2 = ___ cm
18 cm
A = 4πr2
= 4 × π × (___)2
= ___
≈ ___ cm2
a b c
25 cm 18.4 cm 124 mm
a b c
6 cm
20 cm 17 cm
12 Find the outer surface area of each of these open hemispheres, correct to two decimal places.
a b 11.49 m
c
8.42 cm
1.39 m

13 a A closed cylindrical tank, 40 m high and 20 m in diameter,
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N sits on a concrete slab. Find the outer surface area of the tank.
b If paint covers 8 m2/L, find the number of 10 L cans of paint
needed to paint the outside of the tank with one coat.
c Paint costs $115.20 per 10 L can. Find the cost of paint for
the tank.
14 How many spheres of 15 cm diameter can be painted with 1 L of

glitter paint if the paint covers 10 m2?
15 Determine the total surface area of leather used to cover 20 dozen cricket balls each with diameter 7 cm.
16 Fabian has the choice of two paint rollers. One roller is 25 cm long and has a diameter
of 8 cm. The other roller is 30 cm long and has a radius of 3 cm. Assuming the
rollers have the same absorbency, which roller would need to be redipped in paint
the least often?
17 A can of baked beans has a cylindrical shape with a base diameter of 7 cm and a height
of 10 cm. A label is placed around the curved surface of the can, covering it completely.
What percentage of the total surface area of the can is covered by the label?
18 If you double the height of a cylinder, do you double its surface area?
Explain, using an example.
19 Calculate the total surface area of each of the following closed composite figures to one decimal place.
a 8 cm b lm c
2 cm
5m
3m 6m
5m
5m
7m
20 Consider the composite figure in part b of question 19. Explain why you could calculate the total surface
area of this figure without knowing the radius of the cylinder.
21 Tennis balls are packed in aluminium cylindrical cans which

CHALLENGE
hold four balls. The diameter of the can is 74 mm and its

height is 272 mm. The curved surface is manufactured from
sheet aluminium which costs $4.80/m2. The top and bottom are
made from stronger aluminium sheeting which costs $5.60/m2.
At the Australian Open Tennis Championships about 48 000
balls are used. Find the cost of producing the cans to hold this
number of balls.

5G Volume
• Interactive 5G.1: Explore key ideas for volume of a rectangular prism
• Interactive 5G.2: Explore key ideas for volume of a triangular prism
• Interactive 5G.3: Explore key ideas for volume of a cylinder
• Worksheet 5G.1: Practise your skills with extra problems for prisms
• Worksheet 5G.2: Calculate the volume of pyramids, cones and annular cylinders
• Investigation 5G: Compare volume of different sized rubbish ships
volume The volume of a solid is the amount of space it occupies.

the amount of
space a solid Prisms have two identical and parallel ends (or faces) joined by rectangles. Any slice through
occupies the prism parallel to these ends will result in the same cross-section.
cross-section When a solid has a uniform cross-section (face), the volume of the solid can be determined using:
the shape of the
Volume = area of face × height (or Volume = cross-sectional area × length)
face formed when
a solid is sliced by = the area of the face of the shape multiplied by the height.
a plane V = Ah
Even though a cylinder is not classed as a prism, its volume is found using the same method.
The volume of a prism of face area A and height h is given by V = Ah.

The volume of a cylinder of radius r and height h is given by V = πr2h.
EXAMPLE 5G–1 Finding the volume of a prism using face area and height
Find the volume of this triangular prism with a front face area
of 12 cm2 and height (depth) of 13 cm.
A = 12 cm2
13 cm
Solve Think Apply
V = 12 cm2 × 13 cm Volume = area of face × height The volume is the area of the base multiplied
= 156 cm3 The area of the front face by the perpendicular height. The height is
(or base) is 12 cm2 and the height perpendicular to the front face or base.
is 13 cm.
EXERCISE 5G Volume
1 Complete the following to find the volume of this solid.
V = A × ____
= ____ × 3 20 m2
= ____ m3 3m

2 Calculate the volume of each of the following solids, given the area of the face of the shape and its height.
a b c
A = 15 cm2
A = 36 cm2
A = 21 cm2
5 cm
3.2 cm
20 cm
d e f
A = 45.3 cm2
18 cm A = 15 cm2
8 cm
A = 9.2 cm2 1.3 cm
g h i
9 cm
8.6 cm 12 cm
A = 72 cm2 A = 13.6 cm2 A=4 cm2
j k l
A = 20 cm2
90 cm 4 cm
7 cm
A = 4 cm2
A = 20 cm2
EXAMPLE 5G–2 Finding the volume of different solids

Find the volume of each of these solids.
a b
4 cm
12 cm
6 cm
7.5 cm 5 cm
14 cm
Solve Think Apply

a V = 7.5 × 6 × 4 Volume = length × breadth × height These solids are prisms. The base
= 180 cm3 The base is a rectangle 7.5 cm by 6 cm area (or cross-sectional area) is
MEASUREMENT
and the perpendicular height is 4 cm. calculated first, then multiplied

by the perpendicular height (or
b V = __12 × 12 × 14 × 5 Volume = area of end × height
depth). The solid need not be
= 420 cm3 The base is a right-angled triangle so
‘standing’ on its base.
Area = __12 bh. The height is 5 cm.

3 Complete the following to find the volume of each of these solids.
a b
5 cm
4 cm
6 cm 10 cm
9 cm 5 cm
V = A × ____ V = ____ × h
= (9 × ____) × 5 = (__12 × 5 × ____) × ____
= ____ cm3 = ____ cm3
4 Calculate the volume of each solid.
a b c
3 cm 10 cm
18 cm 3 cm
15 cm 12 cm
6 cm
7 cm
4 cm
d e
f
8 cm 3 cm
12.4 cm
10 cm 18.9 cm
7 cm 18 cm
g h i
12.2 cm 14.6 cm
37.6 cm
15.6 cm
10.9 cm 3.5 cm
8.2 cm
0.75 cm
j k 16 cm
l
8.4 cm
19.2 cm
3.7 cm 25 cm 14.9 cm
18.3 cm
10 cm
2.8 cm
0.75 cm

EXAMPLE 5G–3 Calculating the volume of a cylinder
Calculate the volume of this cylinder, correct to two decimal places.
2m
3m
Solve Think Apply
V = πr2 × h Volume = area of base × height Using A = πr2 for the area of the base,
= π(3)2 × 2 The base is a circle, so A = πr2. the formula becomes V = πr2h and can
≈ 56.55 m3 In this case A = π × 32. be used directly.
5 Complete the following to find the volume of each of these cylinders, correct to two decimal places.
a b
10 m
8m
4m 25 m
V = A × ____ V = ____ × h
= π____ × h = ____ × 42 × 25
= ____ × ____2 × 10 ≈ ____ m3
≈ ____ m3
6 Determine the volume of each of these cylinders, correct to the nearest cubic centimetre (cm3).
a 4.2 cm b c
2.3 cm
18 cm
10.3 cm 9.6 cm
20 cm
7 Use the dimensions below to calculate the volume of each cylinder, correct to one decimal place.
a Radius = 5 cm, Height = 12 cm b Diameter = 13 cm, Height = 25 cm
c Radius = 6.4 cm, Height = 16 cm d Diameter = 9 cm, Height = 40 cm
e Riameter = 37.4 cm, Height = 100 cm f Radius = 14.6 cm, Height = 70 cm
The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by V = __43 πr3.

r
MEASUREMENT

EXAMPLE 5G–4 Finding the volume of a sphere
Find the volume of this sphere, correct to one decimal place.
5 cm
Solve Think Apply
V = __43 πr3 Use V = __43 πr3 with r = 5 mm. The only variable in the formula is the
radius.
= __43 × π × 53
= 523.598...
≈ 523.6 cm3
8 Find the volume of each of these spheres, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
12 cm 0.5 m 65 mm
a b c
25 cm 18.4 cm 124 mm
a b c
6 cm
20 cm 17 cm
11 Find the volume of each of these hemispheres, correct to two decimal places.
a b 11.49 m c
8.42 cm
1.39 m

12 Calculate:
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N i the cross-sectional area of each of these composite prisms
ii the volume of the composite prisms.
a 11 cm b 42 cm c
11 cm
13 cm 13 cm
23 cm 10 cm 7 cm
15 cm
9 cm
8 cm 16 cm
5 cm 8 cm
20 cm 13 cm
d 41 cm e f
9 cm 7 cm
19 cm 16 cm
8 cm 9 cm 18.3 cm 12.5 cm 9 cm
4 cm
28 cm
56 cm
7 cm
9.6 cm
13 Which has the greatest volume, a cylinder of radius 3 cm and height 4 cm or a cylinder of radius 4 cm and
height 3 cm?
14 a Find the base area of a prism with height 10 cm and volume 280 cm3.
b Find the height of a rectangular prism with length 10 cm and width 8 cm if its volume is 560 cm3.
c Find the height of a cylinder with radius 8 cm and volume 120 cm3.
15 A sheet of cardboard 1000 mm by 800 mm has squares of side length 200 mm

cut from each corner.
a Draw a diagram of the cardboard sheet with the corners cut out.
b The sides are folded up to form an open rectangular box. Calculate
the volume of the box.
16 Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids to one decimal
CHALLENGE
place.
a 8 cm b lm c
2 cm
5m
3m 6m
5m
5m
7m
17 As an extension task, access worksheet 5G.2 from your obook assess to calculate the volume of pyramids,
MEASUREMENT
cones and annular cylinders.

5H Capacity
• Video tutorial 5H: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 5H-2
• Worksheet 5H: Practise your skills with extra problems for capacity
• Investigation 5H.1: Investigate volume and capacity of a vegetable garden
• Investigation 5H.2: Explore capacity measurements in cooking and medicine
• assess quiz 5H: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
capacity The capacity of a container is the amount of fluid that it may contain. The common units of
amount of fluid capacity are:
that a container
can hold • millilitre (mL)
• litre (L)
• kilolitre (kL)
• megalitre (ML)
Note: 1 ML = 1000 kL = 1 000 000 L
Capacity and volume are related by the following conversions.

1 mL = 1 cm3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3
1 kL = 1000 L = 1 m3
EXAMPLE 5H–1 Converting between units of volume and capacity

a Calculate the volume of 5.2 L of liquid.
b Calculate the capacity of a container with volume 1800 cm3. Answer in litres.
Solve Think Apply
a V = (5.2 × 1000) cm3 Use 1 L = 1000 cm3 as the Choose the correct
= 5200 cm3 conversion. conversion, then multiply.
b Capacity = (1800 × 1) mL Use 1 cm3 = 1 mL to Be careful not to mix up
= 1800 mL convert to millilitres then use the various conversions.
= (1800 ÷ 1000) L 1000 mL = 1 L.
= 1.8 L

EXERCISE 5H Capacity
1 Complete the following to find:
a the volume of 6.5 L of liquid b the capacity, in litres, with volume 25 600 cm3
Volume = (____ × 1000) cm3 Capacity = (25 600 × 1) mL
= ____ cm3 = 25 600 ____
= (25 600 mL ÷ ____) L
= ___ L
2 Find, in cubic centimetres, the space occupied by the following amounts of liquid.
a 2L b 12 L c 2.6 L d 450 mL e 975 mL
3 When completely submerged, various solids displaced the following amounts of water. Calculate the volume
of each solid.
a 650 mL b 7.5 L c 1.25 L d 3.78 L e 0.845 L
4 Calculate the capacity, in millilitres, of containers with the following volumes.

a 1495 cm3 b 3000 cm3 c 500 cm3 d 24 000 cm3 e 6740 cm3
5 Write each of your answers for question 4 in litres.
6 Use the conversion 1 m3 = 1000 L to calculate the space occupied by the following amounts of liquid.
a 2000 L b 5 kL c 6.7 kL d 0.9 kL e 83 200 L
7 Convert each of the following to kilolitres, using 1 m3 = 1 kL.

a 0.02 m3 b 0.7 m3 c 28.4 m3 d 302 m3 e 5660 m3
EXAMPLE 5H–2 Finding the capacity of a cylinder

Find the capacity, in kilolitres, of a cylindrical
rainwater tank with height 3 m and diameter 4 m.
3m
4m
Solve Think Apply
Volume = area of base × height Halve the diameter to find the radius. Calculate volume first, using
V = Ah, then convert to
MEASUREMENT
= π × 22 × 3 Find the volume of the tank in cubic

= 37.6991 m3 metres first, then use 1 kL = 1 m3 to capacity using an appropriate
Capacity = 37.6691 kL find the capacity. conversion.
≈ 37.70 kL

8 Complete the following to find the capacity,
in kilolitres, of a cylindrical tank with
diameter 6 m and height 5 m. 5m
Volume = area of ____ × ____
= (π × 3 × ____) × ____ m3 6m
≈ ____ m3
Capacity ≈ ____ kL
9 For the cube shown, find:

a the volume in cm3
18 cm
b the capacity in millilitres
c the capacity in litres.
10 A rectangular prism measures 22 m by 4 m by 8 m. Find:

a its volume in cm3 b its capacity in millilitres
c its capacity in litres d its capacity in kilolitres.
4m
8m
22 m
11 How much water can a cylindrical bottle cap hold if it has a diameter of 2.8 cm and a height of 1.1 cm?
Write your answer in millilitres.
12 A hemispherical bowl has a diameter of 24 cm. What is its capacity in litres?
13 Find the capacity, in megalitres, of a dam that has a cross-sectional area of 5000 m2 and average
depth of 8 m.
14 Aileen has two cylindrical vases. The first vase has a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm. The second
vase has a diameter of 6.5 cm and a height of 22 cm. Which vase holds more, and by how much? Write
your answer in millilitres.
15 A rectangular fish tank is 50 cm long,

20 cm wide and 60 cm tall.
a Calculate the volume of the fish tank.
b What is the capacity of the fish tank
if it is filled to the brim? Give your
answer in:
i millilitres
ii litres.
c The fish tank can only be filled to a
line 6 cm from the top. How many
litres of water will be required to fill
the tank to this height?

16 A water trough in the shape of half a cylinder has radius
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N 40 cm and length 6 m. What is the capacity of the
trough, in litres, when it is full?
17 The internal dimensions of a refrigerator are height

1.8 m by width 84 cm and depth 60 cm. Find:
a the internal volume in cubic centimetres (cm3)
b the capacity in litres.
18 A circular swimming pool has a diameter of 10 m and a

depth of 2.3 m.
a Calculate its volume to the nearest cubic metre (m3).
b Calculate the number of kilolitres of water required
to fill the pool.
2.3 m
10 m
19 Ten oranges, assumed to be spherical, have a uniform diameter of 6 cm. If 65% of each orange is made up of
juice, how much juice could be squeezed from these 10 oranges? Give your answer to the nearest millilitre.
20 When a balloon is blown up it forms a sphere.

a What would be the capacity of a balloon of diameter 26 cm? Give your answer in litres.
b By taking a large breath, a teenage boy can expel 1.2 L of air from his lungs. How many of these
breaths would be needed to fill the balloon to a diameter of 26 cm?
21 The capacity of a cylindrical water tank with radius 10 m is 4000 kL. Calculate the height of the tank to the
nearest metre.
22 The fuel tank of a car has a capacity of 60 L. How big is the tank? Suggest some possible dimensions if the
tank is in the shape of a rectangular prism.
23 Water drops falling from a tap are spheres of diameter 0.4 cm. If 15 drops per minute leak from the tap,
CHALLENGE
how much water is wasted in one day?
MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW PERIMETER, AREA AND VOLUME
✔ calculate the perimeter and area of triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, sectors and composite shapes
✔ calculate the perimeter and area of irregularly shaped blocks of land, including the use of the Trapezoidal rule
✔ calculate the surface area of right prisms, cylinders, spheres and composite solids
✔ calculate the volume of right prisms, cylinders, spheres and composite solids
✔ convert between units of volume and capacity
✔ solve problems involving perimeter, area, surface area, volume and capacity.

5A 1 What is the circumference of this circle?
2.8 cm
A 5.6 cm B 8.8 cm
C 14.4 cm D 17.6 cm
5A 2 What is the perimeter of this shape?

A 71 m B 80 m
20 m
C 103 m D 143 m
5A 3 What is the perimeter of this shape?

A 92 m B 70 m 10 m
C 50 m D 30 m
20 m
5A 4 The perimeter of this sector, to the nearest square centimetre is:

A 94 cm2 B 66 cm2
C 53 cm 2
D 30 cm2
38°
11.4 cm
5B 5 The area of this triangle is:

A 7 cm2 B 14 cm2 3.5 cm
C 1.75 cm 2
D 2 cm2
4 cm
5B 6 The area of this quadrilateral is: 10 m
A 35 m2 B 75 m2
5m
C 150 m 2
D 300 m2
20 m

5B 7 The area of the sector shown in question 4 is closest to:
A 1.2 cm2 B 408.3 cm2
C 43.1 cm2 D 433.2 cm2
5C 8 The area of the shaded annulus is closest to: 3 cm

A 4 cm2 B 31.4 cm2
C 125.6 cm2 D 125.7 cm2
7 cm
5C 9 The shaded area of the composite shape on the right is closest to:
A 16.3 m2 B 67.1 m2
C 9.03 m3 D 11.8 m2
4.3 m
2.1 m
5D 10 What is the area of this quadrilateral?

A 231 m2 B 168 m2 5m
8m 6m
C 115.5 m2 D 32 m2
7m
5D 11 What is the perimeter of the quadrilateral in question 10? 6m
A 32 m B 39 m
C 48 m D 1521 m
5D 12 Using two applications of the Trapezoidal rule, an estimate of the

area of the field on the right, to the nearest square metre, is:
A 688 m2 B 1066 m2
C 1375 m 2
D 2750 m2 35 m 36 m
5E 13 The surface area of a rectangular prism with length 12 cm, breadth 8 cm 18 m
and height 5 cm is closest to:

22 m 22 m
A 480 cm2 B 392 cm2
C 296 cm2 D 196 cm2
4.8 cm
5E 14 what is the surface area of the triangular prism on the right?
A 627 cm2 B 772 cm2 24.4 cm
C 811 cm2 D 907 cm2 20 cm
5F 15 The total surface area of a closed cylinder of radius 5 cm and

height 12 cm is closest to: 28 cm
A 377 cm2 B 456 cm2
C 534 cm 2
D 603 cm2
5F 16 The surface area of a sphere with diameter 17.8 cm, correct to two decimal places, is:
A 995.38 cm2 B 3981.52 cm2 C 3981.53 cm2 D 2952.97 cm2
MEASUREMENT
5G 17 The volume of the cylinder on the right is closest to:

A 565 cm3 B 266 cm3
5 cm
C 188 cm3 D 259 cm3
12 cm

5G 18 The volume of a sphere with diameter 8 m is closest to:
A 67.0 m3 B 804.2 m3 C 268.1 m3 D 2144.7 m3
5H 19 The capacity, in kilolitres, of a cubic tank with side length 8 m is closest to:
A 64 kL B 512 kL C 640 kL D 512 000 kL
REVIEW SET 1
1 Find the perimeter and area of each of the following figures.
a b c
4 cm 4.5 cm
7 cm
3 cm
12 cm
6 cm
d e 20 cm f
4.3 cm 30 cm 5 cm
120°
50 cm
12 cm
2 a Calculate the area of the field represented by the b Use the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of
diagram below. this field.
A C
12 m
15 m 31 m
B 18 m
D AB = 30 m
21 m
3 Calculate the surface area of each of these solids.

a a rectangular prism with length 8 m, breadth 4 m and height 3 m
b a closed cylinder with radius 8 cm and height 12 cm
c a sphere of radius 7.5 cm
4 Calculate the volume of each of these solids.

a b c
4 cm
A = 7 cm2
6 cm 8m
10 cm 20 m
3 cm
5 Calculate the volume of a sphere with radius 26 mm, to the nearest cubic millimetre (mm3).
6 Find the capacity in millilitres of a cylinder with radius 7 cm and perpendicular height 14 cm.

REVIEW SET 2
1 Find the perimeter and area of each of these figures.
a b c
1.6 cm
4 cm
10 m
8m
3.9 cm
2 cm 6 cm
6m
d e f
3 cm
5.8 cm
1.1 cm 4 cm
6.3 cm
3 cm
2 a Calculate the perimeter and area of this field. b Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to
estimate the area of this field.
12 m
6m
10 m 4m 6m 7m
25 m 16 m 12 m
8m
15 m 15 m
3 Find the total surface area of each of these solids.
a b c
8m 18.3 cm 8.4 cm
5m
15 m
11.7 cm
4 Calculate the volume of each solid in question 3.
5 Find the capacity, in megalitres, of a dam with cross-sectional area of 6000 m2 and an average depth of 10 m.
REVIEW SET 3
1 Find the perimeter and area of each of these figures.

MEASUREMENT
a b c
m 5 cm
3
8.2 cm 1.
5 cm
45°
12 cm

d 8.6 cm e f
3.5 cm
6.4 cm
11.5 cm
2 a Calculate the perimeter and area of the field b Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to
from the diagram below. estimate the area of the field below.
m
30 m
20
35 m
10 m
22 m 18 m 30 m
15 m
24 m 24 m
3 Calculate the surface area, correct to one decimal place, of:
a a cube of length 7.2 mm
b a closed cylinder with diameter 17 cm and height 8 cm
c a sphere of radius 13 mm.
4 Calculate the volume of each of these solids, correct to one decimal place.
a b c 6 cm
6.3 cm 5 cm
4 cm
7.8 cm
15.3 cm 10 cm 8 cm
6 cm
5 Find the capacity, in kilolitres, of a spherical tank with diameter 8 m.

8 cm
REVIEW SET 4
1 Find the perimeter and area of each of these figures. Give your answers correct to one decimal place.
a b c
10 mm 2.6 m 113 mm
21.8 mm
5.3 mm 4.9 m
d e f
12 cm 6 cm
8 cm
10 cm 40 cm
15 cm

2 a Calculate the area of the field from the b Use three applications of the Trapezoidal rule to
diagram below. estimate the area of the field below.
B
50 m
40 m 18 m 21 m 22 m 28 m
A
AB = 100 m 16 m 16 m 16 m
3 Find the total surface area of each of these solids, to one decimal place.
a b c
12.1 cm
6.5 cm
11.4 m 15.3 cm
4 Calculate the volume of each solid in question 3, to one decimal place.
5 Find the capacity, in kilolitres, of a rectangular tank with length 8 m, breadth 6 m and height 4 m.

1 a Find the perimeter of this figure. (2 marks)
3m
8m
b Find the perimeter and area of a sector which has radius 8 cm and a sector angle of 66°. (2 marks)
c Use two applications of the Trapezoidal
rule to estimate the area of the
field represented by this diagram. (2 marks)
24 m 19 m 36 m
17 m 17 m
d Calculate the surface area and volume of a sphere of diameter 11 cm. (4 marks)
e Find the volume of this triangular prism. (2 marks)
8 cm
30 cm
12 cm
f Find the volume of this cylindrical ice-cream container. (2 marks)
MEASUREMENT
12 cm
g Find the capacity of the container in part f. 12 cm

(1 mark)
TOTAL: 15 MARKS

6
Interest and
depreciation
▶ applying percentage increase or decrease
▶ calculating profit or loss
▶ calculating percentage profit or percentage loss
▶ exploring calculations involving GST
▶ calculating simple interest over various time
periods
▶ graphing simple interest
▶ calculating depreciation of an asset using the
straight-line method
▶ drawing graphs of compound interest.

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

6A 2?
1 What percentage is equivalent to __ 6A 9 An item originally priced at $160 is marked up
5
A 40% B 25% by 25%. What is the resulting price?
C 2% D 50% A $200 B $160
C $120 D $40
6A 2 What is 52% as a fraction in simplest form?
52
A ____ B __1 Use the following diagram to answer questions
100 2 10 and 11.
26
C ___ 13
D ___ y
50 25
6A 3 What is 0.12 as a percentage? D
4
3
A 0.12% B 1.2% C
2
C 12% D 120% 1
6A 4 What is the equivalent decimal to 0.3%? −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

−1
B
A 0.3 B 0.03 −2
A
−3
C 0.003 D 0.0003 −4
6A 5 Which value is equivalent to 16 written
as a percentage of 25? 6C 10 What are the coordinates of point B?
A 64% B 32% A (−2, 3) B (2, 3)
C 16% D 25% C (3, 2) D (3, −2)
6A 6 What is 125% of 80? 6C 11 Which point has the coordinates (−3, 2)?
A 20 B 40 A A B B
C 60 D 100 C C D D
6A 7 What is 35% of $1200? 6C 12 Which set of coordinates matches the values
A $42 B $420 in this table?
C $4200 D $42 000 x 0 1 2 3 4 5
6A 8 A 30% discount is given on an item originally y 0 4 8 12 16 20
priced at $120. How much is the discount?
A {(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5), (0, 4), (8, 12), (16, 20)}
A $156 B $120
B {(0, 0), (1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 12), (4, 16), (5, 20)}
C $84 D $36
C {(0, 0), (4, 1), (8, 2), (12, 3), (16, 4), (20, 5)}
D {(0, 0), (1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 10), (4, 12), (5, 14)}
Q1 Support sheet 6A.1 Writing percentages
Q2–4 Support sheet 6A.2 Converting percentages, fractions and decimals
Q5 Support sheet 6A.3 Writing one amount as a percentage of another
Q6–7 Support sheet 6A.4 Percentage of a quantity
Q8–9 Support sheet 6A.5 Financial percentage calculations
Q10–12 Support sheet 6C.1 Plotting points
Chapter 6 Interest and depreciation 203

6A Percentage applications
• Interactive 6A.1: Explore key ideas for finding the percentage of an amount
• Interactive 6A.2: Explore key ideas for percentage profit or loss
• Worksheet 6A: Practise your skills with extra problems for percentages
• Investigation 6A: Explore applications of percentages
EXAMPLE 6A–1 Increasing or decreasing an amount by a percentage

a Increase $75 by 20%. b Decrease 3 m by 12%.
Solve Think Apply
120 × $75
120% of $75 = ____ $75 + 20% of $75
a 100
To increase a quantity by x%,
= 100% of $75 + 20% of $75 find (100 + x)% of the quantity.
= $90
= 120% of $75
120
= ___
100
× $75
= $90
88 × 3 m
88% of 3 m = ____ 3 m − 12% of 3 m
b 100
To decrease a quantity by x%,
= 100% of 3 m − 12% of 3 m find (100 − x)% of the quantity.
= 2.64 m
= 88% of 3 m
88 × 3 m
= ____
100
= 2.64 m
EXERCISE 6A Percentage applications

1 Increase the following by the given percentages.
a $450 by 28% b 15 m by 75% c 850 kg by 8%

d 160 cm by 12% e 240 min by 35% f $6 by 200%
g 2 t by 1.5% h 40 s by 62__12 % i 300 L by 6__23 %
2 Decrease the following by the given percentages.

a 115 mm by 30% b $480 by 24% c 350 mL by 40%
d 4.8 km by 19% e 86 g by 25% f $456 by 8.5%
g $3000 by 2__14 % h 57 s by 33__13 % i 4.2 ha by 15.6%
change in value
Percentage change = _____________ ×100%
original value

EXAMPLE 6A–2 Calculating percentage increase or decrease
a John’s weight increased from 64 kg to 68 kg. Find the percentage increase in his weight.
b The value of a car decreased from $18 500 to $14 900 in 1 year. Calculate the percentage decrease
in value.
Solve Think Apply

a Method 1: Method 1: Method 1:
Percentage increase Increase = 68 − 64 kg Find the increase in weight and
68 − 64 × 100%
= _______ = 4 kg express this as a percentage of the
64
Percentage increase original weight.
= 6.25% 4 × 100%
= ___ Percentage increase
Method 2: 64 increase in quantity
68 = ___
___ 68 × 100% = 6.25% = ________________ × 100%
original quantity
64 64
Method 2: Method 2:
= 106.25% 68 × 100% = 106.25%
___ Express the second weight as a
Percentage increase 64
percentage of the first and then
= 106.25% − 100% The increased weight is
subtract 100%.
= 6.25% 106.25% of the original weight.
Percentage increase
Percentage increase
second quantity
= 106.25% − 100% = _____________ × 100% − 100%
first quantity
= 6.25%
b Method 1: Method 1: Method 1:
Percentage decrease Decrease = $18 500 − $14 900 Find the decrease in value and
18 500 − 14 900 × 100% = $3600 express this as a percentage of the
= _____________
18 500 Percentage decrease original value.
= 19.5% 3600 × 100%
= ______ Percentage decrease
(to one decimal place) 18 500 decrease in value × 100%
= ______________
≈ 19.5% original value
Method 2:
14 900 = ______
______ 14 900 × 100% Method 2: Method 2:
18 500 18 500 14 900 × 100% ≈ 80.5%
______ Express the second value as a
= 80.5% 18 500
percentage of the first and then
The decreased value is 80.5%
(to one decimal subtract this result from 100%.
of the original value.
place) Percentage decrease
Percentage decrease second quantity
Percentage decrease
= 100% − 80.5% = 100% − _____________ × 100%
= 100% − 80.5% first quantity
= 19.5%
= 19.5% (to one decimal
place)
3 a Complete the following to find the percentage increase in weight from 52 kg to 55 kg.
Increase in weight = 55 − ____ kg = ____ kg


Percentage increase = __ × 100 % = ____% = ____% (to one decimal place)

b Complete the following to find the percentage decrease in cost from $186 to $154.
Decrease in cost = $____ − $____ = $____
Percentage decrease = ____ × 100 % = ____% =____% (to one decimal place)

4 Find the percentage increase (to one decimal place) from:
a $350 to $425 b 7.2 m to 7.8 m c 63 kg to 68 kg

d $80 to $215 e 4.2 kg to 8.4 kg f 480 mL to 530 mL
5 Find the percentage decrease (to one decimal place) from:

a $256 to $190 b 55 kg to 51 kg c 15.8 s to 15.5 s
d 430 ha to 385 ha e $5400 to $1800 f 13 s to 12.2 s
EXAMPLE 6A–3 Calculating profit or loss and percentage profit or loss

a A signed 2005 West Tigers jersey was purchased for $800. It was later sold for $1040. Calculate the
percentage profit.
b A drone was purchased for $480 and later sold for $360. Calculate the percentage loss.
Solve Think Apply
a Profit = selling price – cost price To find the profit, subtract If the selling price exceeds the
=1040 – 800 the cost price from the cost price, a profit is made.
= 240 selling price.
Profit is $240. The percentage profit is
Percentage profit the profit divided by the
240 cost price, multiplied by
= ___
800
× 100%
100%.
= 30%
b Loss = selling price – cost price To find the loss, subtract If the selling price is less than
= 360 – 480 the cost price from the the cost price, a loss is made.
= –120 selling price.
Loss is $120. The percentage loss is
Percentage loss the loss divided by the
120 cost price, multiplied by
= ___
480
× 100%
100%.
= 25%
6 Calculate the following for the sales listed below:

i the profit or loss
ii the percentage profit or loss.
a A car purchased for $22 000 is sold for $16 500.
b A Star Wars collectable purchased for $100 is sold
for $170.
c A piano purchased for $4200 is sold for $2520.
d A $50 000 share portfolio is sold for $57 500.
e A surfboard purchased for $600 is sold for $280.
f A set of golf clubs purchased for $2100 is sold for $800.

EXAMPLE 6A–4 Calculating multiple percentage applications
A stamp collection was bought for $3600. In the first year its value increased by 5%. In the second year it
increased in value by a further 6%.
a Calculate the stamp collection’s value at the end of the first year.
b Calculate its value at the end of the second year.
c What is the overall change in its value after 2 years?
d Find the percentage profit if it is sold for the value at the end of 2 years.
Solve Think Apply
a Value after 1 year = 105% of $3600 Calculate the value Percentage change
change in value
105 × 3600
= ___
at the end of the = ______________ × 100%
100 first year. Use this original value
= $3780 If the percentage change
result to calculate
is positive, it is a profit. If
b Value after 2 years = 106% of $3780 the value at the end
the percentage change is
106 × 3780 of the second year.
= ____ negative, it is a loss.
100 Find the overall
= $4006.80 change in value
c Overall change in value = $4006.80 − $3600 over these 2 years.
= $406.80 Calculate the
percentage change
d Percentage profit over 2 years
in value over these
change in value
= _____________ × 100% 2 years.
original value
406.8 × 100% = 11.3%
= _____
3600
7 A painting was bought for $3600. In the first year its value increased by 6%. In the second year it increased
by a further 8%. Complete the following.
a Value after 1 year = 106% of $____ b Value after 2 years = ____% of $____
 
= ____ × $____ = ____ × $____
100 100
= $____ = $____
c Overall change in value after 2 years = $____ − $3600
= $____

d Percentage profit after 2 years = ___ × 100 %

= ____% (to one decimal place)
8 A piece of antique jewellery was bought for $2400. In the first year of ownership its value increased by
15%. In the second year, it increased in value by a further 8%.
a Calculate the value of the jewellery at the end of the first year.
b Calculate its value at the end of the second year.

c What is the overall change in the value of the jewellery after 2 years?
d Find the percentage profit after 2 years.
9 A $50 000 share portfolio increased in value by 12% in the first year and decreased by 3% in the second
year. Find the percentage profit or loss if it is sold after 2 years.
10 An investor bought $80 000 worth of gold. In the first year the gold increased in value by 10% but, in the second
year, it decreased in value by 10%. Find the overall percentage profit or loss of the investment after these 2 years.

GST GST stands for Goods and Services Tax, which we have in Australia. Other countries
a tax of 10% that have a tax similar to Australia’s GST, called VAT, which stands for Value Added Tax.
is added to the
The GST is a tax added to the price of goods and services. GST is payable on most goods
price of goods
and services (such as all new goods) and services (such as hospitality, electrical work, plumbing,
building). A GST of 10% was introduced in Australia in July 2000 and has remained at
10%. Most unprepared food items, including meat and vegetables, are GST free.
EXAMPLE 6A–5 Calculating GST

Calculate the GST payable on:
a a restaurant meal with a pre-GST cost of $84.00 b a pre-GST bill for $368.00 from an electrician.
Solve Think Apply
a GST = 10% of $84 Find 10% of the amount. GST on an amount is 10% of
10 × $84 that amount.
= ____
100
= $8.40
b GST = 10% of $368
10 × $368
= ____
100
= $36.80
11 Complete the following to calculate the GST on a plasma television with a pre-GST price of $750.
GST = 10% of ____
10 × ____
= ___

= ____
12 Calculate the 10% GST payable on goods with a pre-GST price of:
a $46.00 b $150.00 c $8.40 d $459.00
e $975.50 f $10.99 g $1980 h $15.42
13 Michael purchased a mobile phone listed at a pre-GST price of $654.

a Calculate the GST payable on the phone.
b Find the total amount Michael paid for the phone.
14 Aaron had a new bathroom installed in his house. The bill was $8742.80 and was subject to GST of 10%.
a Calculate the GST payable on the bathroom.
b Find the actual amount Aaron paid for the bathroom.
15 Angelica bought a watch listed at a pre-GST price of $389.00.

a Calculate the GST payable on the watch.
b Find the total amount Angelica paid for the watch.
The easiest way to work out how much GST has been paid on a particular item is to divide the total
price, including tax, by 11. This is a GST rule of thumb.
Note: The rule of thumb of dividing by 11 only works if the GST is 10%.

EXAMPLE 6A–6 Calculating GST when it is included in the total price
Guido buys a sofa for $720 which includes GST.
a Find the GST paid on the sofa.
b Find the original cost of the sofa before the GST was added.
Solve Think Apply
a GST paid = $720 ÷ 11 Because GST is 10%, divide by To find the GST on a price
= $65.45 11 to find the GST. that already includes GST,
b Original cost = $720 − $65.45 Original cost is the price paid divide by 11. For GST
= $654.55 minus the GST. amounts other than 10%, the
Unitary method: Unitary method: unitary method should be
Price = cost price plus 10% Price is the cost price plus 10%, used.
110% = $720 or 110% of the cost price.
720
1% = ___
110
= 6.545 45…
100% = $654.55
16 Complete the following to find the GST on a laptop computer that is priced at $1200 including GST.
GST paid = ____ ÷ 11
= ____
17 Use the given rule of thumb to find the GST included in the price of goods and services costing a total of:
a $458.00 b $264 c $34.56 d $219
e $19.80 f $1904 g $2980 h $14.90
18 Find the cost of each item in question 17 before the GST was added.
19 Keong bought a Blu-ray 3D disc player listed at a pre-GST price of $634. Find the total amount Keong
paid for the disc player.
20 An antique watch bought for $15 000 increased in value by 5% in the first year of ownership and increased
by 8% in the second year. It is then sold for this value after the second year. Calculate the percentage profit.
21 Shannon is travelling overseas and is being refunded the GST on the purchase of a camera that was $475
including GST. She calculates the GST refund to be 10% of $475 which is $47.50. Is she correct? Explain
using calculations.
22 Aimee has two quotes for repairs on her car. The first is a pre-GST price of $2450. The second is $2680
including GST. Which quote is cheaper and by how much?
23 A car that cost $28 900 new depreciated in value by 22% in the first year, by 20% in the second year and
CHALLENGE
by 18% in the third year. What was its value at the end of 3 years?
24 The GST in New Zealand is 15%. Jarrod has purchased a kiwi carving for NZ$95.00 including GST. He is
entitled to a refund of the GST when returning to Australia. The rule of thumb of dividing by 11 does not
work because the GST is not 10%. Calculate Jarrod’s GST refund.

6B Simple interest
calculations
• Interactive 6B.1: Explore key ideas for understanding simple interest
• Interactive 6B.2: Explore key ideas for simple interest investments
• Worksheet 6B: Practise your skills with extra problems for simple interest
• Investigation 6B: Explore interest rates on a loan for a car
simple interest Simple interest is the name given to the type of interest that is calculated on the full amount
an amount borrowed over the full term of the loan; or invested for the full term of the investment.
calculated on The amount borrowed (or invested) is called the principal. The simple interest rate as a
the full amount
of a loan or
percentage is often called the flat rate of interest. The term of the loan (or investment) is
investment for the usually expressed in years, but may be given as any time period.
full term Simple interest is calculated using the following formula.
principal
sum of money Simple interest formula
invested or
amount borrowed I = Prn where:
as a loan I is the amount of interest in dollars
rate P is the principal, the amount borrowed (or invested)
an amount of
interest usually r is the percentage interest rate per time period, expressed as a decimal
expressed as a n is the number of time periods.
percentage
Note: Sometimes t instead of n is used in the simple interest formula.
flat rate
simple interest
rate as a EXAMPLE 6B–1 Calculating simple interest
percentage Calculate the simple interest on $5000 at a flat rate of 8% p.a. over 4 years.
term
period of time for Solve Think Apply
an investment Convert 8% to a decimal Identify all the values for
or loan
I = Prn
I = $5000 × 0.08 × 4 and substitute the given values: each pronumeral. Convert
= $1600 r = 8 ÷ 100 = 0.08 the percentage rate to
The interest is $1600. P = $5000 a decimal by dividing
n=4 by 100.
EXERCISE 6B Simple interest calculations

1 Complete the following to calculate the simple interest on $800 at a flat rate of 5% p.a. over 6 years.
P = ____ I = Prn
r =____ ÷ 100 = ____ = ____ × 0.05 × ____
n = ____ = ____

2 Calculate the simple interest on:
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a $300 at a flat rate of 6% p.a. over 3 years b $750 at a flat rate of 9% p.a. over 2 years
c $1500 at a flat rate of 11% p.a. over 5 years d $3650 at a flat rate of 3% p.a. over 6 years.
3 Complete the following to calculate the simple interest on $4650 at a flat rate of 6.47% p.a. for 5 years.
P = ____ I = Prn
n = ____ = ____ × ____ × 5
r = 6.47 ÷ ____ = ____ = ____
4 Calculate the simple interest on:

a $1268 at a flat rate of 9.62% p.a. over 3 years b $5360 at a flat rate of 5.36% p.a. over 6 years
c $33 000 at a flat rate of 6.35% p.a. over 4 years d $11 000 at a flat rate of 7.28% p.a. over 7 years.
5 Calculate the amount of simple interest earned on the following investments.
Principal Interest rate p.a. Years

a $2680 8% 5
b $5990 7% 8
c $21 000 12% 6
d $55 000 3% 2
e $12 500 9% 4
f $68 500 14.5% 8
g $4225 11.96% 2
EXAMPLE 6B–2 Finding interest rates for different time intervals

An investment pays 5% interest p.a.
a Express this percentage as a decimal.
b Find the six-monthly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
c Find the quarterly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
d Find the monthly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
Solve Think Apply
a Rate = 5% Divide 5% by 100 to express as a Find the number of times the
= 0.05 decimal: 5 ÷ 100 = 0.05 time period divides into a year
b Rate = 5% ÷ 2 Six months is half a year, so divide and divide the rate by that
= 2.5% by 2. number.
= 0.025
c Rate = 5% ÷ 4 For a quarter of a year, divide by 4.
= 1.25%
= 0.0125
d Rate = 5% ÷ 12 There are 12 months in a year, so
= 0.466 666…% divide by 12.
≈ 0.467%
= 0.004 67

6 An investment pays 8% interest p.a.


8 Complete this table of percentage interest rates.
Annual rate Six-monthly rate Quarterly rate Monthly rate

a 9%
b 10%
c 15%
d 4.5%
e 3.8%
f 2.6%
g 1.3%
h 0.065%
i 1.95%
EXAMPLE 6B–3 Calculating simple interest using monthly interest rate

Calculate the simple interest on $3000 at a flat rate of 8.56% p.a. over 16 months.
Solve Think Apply
P = $3000 Convert 8.56% p.a. to a monthly The units for r and n must
r = 8.56 ÷ 12 ÷ 100 rate as a decimal and substitute the be the same; both in years or
= 0.007 133 33 per month values for P, r and n. both in months. It is easier to
n = 16 months convert the annual rate to the
I = Prn same time period as n.
= 3000 × 0.007 133 33 × 16
= $342.40
The interest is $342.40.
9 Complete the following to calculate the simple interest of $5300 at a flat rate of 6.47% p.a. over 17 months.
P = ____ I = Prn
n = ____ = 5300 × ____ × ____
r = 6.47 ÷ ____ ÷ 100 = ____

10 Calculate the amount of simple interest earned on the following investments.
Principal Interest rate Months
a $3000 4% 16
b $6000 7% 18
c $45 500 9% 20
d $7500 8.2% 28
e $2360 4.6% 30
f $5630 8.5% 14
EXAMPLE 6B–4 Calculating annual simple interest rate

If $3500 is invested for 3 years the amount of interest earned is $735. Calculate the annual simple interest
rate as a percentage.
Solve Think Apply
I = Prn Substitute the values P = 3500, Substitute the values into

735 = 3500 × r × 3 n = 3 and I = 735 into I = Prn. the formula and solve for
= 10 500 r Multiply 3500 by 3 and then the required value.
735 = r
______ divide the interest by 10 500.
10 500 The rate is a decimal. Multiply
r = 0.07 by 100 to make a percentage.
Annual rate = 0.07 × 100%
= 7%
11 If $4000 is invested for 4 years, the amount of interest earned is $1280. Calculate the annual simple
interest rate as a percentage.
12 If $6200 is invested for 5 years, the amount of interest earned is $1240. Calculate the annual simple
13 If $190 is invested for 10 years, the amount of interest earned is $123.50. Calculate the annual simple
14 If $3200 is invested at 6.35% p.a., the amount of interest earned is $952. Find the number of years of the
investment, to one decimal place.
15 Ayush invests an amount of money for 2 years at 3.2% p.a. simple interest and receives $154 in interest.
What amount of money did he invest?
16 Eden invests $1300 for two years at a simple interest rate of 2.8% p.a. After the first year, the interest rate
changes to 3.1%. Calculate the amount of extra interest Eden receives due to the rate change.
17 Hanna has $1000 to invest and wants to earn $50 in interest. She wants a rate between 2.1% and 3.5% and
CHALLENGE
a time period between 1 and 2 years.

a An investment at 5% for 1 year would earn $50 in interest. Why would that not be suitable?
b Determine four different investment scenarios with rates and time periods suitable for Hannah that will
result in interest of $50.

6C Simple interest graphs
• Spreadsheet 6C: Generate simple interest graphs
A mathematical model for simple

Principal $1000
interest may be developed using 900
a graph that compares the interest 800
earned and the rate for a fixed
700
amount of money over a number
600
Interest ($)
of years.
500
This section is best attempted using
400
a graphics calculator or, if one is not
300
available, a spreadsheet. This enables
200
the variables to be changed and the
100
new graph to be seen without having
to calculate and plot points. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Year
EXAMPLE 6C–1 Interpreting a simple interest graph

The graph shows the simple interest earned on an investment of $2000 at 5.3% p.a. interest.
Use the graph to find:
a the amount of interest earned after 3 years Simple interest 5.3% p.a.
b the time taken to earn $530 interest.
600
Solve Think
500
a About $320 Go up from 3 on the
Amount of interest ($)
‘Time’ axis to the 400

line, then across to the
‘Amount of interest’ axis. 300
The value is $320.
b About 5 years Go across from $530 on 200
the ‘Amount of interest’
axis to the line, then down 100
to the ‘Time’ axis. The

0
time is 5 years. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (years)
Apply
To find values, move from one axis to the
line, then to the other axis.

EXERCISE 6C Simple interest graphs
Use the following graphs to answer questions 1–4.
Graph A Graph B
Simple interest 7% p.a. Simple interest 4.5% p.a.
500 600
500
400

400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 0
Time (years) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (years)
Graph C Graph D
Simple interest 6.3% p.a. Simple interest 8.9% p.a.
6000
200
5000
150 4000
100 3000
50 2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (years) 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (years)
1 Graph A above shows the interest earned when $1000 is invested at 7% p.a.
Use Graph A to help you complete the following to find:
a the amount of interest earned after 4 years.
Go up from ____ on the ____ axis to the line, then ____ to the ‘Amount of interest’ axis, to get ____.
b the time taken to earn $400 interest.
Go ____ from ____ on the ‘Amount of interest’ axis to the line, then ____ to the ‘Time’ axis, to get ____.
2 Graph B above shows the interest earned when $2000 is invested at 4.5% p.a. simple interest.
Use this graph to find:

a the amount of interest earned after 6 years b the time taken to earn $350 interest.
3 Graph C above shows the interest earned when $500 is invested at 6.3% p.a. simple interest. Use this graph
to find:
a the amount of interest earned after 2 years b the time taken to earn $100 interest.
4 Graph D above shows the interest earned when $10 000 is invested at 8.9% p.a. simple interest. Use this graph
to find:
a the amount of interest earned after 4.5 years b the time taken to earn $5000 interest.

EXAMPLE 6C–2 Drawing and interpreting a simple interest graph
Time (years) 1 2 3 4 5 10
Interest ($) 80 160 240 320 400 800
From the table of values, draw a graph showing the amount of interest earned over a period of 10 years
when $1000 is invested at 8% p.a. Use the graph to find:
a the interest earned after 8__12 years b the time taken to earn interest of $550.
Solve Think
Simple interest 8% p.a. Plot the points from the table and draw the straight-
800 line graph. Show ‘Time (years)’ on the horizontal axis
and ‘Amount of interest ($)’ on the vertical axis.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2 4 6 8 10
Time (years)
a From the graph, the interest after Go up from 8__12 on the horizontal axis (Time) to the
8__12 years is about $680. graph, then across to the vertical axis (Amount of
interest): about $680.
b The time taken to earn interest of $550 is a Go across from $550 on the vertical axis (Amount of
little less than 7 years. interest) to the graph, then down to the horizontal axis
(Time): less than 7 years.
Apply
Plot the points from the table and draw the graph. To find values, move from one axis to the line,
then to the other axis. If using a graphics calculator, use the TRACE function to find the values.
5 An amount of $1000 is invested for 10 years at 5% p.a. simple interest. The table shows some
interest values.
Time (years) 1 2 4 5 10
Interest ($) 50 100 200 250 500
a Use the values in the table to draw a graph showing the amount of interest earned over a period of
10 years. (If a graphics calculator is not available, refer to question 9.)
b Find the interest after 7__12 years.
c Find the time taken to earn interest of $180.

6 An amount of $1000 is invested for 10 years at 6% p.a. simple interest.
a Use the simple interest formula to complete this table of values.
Time (years) 1 2 4 5 10
Interest ($)
b Use the values from your completed table to draw a graph showing the amount of interest earned over
a period of 10 years.
c Find the interest after 9__12 years.
d Find the time taken to earn interest of $250.
7 On the same set of axes, draw graphs to show $1000 invested at:
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G , J U S T I F I C AT I O N
i 9% p.a. over 10 years ii 11% p.a. over 10 years iii 8.5% p.a. over 10 years.
a How much has each investment earned over 10 years?
b How much has each investment earned after 4__12 years?
c How much more than the others has the best investment earned after 10 years?
d How long does each investment take to earn $500 of interest?
8 On the same set of axes, draw graphs to show $2000 invested at:
i 8% p.a. over 10 years ii 12% p.a. over 10 years iii 10.5% p.a. over 10 years.
a How much has each investment earned over 10 years?
b How much has each investment earned after 8__12 years?
c How much more than the others has the best investment earned after 10 years?
d How long does each investment take to earn $1000 of interest?
9 a Create a spreadsheet to draw simple interest graphs A B

like the example shown on the right in which
$1000 is invested at 8% p.a. The formula in cell B4 1 Principal ($) 1000
is =$B$1*$B$2/100*A4. Use the fill down function to 2 Percentage rate (%) 8
complete the spreadsheet. 3 Year Interest ($)
b Highlight the column values for ‘Year’ and ‘Interest’ and
4 1 80
then select Charts from the Insert menu (choose a line
graph style) to produce the matching graph.
5 2 160
c Modify your spreadsheet to check your results for 6 3 240
questions 7 and 8. 7 4 320
8 5 400
10 a Research a number of bank accounts to compare fees
CHALLENGE
and interest rates. Some accounts have low fees, but low 9 6 480
interest rates, and others vary. 10 7 560
b Compare fees and interest rates per month for the 11 8 640
following deposits. 12 9 720
i $500 ii $1000 iii $2000

13 10 800
11 a Find some examples of the current annual interest rates for investments. List them.
b Draw graphs to show the investment of $100 over 10 years at varying simple interest rates.
12 a Find some examples of the current annual interest rates for loans. List them.
b Draw graphs to show the simple interest paid on a loan of $100 over 10 years at these rates.

6D Straight-line depreciation
depreciation
The depreciation of an item is its loss in value due to age and usage. The value of
the loss in the
value of an asset
an item after depreciation is called its salvage value, book value, scrap value or
due to its age written-down value.
and usage In this section, we will look at the straight-line method of depreciation, which assumes that
salvage value the item depreciates by a constant amount each year.
(book value,
scrap value,
written-down
value)
the value of
an asset after
depreciation
straight-line
method of
depreciation
a method for
which an item
loses value by a
constant amount
each year
EXAMPLE 6D–1 Calculating the value of an asset

after depreciation
Construct a table to calculate the value of a $20 000 car after 3 years if it depreciates $3400
each year.
Solve Think Apply

Value at end of year 1 Subtract the
Value Depreciation Depreciated
= $20 000 − $3400 amount of
Year ($) ($) value ($)
= $16 600 depreciation
1 20 000 3400 16 600 Value at end of year 2 from the
2 16 600 3400 13 200 = $16 600 − $3400 value at the
= $13 200 beginning of
3 13 200 3400 9800
etc. the year.
Note: Value
at beginning
of year =
value at end of
previous year.

EXERCISE 6D Straight-line depreciation
1 Complete this table to calculate the depreciated value of a $35 000 car after 3 years. The rate of depreciation
is $3800 per year.
Year Value ($) Depreciation ($) Depreciated value ($)

1 35 000 3800
2
3
The formula for the straight-line method of depreciation is S = V0 – Dn

where S = salvage (current) value of the asset
V0 = purchase price of the asset
D = amount of depreciation per time period
n = total number of time periods.
EXAMPLE 6D–2 Calculating the value of an asset using the formula for the
straight-line method of depreciation
A car purchased for $14 900 depreciates $1660 per year. Calculate
a its book value after 5 years
b the scrap value if the useful life is 8 years.
Solve Think Apply
a S = V0 − Dn Substitute V0 = 14 900, Substitute the values of D, n and V0, into the
= 14 900 − 1660 × 5 D = 1660, n = 5 into formula S = V0 − Dn.
= $6600 the formula.
b S = V0 − Dn Substitute V0 = 14 900, The scrap value is the depreciated value at
= 14 900 − 1660 × 8 D = 1660, n = 8 into the end of an item’s usable life. However
= $1620 the formula. the market value may be greater than the
depreciated value.
2 A car purchased for $26 990 depreciates $3300 per year. Complete the following to calculate its book value:
a after 2 years b after 4 years.
S = V0 − Dn S = V0 − Dn
= $26 990 − $____ × 2 = $____ − $____ × ____
= $____ = $____
3 A car purchased for $18 700 depreciates $1980 per year. Calculate its book value after:
a 2 years b 5 years.

4 A new sewing machine costs $3800 and
depreciates by $400 per year. Calculate the book

value after:
5 A car purchased for $38 999 depreciates $4200

per year. Calculate its book value after:
6 A donut-making machine is purchased new for

$5900. It depreciates at $700 per year.
a Calculate its book value after 4 years.
b The machine has a usable life of 7 years.
Find its scrap value.
7 A cash register machine is purchased for $2770 and depreciates by $360 per year. It has a usable life of
7 years. Find:
a its value after 4 years b its scrap value.
EXAMPLE 6D–3 Calculating the annual amount of depreciation using

the formula for the straight-line method
A car purchased for $21 990 was worth $11 990 after 4 years, using the straight-line method of depreciation.
Calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
Solve Think Apply
S = V0 − Dn Substitute S = $11 990, V0 = $21 990, Substitute the

$11 990 = $21 990 − D × 4 n = 4 into the formula. given values
4D + $11 990 = $21 990 Add 4D to both sides. into the formula
4D = $21 990 − $11 990 Subtract $11 990 from both sides. S = V0 − Dn and
= $10 000 Divide both sides by 4. solve the resulting
D = $2500 equation.
8 A car purchased for $26 900 was worth $14 260 after 4 years, using the straight-line method of
depreciation. Complete the following to calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
S = V0 − Dn
____ = ____ − D × 4
4D + ____ = ____
4D = ____ − ____
= ____
D = ____
9 A car purchased for $45 900 was worth $35 150 after five years,
using the straight-line method of depreciation. Calculate the
annual amount of depreciation.
10 A boat depreciates in value from $23 000 to $15 000 in

two years. Calculate the annual amount of depreciation.

11 A car that was purchased for $36 760
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING was worth $14 460 after five years, using
the straight-line method of depreciation.
12 A pastry making machine is purchased new

for $8600. After 6 years, its book value
was $3500. Calculate the annual amount of
depreciation.
13 A laminator is purchased new for $1450.

After 3 years, its book value was $610.
14 An engine analyser is purchased new for

$8550. After 7 years, its book value was
$2250. Calculate the annual amount of
depreciation.
15 A car purchased for $15 570 depreciates $3120 each year. According to the straight-line method of
depreciation, after how many years is the car worthless?
16 A commercial dishwasher was purchased for $6200. It depreciates at $950 per year. Its scrap value is $500.
Calculate the dishwasher’s useable life.
17 A motorcycle purchased for $22 880 depreciates $3200 each year. After how many years is the motorcycle
worthless?
18 Calculate the usable life of a washing machine purchased for $4800, depreciating at $575 per year with a
scrap value of $1350.
19 A Porsche motor car is purchased for $125 000. The annual rate of depreciation is $15 000.
CHALLENGE
a Calculate the depreciated value of the car after 7 years.

b After 7 years, the car has
low kilometres and is in
excellent condition. It is
sold for $65 000. The cost
price can be considered to
be the depreciated value
after 7 years. Calculate the
profit on the sale over the
depreciated value.
c Calculate the percentage

profit over the
depreciated price.
d Calculate the total loss as a
percentage of the original
purchase price.

6E Compound interest
• Worksheet 6E: Practise your skills with extra problems for compound interest
• Spreadsheet 6E: Generate compound interest graphs
compound • assess quiz 6E: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
interest
interest that is When money is invested at compound interest, the interest earned at the end of
added to the each time period is added to the principal. This increases the principal that is used
principal at
to calculate the interest for the next time period. With compound interest we earn
regular time
intervals during interest on the interest and not just on the principal. The questions in this topic
an investment or are best completed using a spreadsheet.
loan period so Note: The principal can be referred to as the Present Value (PV)
future interest
is calculated
while the final amount can
including that be referred to as the Future
amount Value (FV).
EXAMPLE 6E–1 Calculating total value of an investment and compound

interest earned
$2000 is invested for 3 years at 7% p.a. interest compounded annually.
a Find the amount the $2000 will grow to after 3 years.
b Find the amount of interest earned.
Solve
a Time Working Total balance Interest

Start of first year $2000 7
___
100
× 2000 = $140
Start of second year $2000 + $140 $2140 7
___
100
× $2140 = $149.80
Start of third year $2140 + $149.80 $2289.80 7
___
100
× $2289.80 =
$160.29
Start of fourth year $2289.80 + $160.29 $2450.09
The amount the $2000 will grow to after 3 years is $2450.09.

b The amount of interest earned = $2450.09 − $2000 = $450.09.
Think Apply
a Use I = Prn with P = 2000, r = 0.07 and n = 1 Use I = Prn with n = 1 to calculate interest each
to find the interest for the first year ($140). Add year. The principal each year is the previous
$140 to $2000 to get a new principal of $2140, principal plus the interest for that year. The
then calculate the interest on $2140. Repeat this interest earned is the total balance less the original
last step for the required number of years. principal.
b Subtract $2000 from the total.

EXERCISE 6E Compound interest
1 A spreadsheet can be used for the compound interest calculations in Example 6E-1. Open a new spreadsheet
and type in three of the column headings from the example into cells A1 to C1 as shown below. Then follow
these instructions.
Type 2000 into cell B2.
Type the formula =7/100 * B2 into cell C2 and fill down to C5.
Type the formula =B2 + C2 into cell B3 and fill down to B5.
A B C
1 Time Total balance Interest
2 Start $ 2,000.00 $ 140.00
3 Year 1 $ 2,140.00 $ 149.80
4 Year 2 $ 2,289.80 $ 160.29
5 Year 3 $ 2,450.09 $ 171.51
a Compare your results to those in Example 6E-1. Do you obtain the same values for the total balance
after 3 years and the total amount of interest earned?
b Highlight the values in the columns for ‘Time’ and ‘Total balance’ and then select Charts from the
Insert menu to produce a graph which shows the value of the investment over the three years.
You can modify the spreadsheet from question 1 to answer the following questions.
2 a Complete the table below to determine the final value of $2400 invested at 6% p.a. compound interest
for 3 years.
Time Balance 1 interest Total balance Interest

Start of first year $2400 $144
Start of second year $2400 + $144 $2544 $152.64
Start of third year $2544 + $152.64
Start of fourth year
b Calculate the total interest earned.

Interest = ____ − $2400
= ____
c Use a spreadsheet to produce a graph of the value of the investment over 3 years.
3 a Complete the table below to determine the final value of $3600 invested at 5% p.a. compound interest
for 3 years.


Start of second year $3600 + $180 $3780 $189
Start of third year $3780 + ____

4 a Complete the table to determine the final value of $980 invested at 3% p.a. compound interest for
4 years.

Start of first year
Start of second year
Start of third year
5 Adele decided to invest her savings of $7890 for 5 years at 8.9% p.a. compound interest.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G , J U S T I F I C AT I O N
a Complete the table below for Adele’s investment.

Start of first year
Start of second year
Start of third year
Start of fifth year
Start of sixth year
b If Adele intends to buy a car that is expected to be valued at $12 990 when her investment matures, will
she have enough to buy the car? Explain.
c By how much will her matured investment be over or under the value of the car?

6 a $1000 is invested at 7% p.a. interest compounding Time (years) Investment ($)
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G , J U S T I F I C AT I O N annually. Use a spreadsheet to help you complete
0 1000.00
this table to show the value of the investment.
b Produce a graph showing the value of the 1
investment over a period of 10 years. 2
c Find the value of the investment after 6__12 years. 3
d Find the time taken for the investment to be 4
worth $1500. 5
e On the same set of axes for part b, draw a simple
6
interest graph for the same time period but with a
7
rate of 9% p.a.
f Use the graph drawn in part e to determine the 8
number of years it takes to have the same total 9
amount. 10
Time (years) Investment ($)

7 a $2000 is invested at 9.3% p.a. interest
CHALLENGE
compounding annually. Use a spreadsheet to help 0 2000.00

you complete this table to show the value of the 1
investment. 2
b Produce a graph showing the value of the 3
investment over a period of 10 years. 4
c Find the value of the investment after 4__12 years.
5
d Find the interest earned after 4__12 years.
6
e Find the time taken for the investment to be
worth $4000. 7
f On the same set of axes for part b, draw a straight 8
line joining the point representing the initial value 9
of the investment and the point representing the 10
investment value after 10 years.
g Calculate the gradient of the straight line drawn for part f to help you determine the equivalent simple
interest rate.
8 An amount of $100 000 is to be

invested for 10 years.
a Use a spreadsheet to determine
the final value of the investment if
the initial amount is invested at:
i 8.5% p.a. simple interest
ii 8.5% p.a. compound interest.
b Explain why the final value is

different for the two investment
options.
c On the same set of axes, draw
graphs to show how the value of
the investment changes for each
option over the 10 years.

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW INTEREST AND DEPRECIATION
✔ apply percentage increase or decrease in various contexts
✔ calculate profit or loss, and percentage profit or percentage loss
✔ calculate GST
✔ calculate simple interest over different time periods, altering the rate where necessary
✔ draw simple interest graphs using pen and paper and technology
✔ calculate the depreciation of an asset using the straight-line method
✔ draw compound interest graphs as a result of repeated applications of the simple interest formula.

6A 1 What is 60 kg increased by 5%?
A 65 kg B 5 kg C 63 kg D 3 kg
6A 2 What is the percentage decrease from 80 kg to 74 kg?

A 92.5% B 7.5% C 94% D 6%
6A 3 Melissa receives a 20% discount on a pair of jeans. She pays $68 for the jeans. How much does she save?
A $13.60 B $17 C $85 D $51
6A 4 Sharee buys a dining table for $576 including GST. What is the GST on the table?
A $52.36 B $633.60 C $523.64 D $57.60
6B 5 What is the simple interest on $650 at 8% p.a. over 4 years?

A $52 B $208 C $758 D $20 800
6B 6 What is the simple interest on $1580 at 7.2% p.a. over 15 months?

A $1706.40 B $3286.40 C $113.76 D $142.20
Use this graph to answer questions 7 and 8. Interest at 8% p.a.
6C 7 From the graph, what is the amount of interest earned after

7 years? 800
A $560 B $860 C $500 D $600
Interest ($)
600
6C 8 From the graph, what is the number of years required to earn
$700 interest? 400
A 8.8 B 8 C 9 D 8.4
200
6D 9 Using the straight-line method, what is the value after
4 years of a $25 000 car that depreciates $2650 per year? 0
A $22 350 B $17 050 C $19 700 D $14 400 2 4 6 8 10
Time (years)
6D 10 A car that was purchased for $29 900 was worth $14 300 after 5 years, using the straight-line method of
depreciation. What was the annual amount of depreciation?
A $14 300 B $15 600 C $3120 D $11 180

REVIEW SET 1
1 a Increase 80 kg by 3%. b Decrease $290 by 15%.
2 a What would be the value of a $25 000 vintage car after 2 years if it increases in value by 8% in the first
year and then decreases in value by 5% in the second year?
b If the car is sold for its value at the end of the second year calculate the overall percentage profit made.
3 Penny received a discount of $25.70 on a mobile phone. This was 5% of the original price. Find the original
price of the phone.
4 Mark has a new kitchen installed in his house. The bill is $12 546.30, and is subject to GST of 10%.
a Calculate the GST payable on the kitchen.
b Find the total amount Mark pays for the kitchen.
5 Use the rule of thumb in Topic 6A to find the GST paid on goods and services costing the following amounts.
a $1235 b $359 c $42.18 d $266
6 Calculate the simple interest on $850 at a flat rate of 7% p.a. over 3 years.
7 a An investment pays 10% interest p.a. Express this percentage as a decimal.

b Use your answer to part a to find each of these rates as a percentage and as a decimal.
i the six-monthly interest rate ii the quarterly interest rate iii the monthly interest rate
8 Calculate the simple interest on $4000 at a flat rate of 7.92% p.a. over 17 months.
9 Draw a graph showing the amount of interest earned over a period of 10 years if $1000 is invested at 7% p.a.
simple interest.
a Find the interest after 6__12 years. b Find the time to earn interest of $250.
REVIEW SET 2
1 Kieren invests $8000 in a share fund. In the first year the fund increases in value by 12% and in the second
year by 15%. Calculate the overall percentage change in the value of the fund.
2 Julie’s weekly wage increased from $450 to $494.40. Calculate the percentage increase.
3 Harry wants to buy a camera that is listed at the pre-GST price of $849.
a Calculate the GST payable on the camera. b Find the total amount Harry pays for the camera.
6 If $1590 is invested for 8 years, the amount of interest earned is $699.60. Calculate the annual simple interest
7 A car purchased for $15 800 depreciates $1760 per year. Calculate its book value after 5 years.
8 A car that was purchased for $22 990 had a book value of $15 190 after 4 years, using the straight-line method
of depreciation. Calculate the annual amount of depreciation.

REVIEW SET 3
1 Sean weighed 75 kg before he went on a diet and, in the first week, he lost 1.5 kg. Calculate the percentage
decrease in Sean’s weight.
2 Cedric has a new roof put on his house. The bill is $22 586 and is subject to GST of 10%.
a Calculate the GST payable on the roof. b Find the total amount Cedric pays for the roof.
3 Lisa buys a bracelet listed at the pre-GST price of $425.

a Calculate the GST payable on the bracelet. b Find the total amount Lisa pays for the bracelet.
4 Use the rule of thumb discussed in Topic 6A to find the GST already paid on goods and services costing the
following amounts.
a $7500 b $1268 c $25.99 d $401
5 Calculate the simple interest on $1600 at a flat rate of 8.5% p.a. over 6 years.

8 If $11 000 is invested for 7 years, the amount of interest earned is $4312. Calculate the annual simple interest
simple interest.
a Find the interest after 5__12 years. b Find the time taken to earn interest of $160.
REVIEW SET 4
1 Bill the builder purchased $2800 worth of materials
from the hardware store. He receives a trade discount
of 16% and then a further 5% discount if he pays
within 3 days of receiving the account. What is the
overall percentage discount if he pays within 3 days?
2 An LCD television costs $578. Paul receives a 15%

discount. How much does he pay for the television?
3 Lui-Min has his house painted. The bill is $3258.50,

and is subject to GST of 10%.
a Calculate the GST payable on the cost of the
painting.
b Find the total amount Lui-Min pays for the
painting of his house.

4 Gunter wants to buy a television that is listed at the pre-GST price of $520.
a Calculate the GST payable on the television.
b Find the total amount Gunter pays for the television.
5 Use the rule of thumb in Topic 6A to find the GST paid on goods and services costing the following amounts.
a $9953 b $855 c $39.51 d $399

8 If $9200 is invested for 3 years, the amount of interest earned is $2263.20. Calculate the annual simple interest
simple interest. Find:
a the interest after 9__12 years. b the time taken to earn interest of $850.
11 A photocopier is bought for $15 000. If it depreciates by $4200 each year, how long will it take for the
photocopier’s value to fall below its scrap value of $2400?

1 a An investment of $40 000 increases in value by 12% in the first year and decreases in value
by 12% in the second year of investment.
i Calculate the value of the investment at the end of the first year. (1 mark)
ii Calculate the value of the investment at the end of the second year. (1 mark)
iii Find the overall percentage change in the value of the investment over these 2 years. (1 mark)
b Elni has a new kitchen installed for the pre-GST price of $15 685.
i Calculate the GST. (1 mark)
ii How much does Elni pay? (1 mark)
c Onska purchases an LCD television for $2138 including GST. How much is the television
excluding GST? (2 marks)
d A car is bought for $29 800. If it depreciates by $1850 per year, what will its book
value be after 4 years? (1 mark)
e i Convert 8% p.a. to a rate per quarter as a decimal. (1 mark)
ii How many quarters in 5 years? (1 mark)

iii Calculate the amount $6250 grows to when invested at 8% p.a. compounding
quarterly for 5 years. (2 marks)
iv How much interest is earned in part iii? (1 mark)
f Calculate the simple interest on $1475 at a flat rate of 9.31% p.a. interest for 7 years. (2 marks)
TOTAL: 15 Marks

1 a Classify the following data as nominal, ordinal, discrete or continuous.
i number of rainy days each month
ii the hair colours of students in your class
iii the lengths of fish in a pond
b Explain how a random sample of 10 students may be chosen from a class of 120 students.
c Explain the statistical term ‘bias’.
d Starting at the first digit on the left and moving to the right in this list of random numbers, write the first
five numbers less than 200. (Hint: choose three-digit numbers from the list.)
90070 98873 08695 58112 96070
18523 72899 52251 86118 91910
83829 54949 68249 92592 35905
e An office supervisor wants to interview a sample of workers about a new computer system.
i Explain how four workers could be selected from the 27 people who work in the office.
ii Which workers would be selected if the supervisor used the list of random numbers in part d,
starting with the first digit in the second row and moving right.
f The numbers of students in each year at a school are shown in this table. In a stratified random sample
selected on the basis of year groups, what proportion of students should be chosen from each year level?
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
Number of students 135 144 170 120 94 68 731
g A sample is selected from a school population of 700. The 35 students chosen are representative of the
entire school population. Of the students surveyed, 16 said they were happy with the school uniform and
the rest were not.
i What percentage of students in the sample said they were happy with the uniform?
ii How many students from the entire school population would be happy with the uniform?
h An electoral roll has 1800 names on it. How often should we select names to obtain a systematic
sample of:
i 100 names? ii 200 names? iii 150 names? iv 40 names?
2 Find the perimeter of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place, if necessary.
a b c
3m 30 mm 4 cm
12 cm
7m
3 Consider the figure on the right. Calculate:

a the value of x x
b the perimeter of this figure, correct to one decimal place.
8 cm

4 Find the area of each of these figures.

a b
2.2 m
5.1 cm
9.3 cm
4.3 m
c d A C
10.3 m
15 cm 15.1 m
B
7 cm
D AB = 33.2 m
11 cm
5 Find the area of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place.
a b c
8.2 mm 7.3 cm
120°
0.8 m
6 Find the shaded area of each of these figures, correct to one decimal place.
a b
85 cm
15 cm
25 mm
7 Use two applications of the Trapezoidal rule to estimate the area of this field to the nearest m2.
18 m
6m
22 m
6m
27 m
8 a If this cylinder is closed at both ends, find its b Find the surface area of this triangular prism,
surface area, correct to one decimal place. correct to one decimal place.
5.3 m 5 cm
1.2 m
8 cm
4.8 m

9 a Find the surface area of this sphere, to the b Find the surface area of this prism.
nearest whole square centimetre.
14 cm
6m
8m
10 m
10 Calculate the volume of each of these solids, correct to one decimal place, if necessary.
a b 4.1 m c
5.2 m 20 cm
6 cm
15 cm
8 cm
11 a Find the volume of this barn. b Find the volume of this hollow cylinder,
5 cm
1.8 m
3.1 m 8 cm
6.4 m
4.9 m
10 cm
12 Calculate the volume of these solids, rounded to the nearest whole number, if necessary.
a b
100 cm
r = 15 cm
10 cm
A = 4 cm2
c d
5 cm
1.2 m
7 cm
8 cm
A = 20 cm2
13 Find the capacity, in kilolitres, of a rectangular tank with length 10 m, breadth 4 m and height 3 m.
14 Find the capacity, to the nearest millilitre, of a cylindrical drinking glass with diameter 7 cm and
height 11 cm.

15 a Increase 80 kg by 5%.

b Find the percentage decrease from 70 kg to 65.8 kg.
c A Melbourne Storm signed rugby jersey was purchased for $1200. It was sold for $425. Calculate the
percentage loss.
d Ollie had a new billiard room built as an extension to his house.
The bill for labour and materials was $14 360 and was subject to
GST of 10%.
i Calculate the GST payable on the bill.
ii Find the amount Ollie paid for the billiard room.
e Harry wants to buy a camera that is listed at the pre-GST price of $725.
i Calculate the GST payable on the camera.
ii Find the total amount Harry will pay for the camera.
f Use the rule of thumb discussed in Topic 6A to find the GST
already paid on goods and services costing $3254.
16 a Calculate the simple interest on $4250 at a flat rate of 5% p.a. over 3 years.
b An investment pays 4% interest p.a.
i Express this percentage as a decimal.
ii Find the six-monthly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
iii Find the quarterly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
iv Find the monthly interest rate as a percentage and as a decimal.
c Calculate the simple interest on $4000 at a flat rate of 6.74% p.a. over 17 months.
d If $1750 is invested for 6 years, the amount of interest earned is $840. Calculate the annual simple
interest percentage rate.
e i Draw a graph showing the amount of interest earned over a period of 10 years if $1000 is invested
at 7.2% p.a. simple interest.
ii Find the interest after 3__12 years.
iii Find the time taken to earn interest of $300.
f A printer is purchased new for $6900. It depreciates at $900 per year.
i Calculate the printer’s book value after 4 years.
ii The printer has a usable life of 7 years. Find its scrap value.
g A boat depreciates in value from $22 000 to $17 000 in two years. Find the annual amount of
depreciation.
h Complete the table below to determine the final value of $4200 invested at 4% p.a. compound interest
for 3 years.
Time Balance + interest Total balance Interest

Start of second year $4200 + $168
Start of third year

▶
▶
▶
7
Representing data
constructing frequency distribution tables
using cumulative and relative frequency
using grouped data, class and class centre
▶ constructing stem-and-leaf plots
▶ creating and interpreting dot plots
▶ creating and interpreting column and bar graphs
▶ creating and interpreting line graphs
▶ recognising misleading graphs
▶ constructing frequency histograms and polygons
▶ constructing cumulative frequency graphs
▶ construct and interpret Pareto charts.

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

This frequency table shows Pet type Tally 7C 6 For the stem-and-leaf plot shown,
the favourite pets of a group which statement is correct? Stem Leaf
Dog |||| |||| |
of animal lovers. Use the table A The score of 1 occurs 1 357
to answer questions 1 and 2. Cat |||| ||
three times. 2 1468
Bird ||| 3 029
7A 1 How many people stated B The score of 3 occurs once.
Rat | C The lowest score is 13.
that a dog was their
favourite pet? D The highest score is 9.
A 21 B 11 C 9 D 6 7D 7 What type of graph is shown below?
7A 2 How many people were surveyed? A vertical column Title
graph A
A 10 B 19 C 22 D 37
Category
B
B dot plot C
7A 3 Which list of class intervals would be the most C horizontal bar D
E
appropriate way of grouping this data? graph
0 5 10 15 20 25
2 12 20 13 20 15 1 D line graph Frequency
1 4 16 10 12 3 10
7E 8 For this graph, which statement is incorrect?
3 18 11 4 17 13 16
Outside temperature during
A 0–5, 5–10, 10–15, 15–20 one summer day
B 0–4, 5–10, 11–19, 20–24 40
C 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, 15–20 Temperature (°C) 30
D 0–4, 10–14, 15–19, 20–24 20
7B 4 What is 35 as a percentage of 40? 10
A 87.5% B 80% C 70% D 35% 0

1:00 1:20 1:40 2:00 2:20 2:40 3:00
pm pm pm pm pm pm pm
7C 5 For the dot plot shown, Age of people at a party Time
which statement is not A The lowest and highest temperatures were

correct? 20°C and 30°C respectively.
A Five children were B The temperature was recorded between
11 12 13 14 15 16
12 years old. Age (years) 1:00 pm and 3:00 pm.
B The difference C The temperature went up between
between the ages of the youngest and oldest 2:00 pm and 2:20 pm.
children was 3 years. D The temperature at 1:40 pm was 25°C.
C No-one at the party was 15 years old.
7F 9 Which number is midway between 1 and 6?
D Thirteen children attended the party.
A 2.5 B 3 C 3.5 D 4
the matching SupportSheets available on your obook assess.
Q1–2 Support sheet 7A.1 Presenting data in a frequency table
Q3 Support sheet 7A.2 Class intervals
Q4 Support sheet 7B.1 Calculating percentages
Q5 Support sheet 7C.1 Dot plots
Q6 Support sheet 7C.2 Stem-and-leaf plots
Q7 Support sheet 7D.1 Types of data displays
Q8 Support sheet 7E.1 Interpreting line graphs
Q9 Support sheet 7F.1 Finding the average of two numbers
Chapter 7 Representing data 235

7A Frequency
distribution tables
• Interactive 7A: Explore key ideas for frequency distribution tables
• Worksheet 7A: Practise your skills with extra problems for grouping data in classes
frequency table
table that displays • assess quiz 7A: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
the number
of times each In Chapter 4 we discussed the planning and management of data collection. We will now
category of look at recording and displaying the data that has been collected. Raw data collected by
data occurs
observation or experiment is usually in random order. It is difficult to gain information from
tally marks the data when it is in this form.
lines or marks
that help record One of the aims of statistics is to rearrange and condense raw information into a form that is
data in a table more easily read, so that patterns and characteristics may be identified, conclusions can be
with every fifth drawn and inferences may be made.
tally mark drawn
through the A frequency table displays the frequency (number of occurrences) for each of the categories
preceding four of data. Tally marks are often used to help record the data in the table. Every fifth tally mark
marks is drawn through the preceding four marks to make bundles of five which are easy to count.
EXAMPLE 7A–1 Organising data into a frequency distribution table

The method by which students from a particular
class travelled to school on a particular day is
recorded below, using the code walk (W), cycle
(C), bus (B), train (T) and motor car (M)
WC B T C B B B W B B B C B T
C MC B T M M T M M M T C C B
Rearrange this information into a frequency
distribution table using a tally column.
Solve Think Apply

Work through the data The total of the tally marks for each
Method Tally Frequency
from left to right using category gives the frequency for
of travel
tally marks to record that category; that is, the number
Walk || 2
each time a category of times a particular mode of travel
Cycle |||| || 7 occurs. Add the tally is used. Check that the total of the
Bus |||| |||| 10 marks and record the frequency column is the same as the
Motor car |||| | 6 total in the frequency number of observations recorded.
Train |||| 5 column.
Total 30

EXERCISE 7A Frequency distribution tables
1 The colours of cars passing the front of a school in a 30-minute period are recorded below using the code
white (W), blue (B), grey (G), red (R), other (O).
B W R O W B R G W O
B G R W W G B R W O
G B R W G B R R G W
B R G O W B W G R B
W W B R G W B R W B
a Rearrange this information into a frequency distribution
table using a tally column.
b How many cars passed the front of the school in the
30-minute time period?
c What was the most popular colour of car in this survey?
d Calculate the percentage of cars of each colour.
2 The minimum daily temperatures (in °C) recorded for a month were as follows.
22 21 20 22 23 22 21 23 19 21 21 23 21 20 22
21 20 20 22 20 23 19 20 19 20 18 19 17 18 22
a Organise this information into a frequency distribution table using a tally column.
b On how many days was the temperature recorded?
c On how many days did the lowest minimum temperature occur?
d On how many days was the minimum temperature 20°C?
e What month of the year could this be? Discuss.
3 The eye colours of a group of students are recorded below using the code
blue (B), brown (b), green (G), grey (g).
B b g B b b G b B g b B g b G
b b B g B B g b B G B b g b B
a Organise this data into a frequency distribution table using a tally column.
b How many students were observed?
c What is the most common eye colour in this sample?
4 Consider the following marks (out of a possible 100) gained by 50 students in a test.
70 31 49 54 55 74 50 34 60 68 68 57 45 56 54 85 44
66 56 60 22 45 53 29 61 20 13 52 41 50 74 51 48 69
75 61 40 41 33 62 65 55 51 42 94 64 38 3 51 79
a Complete this frequency distribution table for the data.
Score 3 13 20 22 29 31 33 34 38 40 41 42 44
Frequency
Score 45 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 60 61
Frequency
Score 62 64 65 66 68 69 70 74 75 79 85 94
Frequency
b How useful is the frequency distribution table you completed? Explain.

c In cases such as these, where the rearrangement of the raw data gives us very classes (class
little information, we can condense the data by grouping it into classes, or class intervals)
equal-sized
intervals, and finding the frequency of each class, again using a tally column.
groupings
Consider the following incomplete frequency distribution table in which the data is of data
grouped into classes of 10 scores.
i Explain what a class of 0–9 means.
ii Explain what a class of 60–69 means. Class Tally Frequency
iii Are the classes the same size? What is the size 0–9 | 1
of each class interval? 10–19 | 1
iv Complete the frequency distribution table for 20–29 ||| 3
the given data. 30–39
v How many of the test scores lie in the interval 40–49
50 to 59? 50–59
vi What percentage of students obtained a test 60–69
score in the range 80 to 89? 70–79
80–89
d Consider this incomplete frequency distribution
90–99
table which includes less classes.
i What is the size of each class? Total 50
ii Complete this frequency distribution table for Class Tally Frequency

the given data.
0–19 || 2
iii How many of the test scores lie in the interval
20–39
20 to 39?
40–59
iv How many students obtained a test score
60–79
below 60?
80–99
e List at least one advantage and one disadvantage of
grouping data in classes. Total 50
When grouping data we ensure that:
• the classes do not overlap. For example, if we form classes 0–10, 10–20,
20–30, … then we would not know in which class to put score 10 or score 20
• there are no gaps between class intervals. For example, if we organise the data in question 4 into
classes 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, etc. then, even though there are no scores in the class interval 5–9, this class
should be included
• each class interval is the same size. (When there are extremely low or high scores it may be
convenient to make the bottom and top class intervals open; for example, less than 300, 300–319,
320–329, …, 390–399, 400 or more. However, any further statistical analysis then becomes very
difficult.)

5 The marks scored by 30 students in a test are shown below.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N 28 35 8 61 45 68 47 23 52 44 22 36 20 44 54
51 32 57 24 61 44 34 42 60 39 47 32 76 53 62
a Organise this data into frequency distribution tables, using these classes:
i 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, 15–19, … ii 0–9, 10–19, 20–29, 30–39, …
iii 0–,20, 20–,40, 40–,60, 60–,80, … iv 0–49, 50–99
b Which of the groupings from part a gives the clearest ‘picture’ of the results of the tests? Discuss your
choice.
c Explain why the use of the following groupings of scores would be unsatisfactory.
i 0–5, 5–10, 10–15, … ii 0–9, 20–29, 30–39, 40–49, … iii 0–4, 5–14, 15–29, 30–34, …
6 A random sample of light globes from a production line was

tested and the time (3 100 hours) each globe lasted,
to the nearest 100 hours, is recorded below.
10 9 13 5 2 11 8 12
4 12 7 13 8 14 10 12
9 7 11 15 10 11 10 4
8 8 11 12 14 13 10 10
9 11 13 12 5 11 8 16
a Organise the given data into frequency distribution
tables using these class intervals:
i 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, 15–19
ii 1–,6, 6–,11, 11–,16, 16–,21
b Would the following class intervals be suitable to use?
i 0–3, 3–6, 6–9, …
ii 0–3, 4–7, 8–11, …
iii 0–9, 10–19, 20–29, …
c How many light globes were tested?
d Using both tables from part a where necessary, determine the number of light globes that had
a recorded life of:
i less than 1000 hours ii more than 1000 hours iii 1000 hours.
7 Investigate the modes of travel of the students in your class. Present the data in a frequency distribution table
CHALLENGE
and write a short report on your findings. Would the results for your class be typical of the whole school?

7B Cumulative and relative
frequency
• Spreadsheet 7B: Find cumulative and relative frequencies
cumulative A convenient way of answering many of the questions in Exercise 7A is to add a

frequency cumulative frequency column and a relative frequency column to the frequency
sum of the distribution tables. The cumulative frequency of each score is found by adding the
frequencies of all
frequencies of all the scores up to and including that particular score. The relative frequency
the scores up to
and including a of a score is its frequency as a fraction of the total number of scores. For the purpose of
particular score comparison, it is often convenient to express this fraction as a percentage (sometimes called
relative the percentage relative frequency).
frequency
the number of EXAMPLE 7B–1 Adding a cumulative frequency column and
times a score a relative frequency column to a frequency
occurs as a
fraction of the
distribution table
total number of a Copy this frequency distribution table showing the number of Candy Clicks in a
scores
packet.
percentage
relative Number of Candy Clicks Frequency
frequency
36 1
relative frequency
expressed as a 37 5
percentage 38 8
39 13
40 7
41 4
42 2
i Add a cumulative frequency column to your table.
ii Add a relative frequency column.
b How many packets contained:
i 40 or fewer Candy Clicks?
ii fewer than 38 Candy Clicks?
c What fraction of packets contained:
i 37 Candy Clicks?
ii 40 Candy Clicks?
d What percentage of packets
contained:
i 38 Candy Clicks?
ii 39 Candy Clicks?

Solve/Think Apply
The cumulative frequency
a Number of Frequency Cumulative Relative
of a score is found by
Candy Clicks frequency frequency
‘accumulating’ the
36 1 1 1 5 2.5%
___ frequencies of all the scores
40
up to and including that
37 5 (1 1 5 5) 6 5 5 12.5%
___
40 score.
8 5 20%
___ The relative frequency of a
38 8 (6 1 8 5) 14
40 score is found by expressing
39 13 (14 1 13 5) 27 13 5 32.5%
___ its frequency as a fraction
40
of the total number of
40 7 (27 1 7 5) 34 7 5 17.5%
___
40 scores. This fraction is often
4 5 10%
___ expressed as a percentage.
41 4 (34 1 4 5) 38
40
42 2 (38 1 2 5) 40 2 5 5%
___
40
Total 40 1 5 100%
b i Number of packets containing 40 or fewer Candy Clicks

5 cumulative frequency of the score 40
5 34
ii Number of packets containing fewer than 38 Candy Clicks
5 number of packets containing 36 or 37 Candy Clicks
5 cumulative frequency of 37
56
c From the table: i ___5 or __
1 7
ii ___
40 8 40
d From the table: i 20% ii 32.5%
EXERCISE 7B Cumulative and relative frequency

1 The numbers of children in the families of a class of students are summarised in the given frequency
distribution table.
a Copy the frequency distribution table and add: Number of children Frequency
i a cumulative frequency column
1 3
ii a relative frequency column.
2 9
b How many families had:
3 7
i 3 or fewer children?
4 4
ii fewer than 5 children?
5 2
c What fraction of families had:

i 3 children?
ii 4 children?
d What percentage of families had:
i 2 children?
ii 5 children?

2 The number of goals scored in a season by the goal shooter in a Goals per match Frequency
netball team is shown in this frequency distribution table.

5 4
a Copy the frequency distribution table and add:
i a cumulative frequency column 6 3
7 7
ii a relative frequency column.
8 5
b In how many games did the goal shooter score:
i 7 or fewer goals? ii fewer than 10 goals? 9 0
c In what fraction of games did she score: 10 3
i 8 goals? ii 5 goals? 11 2
d In what percentage of games did she score: 12 1
i 6 goals? ii 11 goals?
EXAMPLE 7B–2 Determining frequency from a cumulative frequency table

Given the cumulative frequency table on the right, Score Cumulative frequency
determine the frequency of each score.
7 2
8 5
9 7
10 12
11 16
Solve/Think Apply
Use the fact that the cumulative
Score Cumulative Frequency frequency of a score is the sum
frequency of the frequencies of all the scores
7 2 2 up to and including that score.
8 5 52253
9 7 72552
10 12 12 2 7 5 5
11 16 16 2 12 5 4
The cumulative frequency of the first score is the same as its

frequency. So, the frequency of the score 7 is 2.
The cumulative frequency of the score 8 is 5, which is the sum of
the frequencies of 7 and 8. So, the frequency of the score 8 is
(5 2 2 5) 3.
The cumulative frequency of the score 9 is 7, which is the sum of
the frequencies of 7, 8 and 9. So, the frequency of 9 is (7 2 5 5) 2.
The cumulative frequency of the score 10 is 12, which is the sum of the
frequencies of 7, 8, 9 and 10. So, the frequency of 10 is (12 2 7 5) 5.
The cumulative frequency of the score 11 is 16, which is the sum
of the frequencies of 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. So, the frequency of 11 is
(16 2 12 5) 4.

3 Given the cumulative frequency tables below, determine the frequency of each score.
a Score Cumulative frequency b Score Cumulative frequency
3 4 12 5
4 6 13 11
5 10 14 19
6 15 15 29
7 18 16 34
17 36
c Score Cumulative frequency d Score Cumulative frequency

8 11 87 23
9 17 88 48
10 27 89 78
11 27 90 106
12 32 91 127
13 40 92 138
4 The numbers of matches in 60 boxes of matches were counted and the results are shown below.
49 51 50 50 48 49 50 49 53 50 48 51 49 50 51
52 50 48 49 51 50 53 48 49 51 50 52 49 50 52
51 48 50 49 50 51 52 50 49 48 52 50 51 49 50
50 48 53 52 49 50 51 53 48 50 51 49 50 53 48
a Organise this data into a frequency distribution table and add a cumulative frequency column and a
relative frequency column.
b How many matchboxes contained:
i exactly 50 matches? ii fewer than 50 matches?
iii 50 or fewer matches? iv more than 50 matches?
c Find the percentage of matchboxes that contained:
i 49 matches ii 50 matches iii 51 matches
iv 50 or fewer matches v 50 or more matches.
5 A marriage counsellor asked his clients to keep a Number of arguments Frequency

record of the number of arguments they had in a
0–2 8
one-week period. The results were collected and are
shown in this table. 3–5 18
a How many different responses are included in 6–8 10
each class interval? 9–11 3
b How many clients responded to the counsellor’s 12 –14 1

request?
c What percentage of these clients had fewer than three arguments in the week?
d What percentage had more than eight arguments?
e Can you determine how many clients had six arguments? Explain.
f Can you determine the lowest number and highest number of arguments? Explain.

6 A group of Year 11 golfers had a competition to find out who
could hit a golf ball the furthest. Each student’s best shot, to the
nearest metre, is recorded below.
244 220 232 195 242 200 229 205 213 224
216 250 227 186 207 236 225 212 227 230
209 235 234 251 195 206 221 190 198 210
222 235 230 209 254 193 203 228 191 242
204 218 212 218 239 223 252 215 220 198
207 205 226 235 202 196 188 224 245 230
a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table for this
data.
b How many golfers entered the competition? Distance (m) Tally Frequency
c Add a cumulative frequency column and a relative frequency 180–189
column to your table from part a. 190–199
d For how many golfers was the length of their best shot recorded 200–209
as less than:
210–219
i 200 m? ii 230 m?
220–229
e What percentage of golfers had the length of their best shot
230–239
recorded as:
i 250 m or more? 240–249
ii 220 m or more, but less than 230 m? 250–259
iii less than 200 m? Total
7 A nurseryman takes a random sample of seedlings and measures their heights to the nearest millimetre.
The results are recorded in the frequency distribution table below.
Height (mm) Frequency
300–324 3
325–349 18
350–374 47
375–399 32
400–424 14
425–449 6
a How many different heights, to the nearest millimetre, are

possible in each class interval?
b How many seedlings are there in this sample?
c Can you determine how many plants were 350 mm high?
Explain.
d Can you determine the shortest and tallest plants in this
sample? Explain.
e Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column and a
relative frequency column.
f How many seedlings had a recorded height of less than:
i 350 mm? ii 400 mm?
g What percentage of seedlings were 425 mm or more?
h Any seedlings that are less than 325 mm tall are discarded.
What percentage of seedlings will be discarded?

8 The maximum daily temperature (in °C) was recorded Maximum daily
over the month of April and the results are in the frequency temperature (°C) Frequency
distribution table on the right.
17 3
a Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column
and a relative frequency column. 18 4
b How many days in April had a maximum daily 19 8
temperature of less than 20°C? 20 6
c What percentage of days in April had a maximum daily 21 5
temperature of 19°C or less? 22 4
d What proportion of days in April had a maximum daily
temperature of 21°C or more?
9 A spreadsheet can be used to add a cumulative frequency column and a relative frequency column to a
frequency distribution table. The following spreadsheet uses the data from Example 7B-1. The relative
frequencies are expressed as decimals, set to three decimal places.
A B C D
1 Frequency distribution table
2 Score Frequency Cumulative frequency Relative frequency
3 36 1 1 0.025
4 37 5 6 0.125
5 38 8 14 0.200
6 39 13 27 0.325
7 40 7 34 0.175
8 41 4 38 0.100
9 42 2 40 0.050
10 40 1.000
Here is the formula view. Use fill down to complete the columns. Fill down for additional rows and use
AutoSum to calculate the totals.
Note: the calculation of the relative frequency will need to be changed if additional rows are added.
A B C D
1 Frequency distribution table
2 Score Frequency Cumulative frequency Relative frequency
3 36 1 5B3 5B3/$B$10
4 37 5 5C31B4 5B4/$B$10
5 38 8 5C41B5 5B5/$B$10
6 39 13 5C51B6 5B6/$B$10
7 40 7 5C61B7 5B7/$B$10
8 41 4 5C71B8 5B8/$B$10
9 42 2 5C81B9 5B8/$B$10
10 5SUM(B3:B9) 5SUM(D3:D9)
Create a spreadsheet to complete questions in this exercise again. You may like to use the prepared
spreadsheet provided on your obook assess.

7C Dot plots and
stem-and-leaf plots
• Interactive 7C: Explore key ideas for stem-and-leaf plots
• Worksheet 7C.1: Practise your skills with extra problems for dot plots
• Worksheet 7C.2: Practise your skills with extra problems for stem-and-leaf plots
dot plot A dot plot displays data as columns or rows of dots. The number of dots is the frequency of
a display of data the variable.
where each
piece of data is
A dot plot is a convenient and efficient method for illustrating a small data set consisting of a
represented by small number of categories or possible outcomes. It also has the advantage that it can be used
a dot above a directly for unsorted data.
matching number
For large data sets, a dot plot is very time-consuming to prepare and, conversely, a completed
or category on a
horizontal scale dot plot is difficult to read. A dot plot can only be used when the outcomes can be counted.
Dot plots are useful for drawing attention to clusters, gaps and outliers.
EXAMPLE 7C–1 Drawing a dot plot

The colours of cars passing the front of a school in a 30-minute period are recorded below using the code
white (W), blue (B), grey (G), red (R), other (O).
B W R O W B R G W O B G R W W G B R W O G B R W G
B R R G W B R G O W B W G R B W W B R G W B R W B
a Draw a dot plot to display the information given.
b What is the frequency of each colour?
Solve Think Apply
a Car colours Work through the data from The frequency of each
left to right, placing a dot category can be found by
above each colour on the counting the dots.
scale as it occurs.
White Blue Grey Red Other
b Colour Frequency
Count the dots in each
category.
White 14
Blue 12
Grey 9
Red 11
Other 4

EXERCISE 7C Dot plots and stem-and-leaf plots
1 The eye colours of students is a group are recorded using the code blue (B), brown (b), green (G), grey (g).
B b g B b b G b B g b B g b g
G b b B g B B g b B G B b B b
stem-and-leaf
a Draw a dot plot for this data. plot
b Determine the frequency of each eye colour. A display of data
where each piece
2 The number of children in 25 families is recorded below.
of data is split into
2 1 3 5 2 3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1 two parts: the last
3 2 5 2 3 2 4 3 2 4 2 3 digit becoming the
a Draw a dot plot to display this information. leaf and the other
digits becoming
b Write the frequency of each number of children.
the stem
Stem-and-leaf plots are another way of displaying information. They are used to group
leaf
and rank data to show the range and distribution. The leaf is the final digit of a number, the last digit of a
preceding digits form the stem. piece of data; e.g.
A stem may have any number of digits but a leaf has exactly one. The stem is written once in for the data score
256, the leaf is 6
the left column and the leaves are listed in numerical order beside the appropriate stem. In a
stem-and-leaf plot: stem
digit or digits
• all of the data is used and displayed preceeding the
• the largest and smallest measurements can be found last digit of a piece
of data; e.g. for the
• the clustering of data can be seen more easily
data score 256, the
• the length of the leaf row indicates the number of scores belonging to that stem. stem is 25
EXAMPLE 7C–2 Drawing a stem-and-leaf plot

The results in a mathematics class test are given below.
43 45 46 22 65 65 23 53 45 26 46 61 51 57 55
55 66 57 42 41 63 70 57 65 48 23 67 62 70 46
a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot to represent this data.
b What are the lowest and highest scores?
c How many students scored:
i 46 marks? ii 50 marks? iii 70 marks? iv a mark in the sixties?
Solve/Think Apply
a In this stem-and-leaf plot, the tens digit forms the stem and the units The data is displayed in
digit forms the leaf. This means that, for the mark 45, the stem is the 4 numerical order using the
and the leaf is the 5. first digit (or digits) as the
Stem Leaf stem and the last digit as
the leaf.
2 2363 This row represents 22, 23, 26 and 23.
3 There were no scores in the thirties.

4 356562186
5 3175577
6 55163572
7 00

Solve/Think Apply
The leaves are now put into ascending numerical order.

Stem Leaf
2 2336
3
4 123556668
5 1355777
6 12355567
7 00
b Lowest score 5 22, highest score 5 70 List the first and last entry
in the stem-and-leaf plot.
c i Number of students who scored 46 5 3 Count how many entries are
ii Number of students who scored 50 5 0 in the table for each score.
iii Number of students who scored 70 5 2
v Number of students who scored a mark in the sixties 5 8
3 a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot, using the stems 3, 4, 5 and 6, for these scores:
32 45 37 65 48 57 33 42 59 62 47 51 50 47 36 68 60 50 63 47
c How many times do the following scores occur?
i 50 ii 40
d Which score occurs the most often?
e How many scores are in the sixties?
f How many scores are less than 50?
4 a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot, using the stems 12, 13, 14 and 15, for these scores:
132 154 124 156 125 145 130 141 126 151 140 139 128 145 126
146 128 130 140 158 154 142 149 145 150 126 130 148 158 145
i 150 ii 158 iii 120
e How many scores are:
i less than 130? ii 150 or more?
5 The results of a test are shown in this stem-and-leaf plot. Stem Leaf
a What are the lowest and highest scores? 5 00014444456788
b How many times do the following scores occur?
6 001233578899
i 50 ii 60
7 445788
iii 70 iv 80
8 115577
c Which score occurs the most often?
9 00
d How many scores are in the 50s?
e How many scores are:
i less than 60? ii 80 or more?

6 The stem-and-leaf plot on the right shows the time (hours) a group of students spent watching television in
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING one particular week.
a How many students were surveyed?
b What was the least number and the greatest number of hours spent watching television that week?
c How many students watched fewer than 10 hours of television that week?
d How many students watched more than 30 hours of television that week? Stem Leaf
e Draw a grouped frequency table to represent this data, using these class
0 35689
intervals:
1 02235559
i 1–5, 6–10, 11–15, etc. ii 0–9, 10–19, 20–29, etc.
2 2455578
f Comment on the advantages and disadvantages of a stem-and-leaf plot
compared with a grouped frequency table. 3 01146
EXAMPLE 7C–3 Drawing a stem-and-leaf plot with split stems

The number of people who live in each house in a
particular street is recorded below.
4 2 3 4 5 2 4 3 2 5
1 4 5 5 3 7 2 3 4 4
Draw a stem-and-leaf plot for this information.
Solve/Think Apply
Stem Leaf If the data has one stem only,
0 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 7 it is often useful to split the
This plot gives no more information than an ordered list of numbers. leaves into two groups, one
To show the information in a more meaningful way, the stem is split. containing the leaves 0, 1, 2,
The stem 0 will contain the leaves 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 3, 4 and one containing the
The stem 0* will contain the leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
The stem-and-leaf plot then becomes:
Stem Leaf
0 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4
0* 5 5 5 5 7
It can be seen from the second plot that most households have 4 or
fewer people.
7 The number of hours per week a group of Year 11 students spent doing homework is shown below.
27 22 38 30 26 34 18 27 32 31
28 33 33 29 24 27 30 31 33 27
28 22 26 32 34 26 26 37 29 28
31 33 23 34 29 26 33 29 32 27
a How many students were surveyed?
b Draw a stem-and-leaf plot for this data using stems 1, 2 and 3.
c Draw another stem-and-leaf plot for the data using stems 1, 1*, 2, 2*, 3, 3*.
d What information is shown in the second stem-and-leaf plot that is not evident in the first?

EXAMPLE 7C–4 Drawing a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot
The heights of girls and boys in Year 12 were measured in centimetres. The results are listed below.
Girls: 152, 162, 167, 170, 180, 193, 174, 157, 163, 172, 169, 174, 167, 160, 170, 171, 167, 174
Boys: 169, 180, 185, 179, 174, 185, 195, 181, 163, 176, 174, 174, 179, 183, 188, 188, 192, 192
a Represent this data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b From the data, what comparisons can be made between the heights of boys and girls?
Solve Think Apply

a Boys Stem Girls Use stems beginning with The stem is the centre of the
15 27 15 up to a stem of 19. stem-and-leaf plot. The numbers
The values are in order in the leaves are always smallest
93 16 0237779
as usual, but for the left- at the stem and larger further
996444 17 0012444 hand side of the plot, the from the stem. The scores can
8855310 18 0 smallest numbers are be compared by looking at the
522 19 3 closest to the stem. two distributions. In this case,
clearly the values for heights of
b The boys are generally taller than the The values for the boys
boys are larger than the values
girls, even though some girls are taller are higher than the values
for heights of girls.
than some boys. for the girls.
8 The average rainfall, in millimetres, for Adelaide and Melbourne is shown in the table.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Adelaide 17 19 22 38 59 52 65 50 43 38 24 23
Melbourne 48 48 52 58 58 50 49 51 59 68 60 59
a Copy and complete this back-to-back Melbourne Adelaide
stem-and-leaf plot for the rainfall data. Leaf Stem Leaf
b What comparisons can be made between the
1 __ __
rainfall of the two cities?
2 234
3 __ __
__ 8 8 4 3
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ 5 0 2 __
80 6 __
9 The average rainfall, in millimetres, for Canberra and Hobart is shown in the table.
Canberra 58 57 56 53 49 37 40 47 50 67 63 53
Hobart 48 40 47 52 49 56 54 52 52 64 55 52
a Represent this data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b What comparisons can be made between the rainfall of the two cities?
10 The weights, in kilograms, of students in a group are shown.

Girls: 62, 45, 53, 58, 50, 48, 56, 65, 78, 54 Boys: 68, 75, 84, 77, 86, 70, 55, 68, 67, 69
a Represent the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b What comparisons can be made about the weights of the girls and boys in this sample?

11 Two primary school classes are surveyed and asked to nominate their favourite vegetable from the given
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N list. The results are shown below.
Class 4 Blue Favourite vegetable Class 4 Red

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● carrots ● ● ● ●
● peas ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● potato ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● broccoli ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● snow peas ● ●
● ● pumpkin ●
a How many students are there in Class 4 Blue?

b How many students in Class 4 Red nominated peas as their favourite?
c Which is the most popular vegetable among students in:
i Class 4 Blue? ii Class 4 Red?
d Which is the least popular vegetable among students in:
i Class 4 Blue? ii Class 4 Red?
e If the two classes are combined, which vegetable is the:
i most popular? ii least popular?
12 The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the marks of two Year 11 classes for a mathematics test.
Class 11A Class 11B
Leaf Stem Leaf
0 2
99988555442 1 9
9987655510000 2 00223356679
9 3 001224445889
Answer the following questions for:
i Class 11A ii Class 11B.
a What was the lowest mark? b What was the highest mark?
c What was the most common mark? d In what range are the marks clustered?
e In this test a mark of 18 or more was considered satisfactory. How many marks were rated
unsatisfactory?
f Based on your analysis of parts a–e, which class performed better on this test?
13 The stem-and-leaf plot shows the weights (in kilograms) Boys Girls
of the boys and girls in a Year 11 class. Leaf Stem Leaf
a How many students were in the class? 4 79
b How many girls weighed less than 60 kg? 70 5 37779
c How many boys weighed more than 70 kg?

9943 6 367
d How many students weighed less than 66 kg?
65310 7 15
e If Range 5 highest score – the lowest score, what is the
range for the boys’ weights? 922 8 0

7D Column and bar graphs
• Interactive 7D: Explore key ideas for column graphs
• Spreadsheet 7D.1: Create a column graph for given data
• Spreadsheet 7D.2: Create a bar graph for given data
• Investigation 7D: Construct dot plots and column graphs to interpret data
Instead of a column or row of dots, it is often easier to draw a plain column, or row.
EXAMPLE 7D–1 Drawing a vertical column graph

The number of each brand of dishwasher sold by an electrical Brand Frequency
store in one week is shown in the table.
Dishlex 10
Draw a vertical column graph to illustrate this information.
Hoover 8
LG 4
Bosch 7
Asko 2
Solve Think Apply

Dishwasher sales The brands are placed on Place the categories on
10 the horizontal axis and the the horizontal axis and the
8
frequency on the vertical axis. frequency, with a suitable
Number sold
The highest frequency is 10, scale, on the vertical axis.

6
so a suitable scale is chosen for The rectangular columns are
4 this axis. A rectangular column the same width and evenly
2 10 units high is drawn to spaced. The height of each
0 represent Dishlex dishwashers, column is determined by the
a column 8 units high is frequency of each category.
o
lex
LG
h
r
ve
sk
sc
ish
oo
A
Bo
drawn to represent Hoover

H
D
Brand
dishwashers, etc.
EXERCISE 7D Column and bar graphs

1 This table shows the average percentage of protein in certain foods. Food Protein (%)
Draw a vertical column graph to illustrate this information.
Beef 35
Rice 5
Eggs 13
Fish 30
Milk 3.5

2 The column graph below shows the sales for 3 The ages of the vehicle occupants killed on NSW
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a real-estate company, for the months given. roads in one year are shown in the table below.
Complete the table below for the data. Represent this information using a column graph.
Real-estate sales
Age group Number killed
0–9 42
Sales ($ millions)
8
6 10–19 110
20–29 175
4
30–39 65
2
40–49 80
0
50–59 55
ug
un
ec
M eb
pr
ct
O
–D
F
–A
A
–J
n–
p–
60–69 40
l–
ay
ov
ar
Ju
Ja
Se
M
N
Month 701 60
Month Sales ($million)
Jan/Feb
Mar/Apr
May/Jun
Jul/Aug
Sept/Oct
Nov/Dec
EXAMPLE 7D–2 Drawing a horizontal bar graph

The average house price for each of the capital cities of City Average price ($’000)
Australia, in April 2016, is shown in this table. Illustrate
Sydney 1200
this information on a horizontal bar graph.
Melbourne 860
Canberra 705
Brisbane 530
Perth 560
Adelaide 510
Hobart 390
Solve Think Apply

Prices of houses in Australian capital cities The cities are placed on When rectangles are
the vertical axis and the drawn horizontally, the
Sydney
price is on the horizontal graph is usually called
Melbourne axis. The highest price a horizontal bar graph.
Canberra is $1200, so a suitable Place the categories on
Brisbane scale is chosen for this the vertical axis. The

Perth axis. A bar 1200 units rectangular bars are the
Adelaide long is drawn to represent same width and evenly
Hobart Sydney, a bar 860 units spaced. The length of
long is drawn to represent each bar represents
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Melbourne, etc. the data.
Average price ($’000)

4 The table on the right shows the number of Sport Injuries (number per year)
injuries in eight of the main sports played in

AFL 270
Australia. Illustrate this information using a
horizontal bar graph. Soccer 160
Cricket 99
Rugby League 88
Rugby Union 58
Netball 40
Hockey 32
Indoor Cricket 30
Basketball 23
5 The number of milligrams of cholesterol per 100 g of various foods is shown in the horizontal bar graph
below. Complete the given table for the data.
Cholesterol in foods
Lobster
Beef
Chicken
Duck
Prawns
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Cholesterol (mg/100 g)
Food Cholesterol (mg/100 g)

Lobster
Beef
Chicken
Duck
Prawns
6 The English, mathematics and science exam marks for five students are shown in the table below.
Complete the column graph to show these results by grouping the subjects together for each
student as shown.
Student exam results

Student English Maths Science
English
100 Maths
Reiko 75 84 68
Science
80
James 65 76 84
Exam mark
60
Wendy 89 65 60
Hassan 54 78 75 40
Vincent 62 90 88 20
0
Reiko

7 The number of absences each day of Lifesaving Week for two roll classes is shown in this table.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING Complete the column graph, grouping the classes together each day, for comparison purposes.
Number of absences Lifesaving Week daily absences

Day Year 11R–1 Year 11R–2 Year 11R–1
6 Year 11R–2
5
Mon 3 2
Number
4
Tue 3 3 3
2
Wed 5 6 1
Thu 6 4 0
Mon
Days of week
Fri 2 3
Misleading graphs
Misleading graphs give a false impression of the data, either by mistake or
deliberately. The main causes of graphs being misleading are:
• the scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero
• the scale on the vertical or horizontal axis is irregular
• the scale on the vertical or horizontal axis is missing
• the use of area or volume creates a false impression.
EXAMPLE 7D–3 Identifying misleading features of column graphs

This table shows the number of televisions of each of two Brand Number of
brands sold. televisions sold
Below are shown three ways of presenting the information in the X 4000
table graphically. Describe each graph, indicating whether or not Y 8000
it is misleading.
Graph A Graph B Graph C
10 000 10 000 10 000
8000 8000 8000
Number sold
Number sold
Number sold
6000 6000 6000

4000 4000 4000
2000 2000 2000
0 0 0
X Y X Y X Y
Brand Brand Brand
Solve Think/Apply
Graph A: This column graph correctly shows (as the table does) that the For column graphs, the area of
sales of brand X are double those of brand Y. The width of both columns a 2D column and the volume
are the same and the height of the second column is twice that of the first. of a 3D column indicate the
values. Check that the use of

Graph B: In this graph, both the height and the width of the column for
area or volume does not create
brand Y have been doubled, creating the impression that the sales of
a false impression of the data.
brand Y are 4 times (2 3 2 times) those of brand X.
Graph C: The three dimensions in this graph have been doubled for
brand Y, creating the impression that the sales of brand Y are 8 times
(2 3 2 3 2 times) those of brand X.

8 Describe the misleading or poor features of the following graphs.
a Steel production b Fish sold at markets
30
Tonnes (’000) 40
Cases (’000)
20
20
10 10
0 0
2010 2011 2012 1 2
Year Week
c Vitamin content in dog food d Milk production

20
Volume (’000 L)
Vitamin
Amount (mg)
10
Vitamin
0
Factory A Factory B
A D E A D E
X Y
Brand
9 The percentage of deaths, per 10 000 vehicles, for all registered cars and trucks and motorcycles
between 2004 and 2008 are shown on the graphs below. Approximately how many times more likely is a
motorcyclist to be killed than a driver of any other type of vehicle?
Road deaths in cars and trucks Road deaths on motorcycles
registered cars and trucks (%)
60 60
registered motorcycles (%)
50 50
Deaths per 10 000
Deaths per 10 000
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year Year
10 The top 10 most downloaded artists for July 2012 are

Artist Number of downloads
listed in this table.
a Add a column to the table and write each number of Rihanna 47 571 000
downloads as a number in scientific notation, correct Black Eyed Peas 42 405 000
to two significant figures. Eminem 42 290 000
b Draw a column graph displaying this information. Lady Gaga 42 078 000
Start at zero on the vertical axis and use a scale of Taylor Swift 41 821 000
millions of downloads.
Katy Perry 36 788 000
c Redraw the column graph starting at 25 million sales
instead of zero on the vertical axis. How do the two Lil Wayne 36 518 000
graphs compare? Beyonce 30 439 000
Kanye West 30 242 000
Britney Spears 28 665 000

11 The data for fatal crashes in NSW Table A Table B
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N in 2010, grouped by the licence Licence status Fatal crashes Licence type Number
status of the car drivers, are shown
Learner 6 L 263 552
in Table A.
Provisional 60 P1 145 295
a Draw a column graph to
illustrate this data. Standard 221 P2 251 327
b What is the relative frequency Unlicensed 27 Standard 3 647 936
of unlicensed drivers involved Unknown status 5 Total 4 308 110
in fatal accidents? Total 319
c What percentage of
provisional licence holders were involved in fatal accidents?
d What percentage of standard licence holders were involved in
fatal accidents?
e Which licence type do you think should be targeted by safety
authorities?
f Table B shows the number and type of licences held by car
drivers in 2010. Use both tables to answer the following.
i How many provisional (P1 and P2) licence drivers per
100 000 were involved in fatal accidents?
ii How many standard licence drivers per 100 000 were
involved in fatal accidents?
iii Reassess your answer to part e and change it if necessary.
12 Many different types of graphs can be drawn using the Chart option (or equivalent) of spreadsheet
software.
The vertical column graph below was drawn after entering the information from Example 7D-1 into
the first two columns of a spreadsheet. Highlight the table, select Chart and choose Column graph.
Investigate the options available such as the labelling, including the table, etc.
A B C D E F G H I J
1 Brand Frequency
2 Dishlex 10 Dishwasher sales
10
3 Hoover 8
8
Number sold
4 LG 4
6
5 Bosch 7
4
6 Asko 2 2
7
0
Dishlex Hoover LG Bosch Asko
8
Brand of diswasher
9
Similarly, you can create a bar graph for given data. Note: to change from one graph type to another, right
click on the graph and select Change Series Chart Type.
a Produce a spreadsheet to create a column graph for the data in Example 7D-1.
b Produce a spreadsheet to create a bar graph for the data in Example 7D-2.
c Now use a spreadsheet to draw the graphs in this exercise.
You may like to use the prepared spreadsheet files provided on your obook assess to help you.

7E Line graphs
• Worksheet 7E: Practise your skills with extra problems for misleading graphs
• Spreadsheet 7E: Create a line graph for given data
Line graphs are useful for showing upward and downward trends in data. They are also useful
for finding ‘in between’ values when the quantity on the horizontal axis is continuous.
EXAMPLE 7E–1 Drawing a line graph

This table shows the variation in price of a share at end of trading for each day over one week. Draw a line
graph to show this information.
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

Price (cents) 45 48 55 52 46
Solve Think Apply

Share performance Days of the week are Plot the points
placed on the horizontal corresponding to the
60
axis and price on the information given in the
Share price (cents)
vertical axis. The points table. Join the points with

40
are plotted and joined by straight lines.
20 straight lines.
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
Day of week
EXERCISE 7E Line graphs

1 This table shows the temperature variation (°C) on a summer day in Sydney, from 7:00 am to 7:00 pm.
Draw a line graph to illustrate this data.
Time (hour) 7 am 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm 6 pm 7 pm
Temperature 13 14 16 17 19 22 25 28 27 27 24 22 18
(°C)
2 The monthly sales figures for a computer firm are shown below. Draw a line graph for this information.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Sales ($’000) 54 36 30 30 28 34 25 26 31 38 44 56

3 The percentage of each age group of the male population that is overweight is shown below. Illustrate this
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING information on a line graph.
Age group (years) 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69

Overweight (%) 25 28 39 42 55 50
4 The weight of a baby at various ages is shown below. Illustrate this information on a line graph.
Age (months) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Weight (kg) 3.2 5.1 7.0 8.8 10.0 10.7 11.2 11.8 12.5
EXAMPLE 7E–2 Identifying misleading features of line graphs

This table shows the profits of a company over the 5-year period from 2013 to 2017. Graphs A to E below
are five ways of presenting this information graphically. Which features of the graphs, if any, are misleading?
Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Profit ($ millions) 12.3 12.9 13.2 13.8 14.6
Graph A Graph B
15 15
Profit ($ millions)
Profit ($ millions)
10 10
5 5
0 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year Year
Graph C Graph D Graph E
15 15 15
Profit ($ millions)
Profit ($ millions)
14
Profit ($ millions)
13
14 10
12
10
13 5
5
12 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2013 2015 2017
Year Year 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year
Solve Think/Apply
Graphs A, B and D are fair, although each gives a different impression: Check that a
Graph B makes the increase in profit look smaller because the horizontal scale is scale is present
enlarged. Graph D makes the increase in profit look larger because the horizontal scale on the vertical
is compressed. axis and that
Graphs C and E are misleading: Graph C has exaggerated the increase in profit by it starts at zero
not starting the vertical scale at 0, thus enlarging this scale. Graph E has an irregular and is regular.
vertical scale, so the graph is incorrect.

5 Describe the misleading or poor features of this graph. Train fares
Cost ($)
2
1
0
2011 2016 2017
Year
6 a Which graph gives the impression of rapidly increasing sales?
Graph A Graph B
2600 3000
Nu-Choc chocolate
Nu-Choc chocolate
2500 2500
2400 2000
Sales of
Sales of
2300 1500
2200 1000
2100 500
2000 0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year Year
b Have sales in fact increased rapidly over this 7-year period?

c According to graph A, the sales for 2014 appear to be double those of 2013. Is this true?
7 a A large 4WD has a fuel consumption of 15 L/100 km when running on unleaded petrol (ULP). The cost
of ULP is $1.50/L. Complete the table below to show the fuel cost of driving this car.
Distance travelled (km) 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

Fuel cost ($) 0 2250
b Use the information from the table to draw a graph of fuel cost versus distance travelled.
c When converted to LPG the fuel consumption of this vehicle is 19.5 L/100 km. The cost of converting
this vehicle to LPG is $3500 and the cost of LPG is 70c/L. Complete the following table to show the
cost of driving this vehicle on LPG.
Distance travelled (km) 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

Fuel cost ($) 3500 4865
d On the same axes used in part b, draw a graph of fuel cost versus distance travelled for the LPG vehicle.
e From the graph, estimate the distance travelled to reach the break-even point.
8 The graph show the depreciation of a motorcycle Vehicle depreciation

over time.
7000
a What was the purchase price? 6000
b What is the value of the motorcycle after: 5000
Value ($)
i 1 year? ii 2__1 years?

2 4000
c When is it worth: 3000
i $4000? ii $1700? 2000
d The motorcycle is scrapped after 5 years. What 1000
is its final written-down value after this time? 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
e What is the annual amount of depreciation? Time (years)

9 A car bought for $26 990 depreciates $3300 per year.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Complete the table to show the car’s
Number of years 0 1 2 3
value after 0, 1, 2, 3 years.
Value ($) 26 990
b Draw a line graph to illustrate the data
in the table.
c Extend the graph to find the value of the car after 6 years.
d From the graph, when will the car be worth half its purchase price?
10 Consider the following data about road fatalities in NSW from 1950 to 2015.
Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
Number killed 634 820 978 1151 1309 1288 1303
Year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Number killed 1067 797 620 603 508 405 350
a Draw a line graph for the data in the table and comment on any trends in these figures.
b In which 5-year period did:
i the largest increase in fatalities occur? ii the largest decrease in fatalities occur?
c Discuss why the number of fatalities has decreased since 1980 even though the number of registered
vehicles has increased.
11 A 75-kg male drinks for 3 hours. His blood alcohol content (BAC) after 3 hours can be approximated by
10N 2 22.5 where N is the number of standard drinks consumed in this time.
the formula BAC 5 __________
510
a Complete the table using the given formula.
N 1 2 3 4 5 6
BAC
b Draw a line graph to illustrate the information in the table.
c Extend the graph to find the man’s BAC after: i 7 drinks ii 8 drinks.
d If he wants his BAC to be under 0.05 after 3 hours, so that he can drive home, what is the maximum
number of standard drinks he can consume?
e A zero BAC is a requirement of NSW law for all learner and provisional licence holders. If he wants
his BAC to be zero after 3 hours, what is the maximum number of drinks the man can consume?
12 The line graph below, representing the data in Example 7E-1, was drawn using a spreadsheet. The data is
entered in the first two columns. Highlight the table, select Chart and choose Line graph.
A B C D E F G H
1 Day of week Price (cents) Share performance
60
Share price (cents)
2 Mon 45 50
3 40
Tue 48
30
4 Wed 55 20
10
5 Thu 52 0
6
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Fri 46
7 Day of week
Use a spreadsheet to draw some of the line graphs in this exercise. You may like to use the prepared
spreadsheet file provided on your obook assess to help you.

7F Frequency histograms
and polygons
histogram
column graph These resources are available on your obook assess:
with no gaps • Worksheet 7F: Practise your skills with extra problems for representing data
between the • Investigation 7F: Determine data sets from frequency histograms
columns that • assess quiz 7F: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
shows data
scores along the
A convenient method for representing a frequency distribution graphically is by means of a
horizontal axis
and frequency on frequency histogram.
the vertical axis
frequency polygon A histogram is a column (or bar) graph in which the values of the variable are placed
line graph made on the horizontal axis and the frequency of the variable is on the vertical axis. There
by joining the mid are no gaps between the columns.
points of the tops
of the columns
A frequency polygon is a line graph made by joining the midpoints of the tops of the
of a frequency columns of a frequency histogram, with the first and last points joined to the horizontal
histogram, with axis to form a polygon. The first and last point of the polygon are located on the
the first and last horizontal axis at half the column width before the first column and at half the column
points joined to the
width after the last column in the histogram.
horizontal axis
EXAMPLE 7F–1 Drawing a frequency histogram and frequency polygon

The maximum temperature (in ºC ) on each day in September was recorded, and the results were
summarised in a frequency distribution table, as shown.
a Draw a frequency histogram of the temperature data.
b Draw a frequency polygon of the distribution.
Temperature (ºC) 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Frequency 1 2 4 7 6 6 4
Solve Think Apply

a September maximum temperatures Choose suitable scales. Put A frequency
temperature on the horizontal histogram is a
8
axis and frequency on the column graph
6 vertical axis. Draw the with frequency on
Frequency
columns the same width, the vertical axis.

4
joined together, and centred The height of each
2 above the temperatures they column represents
represent. The width of the frequency of
0 each column is the distance each score.
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Temperature (°C) between successive scores
on the horizontal axis. The
height of each column is
the frequency of each score
(temperature).

Solve Think Apply
b September maximum temperatures If the histogram has A frequency polygon
already been drawn, is a line graph made by
8 Frequency polygon join the midpoints of joining the midpoints
Frequency
6 the top of each column of the tops of the
with straight lines. If the columns of a frequency
4
histogram has not been histogram, with the first
2 drawn, plot the points and and last points joined
join them. To complete to the points on the
0 the polygon, the first horizontal axis where
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Temperature (°C) and last points should be the scores immediately
connected to the points before and after the given
(16, 0) and (24, 0). scores would be found.
EXERCISE 7F Frequency histograms and polygons

1 Draw a frequency histogram for each of the following distributions.
a Number of snacks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 5 7 9 7 6 4 2
b Score 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency 7 11 17 0 5
2 Draw a frequency polygon for each of the following distributions.
a Number of goals 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency 8 9 6 3 1
b Salary ($) 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 80 000

Frequency 8 6 7 3 0 1
3 On the same diagram, draw a frequency histogram and a frequency polygon for the data given below.
Mark 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Frequency 4 6 9 0 2 3 1
4 Complete the frequency distribution tables given the following histograms.

a Score (x) Frequency ( f ) f
8
5
6
6
7 4
8 2
9
0
5 6 7 8 9 x

b Score (x) Frequency ( f) f
16
12 14
13 12
14 10
8
15
6
16 4
17 2
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 x
EXAMPLE 7F–2 Drawing a grouped frequency histogram and frequency polygon

Draw a grouped frequency histogram and polygon for this data about the heights of Year 11 students.
Height (cm) 155–159 160–164 165–169 170–174 175–179

Solve Think Apply

Height of students For grouped data, we need to find the midpoint For grouped
of each class interval, called the class centre. data, the class
10
9 centres are
Height (cm) Class centre Frequency
8 used for the
1552159 155 1 159 5157
_________ 4
7 2 scores on the
Frequency
6 160 1 164 5 162 horizontal axis,

1602164 _________ 7
5 2 and then the
4 165 1 169 5167
_________
1652169 10 histogram and
3 2
2
polygon are
1702174 170 1 174 5 172
_________ 5
1 2 completed as
0 1752179 175 1 179 5 177
_________ 2 before.
157 162 167 172 177 2
Height (cm)
The class centres are placed on the horizontal
axis and the histogram and polygon completed.
5 For the data in the following tables, find the class centre of each class interval. Draw a grouped frequency
histogram and polygon, for the data in each table.
a Mass (kg) Frequency b Score Frequency c Patients
60–62 2 41–50 3 per day Frequency
63–65 5 51–60 0 10–19 13
66–68 7 61–70 10 20–29 15
69–71 4 71–80 8 30–39 16
72–74 2 81–90 7 40–49 10
91–100 2 50–59 4
60–69 2

6 The graph below shows the percentage of riders and passengers killed in motorcycle accidents in 2008,
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N categorised by gender and age. Use the graph to answer the following questions.
Motorcycle rider and passenger deaths by age groups and gender
50
45
40
35
Percentage
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
70+
70+
70+
5–16
17–25
5–16
17–25
5–16
17–25
26–39
60–69
26–39
60–69
26–39
60–69
40–59
40–59
40–59
0–4
0–4
0–4
Male Female Total
a In 2008, approximately what percentage of all male
riders or passengers killed in motorcycle accidents were:
i 17–25 years old? ii 60–69 years old?
b Approximately what percentage of all female riders or
passengers killed in motorcycle accidents were:
i 17–25 years old? ii 60–69 years old?
c Which age group of male motorcycle riders and
passengers had the:
i highest number of fatalities?
ii lowest number of fatalities?
d Which age group of female motorcycle riders and passengers had the:
i highest number of fatalities? ii lowest number of fatalities?
e Which age group of all motorcycle riders and passengers had the:
i highest number of fatalities? ii lowest number of fatalities?
7 The graph on the right shows the number of road

CHALLANGE
fatalities in NSW from 1950 to 2010. Number of road fatalities in

a In which year was the number of fatalities: NSW from 1950 to 2010
i the highest? ii the lowest?
1600
b In which 10-year period did:
Number of fatalities
i the largest increase in fatalities occur? 1200
ii the largest decrease in fatalities occur?

800
c Explain any trends shown by the graph.
400
d Discuss why the number of fatalities has decreased
since 1980 even though the number of registered 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
vehicles on the road has increased.
Year

7G Cumulative
frequency graphs
cumulative
frequency A cumulative frequency histogram is a histogram with cumulative frequency on the vertical
histogram axis. A cumulative frequency polygon is a line graph formed by joining the upper right-
column graph
hand corners of each column of the cumulative frequency histogram. A cumulative frequency
(histogram) with
data scores along
polygon is also called an ogive.
the horizontal axis
and cumulative
EXAMPLE 7G–1 Drawing a cumulative frequency histogram and
frequency on the cumulative frequency polygon
vertical axis The maximum temperature, in °C, on each day in September, (as given in Example 7F-1)
cumulative is shown in the table below. Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and a cumulative
frequency frequency polygon for this data.
polygon (ogive)
line graph formed Temperature (ºC) 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
by joining the
upper right- Frequency 1 2 4 7 6 6 4
hand corners of
each column of
Solve Think
the cumulative September maximum temperatures Add a cumulative frequency column to the table.
frequency
32 Temperature Frequency Cumulative
histogram
(ºC) frequency
Cumulative frequency
28
24
20
17 1 1
16 18 2 3
12
19 4 7
8
4 20 7 14
0
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 6 20
Temperature (°C)
22 6 26
23 4 30
Draw a cumulative frequency histogram, using
the cumulative frequency of each score. Next,
use straight lines to join the top right-hand
corners of the columns to form the cumulative
frequency polygon.
Apply
Note: when drawing a cumulative frequency polygon, we join the upper-right hand
vertices, not the midpoints, of the columns. We do not join the last corner to the
horizontal axis, so the graph it is not strictly a polygon.
To draw a cumulative frequency polygon without first drawing the histogram requires
careful consideration of the upper and lower boundaries of each class interval.

EXERCISE 7G Cumulative frequency graphs
1 For each of the frequency distribution tables given in question 1 of Exercise 7F:
a add a cumulative frequency column

b draw a cumulative frequency histogram and a cumulative frequency polygon.
2 For each of the frequency distribution tables given in question 2 of Exercise 7F:
a add a cumulative frequency column
b draw a cumulative frequency histogram and a cumulative frequency polygon.
EXAMPLE 7G–2 Drawing a cumulative frequency histogram and cumulative

frequency polygon for grouped data
Given the information about the heights of students in the table below, draw a cumulative frequency
histogram and a cumulative frequency polygon for the data.
Height (cm) 155–159 160–164 165–169 170–174 175–179

Solve Think
Find the class centre and add a cumulative frequency column.
Height of students
Height Class centre Frequency Cumulative
28 (cm) frequency
24 155–159 155 1 159 5 157

_________ 4 4
20 2
16 160–164 160 1 164 5 162
_________ 7 11
12 2
8 165–169 165 1 169 5 167
_________ 10 21
4 2
0 170–174 170 1 174 5 172
_________ 5 26
157 162 167 172 177 2
Height (cm)
175–179 175 1 179 5 177
_________ 2 28
2
Draw the cumulative frequency histogram using the class
centres. Join the top right-hand corners of the columns of
the histogram to draw the cumulative frequency polygon
(the ogive).
Apply
Use the class centres as the values on the horizontal axis and use the cumulative frequency on the vertical
axis. Join the top right-hand corners of the columns of the histogram to form the ogive.
3 a For each part of question 5 in Exercise 7F, add a cumulative frequency column to the table.
b Use the tables from part a to help you draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive for each set of
data, on the same diagram.

EXAMPLE 7G–3 Constructing a frequency distribution table from a cumulative
frequency histogram
Complete the frequency distribution table given the cumulative frequency histogram.
Score (x) Cumulative frequency (cf) Frequency Score

cf
3 20
4 18
16
5
14
6
12
7 10
8 8
6
4
2
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Solve Think Apply

From the graph, write the cumulative From the graph,
Score (x) Cumulative Frequency
frequency of each score. determine the
frequency (cf)
The cumulative frequency of the first cumulative
3 2 2
score is the same as its frequency: the frequency for
4 5 52253 frequency of the score 3 is 2. The each score. Use
5 9 92554 cumulative frequency of the score 4 the cumulative
6 12 12 2 9 5 3 is 5; this is the sum of the frequencies frequency column
7 18 18 2 12 5 6 of the scores 3 and 4. Hence, the to find the
frequency of the score 4 is (5 2 2) or 3. frequency of each
8 20 20 2 18 5 2
The cumulative frequency of the score score.
5 is 9; this is the sum of the frequencies
of 3, 4 and 5. Hence, the frequency of 5
is (9 2 5) or 4, and so on.
4 Complete frequency distribution tables given these cumulative frequency histograms.

a cf b cf c cf
30 30 30
25 25 25
20 20 20
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
2 3 4 5 6 x 18 19 20 21 22 23 x 141 142 143 144 145 146 x

Pareto charts
A Pareto chart is used as a tool in quality control when analysing data about the
frequency of problems in a process or their causes (in particular, when we want to
focus on the most significant problems or causes).
Pareto chart
A Pareto chart combines a vertical column graph and a cumulative relative frequency
chart that
graph. The statistical variable (problems/causes) is placed on the horizontal axis and combines a
frequency is placed on the vertical axis. The heights of the vertical bars represent the column graph
frequencies of the problems/causes and are arranged with the longest bars on the left and a cumulative
and the shortest on the right (in descending order of frequency). This means that the frequency graph
problems/causes that have the most impact are clearly shown on the left of the chart.
The cumulative relative frequency graph helps us to judge the added contribution of
each problem/cause. If the cumulative graph rises steeply then levels out, this indicates
that the first two or three causes are these having the most impact on the problem. If
the columns are roughly the same height, the cumulative graph will rise at a steady
rate, indicating that all causes are having a roughly equal impact on the problem.
EXAMPLE 7G–4 Drawing a Pareto chart

A bank wants to identify the most significant problems it Cause of delay Frequency ( f )
experiences in the delay of processing credit card applications. A
Incorrect address 36
random survey was conducted and the results are shown in the table.
Can’t read 17
a Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information.
No signature 73
b What area(s) should the manager concentrate on improving?
c What percentage of her problem does this solve? Wrong form 11
Other 3
Solve Think
a Rearrange the categories in descending order

Cause of delay Frequency( f )
of frequency.
No signature 73
Find the total of the frequencies.
Incorrect address 36 Note: Sf means ‘sum of f ’.
Can’t read 17
Wrong form 11
Other 3
Total (Sf) 140
Draw a vertical column graph using the data

140
from the table. The frequency axis should be
120
100 at least 140 units high (140 is the total of the
Frequency
80 frequency column). Make the widths of the

60
columns the same. The columns are usually

40
20
connected.
No signature
Incorrect address
Can’t read
Wrong form
Other
Cause of delay

Solve Think
Cumulative Add a relative frequency and cumulative
Relative relative relative frequency column to the table.

f
Frequency frequency frequency Relative frequency 5__ 3 100%.
Sf
Cause of delay (f) (%) (%)
The relative frequencies have been rounded to
No signature 73 52 52 the nearest whole number percentage
Incorrect address 36 26 78
Can’t read 17 12 90
Wrong form 11 8 98
Other 3 2 100
Total 140 100
Draw another vertical axis on the right-hand

side of the graph. On this axis, label the point
140 100%
90% directly opposite 140 on the frequency axis as
Cumulative relative
120 80% 100%. Divide the scale of the second vertical
100 70%
Frequency
60% frequency axis into 100 equal divisions, starting with

80
50% zero at the level of the horizontal axis to create
60 40%
40 30% a cumulative relative frequency axis.
20% In this case 140 4 100 5 1.4. That is, 1 unit
20 10%
on the percentage axis (1%) represents 1.4
No signature
Incorrect address
Can’t read
Wrong form
Other
units on the frequency axis, or 10 units on the

percentage axis (10%) represents 14 units on
the frequency axis, and so on.
Mark the points corresponding to the cumulative
relative frequencies and join using straight lines.
Cause of delay Note: if the left and right vertical scales
match (i.e. Sf 5 140 on the frequency axis
corresponds to 100% on the cumulative
relative frequency axis), the cumulative relative
frequency graph will always start at the top of
the first column. If the scales do not match,
then the cumulative relative frequency graph
will not start at the top of the first column.
b The two main areas that need to be fixed to improve the process Identify the top one or two causes of delay.
are ‘No signature’ and ‘Incorrect address’. These will relate to the first one or two
columns in the Pareto chart.
c Fixing the two main causes will solve 78% of the problem. Locate the value of the cumulative relative
frequency after the two top rating categories.
Apply
Place the categories (problems/causes), in descending order of relative frequency, on the horizontal axis. Place
frequency on the vertical axis. Draw a vertical column graph. Add a cumulative relative frequency graph.
Note: since the causes are placed in order of relative frequency, the graph clearly reveals the factors having the
greatest impact and where attention is likely to be the most beneficial. In our example, if the manager concentrates
on fixing the two causes ‘No signature’ and ‘Incorrect address’, she will have solved 78% of her problem.

5 A bank manager wants to identify the most significant problems Cause of delay Frequency
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N the bank experiences in the delay of processing loan applications.
No address 20
A random survey was conducted and the results are shown in
the table on the right. Can’t read 8
a Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information. No signature 84
b What area(s) should the manager concentrate on improving? Other 3
c What percentage of his problems would this solve? Wrong form 5
6 A random survey of customer complaints yielded the data shown

Type of complaint Frequency
on the right.
a Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information. Packaging 11
b What area(s) should this company concentrate on Delivery 7
improving? Invoice wrong 36
c What percentage of the problems would this solve? Product quality 22
Other 4
7 The owner of a shoe store takes a random sample of customer

complaints. The results are shown in the table on the right.
a Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information. Difficult parking 77
b Before the survey, the manager thought that it was the limited Salesperson rude 9
range of styles being offered that was the main reason for the Poor lighting 5
decline in her business and she blamed the supplier. What Layout confusing 8
percentage of the problem was caused by limited styles?
Limited sizes 37
c If you were the shoe store owner, what area(s) would you
Limited styles 11
concentrate on improving?
d What percentage of the problems would your improvements Other 3
from part c solve?
8 Pareto charts can be drawn using a spreadsheet. After entering the data as you would for a table, go to:
Insert . Chart . Histogram . Pareto.
a Use your computer spreadsheet to draw Pareto charts for questions 5–7.
b What is different about the charts drawn by Excel compared to your hand-drawn charts?
9 A restaurant manager takes a random survey of customer

CHALLENGE
complaints in order to increase the patronage of his restaurant.

The results are shown in the table on the right. Rude staff 6
a Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information. No atmosphere 8
b If you were the manager, what area(s) would you concentrate Small portions 17
on improving?
Too noisy 19
c What percentage of the problems would your improvements
Too expensive 93
from part b solve?
Limited menu 5
Dirty washrooms 8
Long delays in 35
serving
Cramped seating 9

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW REPRESENTING DATA
✔ construct frequency distribution tables
✔ understand and use cumulative and relative frequency graphs and tables
✔ group data into classes
✔ create and interpret dot plots
✔ construct and interpret stem-and-leaf plots
✔ create column and bar graphs
✔ create and interpret line graphs
✔ understand how graphs may be misleading
✔ construct and interpret frequency histograms and polygons
✔ construct and interpret cumulative frequency histograms and ogives
✔ construct and interpret Pareto charts
✔ link types of data with appropriate displays
✔ describe the strengths and weaknesses of various forms of display.

7A 1 The marks out of 10 for a spelling test were:
5 3 9 8 6 4 5 6 6 5
7 8 10 6 7 5 6 8 6 7
By organising this information into a frequency distribution table, the number of students who scored less
than 6 is:
A 6 B 5 C 4 D 3
7A 2 The distance, in kilometres, the members of a group of students travel to school are shown below.
0.6 3.4 0.8 2.8 0.9 1.1 1.9 2.4
3.5 3.6 0.8 1.4 2.7 0.6 1.3 3.9
2.1 2.3 3.0 1.6 1.5 3.2 2.1 1.8
0.7 2.3 3.6 3.5 1.6 1.4 0.4 2.8
3.8 2.9 0.8 1.7 3.7 2.5 1.9 2.0
By organising this data into a frequency table using classes 0–0.4, 0.5–0.9, 1.0–1.4, 1.5–1.9, …
the number of students who travel more than 2.4 km is:
A 25 B 21 C 15 D 12
7B 3 For the data in question 1, the cumulative frequency and the percentage relative frequency of the score 7 are
respectively:
A 3 and 15% B 15 and 3% C 15 and 15% D 12 and 15%

7C 4 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the time, in hours, a group of Year 11 Stem Leaf
students spent studying during one particular week. The lowest and highest
0 233677
scores are respectively:
A 7 and 9 C 2 and 9 1 022588899
B 0 and 9 D 2 and 39 2 11234456678
3 0229
7C 5 From the data in question 4, how many students spent less than 20 hours
studying?
A 9 students B 19 students C 15 students D 21 students
7C 6 Which of the following statements is not true?

A A dot plot is convenient for illustrating small sets of data.
B A dot plot can be used directly with unsorted data.
C A dot plot is very time-consuming for large sets of data.
D A dot plot can be used to show the percentage of each category in the data.
7D 7 Consider the sales data shown in the table on the right. Months Sales ($ million)
If a horizontal bar graph was used to display the information in this
Jan/Feb 2.4
table, with a scale of 10 mm representing $1 million, the length of the
bar representing sales for March/April would be: Mar/Apr 3.1
A 0.31 mm B 3.1 mm May/Jun 1.8
C 31 mm D 310 mm Jul/Aug 1.4
Sep/Oct 2.8
7E 8 Which of the following is not a cause of graphs being misleading?
A The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero. Nov/Dec 3.6
B The scale on the horizontal axis does not start at zero.
C The scale on the vertical axis is irregular.
D The incorrect use of area or volume creates a false impression.
Matches played
7F 9 From this frequency histogram, the total number of matches
Number of matches
played was: 6
5
A 17 B 5
4
C 6 D 18 3
2
7F 10 To draw a frequency polygon using the histogram in question 9, the 1
first and last column midpoints should be joined to: 0
A any two points on the horizontal axis 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of goals
B the two points on the horizontal axis where the previous and
the next score would be Score
C any two points on the vertical axis
20
D the bottom left and right corners of the histogram.
18
7G 11 From the cumulative frequency histogram on the right, the 16
frequency of the score 5 is: 14

ANALYSIS
A 3 B 4 12
C 5 D 11 10
8
STATISTICAL
6
4
2
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Score

REVIEW SET 1
1 The results of a survey of the hair colour of a group
of people is shown below using the code: black (B),
brown (b), blond (w), red (r), grey (g)
B b b w g b
B B r w w b
g B w B B b
b w w w w b
B g r B b w
a Organise the information into a frequency
distribution table.
b How many people were surveyed?
c What was the most common hair colour for this group of people?
d Add a relative frequency column to your table from part a and find the relative frequency of people with:
i black hair ii blond hair.
e Display the data above using
i a dot plot ii a horizontal bar graph.
2 This table shows the variation in the price of shares during one week. Show this information on a line graph.
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

Price ($) 2.80 3.50 3.60 2.60 2.55
3 The marks out of 10 for a spelling test were:

5 3 9 8 6 4 5 6 6 5
7 8 10 6 7 5 6 8 6 7
Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive for the data shown in the table.
REVIEW SET 2
Use the following information to answer questions 1–6.
The marks scored in a mathematics test by a class are listed below.
11 12 11 14 18 15 13 14 19 18
17 15 15 12 18 17 13 10 9 14
16 16 13 14 11 14 18 10 14 15
1 Organise the data into a frequency distribution table.
2 Add a cumulative frequency and a relative frequency column to your table from question 1.
3 How many students scored:

a less than 15? b 15 or less?
4 What percentage of students scored:

a 14? b more than 18?
5 Draw a frequency histogram and polygon for the data.
6 Draw the cumulative frequency histogram and ogive for the data.

7 From the column graph, how many students: How students travel to school
a walk to school? 12
b don’t catch a train? 10
Number
8
6
4
2
0
Walk Bicycle Bus Car Train
8 Using the cumulative frequency graph on the right, how Calls made
many calls were made between 12:00 noon and 3:00 pm? 110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
n
pm
m– m
am
m
m
noo
9a
6p
6a
2a
d–3
n–3
9
m–
m–
1
m–
m–
12
mi
noo
6a
m–
3a
3p
6p
9p
12
9a
12
Time
REVIEW SET 3
1 The numbers of each brand of sound system sold by an electrical store in one week are shown in the table.
a How many sound systems were sold during the week?
b Draw a horizontal bar graph to display this information. Number
c Draw a vertical column graph to display this information. Brand of sales
2 a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot, using the stems 3, 4, 5 and 6, for these scores: Sony 15
33 46 38 66 49 58 34 43 60 63 National 8
48 52 51 48 37 69 61 51 64 48 Pioneer 12
Aiwa 10
Phillips 5
i 51 ii 41
e How many scores are in the sixties?
f How many scores are less than 50?
3 A bank manager wants to identify the most significant problems the

ANALYSIS
Cause of delay Frequency

bank experiences in the delay of processing credit card applications.
Incorrect address 47
A random survey was conducted and the results are shown in the
table. Draw a Pareto chart to illustrate this information Can’t read 22
STATISTICAL
No signature 92
Wrong form 14
Other 5

4 Describe the misleading or poor features of the following graphs.
a Wheat production b Pollution level
70
Tonnes (× 1000)
Profit (millions)
45
60
40
50
35
30
25
2014 2015 2016 2017 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year Year
c d Wine consumption
Profit (millions)
13
12
10
2014 2015 2016 2017

Year 2008 2017
Year
REVIEW SET 4 Mark in test

60
Use the cumulative frequency histogram on the right to answer questions 1–4. 56
52
1 a Copy the cumulative frequency histogram and draw the ogive.
48
b How many students scored: 44
40
i less than 12? 36
ii 12 or less? 32
28
iii more than 12? 24
20
2 Construct a frequency distribution table for the data. 16
12
3 What percentage of students scored: 8
4
a 10? b 15? 0
10 11 12 13 14 15
4 Draw a frequency histogram and polygon for the data. Mark

1 a Student score Class centre Frequency Cumulative frequency
0–4 7
5–9 11
10–14 15
15–19 14
20–24 3
i Complete this frequency distribution table. (2 marks)

ii How many students scored less than 15? (1 mark)
iii What is the relative frequency of students scoring 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9? (1 mark)
iv What percentage of students scored more than 15? (1 mark)
v Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon for this data. (2 marks)

b Find the number missing from the table below. (1 mark)
Score Cumulative frequency Frequency

9 7 7
10 13 6
11 16 3
12 21
c This stem-and-leaf plot shows the time, in hours, the members of a group of
university students spent studying per week.
Stem Leaf
3 16
4 0122589
5 011347899
6 2358
7 011
i What is the lowest score? (1 mark)
ii How many scores are in the forties? (1 mark)
iii How many students studied for more than 50 hours per week? (1 mark)
iv What percentage of students studied for fewer than 44 hours per week? (1 mark)
d The graph below shows the percentage of crashes resulting in the death of a driver
aged less than 26 years, by time of the day and day of the week.
Percentage of all crashes involving
death of a driver aged less than 26 years
12
10
Percentage
8
6
4
2
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
Early morning – midnight to 5:59 am Afternoon – noon to 5:59 pm
Morning – 6:00 am to 11:59 am Evening – 6:00 pm to 11:59 pm
i What percentage of fatal crashes involving a driver under 26 occurred between

noon and 5:59 pm on a Tuesday? (1 mark)
ii At what time of the week do most fatal crashes occur? (1 mark)
iii On what day of the week do the most fatal crashes occur? (1 mark)
ANALYSIS
TOTAL: 15 MARKS
STATISTICAL

8
Relative frequency
and probability
▶ listing the sample space for simple experiments and
counting the number of possible outcomes
▶ investigating equally likely outcomes
▶ listing the sample space for multistage experiments
▶ determining relative frequency or experimental probability
▶ determining theoretical probability
▶ comparing calculated probabilities with experimental results
▶ finding the probability of complementary events
▶ calculating probability for multistage events
▶ using probability tree diagrams to calculate probabilities
▶ finding the expected frequency of an event and comparing it
with experimental results.
▶ solving problems involving simulations or trials of
experiments.
MS-S2 Relative Frequency and Probability

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

8A 1 In a standard deck of playing cards, how many 8B 7 The numbers 1 to 10 Value Frequency
cards are in each suit? were written on cards
≤3 21
A 2 B 4 C 13 D 14 and placed in a box.
>3 59
One card was chosen at
8A 2 A card is selected at random from a deck of Total 80
random, its value noted
playing cards and its suit noted. What is the
and then it was replaced in the box. This was
sample space of this experiment?
repeated to obtain 80 results. These results are
A {red, black} shown in the table.
B {jack, queen, king}
Using the data in the table, what is the relative
C {hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades}
frequency of selecting a number that is greater
D {4}
than 3 when one card is chosen randomly from
8A 3 What is the sample space the ten cards?
when this spinner is spun? A 59 B 59% C ___ 21 D ___59
59 80
A {red, blue, green, yellow}
8C 8 A marble is chosen at random from a bag
B {red, red, blue, blue, green, yellow}
containing 6 red, 1 green and 2 blue marbles.
C {4} D {6} What is the best description of the chance of
8A 4 This tree diagram shows the H choosing a green marble?
outcomes when a card is Heart A impossible B unlikely
selected from a deck T C likely D certain
H
of playing cards and Clubs 8C 9 For the bag of marbles in question 8, what is
the suit (hearts, T
H
the best description of the chance of choosing a
diamonds, clubs or
Diamonds yellow marble?
spades) is noted, and a
coin is tossed. How
T A impossible B unlikely
H
many outcomes are Spades
C likely D certain
possible? T 8C 10 This spinner is divided into
A 2 B 4 C 6 D 8 six equal sections. What is the
9 as a decimal? chance of spinning yellow?
8B 5 What is ___
40 A __1 B __1
A 0.09 B 0.225 C 0.444 D 0.940 6 3
C 1
__ D 2
8B 57 as a percentage?
6 What is ___ 2
80 8G 5 of 120?
11 What is __
A 0.007 125% B 0.7125% 8
C 7.125% D 71.25% A 0.0052 B 62.5 C 75 D 192
Q1 Support sheet 8A.1 Understanding a standard deck of playing cards
Q2–3 Support sheet 8A.2 Sample space and outcomes
Q4 Support sheet 8A.3 Introducing tree diagrams
Q5–6 Support sheet 8B.1 Converting fractions, decimals and percentages
Q7 Support sheet 8B.2 Simple experimental probability
Q8–9 Support sheet 8C.1 Using key words to describe probability
Q10 Support sheet 8C.2 Simple theoretical probability
Q11 Support sheet 8G.1 Multiplying fractions
Chapter 8 Relative frequency and probability 279

8A Sample space and
number of outcomes
• Worksheet 8A: Practise your skills with extra problems for sample space
• Investigation 8A: Investigate the rolling of two Sicherman dice
sample space In probability, the sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of
set of all possible the experiment. For example, rolling a six-sided die is an experiment with possible outcomes
outcomes of an of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
experiment
An event is either one outcome or a
experiment
a trial (or trials) collection of outcomes. For example, when a
performed to die is rolled, ‘getting a 2’ is one of the six
obtain data equally likely outcomes. The event is
to predict the ‘getting a 2’. Another event could be ‘getting
chances of an
an even number’ which includes the
event occuring
outcomes 2, 4 or 6. This event is a collection
event
of outcomes.
one outcome
or collection of A multistage experiment is one that is made up of simpler experiments. For example, a two-
outcomes from stage experiment could be flipping a coin and then rolling a die. When finding the sample
performing an
space of multistage experiments, it is often useful to use a systematic method such as a list,
experiment
table or tree diagram.
multistage
experiment A multistage event is either one outcome or a collection of outcomes of a multistage
experiment made experiment. For example, when flipping a coin and rolling a die, a two-stage event could be
up of more than ‘getting a tail and a 2’ (one outcome) or ‘getting a tail and an even number’ (collection of
one simpler outcomes).
experiment
multistage event
one outcome
or collection of
outcomes from
performing
a multistage
experiment
equally likely
outcomes
outcomes that
have an equal
chance of
Equally likely outcomes are outcomes that have exactly the same (equal) chance of
occurring
occurring. For example, for a fair die, we would expect rolling a 2 to have the same chance of
occurring as rolling a 5 (or any number from 1 to 6).

EXAMPLE 8A–1 Listing the sample space
List the sample space, S, when:
a a coin is tossed b a six-sided die is rolled c a matchbox is tossed.
Solve Think
a S = {H, T} When a coin is tossed, the possible outcomes are a

head (H) or a tail (T).
b S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} When a six-sided die is rolled, the possible
outcomes are a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
c If each of the six faces can be identified: The matchbox has six faces and they are either
S = {top, bottom, front face, back face, dealt with as three pairs or as six separate faces.
right end, left end}.
If each of the six faces cannot be identified, and
the matchbox can land on one of the largest
faces, one of the side faces or one of the end
faces: S = {largest face, side face, end face}. largest face side face end face
Apply
The sample space is the list of all possible outcomes.
EXERCISE 8A Sample space and number of outcomes

1 For each of the following experiments:
i list the sample space ii state the number of possible outcomes.
a A 12-sided die is tossed.
b A card is chosen from cards numbered 1 to 7.
c A marble is chosen from 3 black and 5 red marbles.
d A letter is chosen from the word MATHS.
e An eight-sided die is thrown.
f A card is selected from the four aces in a standard deck of 52 cards.
2 List the sample space for each of the following experiments.

a A boy or girl is born.
b A drawing pin is tossed.
c A cylindrical can is tossed.
d A marble is chosen from a bag containing 5 red, 3 blue and 2 white
marbles.
e The colour of a set of traffic lights is noted as a car approaches.
f A vowel is chosen from the English alphabet.
g A letter is chosen from the word INSIGHT.

h The day of the week on which a child is born is recorded.
i The result (not the score) of a soccer match.
j A card is chosen from a standard deck of playing cards (there are several
answers depending on what is being investigated).

EXAMPLE 8A–2 Deciding whether outcomes are equally likely to occur
State whether the outcomes of each of the sample spaces in Example 8A-1 are equally likely to occur.
From Example 8A-1, the sample spaces for the experiments are:
a a coin is tossed: S = {H, T}
b a six-sided die is rolled: S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
c a matchbox is tossed: S = {top, bottom, front face, back face, right end, left end} or
S = {largest face, side face, end face}
Solve Think Apply

a Equally likely If the coin is ‘fair’ (not biased in some way), then we Each outcome must
would expect each outcome to occur an equal number have the same chance
of times. of occurring.
b Equally likely Again, if the die is ‘fair’ we would expect the
outcomes to be equally likely.
c Not equally likely The matchbox is more likely to fall onto one of its
larger faces; so the outcomes are not equally likely.
3 State whether you think the outcomes of each of the sample spaces for the following experiments (from
question 2) are equally likely to happen (we will test some of these experimentally, later). Discuss any
problems as a class.
a A boy or girl is born.
b A drawing pin is tossed.
c A cylindrical can is tossed.
d A marble is chosen from a bag containing 5 red, 3 blue and 2 white marbles.
e The colour of a set of traffic lights is noted as a car approaches.
f A vowel is chosen from the English alphabet.
g A letter is chosen from the word INSIGHT.
h The day of the week on which a child is born is recorded.
i The result (not the score) of a soccer match.
j A card is chosen from a standard deck of playing cards (there are several answers depending on what is
being investigated).
4 Comment on the following statements.

a As it either rains or is fine, there is an even
chance of it raining tomorrow.
b There are six swimmers in a final, and each has
an equal chance of winning.
c The chance that a person’s family name starts
with Z is the same as the chance that it starts
with any other letter of the alphabet.
d As there are only two candidates for the
election, each has a 50–50 chance of winning.
e Each student in the class has an equal chance of
getting his or her driving licence this year.
5 Which of the events in question 4 are equally likely?

EXAMPLE 8A–3 Finding the sample space for a two-stage experiment
Tim has three pairs of trousers (blue, brown and grey) and two shirts (one long-sleeved and one short-
sleeved) in his wardrobe. Find all the possible combinations of trousers and shirts he can wear by:
a using a table b using a tree diagram.
Solve Think Apply
a List all possibilities A table assists in finding
Trousers
in a table and list the all possibilities.
Blue Brown Grey outcomes.
This is called a two-
Long Bl, L Br, L Gr, L
Shirt stage experiment
Short Bl, S Br, S Gr, S
because it is made
There are six equally likely outcomes: up of two simpler
• blue trousers with long-sleeved shirt experiments: selecting
• brown trousers with long-sleeved shirt trouser colour (three
• grey trousers with long-sleeved shirt possible outcomes)
• blue trousers with short-sleeved shirt and selecting shirt type
• brown trousers with short-sleeved shirt (two possible outcomes).
• grey trousers with short-sleeved shirt.
Tables and tree diagrams
b Using a tree diagram yields the same results. Draw three tree
are convenient ways of
Trousers Shirt Outcomes branches, one for
identifying the sample
long Bl and L each trouser type,
blue space for two-stage
short Bl and S then two branches
experiments.
long Br and L extending from each
brown
short Br and S trouser type showing
long Gr and L long-sleeved or short-
grey sleeved shirt.
short Gr and S
6 Complete this tree diagram to find all the possible ways 1st question 2nd question Outcomes
you can answer the first two questions on a True or False T
T
test. (Use T for true and F for false.)
7 Find the sample space when two coins are tossed. It does
not matter if the coins are tossed simultaneously or one
after the other. (Use H for heads and T for tails.) Are all the outcomes equally likely?
8 List all the outcomes possible when a coin is tossed and a die is rolled.
9 a Complete this table to see the sample space when Second die
two six-sided dice are rolled.
1 2 3 4 5 6
b How many outcomes are in the sample space?
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3)

c Are the outcomes equally likely to occur?
d How many outcomes show that a ‘double’ has 2 (2, 1)
First die
been rolled? 3 (3, 1)

4
5
6

10 a Use the table in question 9 to find all the possible sums Second die
of the two numbers uppermost, when two dice are

1 2 3 4 5 6
rolled. This table, recording those sums, has been
started for you. 1 2 3 4
b How many different outcomes are shown in the table? 2 3
First die
c Is it equally likely to obtain a sum of 4 as it is to 3 4
obtain a sum of 6? Explain. 4
d Which outcome is the most likely to occur? 5
e Which outcomes have the same chance of occurring?
6
f How many of the 36 outcomes show a sum greater
than 8?
11 a Use the table in question 9 to find all the possible Second die
differences between the two numbers uppermost
1 2 3 4 5 6
when two dice are rolled. This table has been
started for you. 1 0 1 2
b How many different outcomes are shown in the table? 2 1
First die
c Is it equally likely to obtain a difference of 0 as it is 3 2
to obtain a difference of 3? Explain. 4
d Which outcome is the most likely to occur? 5
e How many of the 36 outcomes show a difference
6
less than 3?
EXAMPLE 8A–4 Finding the sample space for a three-stage experiment

Find all the possible ways in which you can answer the first three questions on a True or False test. How
many outcomes are there in total?
Solve Think Apply

This is a three-stage experiment because it is the combination of the Each branching Each
outcomes of three simpler experiments (the possible answers to three of the tree branching
questions). It is not possible to use a table for three-stage experiments. has two of a tree
possibilities: diagram must
Using a tree diagram, we can find the eight outcomes listed below.
T or F. include all
1st question 2nd question 3rd question Outcomes
T TTT There needs possibilities
T to be three for a
F TTF
T
T TFT branchings of particular
F the tree, one for event.
F TFF
T FTT
each question.
T
F FTF
F
T FFT
F
F FFF

12 What is the possible make-up (including the order of birth) of the three children in a family. (Use B for boy
and G for girl.) Are the outcomes equally likely?
13 Find all the ‘words’ that can be made using the letters shown.
First letter: b, c, d Second letter: a, e Third letter: x, y
14 List all the ways in which John, Paul and George can be arranged in a line.
15 How many different responses are possible for a True or False test with four questions?
16 Ann has three pairs of jeans and four shirts. How many ‘mix and match’ outfits can she make?
17 Sarah travels through two sets of traffic lights on her way to the station each morning. What are all the
possible sequences of coloured traffic lights she could encounter?

Do you think that all these outcomes are equally likely?
18 A special ‘Sports’ model of a small car is produced. It comes with

1.8 L or 2.2 L engines, in automatic (A) or manual (M) and is
available in metallic orange (O), blue (B) or red (R) paint. List all
the different combinations of features available in this model.
19 Cathy, Melinda and Rebecca are the only three runners in a race.
Find all the possible orders in which they could finish.
20 A bag contains one red, one blue and one green marble. Two marbles are drawn from the bag in
succession. List the sample space if the first marble is:
a replaced before the second marble is drawn
b not replaced before the second marble is drawn.
21 The numbers 5, 7 and 9 are written on three cards and the cards
4
are placed in a hat. Two cards are selected, in succession, from 1
the hat and the numbers are written in the order they were
drawn. List all the two-digit numbers it is possible to make if 3 2
the first card is:
a replaced before the second is drawn
b not replaced before the second is drawn.
22 A spinner has the numbers 1 to 4 on it, each with an equally likely chance of occurring. A coin is tossed
and the spinner is spun. Find the sample space for the results of this two stage experiment.
23 Part of a mathematics test contains five multiple-choice questions, each having four possible responses.
How many different ways are there of answering these five questions?
24 Use a table to list all the possible outcomes if Samantha plays Venus in a best of three sets tennis match.
CHALLENGE
25 Design a two-stage experiment that has 12 possible outcomes.
26 Design a three-stage experiment that has 36 possible outcomes.

8B Relative frequency
probability You often hear people talk about the ‘chance’ of something happening, or how likely
chance of an something is. Words and numbers can both be used to describe the probability of an event
event occurring, occurring. A probability, P, is expressed as a value in the range 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain),
expressed as a
number in the
or as the equivalent percentage.
range 0 to 1 or One way to predict the likelihood of an event happening is to investigate the occurrence of the
as the equivalent event in the past. This assumes that patterns in the immediate past will not change greatly in
percentage
the future.
We can perform an experiment a number of times to observe the frequency of the outcomes
for an event.
EXAMPLE 8B–1 Calculating the relative frequency of an event

The students in a class combined to toss two coins 2000 times.
Result Frequency
The results are recorded in the table. Use this information to
predict the chance of getting ‘2 heads’ when you toss two coins. 2 heads 563
1 head and 1 tail 987
2 tails 450
Solve Think
563
P(2 heads) = _____________ If we assume that the frequency of occurrence will be the same for
563+987+450 future tosses, we could predict that, when two coins are tossed, the
563
= _____
2000 chance of getting 2 heads is approximately 28%. Similarly, we could
987 ,
predict from the data that the chance of getting 1 head and 1 tail is _____
= 0.2815 2000
or approximately 49%, and the chance of getting 2 tails is 450
_____ , or
≈ 28% 2000
approximately 23%.
relative In Example 8B-1, we assigned a number (or a percentage) to the chance of an event
frequency
happening.
(experimental
probability)
an estimate of the
probability of an The number we have used above is called the relative frequency of the event.
event occurring,
Relative frequency gives an estimate of the probability of an event occurring.
determined by
performing an Relative frequency is often referred to as experimental probability.
experiment a Experimental probability = relative frequency
number of times f f
and finding the = ___ or ___× 100%
Σf Σf
event’s relative
where f is the frequency and Σ f is the total number of possibilities.
frequency

EXERCISE 8B Relative frequency
1 A cylindrical can was tossed 200 times. The number of times it landed Can tosses
on its side and on an end is shown in the table.

Outcome Frequency
a Find the relative frequency of each outcome.
b Estimate the probability that in a future toss the can will land: End 76
i on an end ii on its side. Side 124
2 A card was selected at random from a standard deck of playing cards and Card selection
its value noted. The card was replaced and this was repeated 120 times.
Value Frequency
The results were recorded as shown in the table on the right. (An ace was
counted as a one and the court cards [jack, queen, king] were counted as 10.) <5 36
Using this data, estimate the probability that a card selected at random from ≥5 84
a standard deck is:
a less than 5 b greater than or equal to 5.
3 Five hundred drivers were randomly selected and asked the question Car manufacture
‘In what country was your car manufactured?’ The results are shown in
Country Frequency
the table on the right.
a Find the relative frequency for each country of manufacture. Australia 169
b Using this data, estimate the probability that another driver chosen at Japan 153
random will own a car manufactured in Australia. Germany 77
c Estimate the probability that the driver’s car (from part b) has been Korea 62
manufactured in Korea.
Other 39
4 A restaurant sold 5284 bottles of wine last year. Of these,

107 were returned because the wine was faulty. Based on this
information, estimate the probability that a bottle of wine will
be faulty when it is opened.
5 a In a Federal Government health survey of 10 000 people,

1150 people admitted to skipping breakfast. Based on this
data, what is the probability that a person chosen at random
has skipped breakfast?
b Of the 1080 girls aged 14–18 in the survey, 172 said
that they had skipped breakfast. What is the probability
that a girl aged 14–18 chosen at random has skipped
breakfast?
6 The table on the right summarises the answers to a question Religions in Australia
concerning religion in an Australian census, when the Religion Number (millions)

population was 21.5 million. Estimate the probability that the Catholic 5.44
religion of a person chosen at random will be: Anglican 3.68
a Catholic
Other Christian 4.03
b Anglican
Non-Christian 1.55
c non-Christian.
No stated religion 6.80

7 Data for the past 50 years, showing the number of days it rained Rain in September
in the month of September, is shown in the table. Estimate the

Number of days Frequency
probability that next September it will rain on:
a 12 to 14 days 0–2 21
b more than 8 days 3–5 18
c fewer than 3 days 6–8 8
d 5 or fewer days. 9–11 2
12–14 0
15–17 1
8 One hundred batteries were selected at random from a production Battery test results
line and tested. The results are shown in the table on the right. Battery life (h) Frequency
Determine the approximate probability that a battery selected at
<10 2
random from those produced on this line will have a life of:
a less than 10 hours 10–19 22
b 40 or more hours 20–29 59
c less than 20 hours 30–39 16
d 20 or more hours. 40–49 1
9 The table of life expectancy shown on the right is similar to those Life expectancy
used by insurance companies. It is the result of the collection of Age Number surviving
statistics on 100 000 males and 100 000 females. (years) Male Female
a i In this survey, how many of the original 100 000 males
were still alive at age 15? 0 100 000 100 000
ii What is the relative frequency of ‘males surviving to 5 99 378 99 482
15 years of age’? 10 99 322 99 438
iii On the basis of this data, estimate the probability of a 15 99 260 99 393
male baby born today being alive in 15 years time. 20 99 008 99 272
b Using the above procedure, estimate the probability that a female
25 98 626 99 130
baby will survive to 15 years of age.
30 98 194 98 965
c Estimate the probabilities of a male and a female living to age:
i 40 35 97 697 98 751
ii 60 40 97 096 98 443
iii 80 45 96 292 97 971
d i How many males were still alive at 50 years of age? 50 95 141 97 251
ii How many males were still alive at 75 years of age?
55 93 447 96 191
iii What percentage of males who survived to 50 were still
60 90 925 94 618
alive at 75?
iv Estimate the probability of a 50-year-old male living to 75. 65 86 931 92 152
e Repeat part d for females. 70 80 738 88 398
75 71 589 82 305
80 57 770 72 308
85 39 651 56 373
90 20 529 34 635
95 7 113 14 319
100 1 649 3 634

10 In a survey of 4000 marriages it was found
that 1356 ended in divorce. Phil and Jenny are
getting married next weekend. On the basis
of the evidence from the survey, what is the
approximate probability that their marriage will
end in divorce?
Questions 11–13 involve performing a number of trials of different experiments to calculate the relative
CHALLENGE
frequency or experimental probability of an event.
11 a Drop a drawing pin 100 times and complete the table to Outcome Tally Frequency
record whether it lands point up or point down.
Point up
b How many times did the drawing pin land point up? How
many times did it land point down? Point down
c Calculate the experimental probability of each outcome.
d Based on your results, are the outcomes equally likely events?
Explain.
e Combine the results for the whole class. Compare
the results.
f Based on the class results, are the outcomes equally likely?
Discuss this with the class.
12 a Toss an empty matchbox 100 times and record the number of Outcome Tally Frequency
times it lands on its largest faces, a side face or an end face.
Largest face
b Calculate the experimental probability of each outcome.
c Based on your results, are the outcomes equally likely events? Side face
Explain. End face
d Enter the results into a spreadsheet and use the Chart option
to make a graph of the results.
e Combine the results for the whole class.
f Enter the combined results into your spreadsheet and use the
Chart option to compare the results.
g Based on the class results, are the outcomes equally likely?
Discuss your answer with the class.
13 Count and record the number of boys and girls born on a particular
day by examining the birth notices in a daily newspaper. On the
basis of this information, are the births of a boy and a girl equally likely?

8C Probability
• Interactive 8C: Compare theoretical and experimental probability
• Worksheet 8C: Practise your skills with extra problems for probability
If all the possible outcomes are equally likely, then the theoretical probability of an
event, E, happening is given by:
number of favourable outcomes
P(E) = __________________________
total number of outcomes
The probability of an event may be expressed as a fraction, a decimal or a percentage.
EXAMPLE 8C–1 Calculating theoretical probability

When a six-sided die is rolled, what is the probability of getting:
a a 2? b an even number?
Solve Think Apply
a There is only one favourable The sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Find the number of
outcome for P(2). and all these outcomes are equally likely. favourable outcomes and
1
P(2) = __ divide by the number in
6 So the total number of outcomes is 6.
the sample space.
b P(even number) = __ 3 = __
1 There are three favourable outcomes for
6 2 P(2) means the
(or 0.5 or 50%). getting an even number: 2, 4 and 6.
probability of getting a 2.
EXERCISE 8C Probability
1 A six-sided die is rolled. What is the probability of getting:
a a 5? b an odd number? c a number greater than 4?
d a 5 or a 6? e a 9? f a number less than 7?
2 In Erin’s maths class there are 11 girls and 12 boys. If the teacher selects one student at random from the class,
what is the probability that it is:
a Erin? b a girl? c a boy? d a girl or a boy?
3 A six-sided die has three faces painted black, two faces painted red and one face painted yellow. If the die is
rolled, what is the probability that the uppermost face is:
a black? b red? c yellow?
d black or red? e green? f black or red or yellow

4 The spinner shown in the diagram is spun. What is the probability that it stops on:
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a 6? b 7? c 6 or 7? 1
8 2
d an even number? e an odd number? f a number greater than 5?
7
3
g a number less than 3? h 9? i a number less than 9?
6 4
5
5 A card is selected at random from a standard deck of playing cards. Determine:
a P(7 of clubs) b P(7) c P(club)
d P(black 7) e P(red 7) f P(black)
g P(red) h P(green 7) i P(either red or black)
6 If there are 200 tickets in a raffle, what is the probability of winning first prize if you buy:
a 1 ticket? b 2 tickets? c 5 tickets?
d 10 tickets? e 20 tickets? f 200 tickets?
7 A letter is chosen at random from the word

HIPPOPOTAMUS. Find:
a P(P) b P(O)
c P(T) d P(a vowel)
e P(a consonant) f P(not an A)
g P(U or S) h P(Q)
8 A marble is selected at random from a bag containing

four red, three blue and two green marbles. Find the
probability that the marble selected is:
a red b blue
c green d red or blue
e not red f not blue
g not red or green h not red or blue
i yellow j red, blue or green.
9 Discs numbered 1 to 20 are placed in a hat and one is

chosen at random. Find the probability that the number on the disc chosen is:
a 7 b not 7
c even d not even
e less than 10 f not less than 10
g divisible by 3 h not divisible by 3
i greater than 20 j less than 20
k a one-digit number l a two-digit number.
You will have discovered from the previous questions that:

If an event E is impossible, then: P(E) = 0
If an event E is certain, then: P(E) = 1

So, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤1

10 For the experiments below, write events which have the following probabilities:
i P(E) = 0 ii P(E) = 1
a A die is rolled.
b A ball is chosen from a bag containing three red balls and two white balls.
c A card is selected from a standard playing deck.
11 In a class discussion, Matthew gave the following answers to three questions on probability. What would
you tell Matthew about his answers?
a 1.2 b −0.6 c 99%
Remember that:
Relative frequency or experimental probability gives an estimate of the probability that is based on
performing trials of an experiment.
Theoretical probability is the expected probability when all the possible outcomes are equally likely and
it can be calculated for an event, E, using the formula:
number of favourable outcomes .
P(E) = __________________________
total number of outcomes
12 a Toss a coin 100 times and record the results in a table similar to the Outcome H T
one shown on the right.
Frequency
b i From your results, are the outcomes equally likely?
ii Calculate the experimental probability of each outcome.
c i Combine your results with those of the rest of the class by writing them on the board.
ii Calculate the experimental probability of each outcome using the combined results.
d Compare the experimental probability with the expected (theoretical) probability.
e What do you think would happen if you tossed a coin 1 000 000 times?
f Does the number of trials have an effect on the results? (Number of trials is the number of times the
experiment is repeated.) Comment on your findings.
13 a When a die is rolled, what is the theoretical probability of rolling a number less than 3?
b Roll a die 100 times and find the experimental probability of rolling a number less than 3.
c Compare the theoretical and experimental results from parts a and b. Comment on your findings.
d Combine your results from part b with those of the rest of the class by writing them on the board.
Calculate the experimental probability using the combined results.
e Compare the results from parts a and d. Comment on your findings.
14 A cup contains five red, three green and two blue cubes. The cup is shaken and one cube is selected.
a What is the theoretical probability that the cube is:
i red? ii green? iii blue?
b Perform this experiment 100 times and find the experimental probability of selecting a cube that is:
i red ii green iii blue.
c Compare the experimental results from part b with the theoretical results from part a. Comment on
your findings.
d Combine your results from part b with those of the rest of the class by writing them on the board.
Calculate the experimental probability of each outcome using the results of the whole class.
e Compare the results from part d with the results from part a. Comment on your findings.

15 a If a card is selected at random from a
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N standard deck, what is the theoretical
probability that the card is:
i a heart? ii a diamond?
iii a spade? iv a club?
b i Select a card from a standard deck and
record its suit.
ii Replace the card and shuffle the pack.
iii Repeat this 50 times.
c Use your results from part b to determine
the experimental probability that a card
chosen at random is:
i a heart ii a diamond
iii a spade iv a club.
d i Combine your results with those of the rest of the class by writing them on the board.
ii Repeat part c using the class results.
e Compare the experimental results with the theoretical results. Comment on your findings.
16 Consider your answers to questions 12–15. Describe what happens to the relative frequency (experimental
probability) when the number of trials of an experiment is increased. How does it compare to the expected
(theoretical) probability?
17 The digits 0 to 9 are written on cards that are

CHALLENGE
placed in a hat. One card is drawn at random from

the hat. Write an event that has a probability of:
a ___ 1 b __1
10 2
c 0 d 1
e ___ 3 f ___9
10 10
g ___11 h −___ 7
10 10
18 The following is a list of colloquial terms and

expressions used to describe chance. Research
and discuss the meaning of these terms.
• pigs might fly

• once in a blue moon
• as scarce as hens’ teeth
• a long shot
• a sure thing
• in the box seat

• Buckley’s chance
• bank on it
• put your house on it
• a one-in-300-year flood
• a snowflake’s chance in hell

8D Complementary events
• Interactive 8D: Explore key ideas for complementary events
• Worksheet 8D: Practise your skills with extra problems for complementary events
complement of E An event, E, is an outcome or collection of outcomes. It is a subgroup of the sample space.

˜ or E′)
(E The remaining group of outcomes of the sample space that do not belong to E is called the
remaining group complement of E. The complement of E is written E˜ or E′.
of outcomes in the
sample space that E and E˜ are called complementary events. From the definition it follows that:
do not belong to
the event E
Number of outcomes in E + number of outcomes in E˜
complementary
events = total number of possible outcomes.
events are
complementary
if the sum of
EXAMPLE 8D–1 Identifying the complement of an event
the number of
outcomes in each a A six-sided die is rolled. List all the possible outcomes.
event equals the
b What is the complement of the event:
total number
of possible i rolling a 6? ii rolling an even number?
outcomes in the iii rolling a number less than 3? iv not rolling a 4?
sample space
Solve Think
a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} List each possibility.
b i If E = {6} then E˜ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The complement of ‘rolling a 6’ is ‘rolling
a 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5’ or ‘not rolling a 6’.
ii If E = {2, 4, 6} then E˜ = {1, 3, 5}. The complement of ‘rolling an even
The outcomes that do not result in number’ is ‘rolling a 1, 3 or 5’ or ‘not
an even number are 1, 3, 5. rolling an even number’ or ‘rolling an odd
number’.
iii If E = {1, 2} then E˜ = {3, 4, 5, 6}. The complement of ‘rolling a number
The outcomes that do not result in a less than 3’ is ‘rolling a 3, 4, 5 or 6’ or
number less than 3 are 3, 4, 5, 6. ‘not rolling a number less than 3’ or
‘rolling a number greater than 2’.
iv In this case E = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}, The complement of ‘not rolling a 4’ is
so E˜ = {4}. ‘rolling a 4’.
Apply
List all possible outcomes. Cross out the outcomes in the sample space that are
in the event. The remaining outcomes are the complement of the event.

EXERCISE 8D Complementary events
1 a A coin is tossed. List the possible outcomes.
b Determine the complement of the event:

i tossing a head ii tossing a tail.
1
2 a The five-sided spinner shown is spun. List all the possible outcomes.
5 2
b List the outcomes and write in words the complement of the event:
i spinning a 3 ii spinning an odd number 4 3
iii spinning a number greater than 3 iv not spinning a 5.
3 A box contains one red (R), one blue (B) and one green (G) counter. One counter is selected at random.
Match the following events with their complement.
Event: a R b G c R or B d B or G e not B f R, B or G
Complement: A G B G or B C not R, B or G D R or B E R F B
4 A card is selected from a standard playing deck. Write the complement of each event below.
a selecting a diamond b selecting a diamond or a heart
c selecting a diamond, a heart or a club d selecting a red card
e selecting an ace f not selecting a king
5 a List the sample space when two coins are tossed.

b Write the complement of each of these events.
i two heads ii head, tail in that order iii exactly one head
iv no heads v at least one head vi at least one tail
EXAMPLE 8D–2 Calculating probability of complementary events

A fair six-sided die is rolled. Find the probability of:
a i rolling a 6 ii not rolling a 6
b i rolling an even number ii not rolling an even number
c i rolling a number less than 3 ii not rolling a number less than 3.
Solve Think
a i 1
P(6) = __ S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
6 1
If E = {6} then P(6) = __
6 5
Ẽ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} so P(not 6) = __
6
ii 5
P(not 6) = __ Note: P(6) + P(not 6) = 1
6
or: P(not 6) = 1 − P(6)
or: P(6) = 1 − P(not 6)
b i 3
P(even number) = __ 3
If E = {2, 4, 6} then P(E) = __
6 6
3
=1__ Ẽ = {1, 3, 5} so P(not even) = __
2 6
ii 3
P(not even) = __ Note: P(even) + P(not even) = 1
6
1 or: P(not even) = 1 − P(even)
= __
2 or: P(even) = 1 − P(not even)

Solve Think
c i 2
P(number less than 3) = __ 2
If E = {1, 2} then P(E) = __
6 6
= 1
__
3
ii 4
P(number not less than 3) = __ 4
Ẽ = {3, 4, 5, 6} so P(number not less than 3) = __
6 6
2 Note: P(number less than 3) + P(number not less than 3) = 1
= __
3 or: P(number not less than 3) = 1 − P(number less than 3)
or: P(number less than 3) = 1 − P(number not less than 3)
Apply
Determine the outcomes of the complementary event and find its probability.
In general, for complementary events: P(E)+P(Ẽ)=1

So: P(E)=1−P(Ẽ)
and: P(Ẽ) =1−P(E)
The results described above are often used when it is inconvenient or time-consuming to count all the favourable
outcomes for an event.
EXAMPLE 8D–3 Using the complementary events formula to calculate probability
a Calculate the probability of event E if P(Ẽ ) = 0.24.

b Calculate the probability of the complement of event E if P(E) = __5 .
6
Solve Think Apply
a P(E) = 1 − P(Ẽ ) Use P(E) = 1 − P(Ẽ ). The probability of an event

= 1 − 0.24 plus the probability of the
= 0.76 complement of the event
must add to 1.
b P(Ẽ ) = 1 − P(E ) Use P(Ẽ ) = 1 − P(E).
5
= 1 − __
1 6
= __
6
6 Calculate the probability of event E if:

a P(Ẽ) = __3 b P(Ẽ) = 0.3 c P(Ẽ) = 15%
4
7 Calculate the probability of the complement of event E if:
a P(E) = __7 b P(E) = 0.67 c P(E) = 48%
8

EXAMPLE 8D–4 Deciding whether to consider an event or its complement
to calculate probability
The numbers 1 to 200 are written on cards. The cards are shuffled and one card is selected at random.
Determine the probability that the number on the card is:
a 93 b not 93 c divisible by 10 d not divisible by 10.
Solve Think Apply
a 1
P(93) = ____ 1 outcome out of 200. Read the question and decide
200
whether the event or its
b P(not 93) = 1 − P(93) Use P(Ẽ) = 1 − P(E) complement would be easier
=1−____1
200 to count.
199
= ____ If the event is easier, use P(E).
200
If the complement is easier,
c 20
P(divisible by 10) = ____ 20 numbers are divisible by 10.
200 use P(E) = 1 − P(Ẽ).
1
= ___
10
d P(not divisible by 10) Use P(E) = 1 − P(E˜).
= 1 − P(divisible by 10)
1
= 1 − ___
10
9
= ___
10
8 The numbers 1 to 100 are written on cards. The deck of cards is shuffled and one card is selected at random.
Determine the probability that the card is:

a 37 b not 37 c divisible by 10
d not divisible by 10 e a one-digit number f not a one-digit number
g a multiple of 12 h not a multiple of 12 i a number with last digit 9
j a number with last digit not 9 k less than 5 l not less than 5
m greater than 93 n not greater than 93.
9 A card is selected from a standard playing deck. Find the probability that it is:
a not the 6 of clubs b not a black 6 c not the ace or king of diamonds
d not a 6 e not an ace or king f not a heart.
3 and
1 , P(exactly 2H ) = __
10 If three coins are flipped and H represents flipping a head, P(3H ) = __
3. 8 8
P(exactly 1H ) = __
8
a Write the probability of:
i no heads ii no tails iii exactly one tail
iv exactly two tails v three tails.
b i What is the complement of the event ‘at least one tail’?
ii Find the probability of at least one tail.
c i What is the complement of the event ‘at least one head’?

ii Find the probability of at least one head.
11 The numbers from 1 to 100 are written on cards and one card is selected at random.
CHALLENGE
What is the probability that the card selected is:

a divisible by 12? b not divisible by 12? c divisible by 18?
d not divisible by 18? e divisible by both 12 and 18? f not divisible by both 12 and 18?
g divisible by 12 or 18? h not divisible by either 12 or 18?

8E Probability for multistage
events
• Interactive 8E: Explore key ideas for tree diagrams
• Worksheet 8E: Practise your skills with extra problems using tree diagrams
• Investigation 8E: Display multistage experiments using tree diagrams
Multistage experiments are those that are comprised of two or more simple experiments. For
example, tossing a coin with rolling a die. Finding probabilities of multistage events is made
easier if we use a table, tree diagram or lattice diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
EXAMPLE 8E–1 Calculating the probability of two-stage events

a A shop sells jeans in three colours (blue, grey and white) with
either front or side pockets. There is an equal number of each
style on the shelves. Use a table to find the sample space.
b Find the probability that a pair of jeans chosen at random from
the shelves will:
i be blue with front pockets
ii be grey with side pockets
iii be white
iv have side pockets.
Solve Think
a Pockets
There are six possible and equally likely outcomes.
Front Side
B BF BS
Colour
G GF GS
W WF WS
b i P(BF) = __1 There is only one favourable outcome: BF.

6
ii P(GS) = __1 There is only one favourable outcome: GS.
6
iii P(white) = __2 = __1 There are two favourable outcomes: WF, WS.
6 3
iv P(side pockets) = __3 = __1 There are three favourable outcomes: BS, GS, WS.
6 2
Apply
A table ensures that all possible outcomes can be listed.

EXERCISE 8E Probability for multistage events
1 a Find all the possible ways of answering the first two questions on a True or False test.
b Determine the probability that:

i the first two answers are True
ii the first answer is True and the second is False
iii exactly one answer is True
iv both answers are False.
2 a A coin is tossed and a six-sided die is rolled. Find the sample space.
b Find the probability of getting:
i a head and 6 ii a tail and 3
iii a head and an even number iv a tail and a number less than 3.
3 a The numbers 1 to 5 appear on this five-sided spinner, each with equal probability
of occurring. The spinner is spun and a coin is tossed. List the sample space. 1
b Find the probability of getting: 5 2

i a head and a 5
4 3
ii a head and an even number
iii a tail and an odd number.
4 a Two four-sided dice (regular tetrahedra) with the numbers 1 to 4 on their faces are tossed. Use a table to
find all the possible outcomes.
b Find the probability of tossing:
i double 4 ii any double
iii a 1 and a 4, in any order iv two even numbers
v two odd numbers vi a sum of 5.
c What is the probability that:
i exactly one of the numbers is a 4?
ii at least one of the numbers is a 4?
5 a Two fair six-sided dice are tossed. Use a table to find all the possible outcomes.
b Find the probability of tossing:
i double 5 ii any double
iii a 2 and a 3, in any order iv a 1 and a 6, in any order
v two even numbers vi two odd numbers
vii a sum of 5 viii a sum of 11.
c Which sum is the most likely to occur?
d What is the probability that:
i exactly one of the numbers is a 2?
ii at least one of the numbers is a 2?
6 a List the sample space for a family with two children, using G for a girl and B for a boy.
b Assuming that the chances of having a boy or a girl are the same, determine the probability of having:
i two boys ii a boy first and then a girl
iii a girl first and then a boy iv a boy and a girl in any order
v two girls.

EXAMPLE 8E–2 Calculating the probability of three-stage events
a Find all the possible ways in which you can answer the first three questions on a True or False test.
b Find the probability that:
i the first three answers are True
ii the first two answers are True and the third is False
iii two answers are True and one is False, in any order
iv only one answer is True
v all answers are False.
Solve Think
a Possible outcomes: TTT, TTF, A tree diagram shows there are eight possible and equally likely
TFT, TFF, FTT, FTF, FFT, FFF. outcomes.
1st question 2nd question 3rd question Outcomes
T TTT
T
F TTF
T
T TFT
F
F TFF
T FTT
T
F FTF
F
T FFT
F
F FFF
b i P(TTT) = __1 . There is only one favourable outcome: TTT.

8
ii P(TTF) = __1 There is only one favourable outcome: TTF.
8
iii P(two True, one False) = __3 There are three favourable outcomes: TTF, TFT, FTT.
8
iv P(1 True) = __3 There are three favourable outcomes: TFF, FTF, FFT.
8
v P(FFF) = __1 There is only one favourable outcome: FFF.
8
Apply
Each branching of the tree must contain all possible outcomes each time. The number of branches
depends on the number of times the event is repeated.
7 a List all the possible outcomes for the genders

of three children in a family.
b Calculate the probability of having:
i three girls
ii two girls and one boy, in that order
iii two girls and one boy, in any order
iv exactly one girl
v no girls
vi at least one boy
vii at least two boys
viii three boys.

8 a The menu at Joe’s Cafe is shown below. List all the possible three-course meals.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N b Mike decides to choose a three-course meal at random.
What is the probability that he chooses:
Entree
i pasta, steak and fruit salad?
Pasta or BBQ Prawns
ii BBQ prawns, fish and apple cake?
iii a meal including pasta and chicken? Main Course
iv a meal including steak? Steak or Fish or Chicken
v a meal not including steak? Sweets
vi a meal not including BBQ prawns? Apple Cake or Fruit Salad
vii a meal including pasta and apple cake?
9 a A bag contains one red, one blue and one white marble. One marble is chosen at random from the bag,
and then replaced into the bag. A second marble is chosen. Find the sample space.
i both marbles are red ii both marbles are the same colour
iii both marbles are different colours iv the first marble is red
v there is one blue and one white marble vi exactly one marble is red
vii at least one marble is red viii no marble are blue.
10 Repeat question 9 but, this time, the first marble is not replaced in the bag before the second marble
is chosen.
11 A standard deck of playing cards is shuffled and one card is drawn from the deck. The suit of the card is
noted and the card is replaced in the deck. This procedure is repeated once more.
a Find all the possible outcomes.
b Find the probability that the two cards will be:
i both diamonds ii a diamond followed by a heart
iii a diamond and a heart, in any order iv the same suit
v different suits vii both black
vi both red viii a red card followed by a black card
ix a red and black card, in any order x a club followed by a red card.
c Find the probability that:
i exactly one of the cards is a spade ii at least one of the cards is a spade
iii at least one of the cards is black iv neither of the cards is a heart.
12 a List all the ways that Kylie, Marie and Helen can form a queue in the canteen line.
CHALLENGE
b Find the probability that Kylie will be:

i first in the queue ii second in the queue
iii third in the queue iv in front of Helen
v behind Marie vi in front of Helen and behind Marie
vii not last in the queue.

8F Probability tree diagrams
• Interactive 8F.1: Explore key ideas for experiments with replacement
• Interactive 8F.2: Explore key ideas for experiments without replacement
• Worksheet 8F: Practise your skills with extra problems for probability tree
diagrams
• Investigation 8F: Investigate selecting marbles without replacement
Constructing a tree diagram can help us determine the outcomes for a simple multistage
experiment and this can help us determine the probability of a multistage event.
EXAMPLE 8F–1 Constructing a tree diagram to determine the number

of equally likely outcomes
A bag contains one red and one blue marble, and another bag contains one red, one blue and one green
marble. One marble is drawn from each bag. Find the probability of getting two red marbles.
Solve Think
1st bag 2nd bag Outcomes Draw a tree diagram using R for red marble, B for blue marble
R RR and G for green marble.
R B RB
G RG From the tree diagram, there are six equally likely outcomes and
one outcome favourable to this event.
R BR
B B BB Apply
G BG
number of favourable outcomes
P(E ) = __________________________
1
P(RR) = __ number of possible outcomes
6
probability tree Note: if we write the probabilities of each simpler event 1st bag 2nd bag Outcomes
diagram along the branches of the tree diagram, as shown, the 1 R RR
3
tree diagram diagram is called a probability tree diagram.
1
3
R B RB
on which the 1
2 1
probabilities of The probability of drawing a red marble from the first 3 G RG
simpler events 1 . The probability of drawing a red marble from
bag is __ 1 R BR
2 1. 1 3 1
are shown along the second bag is __ 2
B 3
B BB
its branches 3
1
So, the probability of drawing two red marbles is equal 3 G BG
to the product of the probabilities along the branches
leading to that two-stage event: __ 1 = __
1 × __ 1.
2 3 6

EXAMPLE 8F–2 Constructing a tree diagram to determine the number of
equally-likely outcomes and the number of favourable outcomes
A bag contains two red and one blue marble, and another bag contains two red, one blue and one green
marble. One marble is drawn from each bag. What is the probability of drawing two red marbles?
Solve Think
1st bag 2nd bag Outcomes Draw a tree diagram using R for red marble, B for blue marble
R RR and G for green marble.
R R RR
B RB From the tree diagram, the number of (equally likely) possible
G RG outcomes is 12 and the number of favourable outcomes is 4.
R RR
R R RR
B RB
G RG
R BR
B R BR Apply
B BB
G BG number of favourable outcomes
P(E) = __________________________
number of possible outcomes
4 = ___
P(RR) = ___ 1
12 3
Note: draw a probability tree diagram showing only the simpler events at 1st bag 2nd bag Outcomes
1
each stage, with the probability of each along its branches. 2 1
R RR
2 and the probability
The probability of a red marble from the first bag is __ 2 R 4
B RB
3 3
of a red marble from the second bag is __ 1 . So the probability of getting
2 = __ 1
4 G RG
4 2 1 R BR
two red marbles is equal to the product of the probabilities along the 1 2 1
3 4
1 = __
2 × __ 1.
2 or __ B B BB
branches leading to that event: __
3 2 6 3 1
G BG
4
EXAMPLE 8F–3 Constructing a probability tree diagram to show outcomes that

are not equally likely to occur
A bag contains five purple and four green marbles, and a second
bag contains three purple and five green marbles. If a marble
is selected at random from each bag, what is the probability of
selecting two purple marbles?
Solve Think Apply

1st bag 2nd bag Event Draw a probability tree diagram Draw a probability tree
3
8 P PP showing each of the simpler events diagram and find the product
5 P at each stage. Use P for purple of the probabilities along
9 5 G PG
8
3 marbles and G for green marbles. the branches leading to the

4 8 P GP
9 G Find the product of the probabilities required event.
5 G GG
8 along the branches leading to PP
5 × __
3 = ___
5 (two purple marbles).
P(PP) = __
9 8 24

EXERCISE 8F Probability tree diagrams
Remember that: To find the probability of a two-stage event, draw a probability tree diagram and find the
product of the probabilities along the branches leading to that event.
1 A bag contains three red and four blue marbles, and a second bag contains 1st bag 2nd bag Event
5 red and 4 blue marbles. A marble is selected from each bag. R RR
3 R
a Complete this probability tree diagram for this two-stage event. 7 4 B RB
9
b What is the probability of getting two blue marbles? B R BR
B BB
2 A hand of cards consists of two aces and two kings and a second hand consists
of three aces and a queen. One card is selected at random from each hand.
a Draw a probability tree diagram for the selection of the card.
b What is the probability of selecting two aces?
3 Four green discs and five yellow discs are placed in a box. A disc is selected and its colour is noted. The disc
is replaced and a second disc is chosen.
a Draw a probability tree diagram for this two-stage event.
i both discs are green ii both discs are yellow
iii a green disc is followed by a yellow disc iv a yellow disc is followed by a green disc.
4 Class 11A is made up of 8 boys and 12 girls. Class 11B has 11 boys and 11 girls.
a If one student is chosen at random from class 11A, what is the probability of choosing:
i a boy? ii a girl?
b If one student is chosen at random from class 11B, what is the probability of choosing:
i a boy? ii a girl?
c One student is chosen at random from each class. Draw a probability tree diagram for the possible
outcomes.
d What is the probability that the students chosen in part c are:
i both boys? ii both girls? iii a boy from class 11A and a girl from class 11B?
5 When a child is born, the actual probability that it is a boy is 0.51 and the probability that it is a girl is 0.49.
a Draw a probability tree diagram for a family’s two children.
b Calculate the probability of:
i two boys ii a boy and a girl, in that order
iii a girl and a boy, in that order iv two girls.
6 a A coin is biased so that it comes up tails 60% of the time. When this coin is tossed, what is the
probability of getting:
i a tail? ii a head?
b Draw a probability tree diagram for two tosses of this coin.
c For two tosses of the coin, find the probability of getting:
i two heads ii a head and a tail, in that order
iii a tail and a head, in that order iv two tails.

EXAMPLE 8F–4 Calculating probabilities using a probability tree diagram
The probability that a chicken will survive the first 6 weeks after hatching is 0.7.
Find the probability that, of two chickens hatched:
a both will survive
b the first will survive but the second will die
c both will die.
Solve Think Apply

a 1st chicken 2nd chicken Event Draw a probability tree Draw a probability tree
0.7 S SS diagram showing each event. diagram and find the product
0.7 S Use S for chicken survives and of the probabilities along
0.3 D SD
D for chicken dies. Multiply the branches leading to the
0.7 S DS
0.3 D along the appropriate branches. required event.
0.3 D DD
P(SS) = 0.7 × 0.7 = 0.49

b P(SD) = 0.7 × 0.3= 0.21
c P(DD) = 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.09
7 The probability that a 60-year-old man will live to be 70 is 0.8 and the probability that a 60-year-old woman
will live to be 70 is 0.9. For a 60-year-old married couple, find the probability that, in 10 years time:
a both will be alive b only the husband will be alive
c only the wife will be alive d neither will be alive.
8 A student enters the 100 m and 400 m races at the school athletics carnival. His chance of winning the
100 m is 0.8 and his chance of winning the 400 m is 0.6. Find the probability that:
a he wins both races b he wins the 100 m but not the 400 m race
c he wins the 400 m but not the 100 m race d he does not win either race.
9 Melanie and Tina are archers. The probability that Melanie hits the bullseye of the target is __ 3 and the
3 5
probability that Tina hits the bullseye is __. If both shoot at the target, what is the probability that:
4
a both hit the bullseye? b Melanie hits the bullseye but Tina misses?
c only Tina hits the bullseye? d both archers miss the bullseye?
10 The probability that a particular ear infection will be cured when treated with an antibiotic is 0.9. If two
patients with this ear infection are treated with this antibiotic, find the probability that:
a both will be cured b neither will be cured
c one will be cured but not the other d at least one will be cured.
11 Ken plays Lew in a best of three set tennis match; that is, the first player to win two sets wins the match.
CHALLENGE
a If each player has an equal chance of winning each set, what is the probability that:
i Lew wins in two sets ii Lew wins in three sets
iii Lew loses in two sets iv Lew loses in three sets?
b On past performances Lew has won 6 out of every 10 sets they have played against each other. On the
basis of this information, calculate the probability that:
i Lew wins in two sets ii Lew wins in three sets
iii Lew loses in two sets iv Lew loses in three sets.

8G Expected frequency
and simulations
• Interactive 8G.1: Explore key ideas for expected frequency
• Worksheet 8G.1: Practise your skills with extra problems for expected frequency
• Interactive 8G.2: Explore key ideas for simulating an experiment
• Spreadsheet 8G.1: Simulate the toss of a coin
• Spreadsheet 8G.2: Simulate the roll of a die
• Worksheet 8G.2: Practise your skills with extra problems for simulations
• Investigation 8G: Perform a simulation using a spreadsheet
expected
1 . So, if a coin is tossed
The probability of tossing a head with a single toss of a coin is __
2
frequency
100 times, we would expect half of the tosses (50) to result in a head.
(expected number)
1 . So, if a die is rolled
When a six-sided die is rolled, the probability of rolling a 4 is __
expected number
6
of times an 1 of the tosses (100) to result in a 4.
600 times, we would expect __
event will occur, 6
calculated by These are simple examples of what is called the expected frequency or expected number of
multiplying the an event. It is the expected number of times the event would occur. This idea is formalised as
probability of the follows.
event occurring
by the number of
trials Expected frequency = probability of event occurring × number of trials
EXAMPLE 8G–1 Calculating expected frequency of an event using a given

probability
The probability that a basketball player scores from
a free throw is 0.75. If the player has 60 free throws,
what is the expected frequency of scoring? (How
many times would you expect the player to score?)
Solve/Think Apply
Expected frequency = 0.75 × 60 = 45 Expected frequency

The basketball player would be expected to = probability of scoring × number of throws
score 45 times.

UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING EXERCISE 8G Expected frequency and simulations
1 Complete the following to find the number of times you would expect a tail to occur when a fair coin is
tossed 400 times.
Expected number of tails
= probability of a tail × number of tosses
= ____ × ____
= ____
2 The probability that a male child is born is 0.51 and

the probability of a female child being born is 0.49.
If 300 babies are born in a hospital in one year, how
many would you expect to be:
a male? b female?
3 The probability that a 50-year-old male lives to be
70 years of age is 0.73. For a group of six hundred
50-year-old males, what is the expected frequency
of living to 70 years? (How many males would be
expected to live to 70 years?)
4 The probability that a 50-year-old female is diagnosed as having cancer is 0.07. Of a group of five hundred
50-year-old females, how many would be expected to be diagnosed as having cancer?
5 The probability that a school-age child has defective eyesight is 0.08. In a school of 850 students, how many
would you expect to have defective eyesight?
6 The probability that a worker in an abattoir has an accident in any year is 0.14. If an abattoir employs
150 workers, how many accidents could be expected in the next year?
7 In the game of poker, a hand of five cards is dealt to each player. The approximate probability of various
hands is shown in the table below. If one million hands are dealt, what is the expected frequency of each of
the hands in the table?
Hand Probability
Royal flush 0.000 002
Four of a kind 0.000 240
Full house 0.001 441
Straight 0.003 925
Three of a kind 0.021 128
Two pairs 0.047 539
One pair 0.422 569
8 Fifty people are given the drug septamycin

to cure an infection. This drug has a
90% success rate. How many of the
50 people can be expected to be treated
successfully?

EXAMPLE 8G–2 Finding expected frequency after first calculating
the probability of the event

a In a single roll of a six-sided die, what is the probability of getting:
i a 2? ii an even number? iii a number less than 5?
b If the die is rolled 300 times, what is the expected frequency of:
i a 2? ii an even number? iii a number less than 5?
Solve Apply
a i The probability of a 2 in one roll of the die = __1 . number of favourable outcomes
P(E) = __________________________
6 number of possible outcomes
ii The probability of an even number = __1 .
2
iii The probability of a number less than 5 = __4 or __2 .
6 3
b i Expected frequency of a 2 = __1 × 300 Expected frequency
6
= 50 = probability of event × number of trials
We would expect a 2 to occur 50 times.
ii Expected frequency of even numbers = __1 × 300
2
= 150
iii Expected frequency of numbers less than 5 = __2 × 300
3
= 200
9 a A six-sided die is rolled once. Find the probability

of getting:
i a5
ii an odd number
iii a number less than 3
iv a number greater than 2
b If the die is rolled 600 times, calculate the expected
frequency of:
i a5
ii an odd number
iii a number less than 3
iv a number greater than 2.
10 a A bag contains three red, four blue and one green

marble. If one marble is drawn at random from the
bag, what is the probability that it is:
i red?
ii blue?
iii green?
b This process is performed 400 times, and the marble replaced after each draw. What is the expected
frequency of:
i red marbles drawn?
ii blue marbles drawn?
iii green marbles drawn?

11 a A card is selected at random from a standard
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING playing deck. Find the probability of selecting:
i a black card
ii a heart
iii a king
iv a red ace.
b If this process is performed 260 times and the
card is replaced each time, find the expected
number of:
i black cards selected
ii hearts selected
iii kings selected
iv red aces selected.
12 a If two coins are tossed simultaneously, what is the probability of tossing:

i 0 heads? ii exactly one head? iii exactly two heads?
b If two coins are tossed 100 times, what is the expected frequency of:
i 0 heads? ii exactly one head? iii exactly two heads?
13 a Use a tree diagram to find the sample space for the genders of three children in a family.
b Assuming the chances of a boy or a girl are equally likely, find the probability of having:
i no girls ii exactly one girl
iii exactly two girls iv three girls.
c In a survey of 200 families with three children, how many would be expected to have:
i no girls? ii exactly one girl?
iii exactly two girls? iv three girls?
14 a Write the theoretical probability of throwing a head

when a coin is tossed.
b i Calculate the expected frequency of heads when a
coin is tossed 100 times.
ii In pairs, toss a coin 100 times and record the
results in a table.
iii What is the difference between the expected
number and the actual number of heads tossed?
iv Use your results to calculate the experimental
probability of throwing a head. (Out of 100
tosses, how many times did you toss a head?)
c i Calculate the expected frequency of heads when a
coin is tossed 1000 times.
ii Combine the results of 10 pairs of your classmates and find the actual number of heads that
occurred in 1000 tosses.
iii What is the difference between the expected number and the actual number of heads tossed?
iv Use the combined results to calculate the experimental probability of throwing a head.
d Use your answers to parts b and c to help you answer the following.
i As the number of trials increases, what happens to the difference between the expected number
and the actual number of heads tossed?
ii As the number of trials increases, what happens to the experimental probability compared with the
theoretical probability of tossing a head?

15 a What is the theoretical probability of selecting a diamond when a card is selected from a standard
52-card deck?
b i Calculate the expected frequency of diamonds when a card is selected from a deck 104 times.
ii In pairs, select a card from a deck 104 times and record whether or not it is a diamond. List the
results in a table.
iii What is the difference between the expected number and the actual number of diamonds selected?
iv Use your results to calculate the experimental probability of selecting a diamond.
c i Calculate the expected frequency of diamonds when a card is selected from a deck 1040 times.
ii Combine the results of 10 pairs of your classmates and find the actual number of diamonds that
occurred in 1040 selections.
iii What is the difference between the expected number and the actual number of diamonds selected?
iv Use your results to calculate the experimental probability of selecting a diamond.
d Use your answers to parts b and c to help you answer the following.
i As the number of trials increases, what happens to the difference between the expected number
and actual number of diamonds selected?
ii As the number of trials increases, what happens to the experimental probability compared with the
theoretical probability of selecting a diamond?
16 a Two three-sided spinners, with the numbers 1, 2 and 3, each

with an equal probability of occurring, are spun. Use a table
similar to the one shown below to see the sample space. 1
3
Second spinner 2
1 2 3
First spinner
1
2
3
b Find the probability of spinning:

i double three 1
ii any double 3
iii a total of five. 2
c If the two spinners are spun simultaneously 450 times,
what would be the expected number of times the following events
would occur?
i double three
ii any double
iii a total of five
Simulations
A simulation is a simple mathematical model used to investigate a more complicated, time consuming or
costly situation. Situations are modelled using the outcomes of tossing coins, rolling dice, selecting cards
from a pack and using random numbers generated from tables, calculators and computers. Events are
modelled so that simulated outcomes closely match real-world outcomes.

EXAMPLE 8G–3 Simulating an experiment using a table of random numbers
Based on past performances, a rugby player has a 70% chance of kicking a goal from 40 metres out
from the posts.
a Simulate five kicks, using the table of random numbers below, and estimate the number of goals he is
likely to score (out of the five attempts).
b Repeat the simulation to estimate the number of goals the player would kick from 50 attempts.
c Compare the results of the simulation in part b with the theoretical expected frequency of goals.
48047 45381 33232 35178 46971 85879 31458 22016
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691
58547 01331 62538 79181 33071 63766 73613 24470
85566 81574 71965 20977 48005 83418 58738 98771
40942 42373 38710 39916 08187 00133 16288 64277
80553 58331 62724 74004 09344 91315 25791 40296
27328 85758 45342 98884 36034 79836 94902 80442
64584 20776 86792 42340 83522 62139 14038 88433
Solve/Think Apply
a Let each digit in the table represent a kick at Describe the possible outcomes (‘a goal’, or
goal. Let the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 signify ‘a ‘a miss’).
goal’ and let the digits 7, 8, 9 signify ‘a miss’; Link each outcome to one or more random
so seven of the ten possible digits in the table numbers (0, 1, 2,…6 for ‘a goal’ and 7, 8, 9 for
(70%) represent ‘a goal’ and three of the ten ‘a miss’).
possible digits (30%) represent ‘a miss’. Choose a suitable source of random numbers.
Start at any digit in the table and read off (From a table or generated by a computer or
five digits. Suppose we start at the 5 in row 2 calculator.)
and column 6. Reading to the right the digits Choose a random number and note the simulated
selected are 5, 8, 1, 1, 2. This represents outcome. (5 is ‘a goal’, 8 is ‘a miss’, 1 is ‘a goal’,
4 goals and 1 miss in five attempts; meaning, etc.)
in five attempts at kicking a goal, he would be Note: we could have chosen any seven of the ten
successful four times. digits to represent a goal.
b Starting at the same place, and selecting
50 digits, the digits selected are
5811296070
9191018868
5225199827
3258190070
9887389846
representing 28 goals and 22 misses.
c The expected number of goals scored out of

50 attempts is 0.7 × 50 = 35. This is higher
than the results of the simulation.

17 The chance that the goal shooter in a netball team will
score a goal is 90%.

a Assign digits to represent ‘a goal’ and ‘a miss’.
b Using simulation, select 50 digits from the table of
random numbers in Example 8G-3 and estimate how
many goals she will score out of 50 attempts.
c Compare the results of your simulation with the
theoretical expected frequency.
18 Repeat question 17 by assigning a different set of digits

to represent ‘a goal’ and ‘a miss’.
19 A plant seedling has an 80% chance of surviving the first 6 weeks after planting. A nurseryman plants
100 seedlings.
a Using simulation, select 100 digits from the table of random numbers in Example 8G-3 and estimate
the number of seedlings that will survive.
b Compare the results of your simulation with the theoretical expected frequency.
20 Assume that the chance of a baby being male and the chance of the baby being female are both 0.5.
a i Assigning the odd digits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 to represent boys and the digits 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 to represent girls,
use the table of random numbers in Example 8G-3 to estimate the number of boys and girls in a
family with four children.
ii Repeat part i to produce results for 10 trials and record the results in a table similar to the one below.
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of boys Average =
Number of girls Average =
iii Calculate the average number of boys and girls in these 10 simulated families with four children.
iv From your results, in a family of four children, what are the probabilities that there are
0, 1, 2, 3, 4 boys?
v Put your average on the classroom board and calculate the average of all the class averages.
vi Combine the results in your table (number of boys) with the class. From the class data, in a family
of four children, what are the probabilities that there are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 boys?
vii What is the expected number of boys in a family with four children? Compare this with the results
of parts iii and v. Discuss with the class.
1 , __
viii The theoretical probabilities of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 boys in a family of four are ___ 3 , __
1 , __ 1 , ___
1
16 4 8 4 16
respectively. Compare the results of your simulations (parts iv and vi) with the theoretical
probabilities. Discuss with the class.
b i Assigning the outcome ‘heads’ to represent boys and ‘tails’ to represent girls, toss a coin four times (or
toss four coins simultaneously) to estimate the number of boys and girls in a family with four children.
Repeat parts ii to vi from part a.
c i Assigning the outcomes 1, 2, 3 to represent boys and 4, 5, 6 to represent girls, roll a die four times
to estimate the number of boys and girls in a family with four children.
d i Assigning the suits spades and clubs to represent boys, and hearts and diamonds to represent girls,
shuffle a standard deck of 52 playing cards and select four cards from the deck to estimate the
number of boys and girls in a family with four children.

21 Using random numbers, a coin or a die to simulate the birth of a boy or a girl, investigate what would
happen if couples stopped having children after the first girl was born, by:
a simulating the birth of boys and girls until a girl is born
b recording the number of girls (obviously one) and number of boys in this family
c repeating the simulation until you have the results for 20 families.
Record the results in a table similar to the one below
Family 1 2 3 4 5 6 … 20 Total
Number of boys
Number of girls 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 20
Number of children
d Calculate the average number of children a family will have if they stop after having a girl.
22 As a class, research and discuss the factors that could complicate the simulation of real-world events.
23 For a large number of trials, an experiment can be simulated using random numbers generated by a
spreadsheet function. The rolling of a die can be simulated by generating a list of random numbers from
1 to 6. The tossing of a coin can be simulated by generating a list of random numbers from 1 to 2 and
assigning the number 1 to represent ‘a head’ and the number 2 to represent ‘a tail’ (or vice versa).
In Microsoft Excel, to produce a list of random numbers from a to b, type: =RAND()*(b−a)+a
into the formula bar.
For example, suppose we wish to simulate the tossing of a coin 100 times. We can generate a list of 100
random numbers from 1 to 2 by the following steps.
Step 1: Format the cells to 0 decimal places.
Step 2: Type =RAND()*(2−1)+1 into the formula bar.
Step 3: Highlight 100 cells and fill down.
Step 4: Count the number of heads (1s) and tails (2s).
Use the method shown above to simulate the experiments in questions 24 and 25 below.
24 a Roll a die 100 times. Use tally marks to record the results.
b Calculate the relative frequency of each outcome.
c Do your results show that each number occurs the same number of times?
d Enter the results into a spreadsheet and use the Chart option to make a graph of the results.
e Combine the results for the whole class.
f Enter the combined class results into your spreadsheet and use the Chart option to compare the results.
g Are the outcomes equally likely? Discuss your answer with the class.
25 a Make a spinner with four colours, each occupying __1 of the area of the spinner. Spin the spinner
4
100 times to perform 100 trials of the experiment.

b Record the results in a frequency table.
c Enter the results into a spreadsheet and use the Chart option to make a graph of the results.
d Calculate the relative frequency of obtaining each colour.
e Is each colour equally likely? Explain your answer.

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW REL ATIVE FREQUENCY AND
PROBABILIT Y
✔ list the sample space of single and multistage experiments
✔ use tables and tree diagrams to list the sample space
✔ determine relative frequency or experimental probability
✔ calculate theoretical probability
✔ understand the relationship between experimental and theoretical probability
✔ find the probability of complementary events
✔ calculate the probability for multistage events
✔ use probability tree diagrams to calculate probability
✔ calculate the expected number of times an event will occur
✔ compare expected frequency of an event with experimental results
✔ solve problems involving simulations or trials of experiments.

8A 1 The number of possible ways in which you can answer the first three questions on a True or False test is:
A 3 B 6 C 8 D 16
8B 2 The relative frequency of the score 3 shown in the table is:

3
A ___ B 6 Score 1 2 3 4 5
10
7 Frequency 3 5 6 2 4
C 14 D ___
10
8C 3 The spinner shown on the right is spun once. The probability of getting an odd number is:
2 3 1
A __ B __
5 5
5 2
1
C __ 4
D __
5 5 4 3
8C 4 If an event, E, is certain to happen, then:
A P(E) = 0 1
B P(E) = __
2
C P(E) = 1 D 0 < P(E) < 1
8D 5 If E is the event ‘a number less than 3’ when a six-sided die is rolled, then the complement of the event, Ẽ, is:
A {1, 2, 3} B {3, 4, 5, 6} C {5, 6} D {1, 2, 3, 4}
8E 6 Two three-sided spinners with the numbers 1, 2, and 3 on them are spun. If the probability of each number
occurring is the same, then the probability of two 3s is:
A __1 B __2 2
C __ D __1
3 9 3 9

8E 7 A bag contains one red, one black and one white marble. A marble is selected from the bag and not replaced
before a second marble is selected. The probability of selecting a red and a white marble in any order is:
2
A __ 1
B __ 1
C __ 1
D __
9 9 3 6
8E 8 What is the probability of correctly guessing the first three answers to a multiple-choice test that has four
alternative answers for each question?
1
A __ 3
B __ 3
C ___ 1
D ___
3 4 16 64
8F 9 A bag contains three red and four blue marbles. A second bag contains two red and three blue marbles. If a
marble is chosen from each bag, what is the probability that both are red?
5
A ___ B __3 C __1 D ___6
12 7 2 35
8G 10 A card is selected from a standard deck 500 times and is replaced each time. The expected number of times an
ace would be selected is:
A 4 B 125 C 13 D 38 or 39
REVIEW SET 1
1 List the sample space for:
a rolling a six-sided die b boys and girls in a two-child family.
2 A coffee tin was tossed 100 times and the way it landed was recorded. Landed on Frequency
What is the experimental probability that this tin will land on one of its
End 18
ends, when tossed?
Curved face 82
3 A card is chosen from a standard playing deck. Determine the probability
that the card is:
a the jack of hearts b a jack c a heart
d a picture card (not an ace) e black f a red queen.
4 Write an example of an event E for which:

a P(E) = 0 1
b P(E) = __ c P(E) = 1
2
5 An eight-sided die has three faces painted black, two painted white, two painted yellow and one painted green.
Find the probability that, when the die is rolled, the uppermost face is:
a black b white c yellow d not green
e black or white f not black, white or yellow g pink.
6 A coin is tossed and a six-sided die is rolled. Determine the probability of getting:
a a head and a 3 b a head and an odd number
c a tail and a 5 d a tail and a number less than 3.
7
ANALYSIS
A coin is tossed and a card is selected from a standard playing deck. What is the probability of getting:
a a head and a diamond? b a head and a red card?
c a tail and a club? d a tail and a black card?
8
STATISTICAL
A six-sided die is rolled 300 times. How many times would you expect to roll:
a a 6? b an even number? c a number less than 5?
9 A football player has a 90% chance of kicking a goal from in front of the posts. If this footballer has 50 shots
at goal, how many times would he be expected to score a goal?

REVIEW SET 2
1 Percy, Ming and Yuki form a queue. List the sample space for determining their order in the queue.
2 One hundred batteries were selected at random from a production Battery life (h) Frequency
line and tested. The results are shown in the table. Determine the
<10 3
approximate probability that a battery selected at random from those
produced on this line will have a life of: 10–19 25
a less than 10 hours b 40 or more hours 20–29 61
c less than 20 hours d 20 or more hours. 30–39 10
3 Of the 24 students in a class, six watch the evening news. Find the 40–49 1
probability that a student chosen at random watches the news.
4 A spinner is shaped like a regular octagon with the numbers 1 to 8 on it. Each number has an equal chance of
being spun. If the spinner is spun, find the probability of getting:
a a5 b a7 c an odd number
d a9 e a number less than 9 f a number divisible by 3.
5 If P(E) = 35%, find the probability of the complementary event occurring.
6 One card is selected at random from a standard playing deck. What is the probability that the card is:
a a diamond b not a diamond c a black jack
d not a black jack e not a black card f black or red
7 Two fair six-sided dice are tossed.

a List the sample space in a table.
b Find the probability of getting:
i double 6 ii any double iii a total of 7 iv a total of 13.
8 A manufacturer randomly tested 150 light globes from the week’s production and found that six were faulty.
a Estimate the probability that a light globe produced that week is faulty.
b If 2700 globes were produced that week, how many would be expected to be faulty?
9 A plant seedling has an 85% chance of surviving the first 6 weeks after planting. If 400 seedlings are planted,
how many would be expected to survive the first 6 weeks?
REVIEW SET 3
1 A jar contains one red, one blue and one green disc.
a A disc is selected, its colour noted and the disc replaced. A second disc is selected. List the sample space.
b List the sample space if the first disc is not replaced before the second disc is selected.
2 The results of a survey of the number of children in each of 100 families in a certain town is shown in the table.
What is the probability that a family chosen at random from this town will have:
a no children? b two children? c more than six children?
Number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of families 11 24 34 19 8 3 1

3 The raffle tickets in a book of tickets are numbered from 1 to 100. Find the probability that the number of a
ticket chosen at random is:
a 56 b a one-digit number
c divisible by 10 d not divisible by 10
e a three-digit number f less than 10
g less than 100 h greater than 100
i not divisible by 5 j not an even number.
4 Five cards labelled 1 to 5 are placed in a hat. Another five cards labelled 1 to 5 are placed in another hat. A card
is selected from each hat.
a Use a table to find the sample space.
b Find the probability of selecting:
i double 5 ii 3 and 5, in any order iii a sum of 2
iv a sum of 5 v a sum of 1.
5 A bag contains three red and four green marbles, and a second bag contains five red and three green marbles.
A marble is selected at random from each bag.
a Draw a probability tree diagram to represent this two-stage event.
b What is the probability of getting:
i two red marbles? ii two marbles of different colours? iii not two green marbles?
6 From a standard deck, a card is selected, with replacement, 2600 times. Determine how many times you would
expect to get:
a a red card b a diamond c a king
d a black 7 e the 9 of hearts f a red jack.
7 a Complete the table to find the possible totals when Second die
two dice are rolled. 1 2 3 4 5 6
b Calculate the probability of getting a total of:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
i 7
2 3 4 5 6
First die
ii 2
iii 3 or 4. 3 4 5
c Two dice are rolled 60 times. How many times would 4 5 6
you expect to get a total of: 5 6
i 7? 6 7 12
ii 2?
iii 3 or 4?
8 A sharemarket investor predicts that, in any week, the probability of a

particular share price rising is 0.3, the share price remaining steady is 0.5, 1st week 2nd week Outcomes
R
and the share price falling is 0.2. R S
a Complete this probability tree diagram to show all the possible 0.3 F
outcomes for a two-week period. 0.5

S
ANALYSIS
b What is the probability that, in the two-week period, these shares will:
0.2
i rise both weeks? F
ii remain steady both weeks?
STATISTICAL
iii fall both weeks?

iv rise for at least one of the weeks?

REVIEW SET 4
1 A letter is chosen at random from the word WOOLLOOMOOLOO. Find the probability that the letter is:
a W b O c L d M e P
2 Write the value of P(E) + P(Ẽ).
3 A bag contains three red, four blue and five green marbles. If a marble is chosen at random, find the probability
that it is:
a red b blue c green d red or blue e not blue.
4 A deck of cards consists of 200 cards numbered from 1 to 200. The deck is shuffled and a card is selected at
random. Find the probability that it is:
a 53 b not 53
c divisible by 100 d not divisible by 100
e a one-digit number f not a one-digit number
g less than 56 h not less than 56
i not less than 5 j not greater than 150.
5 A multiple-choice test has two questions, each with four alternative answers A, B, C and D.
a Use a tree diagram to find all the possible ways of answering these two questions.
i the answers are A then B ii the answers are B then A
iii the answers are both A iv neither answer is A
v at least one answer is A.
6 A card is selected from a standard deck, its suit is noted and the card is replaced in the deck. A second card is
then selected and its suit is also noted.
a List the sample space.
i both cards are hearts ii one card is a heart and one is a diamond
iii both cards are black iv one card is black and one is red.
7 Two fair six-sided dice are rolled.

a How many different outcomes are possible?
b Use a table to list the sample space.
c Find the probability of:
i a double 3 ii any double
iii at least one 6 v two numbers less than 4
iv one number that is double the other vi two even numbers.
d Consider the total of the numbers on the two dice. Find the probability that the total is:
i 3 ii 7 iii 12 iv 9 or 10 v 1
e Consider the difference between the two numbers on the dice. Find the probability that the difference is:
i 0 ii 1 iii 5 iv 3 or 4 v 6
8 The probability that a sales representative will have a car accident in a year is 0.08. How may car accidents
would a company employing 25 sales representatives expect its sales team to have in a year?

1 a A bag contains a red, a blue and a green marble. A marble is chosen at random from the bag
and its colour is noted. A second marble is then chosen and its colour is also noted. Find the
sample space if the first marble is:
i replaced before the second marble is chosen (1 mark)
ii not replaced before the second marble is chosen. (1 mark)
b Data for the past 50 years, giving the number of days in the month of October on which
it rained, is shown in the table. Estimate the probability that next October it will
rain on:
i more than 8 days (1 mark)
ii 5 or fewer days. (1 mark)
Number of days Frequency

0–2 16
3–5 17
6–8 9
9–11 7
12–14 1
c If P(E) = 41%, what is the probability that the complementary event occurs? (1 mark)
d A deck of cards contains 200 cards numbered 1 to 200. One card is selected at random.
i What is the probability it is 67? (1 mark)
ii What is the probability it is not 67? (1 mark)
iii What is the probability it is not divisible by 5? (1 mark)
e Two four-sided spinners, with the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, each with an equal probability
of occurring, are spun.
i Find the probability of spinning any double (2 marks)
ii If the two spinners are spun simultaneously 450 times, what would be the expected
number of times any double would occur? (1 mark)
f For a family with two children the probability of a boy is 0.55 and the probability of a
girl is 0.45.
i Draw a probability tree diagram to represent this information. (1 mark)
ii What is the probability of having a boy and a girl in any order? (2 marks)
g The chance that the colour of a car passing the front of the school during the middle of the day
is silver is 30%. In a simulation, the digits 3, 5 and 7 are assigned to represent a silver coloured
car and 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 9 to represent a colour other than silver. Using the set of random
ANALYSIS
digits below (produced by a computer), determine the number of silver cars in this sample
of 20 cars. (1 mark)
10132 27359 91315 25791
STATISTICAL
TOTAL: 15 MARKS

9
Working with time
▶ measuring latitude and longitude
▶ locating positions on Earth’s surface
▶ using world time zones to determine standard
time in different cities (including daylight saving
time)
▶ using Coordinated Universal Time and the
International Date Line
▶ calculating time differences around the world
▶ interpreting timetables.
MEASUREMENT
MS-M2 Working with Time

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

9A 1 Which direction is opposite to east? 9C 10 What is the sum of 54 seconds and 48 seconds
A north B south written in minutes and seconds?
C east D west A 102 seconds
B 6 seconds
9A 2 Which direction is opposite to north?
C 1 minute 2 seconds
A north B south
D 1 minute 42 seconds
C east D west
9C 11 What is the sum of 3 hours 47 minutes and
9A 3 Which direction is 90° clockwise from west?
87 minutes written in hours and minutes?
A north B south
A 3 hours 134 minutes
C east D west
B 3 hours 34 minutes
9C 4 How many hours in a day? C 5 hours 14 minutes
A 12 hours B 24 hours D 5 hours 4 minutes
C 60 hours D 365 hours
9C 12 What is the difference between
9C 5 How many minutes in an hour? 5 hours 15 minutes and 2 hours 38 minutes?
A 10 minutes B 24 minutes A 3 hours 37 minutes
C 60 minutes D 365 minutes B 2 hours 37 minutes
9C 6 How many months in 5 years? C 3 hours 23 minutes
A 12 months B 24 months D 2 hours 23 minutes
C 60 months D 365 months 9C 13 What is the time difference between 10:38 am
and 12:00 pm?
9C 7 How many seconds in 4 minutes 25 seconds?
A 1 hour 22 minutes
A 29 seconds B 65 seconds
B 2 hours 22 minutes
C 240 seconds D 265 seconds
C 1 hour 38 minutes
9C 8 What is 7:30 pm written in 24-hour time? D 2 hours 38 minutes
A 0730 B 1730
9C 14 What is the time difference between 9:47 am
C 1930 D 7300
and 3:12 pm?
9C 9 What is the 24-hour time 1520 written in A 6 hours 25 minutes
12-hour time? B 5 hours 25 minutes
A 3:20 am B 3:20 pm C 6 hour 59 minutes
C 5:20 pm D 15:20 pm D 5 hours 59 minutes
Q1–3 Support sheet 9A.1 Understanding a directional compass
Q4–7 Support sheet 9C.1 Converting units of time
Q8–9 Support sheet 9C.2 Understanding 24-hour time
Q10–12 Support sheet 9C.3 Time calculations
Q13–14 Support sheet 9C.4 Differences in time
Chapter 9 Working with time 321

9A Latitude and longitude
great circle
• Interactive 9A: Explore key ideas for latitude and longitude
circle formed
when a slice is • assess quiz 9A: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
taken through the
centre of Earth Earth is not exactly a sphere but, because the difference in shape is so small, it is considered
small circle to be for many navigational purposes. Earth’s radius is approximately 6400 kilometres.
circle formed
when a slice is
A great circle on Earth’s surface
taken that does is the circle formed when a slice
not pass through is taken through the centre of
the centre of Earth. The radius of a great circle
Earth Small
is equal to the radius of Earth. circle
C
axis C
A small circle on Earth’s Great
the diameter circle
about which surface is the circle formed
Earth rotates with when a slice is taken that does
endpoints at the not pass through the centre of Earth. The radius of a small circle is less than the radius of Earth.
North Pole and
The diameter about which Earth rotates is called its axis. The endpoints of Earth’s axis are the
the South Pole
North Pole and the South Pole.
parallels of
latitude (circles Slices perpendicular to Earth’s axis cut the surface in small circles called parallels of latitude
of latitude) or circles of latitude.
circles formed
The parallel of latitude whose centre is the centre of Earth is a great circle called the equator.
when slices
perpendicular to N N
N
Earth’s axis are Parallels of
taken latitude
equator
great circle that Equator
is a parallel of Axis
latitude and
whose centre
is the centre of S S S
Earth
meridians of Great circles that pass through the North Pole and South Pole are cut into semicircles by the
longitude poles. These semicircles are called meridians of longitude.
semicircles that
are part of great The reference line for longitude is called the prime meridian. By international agreement,
circles with it was decided in 1884 that the prime meridian passes through Greenwich, now a suburb of
endpoints at the London, England. Hence, it is often referred to as the Greenwich Meridian.
North Pole and
South Pole N N N
Prime meridian
prime meridian Meridians of
(Greenwich longitude
Meridian) Greenwich
reference line for C
longitude (0°) that Equator
passes through
Greenwich in
London, England S S
S

EXERCISE 9A Latitude and longitude
N
1 Use the diagram on the right to state whether the following are on parallels of latitude
or meridians of longitude:
C D I
a CDI b NDS c AFG
d DEF e SAB f BEH B E H
2 For the diagram in question 1, state the direction from: A F G

a D to E b A to F c H to B d B to C.
S
3 a Mark the North and South poles on a sphere and draw some parallels of latitude Equator
on it.
b Copy the diagram on the right and draw the view looking down on Earth from
above the North Pole. Show some parallels of latitude.
North Pole
4 a Mark the North and South poles on a sphere and draw some meridians of
longitude on it.
b Copy the diagram on the right again and draw the view looking down on Earth
from above the North Pole. Show some meridians of longitude.
Parallels of latitude are labelled according to whether the circle is north or south of the equator and
according to the size of the angle made at the centre of Earth. The reference line for measuring latitude is
the equator. The latitude of the equator is 0°.
EXAMPLE 9A–1 Identifying points on parallels of latitude

This diagram shows parallels of latitude and N
angles from the equator. 60°N 60°N
Q
Write the latitude of each of the following 20°N
20°N
points. P
Equator 0° 60° Equator 0°
a Q C 20°
b R 40° E 40°S
40°S
c P
R
Solve Think Apply

a The point Q is on the 60°N Angle ECQ = 60° and Q is To find the parallel of latitude,
parallel of latitude. north of the equator. first determine if the parallel
b The point R is on the 40°S Angle ECR = 40° and R is of latitude is north or south of
MEASUREMENT
parallel of latitude. south of the equator. the equator. The angle made
c The point P is on the 20°N Angle ECP = 20° and P is with the equator combined with
parallel of latitude. north of the equator. ‘North’ or ‘South’ names the
parallel of latitude.

5 Write the latitude of N
80°N
points A to J. G 60°N
A E 40°N
20°N
F
J C Equator 0°
D 20°S
N
H 40°S 75°N
H M 60°N
I 60°S 45°N
B B F
80°S A G 30°N
S
C 15°N
6 Use the diagram on the right to name the points that lie on the P D Equator 0°
following parallels of latitude. O J 15°S
a 15°N b 30°S c 75°N I 30°S

K Q
d 0° e 45°N f 60°S 45°S
L R
g 30°N h 15°S i 45°S E
60°S
j 60°N k 75°S 75°S
S
7 What is the latitude of: N

A
a the North Pole? Q
b the South Pole? B
70° P
8 a Write the latitude of the circles through these 40° D Equator 0°
C
points on the diagram. 30° E G
i P ii Q iii E 60°
R
iv R v T F
T
b Write the latitude of these points. N
i A ii B iii D S
iv G v F H V
I P
10° 20°
9 a Write the latitude of these points from the diagram on the right. J U
Equator 0°
i H ii I iii J 30°
C 15° E T
iv E v K vi L Q
vii M 20° K
10°
b Write the latitude of these points. L
Z
M R
i P ii Q iii R
iv T v U vi V
vii Z S
10 a Use a globe or map of the world to find the latitude of:

i Sydney ii London, UK iii New York, USA
iv the Tropic of Capricorn v the Tropic of Cancer.
b Use digital technology to check your answers to part a.
Meridians of longitude are labelled according to whether they are east or west of the prime meridian and
according to the angle made at the centre of Earth. The longitude of the prime meridian is 0°.

EXAMPLE 9A–2 Identifying points on meridians of longitude
The diagram shows meridians of longitudes and angles from the prime meridian.
a On which meridian of longitude is the point Q? N
b On which meridian of longitude is the point R?
c Which point lies on the 95°W meridian of longitude?
Greenwich
Solve Think
a Q is 80°E. Angle PCQ = 80° and Q is east of the prime meridian.
b R is 150°E. Angle PCR = 150° and R is east of the prime meridian. Equator
c The point M Angle PCM = 95° and M is west of the prime meridian.
C
Apply M
95° 80° R
To find the meridian of longitude, first determine if the meridian of 150°
longitude is east or west of the prime meridian. The angle made with P Q
the prime meridian combined with ‘E’ (for east) or ‘W’ (for west) Prime
meridian
names the meridian of longitude. S
11 a Use the diagram below to help you write the b Name the points that lie on the following meridians
longitude of the points A to J. in the diagram below.
i 80°W ii 70°E iii 120°E iv 0°
N
N
C A 60°E I
50°W G A 70°E
110°E C
95°W 120°E
D Equator
H J F E Equator
J
0° 80°W
F E
I B 0° G B H D
S
S
12 a Write the longitude of the meridian passing through each of these points in Figure 1 below.
i T ii V iii W
b Write the longitude of these points. Equator Equator
i K ii L iii M iv N
C Q C
13 a Write the longitude of the meridian through 120°
30° M
these points in Figure 2 on the right. W V 40°
60° 70° R 70°
50° 30° L
i K ii L iii M K P T U P
K Z
N T
iv R v Q L M V X Y
0°
b Write the longitude of these points. S
0°
S
i T ii U iii V Figure 1 Figure 2
iv X v Y vi Z
MEASUREMENT
14 a Use a globe or map of the world to find the longitude of:

i Sydney ii London, UK iii New York, USA
b Use digital technology to check your answers to part a.

9B Position on Earth’s surface
• Worksheet 9B: Practise your skills with extra problems on coordinates
• Investigation 9B.1: Explore position coordinates to specify different locations
• Investigation 9B.2: Compare location coordinates using an atlas and Google Earth
The parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude form a grid on Earth’s surface. Lines of
latitude run east to west and meridians of longitude run north to south. The position of a point
can be given by the ordered pair of coordinates (latitude, longitude).
EXAMPLE 9B–1 Writing position coordinates of a point using latitude and longitude
a List all the points that lie on: Prime N
meridian
i the 35°N parallel of latitude
D 35°N
ii the 120°E meridian of longitude A
C
iii both the 35°N parallel of latitude and the 120°E meridian of B
E Equator 0°
longitude.
b Write the position coordinates of point B.
120°E
F
0°
S
Solve Think Apply

a i A, B, C The 35°N is a horizontal slice. Latitudes are horizontal circles and
ii D, B, E, F The 120°E meridian is a vertical slice. longitudes are vertical circles. The
intersection of the two circles gives
iii B This is the point where they intersect.
the location.
b (35°N, 120°E) Write latitude first, then longitude.
EXAMPLE 9B–2 Finding position coordinates of points and naming points

from position coordinates
a What are the position coordinates of the following points? N
i P ii U
R 40°N
b Name the points with the following position coordinates. P Q
i (25°S, 110°W) ii (40°N, 80°E) X W
Solve Think
a i (40°N, 110°W) Latitude 40°N, longitude 110°W K V 25°S
T U
ii (25°S, 80°E) Latitude 25°S, longitude 80°E 110°W Y 80°E
S
b i T Intersection of 25°S and 110°W
ii R Intersection of 40°N and 80°E
Apply
Position is shown by latitude (N or S) first, then longitude (E or W).

EXERCISE 9B Position on Earth’s surface
Use this diagram to answer questions 1 to 3.
N
1 a Name the points that are on: A B C D

50°N
i the 50°N parallel of latitude 30°N

H G F E
ii the 45°E meridian of longitude 15°N
I L
iii both the 50°N parallel of latitude and the 45°E J K
Equator 0°
meridian of longitude. 75°W P
O Y M
100°E
b Name the points that are on: 45°E
0°
i the 30°S parallel of latitude Q 30°S
R Z T
ii the 75°W meridian of longitude
X W V U
iii both the 30°S parallel of latitude and the 75°W 60°S
meridian of longitude. S
2 Write the position coordinates of points A, E, G, I, K, M, O, Z, U, W.
3 Name the points with the following position coordinates.

a (50°N, 100°E) b (15°N, 75°W) c (60°S, 45°E)
d (30°S, 0° longitude) e (15°N, 0° longitude) f (30°N, 75°W)
g (30°S, 100°E) h (60°S, 100°E) i (0° latitude, 75°W)
j (30°N, 45°E) k (60°S, 75°W) l (0° latitude, 0° longitude)
m (15°N, 100°E) n (50°N, 0° longitude) o (50°N, 45°E)
4 On a globe or map of the world, find the country in which these lines of latitude and longitude meet.
a 30°S and 135°E b 30°N and 105°E c 75°S and 75°W
d 20°N and 100°W e 0° latitude and 38°E f 45°N and 0° longitude
5 a Point A has position (5°S, 130°W). State whether the following points are due north or due south of A.
i (20°S, 130°W) ii (0° latitude, 130°W) iii (15°N, 130°W)
b State whether the following points are due east or due west of A.
i (5°S, 150°W) ii (5°S, 120°W) iii (5°S, 0° longitude)
EXAMPLE 9B–3 Determining position coordinates of points relative to a given point

If Q is the point (25°S, 100°E), determine the position coordinates of the point that is:
a 20° due north of Q b 20° due south of Q c 20° due east of Q d 20° due west of Q.
Solve Think Apply

a (5°S, 100°E) Draw a diagram showing the N Movements north
100°E
parallel of latitude and meridian of or south affect the
longitude through the point Q. latitude. Movements
Move north 20° along the meridian N east or west affect the
to 5°S, 100°E. longitude.
W E 25°S
MEASUREMENT
Q
S
S
b (45°S, 100°E) Move south 20° along the meridian to 45°S, 100°E.
c (25°S, 120°E) Move east 20° along the parallel of latitude to 25°S, 120°E.
d (25°S, 80°E) Move west 20° along the parallel of latitude to 25°S, 80°E.

6 a If Q is the point (35°S, 95°E), determine the coordinates of the point that is:
i 10° due north of Q ii 10° due south of Q

iii 10° due east of Q iv 10° due west of Q.
Repeat part a given these coordinates of point Q.

b (25°N, 150°E) c (20°S, 90°W) d (50°S, 40°W)
7 If P is the point (10°N, 75°W), find the coordinates of the point that is:
a 15° due north of P b 5° due south of P
c 25° due south of P d 60° due south of P.
EXAMPLE 9B–4 Determining position coordinates of a point relative to a point

close to the 180°E or 180°W meridian
Find the coordinates of the point that is:
a 30° due east of P (20°N, 170°E) b 30° due west of Q (20°N, 160°W).
Solve Think
a (20°N, 160°W) Draw a diagram showing the parallel of latitude N
and meridian of longitude through P. Indicate the
180°E meridian (the 180°E meridian and the 180°W
20°N
meridian coincide). So the point that is 30° east of P is P
(20°N, 160°W).
180°E
170°E
S
b (20°N, 170°E) Draw a diagram showing the parallel of latitude N

and meridian of longitude through Q. Indicate the
180°W meridian. Note that the 180°W meridian 20°N
and 180°E meridian coincide. So the point that is Q
30° west of Q is (20°N, 170°E).
160°W
180°W
S
Apply
The 180°E and 180°W meridians are the same. When this meridian is crossed, the longitude counts
backwards from 180°.
Note: 190°W = 170°E
8 Find the coordinates of the point that is:

a 40° due east of (15°N, 155°E) b 20° due east of (32°S, 170°E)
c 30° due west of (18°S, 170°W) d 50° due west of (34°N, 160°W)

EXAMPLE 9B–5 Describing the position of a point relative to another point
Give the position of point B relative to point A.
a A(10°N, 120°E), B(20°N, 110°E) b A(10°N, 120°E), B(5°N, 130°E)
Solve Think
a B is 10° north of A and Using a sketch and comparing latitudes, B is N
10° west of A. 10° to the north of A. Comparing longitudes,
B is 10° to the west of A. 20°N
B 10°N
A
120°E
110°E
S
b B is 5° south of A and Using a sketch and comparing latitudes, B is N

10° east of A. 5° to the south of A. Comparing longitudes,
B is 10° to the east of A. 10°N
A 5°N
B
130°E
120°E
S
Apply
Drawing a sketch will make finding the solution much easier. Be careful if crossing the equator or the
180°E/180°W meridian.
9 Give the position of point B relative to point A.

a A(25°N, 110°E), B(10°N, 130°E) b A(15°S, 80°E), B(20°S, 70°E)
c A(30°S, 75°W), B(15°S, 65°W) d A(45°N, 80°W), B(30°N, 120°W)
e A(10°S, 120°E), B(20°N, 10°W) f A(15°N, 150°E), B(25°S, 150°W)
10 On a globe or map of the world, find:
a two cities with the same latitude as Paris (France)

b two cities with the same longitude as Berlin (Germany)
c the city closest to:
i (34°S, 151°E) ii (40°N, 116°E) iii (42°N, 12°E)
iv (26°S, 28°E) v (55°N, 37°E) vi (34°N, 118°W)
d the position coordinates (to the nearest degree) of the following cities.
i Tokyo (Japan) ii London (UK) iii New York (USA)
iv Tehran (Iran) v Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) vi Vancouver (Canada)
11 Use a map of Australia with lines of latitude and longitude marked to answer the following questions.
a Name the city or town that is closest to:
i (35°S, 149°E) ii (12°S, 131°E) iii (43°S, 147°E) iv (17°S, 146°E)
b Which is further south of the equator?
i Sydney or Perth ii Rockhampton or Alice Springs
MEASUREMENT
c Which is further east of the prime meridian?

i Sydney or Brisbane ii Cairns or Hobart
12 Angelina is in the desert and heading to Cairo (30°N, 31°E). Her GPS coordinates place her at (28°N, 35°E).
What is her current position relative to Cairo?
13 Klaus is sailing to Honolulu (21°N, 58°W). According to GPS navigation, his position is (18°N, 64°W).
What is his position relative to Honolulu?

9C Time units and intervals
• Interactive 9C.1: Explore key ideas for 12-hour and 24-hour time
• Interactive 9C.2: Explore key ideas for elapsed time
• Investigation 9C: Investigate prefixes used with the time unit of seconds
The measurement of time is important in our lives. The units of time and their conversions are
listed below.
• 60 seconds = 1 minute • 12 months = 1 year

• 60 minutes = 1 hour • 365 days = 1 year (366 for a leap year)
• 24 hours = 1 day • 10 years = 1 decade
• 7 days = 1 week • 100 years = 1 century
• 2 weeks = 1 fortnight • 1000 years = 1 millennium
• 52 weeks = 1 year (actually 52 weeks and 1 day)
EXAMPLE 9C–1 Converting units of time

Convert:
a 150 minutes to hours b 143 minutes to hours and minutes
c 110 hours to days and hours d 3 days 15 hours to hours.
Solve Think
a Number of hours = 150 ÷ 60 There are 60 minutes in an hour. Divide by
= 2.5 60. When expressed in hours, the answer is
1 hours.
Therefore 150 minutes is 2__ a decimal.
2
b Number of hours = 143 ÷ 60 Divide by 60.

= 2.3833… hours Then multiply the whole number of hours
There are two whole hours in 143 minutes. by 60, and subtract that from 143 to
Number of minutes remainder = 143 – 2 × 60 calculate the remainder.
= 23 Or use the degrees, minutes and seconds
Therefore 143 minutes is 2 hours and 23 minutes. button on your calculator.
c Number of days = 110 ÷ 24 There are 24 hours in a day. Divide by 24.
= 4.5833… (4 whole days) Calculate the number of hours remaining.
Number of hours = 110 – 4 × 24
= 14
Therefore 110 hours is 4 days 14 hours.
d Number of hours = 3 × 24 + 15 Multiply 3 days by 24 hours to convert to hours
= 87 and then add the extra 15 hours.
Apply
First, determine the conversion factor. Second, decide whether to multiply or divide. Third, find the
remainder.

EXERCISE 9C Time units and inter vals
1 Complete this time conversion diagram.
× 24
days hours minutes seconds

(d) (h) (min) (s)
÷ 60
2 Convert:
a 150 minutes to hours b 200 minutes to hours
c 300 seconds to minutes d 193 minutes to hours and minutes
e 485 seconds to minutes f 635 minutes to hours and minutes
g 4 hours 37 minutes to minutes h 47 minutes 12 seconds to seconds
i 5 days 17 hours to hours j 100 hours to days and hours
k 1 week to seconds l 10 000 seconds to hours, minutes and seconds
EXAMPLE 9C–2 Converting between 12-hour (analogue) and 24-hour time

a Write the 24-hour time 1020 as an analogue time.
b Write the 24-hour time 1324 as an analogue time.
c Convert 8:47 am to 24-hour time.
d Convert 6:58 pm to 24-hour time.
Solve Think Apply

a 1020 is 10:20 am. Because the first two digits are less than 12 this 24-hour time always has four
is ‘am’ time. digits. If the time is before
b 1324 is 1:24 pm. The first two digits are greater than 12 so we 10:00 am, a zero is put at
subtract 12 hours from the 24-hour time and the the start so it does have four
resulting time is ‘pm’ time. digits. If the 24-hour time is
c 8:47 am is 0847. Time that is ‘am’ time has the same digits when later than 1200, we subtract
expressed in 24-hour time and if the time has 12 from the hours and write
less than 10 hours then a zero is put at the start. the time as ‘pm’ time.
d 6:58 pm is 1858. Time that is ‘pm’ time has 12 added to the
hours when converting to 24-hour time.
3 Write these 24-hour times as analogue times (am or pm).

a 1406 b 0051 c 2005 d 0122
e 0925 f 2121 g 1915 h 1212
i 1254 j 1749 k 0622 l 2254
MEASUREMENT
4 Write these analogue times in 24-hour notation.

a 7:43 am b 5:20 pm c 1:35 am d 12:43 pm
e 4:20 pm f 1:46 am g 6:08 am h 8:27 pm
i 9:20 am j 11:08 pm k 12:00 noon l 12:00 midnight

EXAMPLE 9C–3 Performing calculations involving 24-hour time
a Calculate the time 2 hours 10 minutes after 0920. b Calculate the time 1 hour 12 minutes before 1528.
c Calculate the time 5 hours 26 minutes after 0850. d Calculate the time 6 hours 38 minutes before 1524.
Solve Think Apply
a 0920 + 2 hours 10 minutes Add the hours: 9 + 2 = 11 Either add or subtract the
= 1130 Add the minutes: 20 + 10 = 30 hours and minutes.
b 1528 – 1 hour 12 minutes Subtract the hours: 15 – 1 = 14 If, when adding, the
= 1416 Subtract the minutes: 28 – 12 = 16 total minutes exceed
c 0850 + 5 hours 26 minutes Add the hours: 8 + 5 = 13 60, convert 60 minutes
= 1350 + 26 minutes Add the minutes: 50 + 26 = 76 to 1 hour and add. If
= 1416 The minutes exceed 60, so convert to subtracting the minutes
hours and minutes. will not work because
76 minutes = 1 hour and 16 minutes there are not enough
minutes to subtract from,
d 1524 – 6 hour 38 minutes We can’t subtract 38 from 24.
convert 1 hour to
= 1424 + 60 min – 6 h 38 min Convert 1 hour to 60 minutes to
60 minutes and subtract.
= 1424 – 6 h + 60 min – 38 min make the time 1424 + 60 min. Then
= 0824 + 22 min subtract the hours and minutes.
= 0846
5 Complete each of the following time calculations, giving the answer in 24-hour time.
a Add 2 hours 30 minutes to the 24-hour time 0600.
b Add 1 hour 15 minutes to the 24-hour time 1020.
c Subtract 1 hour 40 minutes from the 24-hour time 0916.
d Add 1 hour 48 minutes to the 24-hour time 1422.
e Add 2 hours 46 minutes to the 24-hour time 1509.
f Subtract 3 hours 51 minutes from the 24-hour time 1223.
g Subtract 3 hours 43 minutes from the 24-hour time 1605.
h Add 3 hours 46 minutes to the 24-hour time 0854.
i Subtract 4 hours 38 minutes from the 24-hour time 1127.
EXAMPLE 9C–4 Performing calculations involving time intervals

a Calculate 2 days 4 hours 55 minutes + 1 day 3 hours 31 minutes.
b Calculate 3 days 7 hours 25 minutes – 1 day 15 hours 12 minutes.
Solve Think Apply
a 2 days 4 hours 55 minutes Add each of the time units together. When adding the time
+ 1 day 3 hours 31 minutes Since the number of minutes exceeds units it might be necessary
= 3 days 7 hours 86 minutes 60, convert 60 minutes to 1 hour. to convert the answer
= 3 days 8 hours 26 minutes 86 min = 1 h 26 min to a larger unit. When
b 3 days 7 hours 25 minutes Convert 1 day to 24 hours so the subtracting time units, a
– 1 day 15 hours 12 minutes hours can be subtracted. larger unit might need to
= 2 days 31 hours 25 minutes 3 days 7 hours becomes be converted to a smaller
– 1 day 15 hours 12 minutes 2 days + 24 hours + 7 hours or unit for subtraction to be
= 1 day 16 hours 13 minutes 2 days 31 hours. possible.

6 Perform each of the following calculations.
a 3 days 16 hours + 4 days 18 hours
b 2 days 21 hours + 3 days 23 hours
c 5 days 17 hours – 2 days 10 hours
d 4 days 2 hours 20 minutes + 1 day 17 hours 11 minutes
e 6 days 15 hours 38 minutes – 2 days 7 hours 15 minutes
f 5 days 18 hours 51 minutes + 1 day 13 hours 28 minutes
7 Calculate the time (in days/hours/minutes) that elapses between:

a 4:38 pm Tuesday and 6:30 am on the following Thursday
b 7:09 am Saturday to 12:16 pm on the following Wednesday
c 6:52 am Monday to 8:15 pm on the following Friday
d 1346 on Sunday to 1925 on the following Monday
e 1047 on Wednesday to 1638 on the following Saturday
f 0024 Friday to 1915 on the following Wednesday.
8 Pooja leaves for school camp on Friday at 0900.

The bus trip takes 3 hours 42 minutes.
a At what time does Pooja arrive at camp?
b If dinner is at 1800, how long after she arrived at
camp does Pooja wait until dinner?
c Everyone is being woken at 5:45 am to watch the
sun rise. Pooja needs 9 hours 25 minutes sleep.
She needs 15 minutes to fall asleep. At what time
will she need to go to bed?
d Pooja arrives back at school at 1545 on Monday.
How long is it since she left for camp?
9 George is allowed 1 hour and 10 minutes screen time

CHALLENGE
per weekday and double that time on each day of the

weekend. He intends to watch the entire first season
of Small Pop Hypothesis comprising 35 episodes,
each of 24 minutes duration. He starts watching at
7:00 pm on Monday 7 May and starts his screen time
at 7:00 pm every day.
a At what time and on what day and date does
George complete watching Season 1?
b Due to a poor half-yearly report, George has
the screen time he is allowed reduced by
15 minutes per weekday but it is not reduced on
weekends. Season 2 of Small Pop Hypothesis has
38 episodes of 23 minutes duration and he starts
watching it on Wednesday 23 May at 7:00 pm.
At what time and on what day and date does he
finish watching Season 2?
c After coming first in his class mathematics assessment, George is permitted to watch Season 3 of Small
Pop Hypothesis over one week, starting on a Friday at 7:00 pm. There are 33 episodes of 24 minutes
duration. He is allowed double his weekday screen time on each day of the weekend. How long must his
weekday screen time be in order for him to finish watching the whole season after exactly one week?

time zone
region of the
world that
9D World time zones
observes the
same time
throughout
• Interactive 9D: Explore key ideas for world time zones
standard time
time adopted for a • Video tutorial 9D.1: Watch and listen to an explanation of Examples 9D-3 and 9D-4
particular region • Video tutorial 9D.2: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 9D-7
within a time zone • Worksheet 9D: Practise your skills with extra problems for time zones
World Time Zones • Investigation 9D.1: Explore the time zones and time differences around the world
time zones • Investigation 9D.2: Investigate how the International Date Line affects time
around the world • assess quiz 9D: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
that are expressed
as positive or
Lines of longitude are used as the basis of time zones. There are 12 time zones to the east of
negative offsets
from UTC the prime meridian and 12 time zones to its west. Each zone covers about 15° of longitude.
Every place within a zone uses the same time. The time within the zone is known as
Coordinated
standard time.
Universal Time
(UTC) The borders of time zones do not necessarily follow meridians of longitude. For convenience,
primary time they often follow country or state boundaries. Australia, for example, has three time zones.
standard for
clocks and World Time Zones are shown on the simplified map below. The numbers in each zone
time, replacing indicate the number of hours to be added to or subtracted from Coordinated Universal Time
Greenwich Mean (UTC) to get the standard time for that zone. The term UTC has replaced Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) Time (GMT).
Standard time zones

–11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12
Coordinated Universal Time
–5
–6 –3
–7
–5
–9 +8 +10 +12
0 +1
+2 +11
Moscow +9
–8 –7 0 +4 +6
–4
–6 –5 London Berlin
Paris +1 +2
Chicago New York
International date-line
Beijing
Rome +5 +9
San Francisco Washington Tokyo
+8
Houston New Orleans New Delhi
+2 Cairo
Miami +3 1
+5 2
Honolulu Mumbai +7
0 +1
+3 +8 +9
–5 +7
Jakarta
–4
Greenwich Mean Time
–3 +2 Cairns
+3 1
Brisbane
+8 +9 2
Johannesburg Perth +10 Auckland
Santiago Buenos Aires Adelaide
Sydney
+12
–4
–11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12

EXAMPLE 9D–1 Finding standard times
Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in the following cities when UTC is 12:00 noon.
a Sydney b Houston (USA)
Solve Think Apply
a Standard time in Sydney Sydney is in the time zone marked +10, Find the time zone
would be 10:00 pm. so standard time in Sydney is 10 hours for the city and add or
ahead of (later than) UTC. subtract that number of
b Standard time in Houston Houston is in the time zone marked −6, hours from Coordinated
would be 6:00 am. so standard time in Houston is 6 hours Universal Time (UTC).
behind (earlier than) UTC.
EXERCISE 9D World time zones

1 Use the world time zone map to find the standard
time in each of these cities when UTC is 12:00 noon.

a Perth
b San Francisco
c Cairo
d Santiago
e Johannesburg
f Moscow
EXAMPLE 9D–2 Finding standard times involving am and pm

Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in the following cities when UTC is 10:00 am.
a Sydney b Houston
Solve Think Apply
a Standard time in Sydney Sydney is in the time zone marked +10, Find the time zone for the
is 8:00 pm. so standard time in Sydney is 10 hours city and add or subtract
ahead of (later than) 10:00 am. that number of hours
b Standard time in Houston Houston is in the time zone marked −6, from the stated UTC time.
would be 4:00 am. so standard time in Houston is 6 hours
behind (earlier than) 10:00 am.
MEASUREMENT
2 Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in the following cities when UTC is 2:00 pm.
a Tokyo b Mumbai c New York
d Houston e Rome f Adelaide

EXAMPLE 9D–3 Finding standard times involving adding days
Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in Sydney when UTC is 8:00 pm Wednesday.
Solve Think Apply

Standard time in Sydney is Sydney is in the time zone marked Find the time zone for the city
6:00 am Thursday. +10, so standard time in Sydney and add or subtract that number
is 10 hours ahead of (later than) of hours from the stated UTC
8:00 pm Wednesday. This means it time. This may mean that it is the
is 6:00 am Thursday. following day or the previous day.
3 Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in these cities when UTC is 9:00 pm Tuesday.
a Sydney b New Delhi c Moscow
d Beijing e Brisbane f Jakarta
EXAMPLE 9D–4 Finding standard times involving subtracting days

Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in Houston when UTC is 2:00 am Monday.
Solve Think Apply

Standard time in Houston Houston is in the time zone marked Find the time zone for the city
would be 8:00 pm Sunday. −6, so standard time in Houston and add or subtract that number
is 6 hours behind (earlier than) of hours from the stated UTC
2:00 am Monday. time. This may mean that it is the
following day or the previous day.
4 Use the world time zone map to find the standard time in these cities when UTC is 4:00 am Monday.
a Houston c San Francisco c New York
d Santiago e Miami f Buenos Aires
EXAMPLE 9D–5 Finding the difference in standard time between two cities
What is the difference in standard times between:
a New York and San Francisco? b New York and Paris?
Solve Think Apply
a The difference in standard New York is in the −5 time zone and San Find the time zone for
times is 3 hours. Francisco is in the −8 time zone. each city. Subtract the time
Difference in standard times zones to find the difference.
= −5 − −8, or −8 − −5 = ± 3 h.
b The difference in standard New York is in the −5 time zone and Paris
times is 6 hours. is in the +1 time zone.
Difference in standard times
= 1 − −5, or −5 − 1 = ± 6 h.
5 What is the difference in standard times between:

a New York and Houston? b San Francisco and Houston?
c Cairo and Mumbai? d Beijing and Sydney?
e New York and Moscow? f Johannesburg and San Francisco?

EXAMPLE 9D–6 Finding the standard time in another city
When it is 9:00 am in Cairo, what is the standard
time in:
a Mumbai?
b New York?
Solve Think Apply

a 1−2
The standard time Difference in standard times = 5__ Find the time
2
in Mumbai is 1
__ zone for each
= 32 h
12:30 pm. city. Subtract the
Mumbai is east of Cairo. It has already had its 9:00 am local
1 h later than 9:00 am. time zones to find
time. The time in Mumbai will be 3__ 2 the difference.
b The standard time Difference in standard times = 2 − (−5) Add or subtract
in New York is =7h that number of
2:00 am. New York is west of Cairo. It has not yet had its 9:00 am hours from the
local time. The time in New York is 7 h earlier than 9:00 am. stated time.
6 When it is 11:00 am in Cairo, what

is the standard time in:
a Perth?
b Brisbane?
c Johannesburg?
d New York?
e San Francisco?
f Buenos Aires
7 When it is 3:00 pm in Paris, what is

the standard time in:
a Moscow?
b Tokyo?
c Houston?
d Mumbai?
e Santiago?
f Jakarta
MEASUREMENT
8 When it is 8:00 pm Saturday in New York, what is the standard time in:
a Berlin? b Johannesburg? c Beijing?
9 When it is 5:00 am Tuesday in Sydney, what is the standard time in:

a Cairo? b London? c New York?

10 An international company has offices in San Francisco, London and Sydney.
a Use the world standard time zone map to San Francisco London Sydney
find the local time in San Francisco and
12:00 noon (Monday)
Sydney when it is 12:00 noon in London.
b Copy and complete the table on the right, to 2:00 pm
compare standard times in the three cities. 4:00 pm
c The company directors in the three .
cities wish to organise a three-way .
teleconference. What would be a .
convenient time to hold the conference? 12:00 noon (Tuesday)
11 Use the following number line to complete the table below to show the local time for places east and west of
the prime meridian (0o) when it is 12:00 noon Wednesday UTC.
This number line shows times and longitudes relative to noon in Greenwich, which is on the prime meridian.
midnight 2 am 4 am 6 am 8 am 10 am noon 2 pm 4 pm 6 pm 8 pm 10 pm midnight
180°W 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180°E
The 180°W and 180°E meridians are the same meridian but time differs by 1 day. This is the approximate
location of the International Date Line.
Longitude west Local time Longitude east Local time

0° 12:00 noon Wednesday 0° 12:00 noon Wednesday
45°W 45°E
90°W 90°E
135°W 135°E
180°W 180°E
12 Use your completed table from question 11 to help you answer the following questions.
a On a globe, find the 180°E and 180°W meridians of longitude. What do you notice?
b Compare local times for the 180°E and 180°W meridians from the table.
c Discuss the need for the International Date Line.
d Find the International Date Line on a map or globe. Does it follow the 180° meridian exactly? Discuss
why this happens.
e What happens if you cross the International Date Line from:
i east to west? ii west to east?
13 A ship travelling from San Francisco

(USA) to Brisbane crosses the
International Date Line at 8:30 pm on
Saturday 25 March. What will be the time
and date just after it has crossed?

EXAMPLE 9D–7 Finding standard times involving the International Date Line
Georgia leaves Sydney (34°S, 151°E), at 11:00 am Friday, flying to Honolulu (21°N, 158°W).
a What is the standard time and day in Honolulu when Georgia leaves Sydney?
b The flight, time is 11__12 hours. What is the day and time in Honolulu when she arrives?
Solve Think Apply
a The standard time in Sydney standard time is +10. Find the time zone for each city.
Honolulu is 3:00 pm Honolulu standard time is –10. Subtract the time zones to find the
on Thursday. Difference in standard time is 20 hours. difference. Add or subtract that
This is due to the Sydney is east of Honolulu. It has number of hours from the stated
International Date already had its 11:00 am local time. The time.
Line. time in Honolulu will be 20 hours earlier
than 11:00 am.
b The time is 2:30 am 1 hours to 3:00 pm on Thursday.

Add 11__ Crossing the International Date
2
Friday. Line from east to west takes the
time back to the previous day.
14 Reynold leaves Beijing (31°N, 121°E) at 7:00 am Tuesday, flying to San Francisco (38°N, 122°W).
a What is the standard time and day in San Francisco when Reynold leaves Beijing?
b The flight time is 12 hours. What is the day and time in San Francisco when he arrives?
15 Elliot leaves San Francisco (38°N, 122°W) at 1:00 pm Sunday, flying to Sydney (34°S, 151°E).
a What is the standard time and day in Sydney when Eiliot leaves San Francisco?
b The flight time is 16 hours. What is the day and time in Sydney when he arrives?
16 Kaya leaves Houston (30°N, 95°W) at 6:00 pm Saturday, flying to Sydney (34°S, 151°E).
a What is the standard time and day in Sydney when Kaya leaves Houston?
b The flight time is 15__12 hours. What is the day and time in Sydney when she arrives?
17 Kelly and Erin travel on a container ship from Perth (32°S, 116°E) to Buenos Aires (34°S, 58°W).
CHALLENGE
a They leave Perth at 0700 Saturday, 1 December 2018, and travel 12 500 km at an average speed
of 20 km/h.
i What is the local time, day and date in Buenos Aires when they leave Perth?
ii How long is the journey?
iii What is the local time, day and date in Buenos
Aires when they arrive?
b They holiday until the return journey which leaves
25 days and 5 hours after they arrived. The return
journey covers 13 000 km at an average speed of 18
km/h.
i What is the local time, day and date in Perth when
they leave Buenos Aires to go back?
ii How long is the journey?
iii What is the local time, day and date in Perth when
they arrive?
c How long was the entire journey?

9E Australian time zones
• Interactive 9E: Explore key ideas for Australian time zones
• Worksheet 9E: Practise your skills with extra problems
• Investigation 9E.1: Investigate daylight saving time around the world
• Investigation 9E.2: Explore Australian time zones and daylight saving time
We observed in the previous section that the borders of time zones do not necessarily follow
meridians of longitude. For convenience, they often follow country or state boundaries.
Australia, for example, has three time zones.
• Eastern Standard Time (EST) is based on the 150°E meridian of longitude and is used
by the eastern states: Queensland, NSW (except for a region around Broken Hill), Victoria
and Tasmania.
• Central Standard Time (CST) is 30 minutes behind Eastern Standard Time and is used
by South Australia, Northern Territory and Broken Hill.
• Western Standard Time (WST) is based on the 120°E meridian and is 2 hours behind
Eastern Standard Time. It is used by all of Western Australia.
daylight saving
Some states have daylight saving time (DST) during summer and change the time by one
time (DST)
the practice of hour. During those times the word ‘Standard’ is replaced with ‘Summer’. In Australia,
setting clocks daylight saving time usually starts from the first Sunday in October, when clocks are put
forward one hour forward by one hour, and ends on the first Sunday in April, when clocks are put back one hour.
from standard
New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia
time during the
summer months
observe daylight saving time each year.
(from October to The diagram below shows the times zones within Australia. Note: the diagram indicates how
April in Australia) many hours have been added to the UTC time standard.
UTC+9.5
all year
UTC+10
all year
UTC+8
all year
UTC+9.5
UTC+10.5 (DST)
UTC+10
UTC+11 (DST)

EXERCISE 9E Australian time zones
1 Use the map showing the Australian time zones to help you find the time in:
a Darwin when it is 8:30 am in Cairns b Hobart when it is 10:00 am in Sydney

c Perth when it is 7:00 pm in Brisbane d Adelaide when it is 5:00 pm in Perth
e Melbourne when it is 5:20 pm in Perth f Sydney when it is 2:30 pm in Alice Springs.
2 a The flight from Sydney to Perth takes 4 hours flying time. If a plane leaves Sydney at 5:00 pm, at what
time will it arrive in Perth (Perth time)?
b 1 hours
A plane leaves Perth at 6:00 am for the return trip to Sydney. Due to head winds, the trip takes 4__
2
flying time. At what time will the plane arrive in Sydney (Sydney time)?
3 A plane leaves Sydney at 7:00 am Saturday, EST, and flies directly to London. If the trip takes 16 hours, at
what time will it be in London when the plane arrives?
4 Some states of Australia use daylight saving time.

a Explain the meaning of daylight saving.
b Which states adopt daylight saving?
c When does daylight saving start and finish in the states you listed in part b?
5 Complete the table on the right to compare times in the given cities City Time
during the months when daylight saving operates if the time in Sydney Brisbane
is 1:00 pm.
Sydney 1:00 pm
6 Aryun is in Adelaide and rings his mother to say Happy New Year at Canberra
midnight Adelaide time. If his mother is in Brisbane, at what local time Melbourne
does she receive the call? Hobart
Adelaide
7 Paula lives in Sydney and rings her friend in Perth during summer when
daylight saving time applies. If it is 8:00 pm in Sydney, what is the time Darwin
in Perth? Perth
8 The Socceroos are playing in Jakarta in

summer and the game is at 8:00 pm local
time. Jakarta is 1 hour behind standard
Perth time. The match is broadcast live. At
what time in Sydney will the game start,
using local daylight saving time?
9 A summer concert is held in Perth starting

at 7:00 pm and is live streamed around
Australia. Calculate the starting time of the
concert as local time in Adelaide, Sydney
and Brisbane.
MEASUREMENT
10 A plane leaves Adelaide at 8:00 am, Adelaide daylight saving time, and flies to Hobart. The flight time is
1 hours. What time will it be in Hobart when the plane arrives?
1__
2

9F Interpreting timetables
• Interactive 9F: Explore key ideas for timetables
• Worksheet 9F: Practise your skills with extra problems for timetables
• Investigation 9F: Use a timetable to read information about tides
timetables Tables are a useful way of representing a lot of information easily and quickly. Timetables are
information
tables containing information about the times of scheduled events.
displayed in
tables about
the times of When reading timetables check these points.
scheduled events
1 Are you looking at the right timetable or section? (Check the heading.)
2 Should you read the timetable in rows or in columns?
3 Is there a key to any symbols, abbreviations or shading?
EXERCISE 9F Interpreting timetables

Here is part of the Carlingford to City train timetable. Use it to answer question 1.
Note: although 24-hour time is usually written without a colon, the train and bus
timetables in NSW are written with a colon included.
Tuesday 18 April 2017
T6 Carlingford Line: Carlingford to Clyde
Stations
Carlingford --- 16:05 --- 16:45 --- 17:20 --- 18:02 --- 18:47 ---
Telopea --- 16:07 --- 16:47 --- 17:22 --- 18:04 --- 18:49 ---
Dundas --- 16:10 --- 16:50 --- 17:25 --- 18:07 --- 18:52 ---
Rydalmere --- 16:12 --- 16:52 --- 17:27 --- 18:09 --- 18:54 ---
Camellia --- 16:13 --- 16:53 --- 17:28 --- 18:10 --- 18:55 ---
Rosehill --- 16:15 --- 16:55 --- 17:30 --- 18:12 --- 18:57 ---
Clyde (arr) --- 16:18 --- 16:58 --- 17:33 --- 18:15 --- 19:00 ---
Clyde (dep) 15:50 --- 16:35 --- 17:05 --- 17:50 --- 18:20 --- 19:05
Auburn 15:52 --- 16:37 --- 17:07 --- 17:52 --- 18:22 --- 19:07
Lidcombe 15:55 --- 16:40 --- 17:10 --- 17:55 --- 18:25 --- 19:10
Strathfield 16:02 --- 16:47 --- 17:17 --- 18:02 --- 18:32 --- 19:17
Burwood 16:04 --- 16:49 --- 17:19 --- 18:04 --- 18:34 --- 19:19
Redfern 16:13 --- 16:58 --- 17:28 --- 18:13 --- 18:43 --- 19:28
Central 16:17 --- 17:02 --- 17:32 --- 18:17 --- 18:47 --- 19:32
Town Hall 16:20 --- 17:05 --- 17:35 --- 18:20 --- 18:50 --- 19:35
Wynyard 16:23 --- 17:08 --- 17:38 --- 18:23 --- 18:53 --- 19:38
Milsons Point 16:26 --- 17:11 --- 17:41 --- 18:26 --- 18:56 --- 19:41
North Sydney 16:29 --- 17:14 --- 17:44 --- 18:29 --- 18:59 --- 19:44
Source: http://www.sydneytrains.info/timetables/timetables_by_line

1 a i I am meeting a friend at Town Hall station. What is the latest train from Carlingford that I can catch
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING to arrive before 7:00 pm?
ii At what time does this train pass through Lidcombe station?
b If I miss the 17:20 train at Carlingford, what would be the earliest time I could arrive at Wynyard?
c i How long does the 4:47 pm train from Strathfield take to get to Wynyard?
ii How long does the 4:47 pm train from Telopea take to get to Central?
iii How long does the 6:07 pm train from Dundas take to get to Town Hall?
iv How long does the 4:15 pm train from Rosehill take to get to Strathfield?
d i Calculate the time taken by the 16:05, 16:45, 17:20, 18:02 and 18:47 Carlingford trains to travel to
Wynyard.
ii Why are the times taken different?
Below is the Chatswood to Richmond/Emu Plains train timetable. Use it to answer question 2 on the next page.
Tuesday 18 April 2017
T1 Western Line: City to Emu Plains, City to Richmond
Stations
Chatswood 08:46 --- 08:52 08:58 --- 09:13 09:16 09:28 --- 09:43 ---
Artarmon 08:48 --- 08:54 09:00 --- 09:15 09:18 09:30 --- 09:45 ---
St Leonards 08:50 --- 08:56 09:02 --- 09:17 09:20 09:32 --- 09:47 ---
Wollstonecraft 08:53 --- 08:59 09:05 --- 09:20 09:23 09:35 --- 09:50 ---
Waverton 08:55 --- 09:01 09:07 --- 09:22 09:25 09:37 --- 09:52 ---
North Sydney 08:59 --- 09:05 09:11 --- 09:26 09:29 09:41 --- 09:56 09:59
Milsons Point 09:01 --- 09:07 09:13 --- 09:28 09:31 09:43 --- 09:58 10:01
Wynyard 09:05 --- 09:11 09:17 --- 09:32 09:35 09:47 --- 10:02 10:05
Town Hall 09:09 --- 09:15 09:21 --- 09:36 09:39 09:51 --- 10:06 10:09
Central 09:13 09:18i 09:19 09:25 --- 09:40 09:43 09:55 --- 10:10 10:13
Redfern 09:15 --- 09:21 09:27 --- 09:42 09:45 09:57 --- 10:12 10:15
Burwood 09:24 --- 09:30 --- --- --- 09:54 --- --- --- 10:24
Strathfield 09:27 09:31 09:33 09:38 --- 09:53 09:57 10:08 --- 10:23 10:27
Lidcombe 09:32 --- --- 09:43 --- 09:58 10:02 10:13 --- 10:28 10:32
Auburn 09:35 --- --- --- --- --- 10:05 --- --- --- 10:35
Clyde 09:38 --- --- --- --- --- 10:08 --- --- --- 10:38
Granville 09:40 --- --- --- --- --- 10:10 --- --- --- 10:40
Harris Park 09:43 --- --- --- 09:54 --- 10:13 --- 10:24 --- 10:43
Parramatta 09:45 09:43 09:46 09:52 09:57 10:07 10:15 10:22 10:27 10:37 10:45
Westmead 09:48 --- 09:49 09:55 10:00 10:10 10:18 10:25 10:30 10:40 10:48
Wentworthville 09:50 --- --- --- 10:02 --- 10:20 --- 10:32 --- 10:50
Pendle Hill 09:52 --- --- --- 10:04 --- 10:22 --- 10:34 --- 10:52
Toongabbie 09:55 --- --- --- 10:07 --- 10:25 --- 10:37 --- 10:55
Seven Hills 09:58 --- 09:55 10:01 10:10 10:16 10:28 10:31 10:40 10:46 10:58
Blacktown 10:02 09:52 10:00 10:06 10:20 10:20 10:32 10:36 10:50 10:50 11:02
Marayong --- --- --- 10:09 10:23 --- --- 10:39 10:53 --- ---
Quakers Hill --- --- --- 10:12 10:26 --- --- 10:42 10:56 --- ---
Schofields --- --- --- 10:16 10:29 --- --- 10:46 10:59 --- ---
Riverstone --- --- --- 10:21 --- --- --- 10:51 --- --- ---
Vineyard --- --- --- 10:25 --- --- --- 10:55 --- --- ---
Mulgrave --- --- --- 10:29 --- --- --- 10:59 --- --- ---
Windsor --- --- --- 10:32 --- --- --- 11:02 --- --- ---
Clarendon --- --- --- 10:37 --- --- --- 11:07 --- --- ---
East Richmond --- --- --- 10:40 --- --- --- 11:10 --- --- ---
Richmond --- --- --- 10:42 --- --- --- 11:12 --- --- ---
Doonside 10:06 --- --- --- --- 10:24 10:36 --- --- 10:54 11:06
Rooty Hill 10:09 --- --- --- --- 10:27 10:39 --- --- 10:57 11:09
Mount Druitt 10:12 --- --- --- --- 10:30 10:42 --- --- 11:00 11:12
St Marys 10:16 --- --- --- --- 10:34 10:46 --- --- 11:04 11:16
MEASUREMENT
Werrington 10:19 --- --- --- --- 10:37 10:49 --- --- 11:07 11:19
Kingswood 10:23 --- --- --- --- 10:41 10:53 --- --- 11:11 11:23
Penrith 10:27 10:06 --- --- --- 10:44 10:57 --- --- 11:14 11:27
Emu Plains 10:30 10:09 --- --- --- --- 11:00 --- --- --- 11:30
Proceeds to --- MVR --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Source: http://www.sydneytrains.info/timetables/timetables_by_line

2 a i How long does the 9:29 am train from North Sydney take to get to Penrith?
ii How long does the 10:06 am train from Town Hall take to get to Seven Hills?
iii How long does the 9:57 am train from Strathfield take to get to Werrington?
iv How long does the 10:20 am train from Wentworthville take to get to Riverstone?
b i If I arrive at Blacktown at 10:36 am, what is the latest train I could have caught from Milsons Point?
ii If I arrive at Auburn at 10:05 am, what is the latest train I could have caught from Redfern?
iii If I arrive at Werrington at 10:49 am, what is the latest train I could have caught from Clyde?
iv If I arrive at Emu Plains at 11:00 am, what is the latest train I could have caught from Westmead?
c I am travelling from Burwood to Clarendon to meet a friend for morning tea at 11:00 am.
i Can I catch a train directly from Burwood to Clarendon?
ii What is the closest station to Burwood from which I can get a connecting train to Clarendon?
iii If I am to be on time for morning tea, at what time should I depart Burwood?
iv At what station and at what time would I catch the connecting train to Clarendon?
v At what time would I arrive at Clarendon?
vi How long would the entire trip from Burwood to Clarendon take?
vii If I am being picked up by my friend from the station at 10:50 am, how long must I wait at the
station?
Use this bus timetable to answer question 3.

Saturday ( continued. . . )
map
ref Route Number 32 5 32 4 32 5 32 4 32 5 32 4 32 5 32 4 32 5 32 4 32 5 32 4
A W atsons Bay Military Road 08:51 09:13 09:20 09:43 09:50 10:13 10:20 10:43 10:50 11:13 11:20 11:43
B V aucluse Heights O ld South H ead Rd ... 09:18 ... 09:48 ... 10:18 ... 10:48 ... 11:18 ... 11:48
C V aucluse H opetoun A v enue 08:56 ... 09:25 ... 09:55 ... 10:25 ... 10:55 ... 11:25 ...
D Dov er Heights Military Road ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
E Rose Bay D ov er Road 09:07 09:22 09:37 09:52 10:07 10:22 10:37 10:52 11:07 11:22 11:37 11:52
F Double Bay Manning Road 09:18 09:33 09:48 10:03 10:18 10:33 10:48 11:03 11:18 11:33 11:48 12:03
G E dgecliff Station New South H ead Rd 09:20 09:35 09:50 10:05 10:20 10:35 10:50 11:05 11:20 11:35 11:50 12:05
H K ings Cross B ays w ater Road 09:25 09:40 09:55 10:10 10:25 10:40 10:55 11:10 11:25 11:40 11:55 12:10
I City - T ow n Hall Park Street 09:33 09:48 10:03 10:18 10:33 10:48 11:03 11:18 11:33 11:48 12:03 12:18
J City - W alsh Bay H ic k s on Road 09:45 10:00 10:15 10:30 10:45 11:00 11:16 11:31 11:46 12:01 12:16 12:31
Source: http://www.sydneybuses.info
3 a On Friday, Harper decided to catch a bus from Watsons Bay Military Road to meet her friend at City–
Town Hall Park Street.
i If Harper arrived at Watsons Bay Military Road at 10:05 am, how long did she need to wait for her
bus to arrive?
ii At what time would Harper have arrived at City–Town Hall Park Street?
iii Harper’s friend arrived at City–Town Hall Park Street at 11:00 am. How long did Harper wait for
her friend?
b Aaron caught the 9:18 am bus from Vaucluse Heights
Old South Head Road to Edgecliff Station New
South Head Road.
i How long did Aaron’s journey take?
ii Aaron waited at the station for 35 minutes until
his friend arrived by train. They then caught a
bus together to City–Walsh Bay Hickson Road.
At what time did they arrive?
iii If Aaron arrived home at 2:42 pm, how long had
it been from the time he caught the first bus?

Use this extract from a tide table to answer question 4.
Source: http://www.rms.nsw.gov.au/documents/maritime/usingwaterways/tides-weather/
tide-tables-2016-2017.pdf
4 a Consider Wednesday 3 May. There are four entries indicating high or low tides.
i How many high tides occurred on that day?
ii What is the time difference between each high tide and the following low tide?
iii What is the height difference between each high tide and the following low tide?
b Consider the five weekdays from 12 June to 16 June.
i What is the time and date of the highest tide?
ii What is the time and date of the lowest tide?
iii Calculate the time between high tides on Wednesday 14 June.
iv Why does Thursday 15 June have only three tides?
c Sally surfs every day between 7:00 am and 9:00 am.
She says the waves are at their best three hours after low tide.
On which days does she surf when the waves are at their best?
5 Charles catches the 08:51 bus from Watsons Bay Military Road to City–Walsh Bay Hickson Road.
MEASUREMENT
CHALLENGE
Unfortunately Charles becomes travel sick if he stays on the bus for more than 13 minutes and he needs a
break of at least 5 minutes before he can travel again. Refer to the bus timetable above question 3 on the
opposite page to describe Charles’ journey, including when and where he changes buses and the time that he
finally arrives at City–Walsh Bay Hickson Road.

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW W ORKING WITH TIME
✔ explain the terms great circle, small circle, axis, poles, parallel (or circle) of latitude, meridian
✔ understand how latitude and longitude are measured
✔ use the equator and prime meridian as lines of reference for locating position on Earth’s surface
✔ determine local time in different cities (including daylight saving time)
✔ use a world map of time zones to determine the standard time in different cities
✔ use and understand the need for the International Date Line in travel questions
✔ interpret different timetables such as bus, train and ferry timetables.
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS N
Use the diagram on the right for questions 1 and 2. A B C
9A 1 Which of the following sets of points lie on the same parallel of latitude?
A A, F, G B A, E, I Equator
F E D
C G, H, I D C, E, H
G H I
9A 2 Which of the following points lie on the same meridian of longitude?
A A, F, G B A, E, I
C G, H, I D C, E, H S
Use the diagram on the right for questions 3 and 4. N
9A 3 What is the latitude of point P?

P
A 15°N B 18°N 15° Q
C 33°N D 43°N Equator
18° R
C
T
9A 4 What is the difference in latitude between points P and T ? 10°
A 5° B 25°
C 23° D 43°
9A 5 What is the reference line for longitude on Earth’s surface? S

A the axis NS
B the equator Equator
C the prime meridian
D the parallel of latitude through Greenwich C
9A 6 In the diagram on the right, what is the longitude of point P? 70° 20°
45° 35°
A 20°W C 65°W
P
B 30°E D 100°W Prime
S meridian

N
9B 7 In the diagram on the right, what is the point with position coordinates 85°E 100°E
(30°S, 85°E)? Q 30°N
P
A P B Q C U D V
9B 8 What is the point that is 15° north of (10°S, 20°W)? T R

Equator 0°
A (25°N, 20°W) B (10°S, 35°W)
C (10°S, 5°W) D (5°N, 20°W) U V 30°S
9B 9 If point P has position (12°N, 25°W) and point Q has position

S
(10°S, 30°W), what is the position of Q relative to P?
A Q is 22° south and 5° west of P B Q is 22° south and 5° east of P
C Q is 22° north and 5° west of P D Q is 22° north and 5° east of P
9C 10 What is the 24-hour time 1535 written as an analogue time?

A 5:35 pm B 3:35 pm C 5:35 am D 3:35 am
9C 11 What is 1625 – 6 hours 38 minutes?

A 0947 B 1013 C 2303 D 1047
Use the world standard time zones map from Topic 9D to answer questions 12 to 14.
9D 12 What is the time difference between Tokyo and Houston?

A 3:00 hours B 6:00 hours C 9:00 hours D 15:00 hours
9D 13 If it is 2:00 pm in Berlin, what is the standard time in Houston?

A 7:00 am B 11:00 pm C 8:00 am D 3:00 pm
9D 14 When it is 9:00 pm Friday in New York, what is the standard time in Beijing?
A 6:00 pm Friday B 8:00 am Friday C midnight Friday D 10:00 am Saturday
9D 15 Eden leaves Beijing (31°N, 121°E) at 10:00 am Tuesday flying to Honolulu (21°N, 158°W). The flight takes
13 hours. What day and time is it in Honolulu when Eden arrives?
A Tuesday 11:00 pm B Wednesday 1:00 am C Tuesday 6:00 am D Tuesday 5:00 pm
9D 16 When you cross the International Date Line from east to west, what should you do?
A put the clock forward one day B put the clock back one day
C put the clock forward 12:00 hours D put the clock back 12:00 hours
Use the Australian time zones map from Topic 9E to answer questions 17 and 18.
9E 17 What is the time in Sydney when it is 3:00 pm in Perth?

A 1:00 pm B 3:00 pm C 5:00 pm D 6:00 pm
9E 18 It is 7:30 am daylight saving time in Adelaide. What is the standard time in Brisbane, which does not have
daylight saving time?
A 6:00 am B 6:30 am C 7:00 am D 8:00 am
9F 19 Use the Carlingford–City train timetable from Topic 9F. Odette catches the 17:22 train from Telopea. At what
time will she arrive at Central?
MEASUREMENT
A 18:17 B 17:32 C 17:33 D 18:47
9F 20 Use the bus timetable from Topic 9F. Charlotte leaves home at 0920 and arrives at the Vaucluse Heights Old
South Head Road bus stop at 0930. She catches the next bus to City–Walsh Bay Hickson Road then walks for
18 minutes to meet her friend. How long is her entire journey?
A 48 minutes B 58 minutes C 68 minutes D 88 minutes

REVIEW SET 1
1 Complete the following.
a On Earth’s surface, a small circle is ________. b On Earth’s surface, a great circle is ________.
2 Refer to Figure 1 on the right and write the N

latitude of the following points.
a J b K Equator
M
c L d M 15°
L Equator C
20°
3 Refer to Figure 2 on the right and write the C
K
50° 60° 40° 50°
longitude of the following points.
D
a D b E J
G E
F
c F d G Prime
meridian
S S
Figure1 Figure 2
4 Use the diagram on the right to name the points with these position N
coordinates.
a (30°S, 120°W) 120°W
b (0°, 80°W) 80°W
c (30°S, 80°W)
Q Equator 0°
d (0°, 120°W) P
5 Perform each of the following calculations. T R 30°S

a Convert 4 hours 15 minutes to minutes.
b Write the 24-hour time 1046 as analogue time. S
c Calculate 0957 + 5 hours 49 minutes.
d Calculate 3 days 9 hours 25 minutes – 1 day 15 hours 37 minutes.
6 a When it is noon in Greenwich, what is the local time in Canberra?

b If it is 2:00 pm in Sydney, what is the standard time in Greenwich?
c When it is 11:30 am local time in Darwin, what is the local time in Hobart?
7 Jess leaves Beijing (31°N, 121°E) at 8:00 am Wednesday, flying to Honolulu (21°N, 158°W).
a What is the standard time and day in Honolulu when she leaves Beijing?
b The flight takes 11 hours. What is the day and time in Honolulu when she arrives?
8 A plane leaves Perth at 11:00 am for Sydney. Due

1 hours flying time.
to head winds, the trip takes 4__
2
At what time will the plane arrive in Sydney (local
Sydney time)?
9 Use the tide table from Topic 9F to answer these

questions.
a Calculate the height difference between the high
tide and low tide on Sunday 4 June?
b What is the time difference between high tide and
low tide on Sunday 25 June?

REVIEW SET 2
1 Explain the meaning of these terms.
a parallel of latitude b meridian of longitude
2 Use the diagram on the right to write the coordinates of these points. N
a C b D c E 44°N
D C
d F e G f H
30°W
60°E
3 Given that point A has position (26°N, 105°E), write the position
coordinates of the point that is: Equator 0°
E F
a 15° north of A b 15° south of A
c 15° east of A d 15° west of A. H G 32°S
4 Point P has position (16°S, 140°W) and point Q has position

(5°N, 120°W). State whether P is: S
a to the north or south of Q

b to the east or west of Q.

a Convert 4 days 17 hours to hours.
b Convert 9:42 pm to 24-hour time.
c Calculate 3 days 17 hours 55 minutes + 1 day 14 hours 31 minutes.
6 When it is 11:00 pm Thursday standard time in Sydney, what is the standard time in Auckland?
7 Use the world time zone map from Topic 9D to find the standard time in Houston when UTC is 8:00 am.
8 A plane leaves Sydney at 5:00 pm daylight saving time to travel to Perth. The trip takes 3 hours 50 minutes. At
what time does the plane arrive in Perth?
9 Use the Chatswood–Richmond/Emu Plains train timetable from Topic 9F to answer these questions.
a How long does the 9:26 am train from North Sydney take to get to Penrith?
b If I arrive at Auburn at 10:35 am, which train did I catch from Redfern?
REVIEW SET 3
Use the diagram on the right to answer questions 1 to 4.
1 Write the coordinates of these points. N

a E b H
c P d F A E 32°N
B C D
2 Name a point that is:
F
a due north of I b due south of F G H I J Equator 0°
c due east of C d due west of R. M Q 16°S
R O P
MEASUREMENT
120°W
15°W
100°W
40°W
80°W
S

3 a State whether point E is:
i north or south of I ii east or west of I.
b State whether point Q is:
i north or south of H ii east or west of H.
c State whether point G is:
i north or south of O ii east or west of O.
d State whether point R is:
i north or south of C ii east or west of C.
4 Write the coordinates of the point that is:

a 5° west of D b 30° north of Q c 12° south of B d 15° east of R.

a Convert 157 hours to days and hours.
b Write the 24-hour time 1534 as an analogue time.
c Convert 3:28 pm to 24-hour time.
d Calculate the time (in days/hours/minutes) that elapses between 7:38 pm Monday and 11:30 am Thursday.
6 When the time in Chicago is noon Thursday, standard time, what is the standard time in Tokyo?
7 A plane leaves Sydney at 11:00 am Friday, EST, and flies directly to Paris. If the trip takes 15 hours, at what
time does the plane arrive in Paris (Paris standard time)?
8 Use the Australian time zones to find the time in Darwin when it is 11:28 am in Cairns.
9 A summer concert is held in Perth starting at 6:30 pm and it is live streamed around Australia. Calculate the
local time in Adelaide, Sydney and Brisbane when the concert starts.
10 Use the Carlingford–City train timetable from Topic 9F to answer these questions.
a I am meeting a friend at Milsons Point station. Which is the latest train from Dundas that I can catch to
arrive before 6:00 pm?
b At what time does the train from part a pass through Lidcombe station?
REVIEW SET 4
Use the diagram on the right for questions 1 to 3.
1 Write the position coordinates of these points.

Prime N 55°E
a Y b P meridian
45°N
c Q d D
Z X Y
2 Name a point that is:
a due east of T b due south of E P R
Equator 0°
Q 10°S
c due north of P d due west of F.
D E F
3 Write the position coordinates of the point that is: T
65°W V W 60°S
a 20° due north of P b 30° due west of D
c 15° due south of R d 50° due east of W. S

a Convert 227 minutes to hours and minutes. b Write the 24-hour time 1127 as an analogue time.
c Convert 11:23 am to 24-hour time. d Calculate 0950 + 11 hours 33 minutes.

5 When it is noon in Hobart, what is UTC in Greenwich?
6 When the time in San Francisco is 5:00 pm Monday, standard time, what is the standard time in Moscow?
1 hours, at what time will the
7 A plane leaves Perth at 11:00 am and flies to Johannesburg. If the flight takes 12__
2
plane arrive in Johannesburg (Johannesburg standard time)?
8 Saayng is in Adelaide and rings her mother to say Happy New Year at midnight Adelaide time. If her mother is
in Brisbane, at what local time does she receive the call?
9 Use the bus timetable from Topic 9F to answer the following questions.
Angus caught the 9:48 am bus from Vaucluse Heights Old South Head Road to Edgecliff Station New South
Head Road.
a How long did the journey take?
b Angus waited at the station for 25 minutes until his friend, Stuart, arrived by train. They then caught a bus
to City–Walsh Bay Hickson Road. At what time did they arrive?
c If Angus arrived home at 1:23 pm, how long was he out from the time he caught the first bus?

1 a What is the reference line for longitude on Earth’s surface. (1 mark)
b i Write the 24-hour time 1827 as an analogue time. (1 mark)
ii Convert 223 minutes to hours and minutes. (1 mark)
c Find the position coordinates of point B, which is 20°N and 15°E of
point A (40°N, 45°W). (2 marks)
d It is 9:00 am in Adelaide during daylight saving time. What is the time in Brisbane which
does not have daylight saving? (2 marks)
e Perry flew from Rome to Sydney via Singapore where he stopped for 6 hours.
He left Rome at 2:40 pm Sunday (Rome time) and arrived at 1:15 am Tuesday (Sydney time).
i Use the world map in Topic 9D to calculate the time difference between
Rome and Sydney. (1 mark)
ii Calculate the time in Sydney when the plane left Rome. (1 mark)
iii Calculate the total flight time. (2 marks)
f Use the Chatswood–Richmond/Emu Plains train timetable from Topic 9F to
answer the following questions.
Margo leaves home at 9:00 am and walks for 17 minutes to Milsons Point station. She then
catches the next train to Westmead to visit her friend Robbie in hospital.
i At what time does Margo catch the train at Milsons Point station? (1 mark)
ii At what time does she arrive at Westmead Station? (1 mark)
iii She buys a gift and arrives at the hospital 20 minutes after she arrived at Westmead station.
She stays with Robbie for 1 hour and 20 minutes. At what time does she leave
the hospital? (2 marks)
MEASUREMENT
TOTAL: 15 MARKS

1 The results of a survey of the hair colours of a group of people are shown below using the code black (B),
brown (b), blond (w), red (r), grey (g).
B B w w b b B B r w
w b g B w B B b b w
w w w b B g g g B B
a Organise the information into a frequency distribution table.
b How many people were surveyed?
c What was the most common hair colour in this group of people?
d Add a relative frequency column to the table above and find the relative frequency of people with:
i black hair ii blond hair. Method of travel to school
e Display the data above using: 12
i a dot plot ii a horizontal bar graph. 10
Number
8
2 Use this column graph to answer the following questions. 6
4
a How many students catch a bus to school?
2
b How many students don’t travel by car? 0
Walk Bicycle Bus Car Train
3 The results in a test given to two classes are shown below.
Class A: 29, 39, 21, 23, 35, 31, 41, 45, 27, 31, 37, 25, 13, 43, 19, 33, 37, 35, 29
Class B: 11, 21, 33, 29, 29, 39, 43, 31, 27, 25, 33, 23, 29, 17, 41, 41, 27, 15, 7
a Construct back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots Score Class Frequency Cumulative
for this data. centre frequency
b Which class performed better? Explain your answer. 1–4 2.5 1
4 a Complete the table shown on the right. 5–8 4
b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon 9–12 7
of the data. 13–16 12
5 a List the sample space for the children in a three-child 17–20 9
family. 21–24 8
b A card is chosen from a standard deck of playing 25–28 4
cards. Determine the probability that the card is: 29–32 5
i the jack of hearts ii a jack
iii a heart iv black.
c A coffee tin was tossed 100 times and the way it landed is recorded Lands on Frequency
in the table on the right. What is the experimental probability that this
End 23
tin will land on one of its ends when tossed?
Curved face 77
d A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the probability of getting:
i a head and a 3 ii a head and an odd number
iii a tail and a 5 iv a tail and a number less than 3.
6 A six-sided die is rolled. List the outcomes of these events and write in words the complement of each event:
a rolling a 3 b rolling an odd number c rolling a number greater than 3.
09A_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 352 19/10/2017 12:11 PM

7 a A bag contains one green, one blue and one white marble. One marble is chosen at random from the

bag, and then replaced into the bag. A second marble is chosen. Find the sample space.
i both marbles are green ii the first marble is green
iii exactly one marble is green iv both marbles are the same colour
v the marbles are different colours vi the first marble is blue and the second marble is white
vii there is one blue and one white marble viii at least one marble is green.
8 Repeat question 7 but, this time, the first marble is not replaced in the bag before the second marble is chosen.
9 A six-sided die is rolled 600 times. How many times would you expect to roll:
a a 3? b a number less than 3? c an odd number?
10 Use the diagram on the right to answer these questions. N
a List the points on the equator. 60°N

P Q R
b Write the latitude and longitude of the points P, U and Y. 20°E
c Determine whether the following are true or false. T V 0°

U
i P is west of Q. ii R is north of Z. X Z 15°S
Y
iii X is east of Y. iv Z is south of X.
150°W 15°W
d Determine the position coordinates of the point that is:
S
i 30° west of Z ii 8° south of Q.
11 a Convert 4 days and 19 hours to hours. b Convert 289 minutes to hours and minutes.
c Calculate the time (in days/hours/minutes) that elapses between 7:38 pm Tuesday and 9:30 am Friday.
12 a Moscow is in the +4 time zone and Miami is in the –5 time zone. What time is it in:
i Moscow when it is 4:00 am in Miami ii Miami when it is 2:00 pm in Moscow.
b Reynold leaves Beijing (31°N, 121°E), at 11:00 am Friday, flying to San Francisco (38°N, 122°W).
Beijing is in the +8 time zone and San Francisco is in the –8 time zone.
i What is the standard time and day in San Francisco when Reynold leaves Beijing?
1
ii The flight time is 12 __2 hours. What is the day and time in San Francisco when he arrives?
c Use the Australian time zones to find the summer time in:
i Darwin when it is 8:30 am in Cairns ii Hobart when it is 10:00 am in Sydney
iii Perth when it is 7:00 pm in Brisbane iv Adelaide when it is 5:00 pm in Perth.
13 Use this bus timetable to answer the following questions.
Saturday
map
ref Route Number 333 333 333 333 333 333 333 333 333
C North Bondi Military Rd 06:28 06:57 07:28 07:56 08:28 08:42 08:54 09:09 09:24
D Bondi Beach Campbell Pde 06:30 06:59 07:30 07:58 08:30 08:44 08:56 09:11 09:26
G Bondi Jn Interchange Stand N 06:41 07:10 07:41 08:09 08:41 08:55 09:10 09:25 09:40
H Darlinghurst Taylor Square 06:51 07:20 07:51 08:19 08:51 09:06 09:21 09:36 09:51
J City - Circular Quay Young St 07:00 07:29 08:00 08:28 09:00 09:15 09:30 09:45 10:00
a Mick arrives at North Bondi Military Rd at 7:00 am. How long must he wait for the next bus to
Circular Quay?
b At what time does Mick arrive at Circular Quay?
c How long was the bus trip?
d Mick’s friend catches the 7:58 am bus from Bondi beach. At what time does she arrive at Circular Quay?
e How long did Mick wait at Circular Quay for his friend to arrive?

10Budgeting and
household expenses
▶ calculating and comparing household running,
maintenance and repair costs
▶ interpreting tables and graphs to calculate motor
vehicle purchase price and insurance costs
▶ calculating the cost of finance
▶ calculating fuel consumption
▶ calculating depreciation
▶ calculating the running costs of motor vehicles
▶ preparing personal budgets.

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

Use this graph to answer questions 1 to 4. 10A 4 When was the temperature 18°C?
A 12:00 pm and 5:00 pm
B 2:00 pm and 3:00 pm
C 3:00 pm and 4:00 pm
D 1:00 pm and 6:00 pm
10A 5 What is the result for 15.687 – 7.884?
A 8.203 B 8.203
C 8.803 D 7.803
10A 6 What is the result for 35.209 + 142.36?
A 494.45 B 49.445
C 177.245 D 177.569
10A 7 What is the result for 23.08 × 8.5?
A 196.18 B 31.58
C 14.58 D 2.715
10A 1 What is the title of the vertical axis?
10A 8 What is the result for 6 + 4 × 5 – 8?
A Outside temperature
A 42 B 18
B 6:00 pm
C 6 D –6
C Temperature
D Time 10A 9 A car travels 140 km in 4 hours. What is its
average speed?
10A 2 Between which times is the temperature
A 560 km/h B 144 km/h
constant?
C 140 km/h D 35 km/h
A 12:00 pm to 1:00 pm
B 2:00 pm to 3:00 pm 10B 10 What is the value of the expression 3a – 5b + 5
C 3:00 pm to 4:00 pm when a = 2 and b = –4?
D 5:00 pm to 6:00 pm A 31 B 21
C –12 D –17
10A 3 Between which times was the greatest
decrease in temperature? 10C 11 A car uses 55 L of petrol to travel 506 km.
A 12:00 pm to 1:00 pm What is the fuel consumption in litres per
B 2:00 pm to 3:00 pm 100 km?
C 3:00 pm to 4:00 pm A 9.2 L/100 km B 10.2 L/100 km
D 5:00 pm to 6:00 pm C 10.5 L/100 km D 10.9 L/100 km
Q1–4 Support sheet 10A.1 Interpreting data in graphical form
Q5–7 Support sheet 10A.2 Operations with decimals
Q8 Support sheet 10A.3 Understanding order of operations
Q9 Support sheet 10A.4 Writing rates
Q10 Support sheet 10B.1 Substituting for pronumerals
Q11 Support sheet 10C.1 Calculating rates
Chapter 10 Budgeting and household expenses 355

10A Household bills
Organisations that provide services such as electricity, gas and water are called utilities. In this
section you will read, interpret and perform calculations relating to various utility bills.
EXERCISE 10A Household bills

1 Use the sample water bill on the opposite page to answer questions 1 and 2.
a i What is the supply period for this bill?

ii How many days are there in the supply period?
b The fixed charges are those payable for having water and sewerage available to your property. What is
the total of the fixed charges for this account?
c i How much water did this household use for the period shown?
ii Using the answer for part a ii, what is the average daily usage?
d The usage charge is what we pay for the amount of water that we use.
i What is the cost per kilolitre of water?
ii What is the total cost (fixed and usage) for this period?
iii Using the answer for part a ii, what is the average daily cost?
e i Assuming the same fixed and usage charges, was this bill smaller or larger than the last bill?
ii Was this the bill smaller or larger than for the same period last year?
f Assume the same fixed and usage charges.
i Calculate the water usage charge for the last bill.
ii Calculate the total charges for the last bill.
g The water usage charge last year was $2.13 per kilolitre. What is the difference between the water usage
charge for this bill and that for the bill for the same period last year?
h How did the average daily water consumption for this bill compare with the local area average?
i The table ‘Targets for water-efficient households’ in the sample water bill allows us to compare a
household’s water usage with the supplier’s targets for ideal water-efficient households. This bill is for a
medium-sized property with five occupants.
i Is this household’s usage smaller or larger than the ideal efficient usage shown in the table?
ii By how much would this household have to change its daily usage to reach the ideal?
iii If a bucket can hold 12 L of water, to how many buckets is your answer for part ii equivalent?
2 Refer to the ‘Targets for water-efficient households’ table on the water bill to answer these questions. What
is the ideal daily water consumption for the following households?
a a large property with four people b a small property with two people
c a 600 m property with three people
2
d an 18 m by 40 m property with six people
3 In 2018, Hunter Water charged residential properties $2.25 per kilolitre for water usage. The water
availability charge was $25.69 p.a. Calculate the total annual cost for a property that used 190 kL of water.

UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING MONT BAY WATER
Mr S Ample
12 Water Street Customer Number 22988701
NORTH WATERVILLE
Due Date 23 April 2018
Amount $348.99
ACCOUNT DETAILS
Account for residential property

YOUR CHARGES EXPLAINED
Usage Charges (GST does not apply) Water Usage
For period 01/01/2018 to 31/03/2018 (90 days) Recorded by your water meter, this charge covers
the amount of water used at your property. This
Water Usage charge is billed per kilolitre (kL) of water you use.
68 kL @ $2.17 per kL = $147.56 Service Charges
Your water and sewerage service charges are fixed
Total Usage Charges $147.56 charges for access to our water supply and
sewerage systems. They also help us maintain,
Service Charge Details (GST does not apply) renew and expand these systems so we can
continue to provide you with high quality drinking
Water Service Charge $47.68 water and safe sewerage removal now and into the
Sewerage Service Charge $153.75 future.
Total Service Charges $201.43
Total Current Charges $348.99
NOTICEBOARD
Your average daily water usage comparison Targets for water-efficient households
1000
Property size
900 People per
household Small Medium Large
800
Average litres per day
247 L/day 249 L/day 267 L/day

700
600 367 L/day 375 L/day 396 L/day
500
400
300
200 621 L/day 645 L/day 666 L/day

100
0
Same time Last bill This bill Local area Note:
last year average A small property has an area less than 500 m2.
A medium property has an area between 501 m2 and 700 m2.
A large property has an area between 701 m2 and 900 m2.

4 a In 2018, Sandhaven Water charged residential properties $1.55 per kilolitre for water usage up to 450 kL
and $1.75 per kilolitre for each kiloletre more than 450 kL. The water availability charge was $92. What
was the annual cost of water for a household that used:
i 270 kL? ii 480 kL?
b For non-residential properties, the water usage charge was $1.55 per kilolitre. The water availability
charge is based on the size (diameter) of the water meter service
Meter connection Charge ($)
connection(s), as shown in the table on the right. If there is
more than one meter connection to a property, each is charged 20 mm 81
separately. What would be the water availability charge for a 25 mm 127
non-residential property that is supplied by: 32 mm 207
i one 32 mm connection? 40 mm 324
ii one 25 mm and one 40 mm connection?
50 mm 506
iii one 50 mm connection?
100 mm 2025
iv two 25 mm connections?
c A non-residential property has one 20 mm, one 32 mm and one 40 mm connection. If the amount of
water used was 560 kL, what was the total annual cost?
5 Use the sample electricity account on the opposite page to help you answer the following questions.
a i What is the supply period for this bill? ii How many days are in the supply period?
b The Electricity Service Availability charge is the charge payable for having electricity available to a
property (the cost of supplying and maintaining the poles and wires).
i What is the daily charge on the bill? ii What is the total charge for this account?
c The usage charge is a payment for the amount of electricity used.
i What was the total amount of electricity used by this household for the period shown?
ii What is the average daily usage?
d The cost of usage is broken down into peak energy rate, shoulder energy charge and off-peak energy
rate. What percentage of usage occurred in:
i the shoulder period? ii the off-peak period?
e What is the peak energy rate per kilowatt-hour?
f What is the difference between the peak and off-peak rates per kilowatt-hour?
g i What is the total energy usage charge for this quarter?
ii What is the total cost (availability and usage) for this quarter, after GST?
iii What is the average daily cost?
h Assuming the same fixed and usage charges, was this bill smaller or larger than:
i the previous bill? ii the bill for the same period last year?
i Consider the bill for the same period last year.
i What was the average daily usage?
ii Calculate the total amount of electricity used for that period.
j If the total electricity usage on last year’s bill (calculated in part i ii) is broken down in the same
proportion as the current bill, what would have been the amount of electricity used last year in the:
i peak period? ii shoulder period? iii off-peak period?
k Using your answers for part j, and assuming the same rates as the current bill, calculate the:
i energy usage charge for the same period last year ii service availability charge
iii total of the usage and availability charges for this period
iv total charges after the discount is applied and the GST is added.
l Consider the electricity usage comparison. In which month was the:
i most energy consumed? ii least shoulder rate energy used?
iii most off-peak rate energy used?

UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING FIRST COMBINATION energy
Customer Number 0123456

Mr P Smith
71 Winter Grove Due Date 18 March 2018
SUMMERTON Amount Payable $621.41
Quarterly Electricity Account AVERAGE DAILY USAGE
LOCATION: 71 Winter Grove, SUMMERTON Electricity
Previous Amount Payable 529.44

Payment Received — Thank You –529.44 Cr
20 kWh
20 kWh
13 kWh
Electricity (22/11/2017 to 22/02/2018) 594.65
Electricity Discount 5% (22/11/2017 to 22/02/2018) –29.73 Cr
Last Bill This Bill Same Period
Last Year
Subtotal of Charges before GST 564.92 Bill Days
Total GST Payable 10% 56.49 91 93 95
Consider reducing your environmental
Total Charges including GST 621.41 impact. Greenhouse gas released
Total Amount Payable $621.41 to produce your electricity this
period = 1973.1 kg of CO2
Energy Used & Costs
METER ID THIS – LAST = ENERGY x RATE = COST

READING READING USED
Peak Energy Rate — Contract (22/11/17—22/02/18)
EDX009745/001 649.9 0.0 649.9 kWh 47.7700c $310.44
Shoulder Energy Charge — Contract (22/11/17—22/02/18)
EDX009745/002 940.8 0.0 940.8 kWh 19.4000c $182.52
Off-Peak (Night Rate) Energy Rate — Contract (22/11/17—22/02/18)
EDX009745/003 270.7 0.0 270.7 kWh 11.9000c $32.22
Electricity Service Availability Charge 93 days 74.7000c/day $69.47
Total Electricity Before GST 1861.4 kWh $594.65
PowerSmart Home Electricity Usage Summary
Supply Period: ELECTRICITY USAGE COMPARISON

22 November 2017 to 22 February 2018 — 93 days 5000
Peak
USAGE BREAKDOWN 4500
Energy Consumption (kWh)
Shoulder
Peak 650 kWh 34.91% 4000 Off-Peak
Shoulder 941 kWh 50.54% 3500
Off-Peak 271 kWh 14.54% 3000

TOTAL ENERGY 1861 kWh 2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
May Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb
16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18

Gas account
Mr A Winters
2 Spring Street
GREENHILL
Your account number 0123456 Your overall picture.

Due date 27 May 2018
100 1.0
Total amount due $187.87 80 0.8
Megajoules
60 0.6
Tonnes
40 0.4
20 0.2
Your account summary 0
Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb May
0.0
16 17 17 17 17 18 18
Supply period 2 Feb 2018 to 3 May 2018
Average daily gas use
Estimated greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes)
Previous balance $183.47
Payment received $183.47 cr Usage
Balance brought forward $0.00 Average usage per day
in this billing period 53.30 MJ
New charges and credits (see details below)
Same time last year 53.33 MJ
Usage and supply charges $170.79
Average cost per day $2.06
Total GST for new charges $17.08
ESTIMATED GREENHOUSE GAS
Total amount due $187.87 EMISSIONS FOR THIS BILL 0.3 tonnes
Your account in detail

DPI 51408525661
Reading type Actual read on 3 May 2018 for 91 days
Tariff description Residential Standard
Meter number EA186971
Previous Current Units Multiplier Heating Conversion Usage MJ

reading reading value factor
7486 7611.01 125.01 1 38.27165 1.013730 4850
Charge
Balance brought forward $0.00
New charges and credits
Usage and supply charges
Gas Consumption 3740 MJ @ $0.02967 $110.97
Next 1110 MJ @ $0.01758 $19.51
Supply Charge $40.31
Total usage and supply charges $170.79
Total GST for new charges $17.08
Total amount due $187.87

6 Use the sample gas account on the opposite page to answer the following questions.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a i What is the supply period for this account? ii If the dates are inclusive, how many days is this?
b i How much GST is included in the total amount due?
ii What percentage is this of the usage and supply charges?
c What was the total number of megajoules used in this period?
d What is the cost/MJ for: i the first 3740 MJ used? ii the next 1110 MJ used?
e i What is the supply charge?
ii Assuming that the usage and supply charges were the same for the previous bill, calculate the total
amount due if this household used 4510 MJ.
f For this billing period, what was: i the average daily usage? ii the average cost per day?
g What were the estimated greenhouse gas emissions for this billing period?
h Calculate the total usage for the same time last year if the billing period was 90 days.
7 The table below shows part of the rates and charges notice from a Sydney council.
Details Rate ($) Rateable value ($) Amount ($)
Residential: on land value 0.001 454 74 per $ rateable value 599 000 871.39
Residential: base amount 465 465
Domestic waste availability charge 70 70
Domestic waste-management charge 291 291
Total of this notice
a i What is the residential rate charge, in dollars, for properties in this council area?
ii Multiply the rate from part i by the rateable value of the land. Is the answer the amount in the last
column for ‘Residential: on land value’?
b Calculate the total charge for domestic waste services.
c Calculate the total rates payable.
d Calculate the total rates payable for another residential property in this municipality if this property has
a rateable land value of $726 000.
8 a The average rate of flow of a bathroom shower with a normal shower rose is 18 L/min. Jenny has two
8-minute showers each day. Calculate the annual cost of her showers if the water usage charge is
$2.45/kL. (Use 1 year = 365 days.)
b Jenny’s brother Sam has one 20-minute shower each day. What is the annual cost of Sam’s showers?
c How much could Jenny and Sam save each year by installing a water-efficient shower rose that has a
flow rate of 8.5 L/min?
9 a There are four people in the Lee family. Use the Toilet Litres of water used
table to help you find the number of litres per year
Full-flush 54 L per person per day
they would save by replacing their full-flush toilet
with a 3-star rated dual-flush toilet. 3-star rated dual-flush 18 L per person per day
b
What would be the cost savings if the water usage charge is $2.75/kL?
10 A 7.0 kg top-loading washing machine that costs $556 uses 170 L of water per wash. A 7.0 kg front-loading
CHALLENGE
machine of the same brand costs $660 and uses 80 L per wash. The Lee family who use their washing
machine four times per week are considering whether to buy the top-loading or front-loading machine.
a Calculate the annual water usage charges for each machine if water costs $2.25/kL. (Use 1 year = 52 weeks.)
b What is the annual saving in water costs if they buy the front-loading machine?
c i What is the difference in the purchase price of the machines?
ii If they purchase the front-loading machine, how long will it take to break-even on total costs
(purchase price and water usage)?

10B Purchasing a car
• Spreadsheet 10B: Compare the purchase costs for different vehicles
There are a number of extra costs added to the retail price when purchasing a new car.
Registration, stamp duty and compulsory third-party insurance are compulsory costs. There
may also be a dealer delivery charge, other insurance costs and, if borrowing money to
purchase the car, interest charges on the loan.
Registration
The fee to transfer the registration of a vehicle from one owner to another was $32 in 2017. The cost of
registration of a new vehicle depends on the weight of the vehicle without a load (this is also referred to as the
‘kerb weight’ or tare weight) and whether the vehicle is being used mostly for private use or mostly for business
use. The table below shows some of these costs.
Table 10-1: Registration of motor vehicles in NSW
Size of vehicle Tare weight Private use ($) Business use ($)
Cars, station wagons, trucks up to 975 kg 207 336
976 kg to 1154 kg 240 382
1155 kg to 1504 kg 293 463
1505 kg to 2504 kg 448 697
Motorcycles 62 62
Source: www.rta.nsw.gov.au
Stamp duty
Stamp duty is a state tax that is based on the market value of the vehicle or the price paid for it, whichever is the
greater. It is charged at the following rate:
3% of the market value up to $45 000 plus

5% of the value over $45 000.
(Go to the RTA website and click on the link to stamp duty to see the stamp duty costs for NSW.)
Insurance
Compulsory third-party (CTP) insurance, often referred to as a ‘green slip’, is necessary to register a vehicle in
NSW. This CTP insurance is paid each time a vehicle is registered. It provides compensation to other people
injured or killed when the insured driver’s vehicle is involved in an accident. (It does not cover damage to other
vehicles, property or your vehicle or theft of your vehicle. Other types of insurance are available for these.)
The cost of a green slip varies and depends on a number of factors, including the type and age of the vehicle,
where it is garaged, and the age and driving record of the drivers. You can find examples of the cost of CTP
(premiums) on the State Insurance Regulatory Authority website at www.sira.nsw.gov.au.

There are types of insurance, other than CTP, available for motor vehicles, such as comprehensive insurance and
third-party property insurance. These are not compulsory, but are advisable.
• Comprehensive insurance covers damage to, or theft of, your vehicle as well as damage to other vehicles
and property in the case of an accident.
• Third-party property damage vehicle insurance covers you for damage caused by your vehicle to someone
else’s vehicle or property. (It does not cover damage to, or theft of, your vehicle.)
Comprehensive insurance is more expensive than third-party property insurance because it covers more types of
incidents. Both types of insurance vary in price according to factors such as the driver’s age, driving experience
and driving record, the type and age of the vehicle and where it is garaged. Many insurance companies will give
an online quote for car insurance.
Dealer delivery
When purchasing a new car, the dealer will often charge a fee for ‘dealer delivery’. This fee represents the cost
to the dealer of preparing the car for delivery to the buyer. The fee varies from dealer to dealer and is sometimes
waived or reduced in order to induce people to buy from one dealer rather than another.
Trade-in
As part of the agreement when you purchase a new car, the dealer may buy your current car, if you have one, at
an agreed price. When you sell your current car to the dealer in this way, it is called a trade-in.
EXAMPLE 10B–1 Calculating the cost of car registration

Use Table 10-1 to determine how much extra it costs to register a new Toyota Corolla, which weighs
1250 kg, for business use compared with private use.
Solve Think Apply
Extra cost = $463 − $293 In Table 10-1, 1250 kg is in the In the table, find the weight range in which
= $170 range 1155 kg to 1504 kg. the vehicle lies and read the costs for
Cost for business use = $463 business and private registration. Find the
Cost for private use = $293 difference between these two costs.
EXERCISE 10B Purchasing a car

1 Complete the following to calculate the cost of registration, for private use, of a vehicle that weighs 1060 kg.
In Table 10-1, 1060 kg is in the range ____ kg to ____ kg.

Cost to register for private use = ____.
2 Use Table 10-1 to help you calculate the cost of registration, for private use, of a vehicle that weighs:
a 1820 kg b 1150 kg c 1450 kg
3 How much more expensive is it to register a vehicle for business use than for private use, if the vehicle
weighs:
a 2130 kg? b 975 kg? c 1200 kg?

EXAMPLE 10B–2 Calculating the stamp duty on a new car
Calculate the stamp duty to be paid on the purchase of a new Mazda that has a recommended retail
price of $57 000.
Solve Think Apply

Stamp duty 3% = 0.03 If the price paid for the car is not
= 0.03 × 45 000 + 0.05 × 3% of $45 000 = 0.03 × $45 000 more than $45 000, the stamp duty is
(57 000 − 45 000) The value over $45 000 3% of its price.
= $1950 = $57 000 − $45 000 If the price is more than $45 000, the
5% = 0.05 stamp duty is 3% of $45 000 ($1350)
5% of the value over $45 000 plus 5% of $(price − 45 000).
= 0.05 × ($57 000 − $45 000)
4 Complete the following to calculate the stamp duty.

a Market value = $17 900 b Market value = $52 380
Stamp duty Stamp duty
= 3% of $_____ = ____% of $45 000 + ____% of ($_____ − $45 000)
= 0.03 × $_____ = 0.____ × $45 000 + 0.____ × $_____
= $_____ = $_____
5 Calculate the stamp duty that would be charged on a vehicle that has a market value of:
a $21 990 b $35 699 c $49 000 d $93 600
EXAMPLE 10B–3 Calculating the total cost of buying a new car

a Calculate the total cost of purchasing a new Ford with a recommended retail price (RRP) of $37 000 and
weight of 1704 kg. The CTP insurance for the car is $487 and the dealer delivery charge is $528. The
car is for private use and the owner decides to take out comprehensive insurance that costs $960 for the
first year.
b If the buyer receives a trade-in of $15 000 on her old vehicle, what is the total cost for changing to the
new car?
Solve Think Apply

a RRP = $37 000 The weight of the car (1704 kg) is in Use the weight of the
Registration = $448 the range 1505 kg to 2504 kg. From vehicle to determine the
Stamp duty = 0.03 × $37 000 Table 10-1, the registration cost for registration cost from
= $1110 private use is $448. Table 10-1. Calculate the
CTP insurance = $487 The RRP of the car is less than stamp duty. Add all the
Dealer delivery = $528 $45 000; so stamp duty is 3% of its extra costs to the RRP of
Comprehensive insurance = $960 price ($37 000). the car.
Total = $40 533 Add all costs to the RRP of the car.
b Changeover price Total cost = $40 533 The changeover price
= $40 533 − $15 000 Trade-in price = $15 000 is the total price of the
= $25 533 Changeover price is the difference. vehicle less the trade-in.

6 Complete the following table to calculate the total cost to purchase each of the following new vehicles.
Costs Holden Mazda Toyota sedan Toyota SUV Yamaha motorcycle
RRP ($) 37 990 31 450 18 000 52 870 14 999
Weight (kg) 1637 1440 1040 1970
Private (P) or business (B) B P P B P
Registration ($)
Stamp duty ($)
CTP insurance ($) 620 487 528 660 280
Dealer delivery ($) 790 585 499 887 389
Insurance ($) 1089 790 560 1185 299
Total
EXAMPLE 10B–4 Calculating the total cost of buying a used car

Find the total cost of purchasing and insuring a three-year-old Honda hatchback that has an advertised price
of $10 500. Third-party property damage insurance is $479.
Solve Think Apply
Dealer price = $10 500 Transfer of registration fee is The transfer of registration fee must be
Transfer of registration = $32 $32 for used vehicles. paid. Stamp duty is charged when there
Stamp duty = 0.03 × $10 500 The price of the car is less is a change of ownership of a vehicle.
= $315 than $45 000, therefore The CTP insurance was paid when the
Insurance = $479 stamp duty is 3% of its car was last registered, so is not due
Total = $11 326 $10 500 price. until the next time registration is due.
7 Complete the following to find the total cost of purchasing and insuring a four-year-old Nissan sports car
that is advertised for $43 900. Comprehensive insurance is $1560.
Dealer price = $43 900
Transfer of registration = $______
Stamp duty = 0.03 × $______ = $______
Insurance = $______
Total = $______
8 Find the total cost of purchasing and insuring a

one-year-old Toyota sedan that has an advertised price
of $23 900. Third-party property insurance is $463.
9 Find the total cost of purchasing and insuring a

two-year-old Kawasaki 1400cc motorcycle that has an
advertised price of $14 890. Comprehensive insurance
is $678.

10 a Stamp duty is calculated as 3% of the price of the vehicle up to $45 000, plus 5% of the price over
$45 000. Complete the following table.

Stamp duty on vehicle
Price ($’000) 3% of the price up to $45 000 5% of the price over $45 000 Total
10 0.03 × $10 000 = $300
20
30
40
45 0.03 × $45 000 = $1350
50 0.03 × $45 000 = $1350 0.05 × ($50 000 − $45 000) = $250 $1600
60 0.03 × $45 000 = $1350 0.05 × ($60 000 − $45 000) = $750
70
80
b Use the information in the table to draw a piecewise graph, with price (the independent variable) on the
horizontal axis and stamp duty (the dependent variable) on the vertical axis.
c Use the graph to estimate the stamp duty on a vehicle purchased for:
i $35 000 ii $65 000 iii $78 000
11 a Go to the State Insurance Regulatory Authority website at www.sira.nsw.gov.au and use the following
information to get a quote on a green slip for Richard.
Richard is buying a new car. There is no entitlement to GST input credit. The start date for the
insurance will be the 1st of the month/next month/this year. The vehicle is a new Mazda 6 sedan that
is normally garaged at Parramatta, postcode 2150. The car will be privately owned and registered
for private use. It does not have a current CTP insurance policy because it is a new car. It will also
be covered by comprehensive insurance with NRMA Insurance. Richard has continuously held
comprehensive insurance with NRMA for 2 years. The policy does not have a no-claim discount.
Richard, the sole owner/driver, is 20 years old. He has not had any accidents in the 3 years he has had
his licence and has not lost any demerit points. Richard is not a member of NRMA roadside service.
b What is the cheapest quote for Richard’s green slip?
c What would the cheapest quote be if Richard had had one at-fault accident and lost 4 demerit points.
12 a Search the internet for an insurance company (such as NRMA insurance at www.nrma.com.au) and use
the following information to get a quote for comprehensive insurance for this new car.
Vehicle details: Toyota Corolla hatchback 1.8 that is usually garaged at Manly, postcode 2095.
Insurance cover required is $21 990. The car is for private use and the owner has no finance owing
on the car. The driver is a 20-year-old male (enter a date of birth that makes the driver 20-years old)
with 2 years driving experience and has had no accidents. He wants an excess of $600 on the policy
and has no other relevant policies or memberships. As this is his first car there is no previous insurer.
b Vary the age of the driver (say 20, 25, 30, 35 years, etc.) and record and compare costs.
c Vary the gender of the driver for the ages used in part b and compare costs.
d Using a map and a list of postcodes, vary the locality where the vehicle is garaged and compare costs.
e Investigate the change in costs for a driver who has had an at-fault accident.
f Vary the type of vehicle and compare costs. For example, compare the costs for small versus large
passenger vehicles, 4WDs, people movers and light commercial vehicles.
g Compare the costs from other insurers. (Try www.comparethemarket.com.au/car-insurance/australia/
new-south-wales)
h Is there an age excess to be paid on top of the basic excess?

13 Investigate and compare the advantages and disadvantages of comprehensive and third-party property
insurance for cars. In what circumstances might one form of insurance be more suitable than the other?
14 Investigate and compare the costs of third-party property insurance at www.nrma.com.au/car-insurance

Use the example and investigations suggested in question 12.
15 From the information gathered in the previous questions, make a list of the factors that affect insurance
premiums (such as type of vehicle, driver experience, etc.)
16 A spreadsheet can be used to calculate the total purchase cost of a vehicle and to compare costs. The
spreadsheet below has two vehicles for comparison but using fill across will give more information. Enter
the RRP, weight and type of use, and then the registration and stamp duty will be calculated automatically.
Then enter CTP, dealer delivery and comprehensive insurance.
A B C
1 Comparing the costs of purchasing vehicles
2 Cost items Mazda sedan Holden sedan
3 RRP $28,500.00 $57,888.00
4 Weight (kg) 1440 1720
5 Private (P) or business (B) P B
6 Registration $385.00 $789.00
7 Stamp Duty $855.00 $1,994.40
8 CTP Insurance
9 Dealer Delivery
10 Comprehensive Insurance
11 Total $29,740.00 $60,671.40
12
13
14
15 Registration Costs
16 Enter weight in kilograms 1440 1720
17 Private Use $385.00 $540.00
18 Business Use $555.00 $789.00
In cell B6, the formula to calculate the registration of the Mazda sedan is =IF(B5 = "P",B17,B18)
In cell B7, the formula to calculate the stamp duty is
=IF(B3>45000,(B3-45000)*0.05+1350,B3*0.03)
In cell B11, the formula to calculate the total cost is =SUM(B6:B10)+B3
In cell B17, the formula to calculate the private use registration is

=IF(B16>1504,448,IF(B16>1154,293,IF(B16>975,240,207)))+92
In cell B18, the formula to calculate the business registration is
=IF(B16>1504,697,IF(B16>1154,463,IF(B16>975,382,336)))+92.
Use fill across to find the costs for the second vehicle (the Holden sedan).
Enter data for other vehicles.
To help you, you might like to use the prepared spreadsheet file (Spreadsheet 10B) provided on your
obook assess.

10C Financing a purchase
• Spreadsheet 10C: Calculate monthly repayments on a reducing-balance loan
Often people need to borrow money to buy a car. There are many financial institutions that
will provide a car loan or personal loan for this purpose.
The following table shows the monthly repayments ($) for every $1000 borrowed on a
reducing-balance car loan.
Table 10-2: Reducing-balance loan
Interest rate Term of loan (months)

(%p.a.) 12 24 36 48 60
8 86.99 45.23 31.34 24.41 20.28
9 87.45 45.68 31.80 24.89 20.76
10 87.92 46.14 32.27 25.36 21.25
11 88.38 46.61 32.74 25.85 21.74
12 88.85 47.07 33.21 26.33 22.24
13 89.32 47.54 33.69 26.83 22.75
14 89.79 48.01 34.18 27.33 23.27
EXAMPLE 10C–1 Performing loan calculations

Use Table 10-2 to answer the following questions.
a Calculate the monthly repayments on a loan of $23 600 at 9% p.a. reducible over 5 years.
b What is the total amount of interest paid on this loan?
c How much would be saved by repaying the loan over 4 years instead of 5 years?
Solve Think Apply

a Monthly repayment 5 years = 60 months Convert the term of the loan
= $20.76 × 23.6 From Table 10-2, monthly to months. From Table 10-2,
≈ $489.94 repayment on $1000 over find the monthly repayment
60 months at 9% p.a. is $20.76. on $1000 for the interest and
The number of $1000s being term. Divide the amount of
23 600 = 23.6.
borrowed = _____ the loan by 1000 to determine
1000
Monthly repayment the number of thousands ($)
= $20.76 × 23.6 borrowed. Multiply the monthly
repayment for $1000 by the
number of 1000s borrowed.

Solve Think Apply
b Total amount repaid Total amount repaid Total amount repaid is the
= $489.94 × 60 = $489.94 × 60. monthly repayment by the
= $29 396.40 Amount borrowed was $23 600. number of months. The
Interest paid Interest paid over 5 years difference between this and the
= $29 396.40 − $23 600 = $489.94 × 60 − $23 600. amount borrowed is the interest
= $5796.40 paid on the loan.
c Monthly repayment over Amount saved The amount saved is the
4 years = amount repaid over 5 years − difference between the total
= $24.89 × 23.6 amount repaid over 4 years amount repaid over the longer
≈ $587.40 Amount saved is the difference term and the total amount
Total amount repaid between $29 396.40 and repaid over the shorter term.
= $587.40 × 48 $28 195.20.
= $28 195.20
Amount saved
= $29 396.40 − $28 195.20
= $1201.20
Note: most financial institutions have an online calculator that can be used to calculate the monthly
repayments on a loan. Visit www.aussie.com.au/home-loan-calculator/repayment.html
EXERCISE 10C Financing a purchase

Use Table 10-2, or an online calculator, to answer the following questions.
1 Complete the following to calculate the monthly repayments on a car loan of $22 700 at 12% p.a. reducible
over 4 years.
4 years = ____ months
From Table 10-2, the monthly repayment on $1000 over ____ months at 12% p.a. = $_____.
22 700 = ____
Number of $1000s being borrowed = ______
1000
Monthly repayment on $22 700 = $_____ × ____ = $_____
2 Calculate the monthly repayments on these

car loans:
a $25 000 at 11% p.a. reducible over 4 years
b $13 600 at 9% p.a. reducible over 3 years
c $38 900 at 14% p.a reducible over 5 years
3 For the following loans, calculate:

i the monthly repayment
ii the total amount of interest paid.
a $18 200 at 10% p.a. over 4 years
b $8700 at 8% p.a. over 2 years
c $34 800 at 12% p.a. over 5 years

Depreciation
The depreciation of an item is its decrease in value due to age and usage. The value of an item after
depreciation is called its salvage value, book value, scrap value or written-down value.
As seen in Chapter 6, the formula for the straight-line method of depreciation is:
S = V0 – Dn
where S = salvage (current) value of the asset
V0 = purchase price of the asset
D = amount of depreciation per time period
n = the number of time periods
EXAMPLE 10C–2 Calculating the book value of an asset using the straight-line
method of depreciation
A new car is purchased for $32 000. It depreciates in value at a rate of 16% of the original price per year.
Calculate the book value of the car after 3 years.
Solve Think Apply
V0 = $32 000 Identify the values for V0 and n. Substitute the values of D, n and
n=3 Calculate the amount of the V0 into the formula S = V0 – Dn.
D = 16% of $32 000 annual depreciation, D, by
= 0.16 × 32 000 finding 16% of $32 000.
= $5120
S = V0 – Dn
= 32 000 − 5120 × 3
= $16 640
4 A new car is purchased for $35 000. It depreciates in value at a rate of 15% of the initial cost per year.
Complete the following to find the book value of the car after 3 years.
15% of $35 000 = _____
V0 = ____, D = ____, n = ____
S = V0 – Dn
= ____ − ____ × 3
= $____
5 A new car is purchased for $19 990.

It depreciates in value at a rate of
18% of the initial cost per year.
Calculate the book value of the car
after 5 years.
6 A new car is purchased for $56 000.

It depreciates in value at a rate of
21% of the initial cost per year.
Calculate the book value of the car
after 4 years.

7 Heidi wants to buy a motor bike. She is offered a
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N loan of $14 100 at 9% p.a. over either 3 years or
4 years. How much would she save if she chose the
shorter term?
8 a Jack needs to borrow $19 600 to buy a car and

can pay a maximum of $450 per month. He is
offered a loan at 12% p.a. Can he afford the
loan? Give details.
b Could he afford the loan if the interest rate was
14%? What advice would you give Jack?
9 a Jo’s monthly repayment on a loan at 13% p.a.

over 3 years is $808.56. How much did Jo
borrow?
b Ben’s monthly repayment on a loan at 10% p.a.
over 4 years is $798.84. How much did Ben
borrow?
10 a A car depreciates in value from $36 000 to $19 000 in 2 years. Use the straight-line method to calculate
the annual amount of depreciation.
b Calculate the annual depreciation as a percentage of the purchase price.
11 A car depreciates in value from $44 900 to $23 440 in 3 years.

a Use the straight line method to calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
12 Create a spreadsheet to calculate the monthly repayments for every $1000 borrowed on a reducing-balance
car loan. Start with the information in Table 10-2 and adapt the spreadsheet so that you can easily change the
interest rate and the term of the loan. You may like to use the prepared spreadsheet file (Spreadsheet 10C)
provided on your obook assess to help you.
13 Investigate and write a report on the purchase of a motor vehicle. Include selecting the vehicle, making
CHALLENGE
calculations for any funding needed, the type of lending institution and the lending rate, and the amount
payable in stamp duty, registration and insurance. New and used vehicle prices can be found in motoring
magazines and on internet websites such as www.redbook.com.au

10D Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption is a comparison between two types of quantities: the distance travelled and
the amount of fuel used. It is a rate.
The rate of fuel consumption can be determined by dividing the distance travelled by the
amount of fuel used. This gives the number of kilometres travelled on 1 L of petrol. The rate
can also be determined by dividing the amount of fuel used by the distance travelled, which
gives the amount of fuel consumed in travelling 1 km. For ease of comparison, this second
rate is usually expressed as L/100 km.
To calculate fuel consumption, we can use one of these formulas.

distance travelled (km)
Fuel consumption (km/L) = ____________________
amount of fuel used (L)
Fuel consumption (L/km) = ____________________
Fuel consumption (L/100 km) = ____________________ × 100
These formulas can be rearranged to help you find the distance travelled or the amount
of fuel used when the other two quantities are known.
The most common way of expressing fuel consumption is in L/100 km.
EXAMPLE 10D–1 Calculating the fuel consumption of a car

A car uses 50 L of petrol to travel 416 km. Calculate the fuel consumption of the car on this trip in:
a km/L b L/km c L/100 km.
Solve Think Apply
a Fuel consumption To calculate the fuel consumption in Use the appropriate formula to
416 km
= ______ km/L, divide the distance travelled obtain the fuel consumption in
50 L (416 km) by the amount of petrol km/L, L/km or L/100 km.
= 8.32 km/L used (50 L). Fuel consumption (km/L)
Car travels 8.32 km on distance travelled (km)
1 L of petrol. = ____________________
b Fuel consumption To calculate the fuel consumption in Fuel consumption (L/km)
50 L
= ______ L/km, divide the amount of petrol amount of fuel used (L)
416 km = ____________________
used (50 L) by the distance travelled distance travelled (km)
= 0.12 L/km
(416 km).
Car uses 0.12 L of petrol
for every 1 km travelled.

Solve Think Apply
c Fuel consumption To calculate the fuel consumption Fuel consumption (L/100 km)
= 0.12 L/km × 100 in km/100 L, first calculate the fuel amount of fuel used (L)
= ____________________ × 100
= 12 L/km consumption in km/L and then distance travelled (km)
So the car consumes multiply this value by 100. This is
12 L of petrol for every equivalent to:
100 km travelled. 0.12 L
0.12 L/km = ______
1 km
= 0.12 L × ____
______ 100
1 km 100
= 12 L
_______
100 km
= 12 L/100 km
EXERCISE 10D Fuel consumption

1 If a car uses 35 L of petrol on a trip of 400 km, complete the following to calculate the rate of fuel
consumption to two decimal places.

a Fuel consumption in km/L = ______ 400 km = ____ km/L
□L
b Fuel consumption in L/km = 35 L = ____ L/km
______
□ km
c Fuel consumption in L/100 km = ____ L/km × ____ km = ____ L/100 km
2 Calculate the fuel consumption for each of the following trips in:
i km/L ii L/km iii L/100 km
a A car travels 260 km on 28 L of petrol.
b A car travels 220 km on 19 L of petrol.
c A car travels 420 km on 48 L of petrol.
When the rate of fuel consumption is expressed in L/100 km, we can use the following formula to find
the distance travelled in kilometres.
amount of fuel (L)
Distance travelled (km) = ________________________ × 100
fuel consumption (L/100 km)
EXAMPLE 10D–2 Calculating the distance a car can travel on a given amount
of fuel
How far can a Toyota hatchback travel on 48 L of petrol if its petrol consumption is 7.4 L/100 km?
Solve Think Apply

Distance travelled The number of ‘lots of 7.4 L’ used Distance travelled (km)
48 × 100
= ___ 48 The car travels 100 km
7.4 is ____ amount of fuel × 100
= _______________
7.4. fuel consumption
= 649 km for each ‘lot of 7.4 L’ used. Fuel consumption is in L/100 km.
3 Complete the following to calculate how far a vehicle can travel on 45 L of fuel if the fuel consumption is
6.4 L/100 km.
45 × 100 = ____ km
Distance travelled = ___
□

4 How far can a vehicle travel on:
a 35 L of fuel if the fuel consumption is 8.4 L/100 km?

b 66 L of fuel if the fuel consumption is 9.6 L/100 km?
c 94 L of fuel if the fuel consumption is 12.2 L/100 km?
When the rate of fuel consumption is expressed in L/100 km, we can use the following formula to find
the amount of fuel used in litres.
Amount of fuel used (L) = ___________________ × fuel consumption (L/100 km)
100
EXAMPLE 10D–3 Calculating the amount of petrol needed to travel a

given distance
Calculate the amount of petrol used by a Holden sedan on a trip of 640 km if the car’s petrol consumption is
11 L/100 km.
Solve Think Apply

Amount of petrol used The number of ‘lots of 100 km’ Amount of fuel used (L)
640 × 11
= ____ 640 (or 6.4). Each distance travelled × fuel consumption
100 travelled is ____ = ______________
100 100
= 70.4 L ‘lot of 100 km’ uses 11 L of petrol. Fuel consumption is in L/100 km and
distance travelled is in kilometres.
5 Complete the following to calculate the amount of fuel used by a vehicle on a trip of 1160 km, if the fuel
consumption is 10.6 L/100 km.
□
Fuel used = × □ = ____ ≈ ____ L
100
6 Calculate the amount of fuel used by a vehicle on a trip of:
a 325 km, if the fuel consumption is 8.4 L/100 km
b 540 km, if the fuel consumption is 12.2 L/100 km
c 270 km, if the fuel consumption is 6.7 L/100 km.
7 A sales representative averages 3400 km of city driving each month in a Ford sedan that has a fuel
consumption of 11.4 L/100 km. Calculate the cost of petrol used in a month in which the average price of
unleaded petrol (ULP) is 149.9c/L.
8 In 2006 the average fuel consumption of Australian

vehicles was 13.8 L/100 km and the average yearly
distance travelled was 17 600 km. If the average price of
fuel was 135.9c/L, what was the average yearly fuel cost?
9 A Citroën hatchback uses 7.6 L/100 km of ULP and

the diesel model of the same car uses 6 L/100 km of
diesel fuel.
a Calculate the cost of driving the petrol model 780 km
if ULP is 152.9c/L.
b Calculate the cost of driving the diesel model 780 km
if diesel fuel is 162.2c/L.
c How much cheaper is the diesel option over this
distance?

10 Harry owns a Holden sedan that runs on ULP and has a fuel consumption of 10.6 L/100 km. When
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N converted to run on liquid petroleum gas (LPG), the car’s fuel consumption is 13.5 L/100 km. Harry
averages 19 000 km per year.
a Calculate the annual cost for each type of fuel (assuming that the car only runs on one type of fuel for
the year) if the average price of ULP is 149.9c/L and LPG is 67.8c/L.
b How much would Harry save in fuel costs for the year if he converted to the LPG model?
c What would be the savings per month?
d The cost of converting the car to LPG is $2600. How many months would Harry take to break even, if
he converted the car to LPG?
e What distance would Harry travel before reaching the break-even point? (The break-even point is the
point at which the cost of running on each type of fuel is the same.)
11 Jenny averages 13 000 km per year and wants to buy a new car. The car she likes is available with a petrol
motor or diesel motor. The petrol model uses 12.8 L/100 km and the diesel model uses 7.8 L/100 km.
a i If Jenny bought the car with the petrol engine, what would be her annual fuel cost if ULP is
152.9c/L?
ii If Jenny bought the car with the diesel engine, what would be her annual fuel cost if diesel fuel is
169.9c/L?
iii How much per year would she save by buying the car with the diesel engine?
b What is the average monthly saving with the diesel engine?
c The diesel car costs $1200 more to buy than the petrol car. How many months would it take for Jenny to
break even if she buys the diesel car?
d What distance would Jenny travel before reaching her break-even point?
12 Search the internet for fuel-watch websites to investigate trends in fuel prices for:
a different types of fuel
b different locations (for example, compare city and country prices).

Collect and present the data in tables and graphs.
13 Investigate cycles in the price of ULP. Describe a strategy that could be used to save money on fuel costs.
RESEARCH
Some useful websites include:

• www.mynrma.com.au
• www.motormouth.com.au
• www.fueltrac.com.au

10E Running costs of a car
• Spreadsheet 10E: Compare the running costs for different vehicles
standing costs
fixed costs; e.g.
depreciation, loan
interest, on-road
costs such as
The total running cost of a vehicle is made up of
registration, standing costs (fixed) and operating costs.
insurance Standing costs include the depreciation in value
and motoring
of the vehicle (the loss in value due to age and
organisation
membership use), the interest charged on the loan used to
purchase it, and on-road costs such as registration,
operating costs
variable running CTP insurance and membership of a motoring
costs that depend organisation that provides roadside assistance (for
on how a vehicle example NRMA).
is driven; e.g.
cost of fuel, tyres,
Operating costs are running costs that depend on
servicing and how the vehicle is driven, such as the cost of fuel,
repairs tyres, servicing and repairs.
EXERCISE 10E Running costs of a car

1 Calculate the values missing from the table below, showing average annual running costs for some vehicles.
The calculations are based on buying a new vehicle for private use and operating it for 5 years. The interest
charges are based on the total cost of the new vehicle being financed by a loan. It is assumed that the vehicle
travels 15 000 km each year.
Table 10-3: Average annual running costs
Average annual Ford Toyota Ford Holden Honda Toyota

running costs hatchback hatchback sedan sedan SUV compact
(small) (small) (large) (large) SUV
Standing costs:
Depreciation ($) 3120 3136 5980 5928 4628 4784
Interest ($) 1524 1560 2444 2444 2340 2288
On-road costs ($) 1248 957 1092 962 988 1061
Operating costs:
Fuel ($) 1898 1872 2947 2626 2444
Tyres ($) 146 146 132 146 177 208
Service and repairs ($) 671 848 614 634 952
Total ($) 8607 13 209 12 740 11 445 11 633
Average costs:
Total cost/week ($/week) 165.52 163.83 245 220.10 223.71
Total cost/km (c/km) 57.4 56.8 88.1 76.3 77.6

Use Table 10-3 from question 1 to help you answer questions 2 to 20.
2 For which vehicle is the fuel consumption rate:
a best? b worst?
3 For which vehicle are the on-road costs:

a highest? b lowest?
4 For which vehicle is the service cost:

a highest? b lowest?
5 What percentage of the total running cost are the fuel costs
for the:
a Toyota hatchback? b Toyota SUV?
6 Calculate the fuel cost per kilometre to run the:

a Ford hatchback b Toyota SUV.
7 What percentage of the total running cost are the service and repairs for the:
a Holden sedan? b Toyota SUV?
8 What would be the fuel cost to drive a Ford sedan from Sydney to Melbourne, a distance of 885 km?
9 What would be the difference in fuel cost when driving a Toyota hatchback and a Holden sedan from
Sydney to Brisbane, a distance of 928 km?
10 If the cost of fuel increased by 10%, what would be the new running costs (per week and per kilometre) for
the Honda SUV?
11 If the cost of fuel decreased by 5%, what would be the new running costs (per week and per kilometre) for
the Toyota SUV?
12 The interest charges are based on 100% of the cost of the new vehicle being financed by a loan.
a What would be the savings over 5 years if cash had been paid for the Ford sedan instead of the
purchase price being borrowed?
b What would be the annual running costs for a new Honda SUV if cash had been paid instead of the
purchase price being borrowed?
13 What is the weekly cost of tyres for the:

a Ford sedan? b Honda SUV?
14 Assuming 1 year = 365 days, what is the daily cost of tyres

for the:
a Ford hatchback? b Toyota SUV?
15 If the price of the Ford hatchback is $22 500, what is the

depreciated value after 5 years?
16 The cost of the Honda SUV is $34 000. What will be its
depreciated value at the end of 5 years?
17 If the Holden sedan cost $37 000 to buy, what would be the average annual rate of interest charged on the loan?

18 Add another column to Table 10-3 in question 1
and use the information given below to calculate

the total cost/week and total cost/kilometre to
run a Nissan 4WD (dealer price $61 440).
Round your answers to the nearest dollar.
• Depreciation each year is 13.7% of the
original dealer price.
• Average annual rate of loan interest is
6.6% (assume the total cost of the vehicle is
financed by the loan).
• On-road costs are $24 per week.
• Fuel consumption is 14 L/100 km and
fuel costs 165.9c/L. Assume the vehicle
travels 15 000 km each year.
• Tyres cost $276 per year.
• Services and repairs are $19.80 per week.
19 a Using the information from Table 10-3, calculate the average operating costs per day for the Ford sedan,
the Holden sedan, the Honda SUV and the Toyota SUV (use 1 year = 365 days).
b Four people, who live in the same general area and work in the same location, drive to work 5 days per
week. Richard drives a Ford sedan, Stephanie drives a Holden sedan, Lilly drives a Honda SUV and
Paul drives a Toyota SUV.
i Over a 4-week period, how much does it cost each person to drive to work, assuming the average
daily operating cost is completely work related?
ii The four drivers decide to form a car pool, so that each person drives everyone to work 1 week out
of every 4 weeks. How much does each person save every 4 weeks by taking part in the car pool?
20 a Using the information from Table 10-3, calculate

the average operating costs per kilometre for the
Ford hatchback, the Toyota hatchback and the
Toyota SUV.
b Three people drive to work over an average distance
of 64 km return, from each of their homes. They
work a normal 5-day week. Helen owns a Ford
hatchback, Greg owns a Toyota hatchback and
Peta owns a Toyota SUV.
i Over a 3-week period, how much does it cost
each person to drive to work?
ii The three drivers form a car pool and take turns
driving each other to work on a weekly basis.
How much does each person save every 3 weeks
by sharing the driving?
21 Use an online motoring costs calculator to estimate the running costs for several different types of vehicles,
including motorcycles. Visit www.mynrma.com.au

22 A spreadsheet can be used to compare the costs of different motor vehicles. Extra columns may be added
SPREADSHEET APPLICATION to compare more vehicles. There are tables that calculate fuel cost and registration costs after the variables
are entered. This spreadsheet compares the running costs for a Ford hatchback with the costs for a large
Toyota SUV.
A B C
1 Comparing the running costs of vehicles driven 15 000 km per year
2 Average running costs Ford hatchback Toyota SUV (large)
3 Fuel $1,653.90 $3,465.00
4 Tyres $184.00 $455.00
5 Service and repairs $670.00 $1,150.00
6 Green Slip $525.00 $598.00
7 Registration $332.00 $540.00
8 Comprehensive Insurance $592.00 $1,035.00
9 Other
10
11 Total $3,956.90 $7,243.00
12 Difference −$3,286.10 $3,286.10
13
14
15 Fuel cost
16 Economy in L/100km 7.4 14
17 Kilometres travelled 15 000 15 000
18 Fuel cost per litre $1.49 $1.65
19 Total fuel cost $1,653.90 $3,465.00
20
21 Registration
22 Enter weight in kilograms 1100 2055
23 Cost of registration $332.00 $540.00
In cell B11, the formula to calculate the total cost for the Ford hatchback is =SUM(B3:B10)
In cell B12, the formula to calculate the difference is =B11−C11
In cell B19, the formula to calculate the fuel cost is =B16*B17/100*B18.
In cell B23, the formula for registration cost is
=IF(B22>1504,448,IF(B22>1154,293,IF(B22>975,240,207)))+92
Use fill across to find the costs for the second vehicle (the Toyota SUV).
Enter the data for other vehicles.
To help you, you might like to use the prepared spreadsheet file (Spreadsheet 10E) provided on your
obook assess.

10F Budgeting
budget • Video tutorial 10F: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 10F-1
a financial plan in • Spreadsheet 10F: Prepare a budget
which expenses • assess quiz 10F: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
need to be less
than income
A budget is a financial plan for the future. It is a means by which we can save for future
fixed spending purchases and avoid overspending. To prepare a budget we need to determine our expected
includes expenses
income and estimate our expected expenses. Expenses include fixed spending, such as rent
like rent or board
that cannot or board, and discretionary spending, such as entertainment, clothes and gifts. Our income
be varied needs to be greater than our expenses if we are to live within our means.
discretionary
spending To prepare a budget for a given time period, such as a week, month or year:
includes
1 calculate your total income
expenses such as
entertainment, 2 estimate your total expenses
clothes and gifts 3 calculate income minus expenses
that can be varied
4 adjust income or expenses if necessary.
based on choice
EXAMPLE 10F–1 Preparing an annual budget

Karen has just started work and lives at home with her parents. Her weekly take-home pay is $480.
Each week she pays $110 for board, $49 for fares and $35 for lunches. She spends $120 per week on
entertainment, $95 per fortnight on personal items and $330 per month on clothes.
a Prepare an annual budget for Karen.
b Karen is saving to go on an overseas holiday in 3 years. She needs to save $7899. Determine whether
she will be able to afford her holiday.
c If Karen will not have sufficient money to take her holiday, how could she adjust the discretionary
expenses in her budget so that she will be able to afford the holiday?
Solve Think
a Income: ($480 × 52) = $24 960 Karen’s net income is greater
Expenses: than her expenses, so she is
Board ($110 × 52) = $5720 able to live within her budget
Fares ($49 × 52) = $2548 and save some money towards
Lunches ($35 × 52) = $1820 her holiday.
Entertainment ($120 × 52) = $6240
Personal items ($95 × 26) = $2470
Clothes ($330 × 12) = $3960
Total = $22 758
Income − expenses = $2202
b If Karen saves all her money, in 3 years she will have The amount she can save over
$2202 × 3 = $6606. the 3 years is the difference
She is short of her target by $7899 − $6606 = $1293. between income and expenses
multiplied by 3.

Solve Think
c Karen must either increase her income or decrease her expenses by
at least ($1293 ÷ 3 =) $431 per year. She could increase her income
by finding employment with a higher income or getting a second
job. She could decrease her discretionary expenses by, for example,
reducing her spending on clothes to $290 per month. She would then
save ($40 × 12 =) $480 per year. Or, if she reduced her spending on
entertainment to $110 per week, she would save ($10 × 52 =) $520
per year. She would then be able to afford to take the holiday.
Apply
Find the net income and the total of the expenses for the year. Subtract the expenses from the income
to determine how much can be saved.
EXERCISE 10F Budgeting

1 Alison is in Year 11 and lives at home with her parents. She has a part-time job and earns $160 per week.
She pays $20 per week for board, spends $140 per month on clothes, $45 per fortnight on entertainment,
and $80 per fortnight on driving lessons. She saves the rest.
a Prepare a budget for Alison.
b Alison wants to buy a car at the end of the year. How much will she expect to have available to spend?
2 Moses is in Year 11 and lives at home with his parents. He has a part-time job and earns $270 per fortnight.
He pays $25 per week board, spends $150 per month on personal items, and $450 per year for his junior
golf club membership. He saves the remainder.
a Prepare a budget for Moses.
b He wants to buy new golf clubs at the end of the year. The clubs cost $1200. Will he have enough
money saved to buy them?
3 Naomi lives at home with her parents. Her weekly take-home pay is $590. Each week she pays $100 for
board, $53 for fares and $42 for lunches. She spends $150 per week on entertainment, $84 per fortnight on
personal items and $380 per month on clothes. She saves the rest of her money.
a Prepare an annual budget for Naomi.
b Naomi wants to buy a car in 3 years. The cost of the car is $12 550. Determine whether Naomi will be
able to buy the car.
4 Matthew’s net earnings are $640 per week. He shares a house for which he pays $120 per week rent. Each
week he spends $110 on food, $145 on entertainment and $75 on personal items. The loan repayments on
his car are $380 per month. He spends $95 per week on petrol and the 6-monthly car service is $380. Annual
car registration and insurance add to $1148. His mobile phone costs him $64 per month.
a Prepare an annual budget for Matthew.
b How could Matthew adjust his budget so that he can live within his means?

5 George is a full-time TAFE student. He receives an allowance of $407.70 per fortnight from the government
and averages net earnings of $120 per week from his part-time job. His expenses are $320 per month
for rent, $90 per week for food, $110 per quarter for the phone, $70 per week for entertainment and
$350 per year for books.
a Prepare an annual budget for George.
b George has saved the money to buy a car. He estimates that a car will cost him $40 per week for petrol, $40
per month for maintenance and $840 per year for registration and insurance. Can George afford to own a car?
6 Julie and Robert are students working part-time. They want to prepare a budget for next year and have
gathered the following information.

Income:
Julie’s take-home pay is $490 per week.
Robert takes home $380 per week.
Interest of $230 from investments is expected in February and August each year.
Expenses:
Home loan repayments, $980 per month
Food, $160 per week
Electricity, $480 each quarter
Telephone, $110 per month
Council rates, $340 each quarter
Water rates, $186 per quarter
Car registration and insurance, $780 per year
Comprehensive car insurance, $810 per year
Car loan repayments, $108 per week
Car running expenses, average $190 per month
Clothing, average $350 per month
Personal items, $45 per week
a Prepare an annual budget for Julie and Robert.
b In order to reduce the cost of their loans, Julie
and Robert wish to increase their loan repayments.
Can they afford to do this? What advice would
you give them?
7 Tiarne is in Year 11 and lives at home with her parents. She has a part-time job with a beautician and earns
$180 per week. She assists with the make-up at six weddings per year and is paid $100 for each. She does
not pay board, but spends $200 per month on clothes and entertainment, $45 per week on make-up and $30
per fortnight on bus fares. She saves the rest of her money.
a Prepare a budget for Tiarne.
b If Tiarne completes a specific make-up course she will then be paid $250 per wedding and her
beautician earnings will increase to $270 per week. The course costs $1200.
i If Tiarne intends to do the course at the end of the year, will she have enough money saved to
pay for it?
ii Her parents offer to lend her the money for the course at the beginning of the year and Tiarne will
repay the loan at a rate of $50 per fortnight for the year. Modify Tiarne’s budget using this extra
information.
iii Tiarne repays $50 per fortnight for the entire year. How much interest does she pay on the
$1200 loan?
iv How much more money does Tiarne have at the end of the year by taking the loan?

8 The spreadsheet below shows part of a monthly budget for a year. Set up a similar spreadsheet of your own.
SPREADSHEET APPLICATION Enter the formulas as shown and fill down and fill across to show the entire year. There is a conversion table
to convert weekly, fortnightly and monthly payments into annual payments in cells A19 to C23.
A B C D E
1 Monthly Budget
2 Item Annual Amount Jan Feb Mar
3 Income
4 =$B4/12 =$B4/12 =$B4/12
5 =$B5/12 =$B5/12 =$B5/12
6 Total income =SUM(C4:C5) =SUM(D4:D5) =SUM(E4:E5)
7 Expenditure
8 =$B8/12 =$B8/12 =$B8/12
9 =$B9/12 =$B9/12 =$B9/12
10 =$B10/12 =$B10/12 =$B10/12
11 =$B11/12 =$B11/12 =$B11/12
12 =$B12/12 =$B12/12 =$B12/12
13 =$B13/12 =$B13/12 =$B13/12
14 Total expenditure =SUM(C8:C13) =SUM(D8:D13) =SUM(E8:E13)
15 Monthly difference =C6−C14 =D6−D14 =E6−E14
16 Cumulative monthly difference =C15 =C16+D15 =D16+E15
17
18
19 Convert to annual amount
20 Period Amount Annual Amount
21 weekly =52*B21
22 fortnightly =26*B22
23 monthly =12*B23
a Enter the data from question 1 to create the budget.

b Enter your own data into the spreadsheet to make your annual budget.
To help you, you might like to use the prepared spreadsheet file (Spreadsheet 10F) provided on
your obook assess.

CHAPTER 10 REVIEW BUDGETING AND HOUSEHOLD
EXPENSES
✔ read, interpret and perform calculations based on common household bills
✔ calculate the costs of common repairs
✔ calculate the registration, stamp duty and insurance costs for new and used motor vehicles
✔ calculate the cost to finance the purchase of a motor vehicle
✔ solve problems related to the fuel consumption of a motor vehicle
✔ calculate the total running cost, including the standing costs and operating costs, of a motor vehicle
✔ prepare a budget.

10A 1 In Bindora Shire the water usage charge for residential properties is $1.76/kL for the first 250 kL and $2.02/kL
for any consumption over 250 kL. If the amount of water consumed is 490 kL, what is the total annual cost?
A $422.40 B $862.40 C $924.80 D $989.80
10A 2 A front-loading washing machine uses 90 L of water per wash. A family uses the washing machine five times a
week. Water costs $2.26/kL. What is the annual water usage charge for this machine (use 1 year = 52 weeks)?
A $1.02 B $10.58 C $52.88 D $528.84
10A 3 The usage charges set by a gas supplier are:

• $0.02998/MJ for usage less than or equal to 3560 MJ
• $0.01578/MJ for usage greater than 3560 MJ
What is the cost of using 4236 MJ for the supply period?
A $127.00 B $117.40 C $76.44 D $66.84
10B 4 The stamp duty charged when buying a car is 3% of the market value up to $45 000, plus 5% of the value over
$45 000. What is the stamp duty to be paid on the purchase of a new car worth $56 000?
A $2800 B $1900 C $1680 D $550
10B 5 What is the cost to register a new car that weighs 1504 kg and is used mostly for business? Use Table 10-1 in
Topic 10B to help you.
A $382 B $463 C $293 D $448
10C 6 The monthly repayment on a loan of $12 000 over 5 years is $256.80. What is the total amount of interest paid
on this loan?
A $15 408 B $3408 C $1284 D $13 284
10D 7 A car travels 480 km on 60 L of petrol. What is the fuel consumption?

A 12.5 L/100 km B 0.125 L/100 km C 8 L/100 km D 28.8 L/100 km

10D 8 How far can a motor vehicle travel on 45 L of petrol if its fuel consumption is 8.4 L/100 km?
A 5.36 km B 536 km C 18.7 km D 187 km
10E 9 A car is bought for $18 500. It depreciates in value by $4070 per year. What is the book value of the car after
4 years?
A $2220 B $4070 C $6848 D $16 280
10E 10 A car depreciates in value from $36 800 to $23 550 in 3 years. Using the straight line method, what is the annual
amount of depreciation?
A $4417 B $7850 C $8833 D $13 250
10E 11 The total annual running costs of a small car were $8960. The car travelled 14 800 km in the year. What is the
average cost/kilometre?
A $1.65/km B $16.50/km C $0.61/km D $6.10/km
REVIEW SET 1
1 In 2018 Hunter Water charged residential properties $2.25 per kilolitre for water usage. The water availability
charge was $25.69 p.a. Calculate the total annual cost of water for a property that used 208 kL.
2 The average rate of flow of a bathroom shower with a normal shower rose is 18 L/min.
a Lorraine has two 6-minute showers each day. Calculate the annual cost of Lorraine’s showers if the water
usage charge is $2.17/kL. (Use 1 year = 365 days.)
b How much could Lorraine save each year by using a water-efficient shower rose that has a flow rate of 8.5 L/min?
3 The usage charges set by a gas supplier are:

• $0.029 98/MJ for usage less than or equal to 3560 MJ
• $0.015 78/MJ for usage greater than 3560 MJ
What would be the cost of using 3889 MJ in one billing period?
4 How much more expensive is it to register a new Toyota sedan, which weighs 1460 kg, for business use rather
than for private use?
5 Calculate the stamp duty to be paid on the purchase of a new BMW car that has a recommended retail price of
$76 000.
6 a Calculate the total cost of purchasing and registering a new Holden sedan that has a recommended retail
price of $36 000, weighs 1637 kg, with CTP insurance costing $477 and a dealer delivery charge of $630.
The car is for private use and the owner decides to take out comprehensive insurance that costs $1150 for
the first year.
b If the buyer of the Holden receives $16 500 for the trade-in of her current vehicle, what is the changeover
price to purchase the new sedan?
7 Find the total cost of purchasing a three-year-old Mazda that has an advertised price of $11 699, and for which
third-party property damage insurance is $479. Include the cost of registration transfer and stamp duty.
8 Use the loan repayment table in Topic 10C (Table 10-2) to answer the following questions.

9 a Karen needs to borrow $17 000 to buy a car and can pay a maximum of $390 per month. She is offered a
loan at 12% p.a. Use Table 10-2 in Topic 10C to calculate if she can afford to take out the loan? Give details.
b Could she afford the loan if the interest rate was 14% p.a.? What advice would you give Karen?
10 Jo’s monthly repayment on a loan at 9% p.a. over 3 years is $381.60. How much did Jo borrow?
REVIEW SET 2
1 Refer to the sample water bill in Topic 10A.
a What is the cost per kilolitre of water?
b What are the fixed charges for water availability and sewerage availability?
c Calculate the bill for a period in which 72.3 kL of water is consumed.
2 Refer to the Sydney council rates and charges notice in question 7 of Exercise 10A. From that information,
calculate the total rates payable for a residential property that has a rateable land value of $683 000.
3 Calculate the stamp duty that would be charged on a vehicle that has a market value of $55 600.
4 Find the total cost of purchasing a two-year-old Honda 1100cc motorcycle that has an advertised price of
$16 890. Comprehensive insurance is $685. Include the cost of registration transfer and stamp duty.
5 For a loan of $10 450 at 9% p.a. reducible over 3 years, use Table 10-2 in Topic 10C to calculate:
a the monthly repayment b the total amount of interest paid.
6 If a car uses 55 L of petrol on a trip of 560 km, calculate its fuel consumption in:
a km/L b L/km c L/100 km
7 How far can a vehicle travel on 38 L of fuel if its fuel consumption is 9.4 L/100 km?
8 Calculate the amount of fuel used by a vehicle on a trip of 315 km, if the fuel consumption is 10.2 L/100 km.
9 A salesman averages 5400 km of city driving each month in a Ford sedan that uses 11.4 L/100 km. Calculate
the monthly cost of the petrol used by the salesman if the average price of ULP is 139.9c/L.
10 A Citroën hatchback uses 7.6 L/100 km of ULP. The diesel model of this car uses 6 L/100 km of diesel fuel.
Which car would be cheaper to drive a distance of 680 km, if the price of ULP is 142.9c/L and the price of
diesel is 162.2c/L? How much cheaper is it?
11 Barry owns a Holden sedan that runs on ULP and has a fuel consumption of 10.6 L/100 km. When converted to
run on liquid petroleum gas (LPG), the car’s fuel consumption will be 13.5 L/100 km. Barry drives an average
of 18 000 km per year.
a Calculate the annual fuel cost of running the car on each type of fuel if the average price of ULP is
149.9 c/L and of LPG is 67.8c/L.
b How much per year would Barry save in fuel costs if he converted the car to LPG?
c What would be Barry’s saving per month?
d The cost of converting the car to LPG is $2500. How many months would it take to break even, if Barry
converts the car to LPG?
e What distance would Barry need to travel before he broke even?
12 A car depreciates in value from $33 000 to $12 000 in 4 years. Use the straight-line formula to calculate the
annual amount of depreciation.

REVIEW SET 3
1 Refer to the sample electricity bill in Topic 10A. Using the ‘Energy Used & Costs’ section, calculate the total
electricity cost (before GST) if the energy used for a property was Peak 674.6 kW, Shoulder 961.3 kW and
Off-peak 242.8 kW.
2 Refer to the Sydney council rates and charges notice in question 7 of Exercise 10A. Calculate the total rates
payable for a residential property which has a rateable land value of $759 000.
3 a Calculate the total cost of purchasing a new Ford with a recommended retail price (RRP) of $54 000 and
weight of 1804 kg. The CTP insurance for the car is $655 and the dealer delivery charge is $600. The
car is for private use and the owner decides to take out comprehensive insurance that costs $1160 for the
first year.
b If the buyer receives a trade-in of $18 000 on her old vehicle, what is the price to change to the new car?
c To make the purchase, a loan is taken out on the balance of the car’s price.
i Use Table 10-2 in Topic 10C to calculate the monthly loan repayment at 8% p.a. over 4 years.
ii What is the total amount of interest paid on the loan?
d The new Ford travels 580 km on 72 litres of petrol. Calculate its fuel consumption in:
i km/L ii L/km iii L/100km.
4 Three people, who live in the same general area and work at the same location, drive to work each weekday.
Elizabeth owns a Ford hatchback, Monique a Holden sedan and Tanya a Toyota SUV.
a Using the information in Table 10-3 in Topic 10E, calculate the average operating costs per day for each car
(use 1 year = 365 days).
b Over a 3-week period, how much does it cost each person to drive to work, assuming the average daily
operating cost is completely work related?
c The three drivers decide to form a car pool, so that each person drives everyone to work 1 week out of every
3 weeks. How much does each person save every 3 weeks by taking part in the car pool?
5 Allira is in Year 11 and lives at home with her parents. She has a part-time job and earns $170 per week. She
pays $30 per week for board and, spends $170 per month on clothes, $85 per fortnight on entertainment and
$80 per fortnight on driving lessons. She saves what she has left.
a Prepare a budget for Allira.
b Allira wants to buy a car at the end of the year. How much will she expect to have available to spend?

REVIEW SET 4
1 In 2018 Sandhaven Water charged residential properties $1.55/kL for water usage up to 450 kL and $1.75/kL
for each kilolitre more than 450 kL. The water availability charge was $81. What is the annual cost of water for
a household that uses 510 kL?
2 a Use the table on the right to find the number of litres Toilet Litres used
of water per year that a household of five people
Full-flush 52 L per person per day
would save if they replaced their full-flush toilet
with a 3-star rated dual-flush toilet. 3-star rated dual-flush 18 L per person per day
b What would be the cost savings if the water usage charge is $2.85/kL?
3 The usage charges set by a gas supplier are:

• $0.029 98/MJ for usage less than or equal to 3560 MJ
• $0.015 78/MJ for usage greater than 3560 MJ
What would be the cost of using 3674 MJ in the billing period?
4 The table below shows the average annual running costs for the vehicles listed. The calculations are based on the cost
of buying a new vehicle for private use and operating it for 5 years. The interest charges are based on the total cost of
the new vehicle being financed by a loan. It is assumed that the vehicle travels 15 000 km each year.
Average annual running costs Ford hatchback (small) Holden sedan (large) Toyota SUV
Standing costs:
Depreciation ($) 3120 5928
Interest ($) 2444 2288
On-road costs, road service 1248 962 1061
membership ($)
Operating costs:
Fuel ($) 1898 2626 2340
Tyres ($) 146 146 208
Service and repairs ($) 671 634 952
Total ($) 8607
Average costs:
Total cost/week ($/week) 165.52 245 223.71
Total cost/kilometre (c/km) 57.4
a Calculate the values missing from the table.

b Add another column to the table and use the information below to calculate the cost per week and cost per
kilometre to run a Nissan 4WD (dealer price $52 000):
• Depreciation each year is $7250.
• Average annual rate of loan interest is 6.5% (assume the total cost of the vehicle is financed by the loan).
• On-road costs are $23 per week.
• Fuel consumption is 14 L/100 km and fuel price is 145.9 c/L. Assume that the vehicle travels 15 000 km
each year.
• Tyres cost $294 per year.
• Services and repairs are $18.60 per week.

1 a The average rate of flow of a bathroom shower with a normal shower rose is 18 L/min.
i Aria has two 7-minute showers each day. Calculate the annual cost of her showers
if the water usage charge is $2.65/kL. (Use 1 year = 365 days.) (1 mark)
ii Aria’s brother Ezra has one 25-minute shower each day. What is the annual
cost of Ezra’s showers? (1 mark)
iii How much could Aria and Ezra save each year by installing a water-efficient
shower rose that has a flow rate of 8.5 L/min? (1 mark)
b This table gives the monthly repayments ($) for every $1000 borrowed on a reducing-balance loan.
Interest rate Term of loan (months)
(%p.a.) 12 24 36 48 60
8 86.99 45.23 31.34 24.41 20.28
9 87.45 45.68 31.80 24.89 20.76
10 87.92 46.14 32.27 25.36 21.25
i Jenny borrows $21 500 to buy a new car. Use the table to calculate the monthly
repayment on this loan at 9% p.a. over 3 years. (1 mark)
ii What is the total amount of interest Jenny pays on her loan? (1 mark)
iii Stamp duty is 3% of the purchase price. Calculate the stamp duty payable on
Jenny’s car purchase. (1 mark)
iv The cost of registration is $92 plus the cost depending on the car’s weight. Use the
table below to calculate the cost of registering Jenny’s car for private use if it weighs 1255kg. (1 mark)
Registration of motor vehicles in NSW
Size of vehicle Tare weight Private use ($) Business use ($)
Cars, station up to 975 kg 207 336
wagons, trucks 976 kg to 1154 kg 240 382
1155 kg to 1504 kg 293 463
1505 kg to 2504 kg 448 697
v The value of Jenny’s car depreciates to $7600 after 4 years. Calculate the annual
amount of depreciation. (1 mark)
vi Jack’s monthly repayment on a loan at 8% over 5 years is $334.62. Use the
table at the start of part b above to calculate how much Jack borrowed. (1 mark)
c How far can a car travel on 54 L of fuel if its fuel consumption is 7.8 L/100 km? (1 mark)
d To calculate annual residential rates, a council charges a base rate of $495 plus $0.001 562 74
for every dollar of rateable value of the property. The waste service charges are $387.
Calculate the total charges for a residential property with a rateable value of $716 000. (2 marks)
e Karen is in Year 12, lives at home with her parents and has a part-time job. Her weekly
take-home pay is $272. Each week she pays $70 for board, $12 for fares and $15 for lunches.
She spends $50 per week on entertainment, $25 per fortnight on personal items and
$100 per month on clothes. She saves the remainder of her money.
i Prepare an annual budget for Karen. (2 marks)
ii Karen is saving to go to schoolies at the end of the year. She needs to save $4400.
Determine whether she will be able to afford to go to schoolies. (1 mark)
TOTAL: 15 marks

11 Exploring and
describing data
▶ calculating the mean, mode and median for
grouped data
▶ selecting and using the appropriate measure to
describe features of a data set
▶ comparing the summary statistics of samples
from the same population
▶ dividing data into quartiles, deciles and percentiles
▶ calculating range and interquartile range
▶ drawing and interpreting box-plots and parallel
box plots
▶ calculating population and sample standard
deviation.
▶ describing, comparing and interpreting the
distributions of graphical displays.

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

11A 1 What is the mean of this set of scores? 11A 6 A set of data was organised into a table as
5, 4, 6, 5, 8, 5 shown. What is the total of all the scores of 9
A 5.3 B 5.5 in the data set?
C 5 D 33 Score 9 10 11 12 13
11A 2 For the set of scores 8, 7, 5, 8, 6, 7, 8, what is Frequency 8 6 9 10 5
the mode?
A 72 B 99
A 8 B 7
C 19 D 17
C 6 D 5
11A 7 Using the frequency table in question 6, what is
11A 3 What is the range of the scores given
the range and mode of the scores, in that order?
in question 2?
A 4, 12 B 4, 10
A 0 B 1
C 5, 12 D 5, 10
C 2 D 3
Use the following table to answer questions
11B 4 What is the median of the scores 8, 7, 5, 8, 6, 7, 8?
8 and 9.
A 5 B 6
C 7 D 8 Class interval Frequency
11A 5 The table below shows the maximum 0–9 3

temperatures in Sydney for one month. Which 10–19 5
of the following statements is not true? 20–29 6
30–39 4
Maximum 17 18 19 20 21
temperature (°C) 40–49 2
Number of days 1 12 9 7 2 11A 8 What is the midpoint of the class interval 10–19?
A The number of days in this month is 31. A 14 B 14.5
B The temperature was 12°C on 18 days. C 15 D 15.5
C The temperature was 20°C on 7 days. 11A 9 What is the size of each class interval?
D The temperature was less than 19°C on A 9 B 10
13 days.
C 20 D 49
Q1–4 Support sheet 11A.1 Mean, median, mode and range
Q5–7 Support sheet 11A.2 Interpreting tables
Q8 Support sheet 11A.3 Finding the average of two numbers
Q9 Support sheet 11A.4 Class intervals
Chapter 11 Exploring and describing data 391

11A Mean and mode
measure of
central tendency
(measure of
location)
a single number
that indicates the In Chapter 7 we collected and organised raw data into tables and graphs that are easily read,
location of the so that patterns and characteristics may be identified and conclusions can be drawn. Often it is
centre or most convenient and useful to try to find a single number that is typical or representative of all the
typical score in data. This number is sometimes called an ‘average’, but statisticians prefer to call it a measure
a set of scores;
e.g. the mean,
of central tendency or a measure of location. The three commonly used measures of central
the mode and the tendency are the mean, the mode and the median.
median
mean The mean of a set of scores is the sum of all the scores divided by the number of
the sum of all the scores.
scores divided
x̄ is the symbol we use to represent the mean.
by the number
of scores, also
known as the
average
EXAMPLE 11A–1 Finding the mean from a frequency distribution table

Find the mean of the scores given in this frequency distribution table.
Score 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 3 2 4 8 6
Solve/Think Apply
We add an f × x column. First the sub-totals of all

the 4s, 5s, 6s, 7s and 8s
Score (x) Frequency (f ) f×x
are found by using an
4 3 3 × 4 = 12 This is the sum of all the 4s.
f × x column. Then the
5 2 2 × 5 = 10 This is the sum of all the 5s. sum of these sub-totals
6 4 4 × 6 = 24 This is the sum of all the 6s. is determined, to find the
7 8 8 × 7 = 56 This is the sum of all the 7s. sum of all the scores for
8 6 6 × 8 = 48 This is the sum of all the 8s. each set of data.
To find the mean we
Total Σ f = 23 Σ fx = 150 The sum of all the 4s, 5s, 6s,
divide the sum of the
7s and 8s.
sub-totals by the sum of
Σ f = the sum of the frequencies; that is, the total number of scores. the scores.
Σ fx = the sum of the sub-totals 12, 10, 24, 56 and 48
= the sum of all the scores.
Σf x 150
Mean (x̄ ) = ____ = ____ = 6.5 (to one decimal place).
Σf 23

EXERCISE 11A Mean and mode
1 Consider these frequency distribution tables.
i Copy each table and add an f x column.

ii Find the mean.
a
Score (x) 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency ( f ) 2 3 6 4 1
b Score (x) 12 13 14 15 16
Frequency ( f ) 4 6 5 3 2
c Score (x) 50 51 52 53 54 55
Frequency ( f ) 3 5 8 6 2 4
d Score (x) 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency ( f ) 12 28 25 26 9
2 Use your calculator to find the mean of the data given in each part of question 1. Use your calculator’s
instruction booklet to determine the appropriate steps for your calculator, or ask your teacher.
EXAMPLE 11A–2 Finding the mean for grouped data

This grouped frequency table gives the heights of a sample of plants in a nursery. Find the mean height.
Height (mm) 300–324 325–349 350–374 375–399 400–424 425–449
Frequency 3 18 47 32 14 6
Solve Think Apply

Determine the class centre When the data
Height Class Frequency f ×x
for each class interval. is grouped into
(mm) centre (f)
Class centre for 300–324 classes, we
(x)
300+324 = 312.
is ________ consider all the
300–324 312 3 936 2
Class centre for 325–349 scores to be
325–349 337 18 6066 evenly distributed
325+349 = 337, etc.
is ________
350–374 362 47 17 014 2 throughout the
Add an f × x column
375–399 387 32 12 384 class and use
using the class centres
400–424 412 14 5768 the class centre
for x.
425–449 437 6 2622 as the ‘score’,
Calculate the mean as
or ‘x’, when we
Σfx
Σ f = 120 Σ fx = 44 790 before: Mean = ___. calculate the
Σf
Σfx mean.
Mean ≈ ___
Σf
= 44 790
______
120
= 373.25 mm
Notes:
• You can also use your calculator to find these means, as for the ungrouped data.
• Because we do not know the exact scores and have assumed that the scores are evenly distributed
throughout each class, the answer is an approximation for the real mean.

3 Complete the following tables to find an approximation for the mean of the distribution.
a Mass (kg) Class centre (x) Frequency (f ) f×x

60–62 61 2 122
63–65 64 5
66–68 7
69–71 4
72–74 2
Σ f = 20 Σ fx =
b Patients per day Class centre (x) Frequency (f ) f×x

10–19 14.5 13 188.5
20–29 24.5 15
30–39 16
40–49 10
50–59 4
60–69 2
Σf = Σ fx =
4 Consider these frequency distribution tables.

i Copy each table and add a column for the class centres.
ii Use your calculator to find an approximation for the mean.
a Height Frequency (f ) b Number of arguments Frequency (f )

155–159 4 0–2 8
160–164 7 3–5 18
165–169 10 6–8 10
170–174 5 9–11 3
175–179 2 12–14 1
c
Score 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 81–90 91–100
Frequency 3 0 10 8 7 2
mode
The mode is the score that occurs most often; that is, it is the score with the highest
the score that
frequency. A set of scores may be bimodal. For example, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 8 is occurs the
bimodal because it has two modes, namely 3 and 4. most often in a
set of scores

EXAMPLE 11A–3 Finding the mode from a frequency distribution table
Find the mode of the scores shown.
a Score Frequency b Score Frequency
4 3 0–4 1
5 2 5–9 3
6 4 10–14 6
7 8 15–19 4
8 6 20–24 2
Solve Think Apply

a Mode = 7 From the table, the score with the The score that occurs most
highest frequency is 7. often is the score with the
highest frequency.
b For grouped data, we can For grouped data the actual score The modal class is the class
find the class with the with the highest frequency cannot that occurs most often.
highest frequency. It is be found unless we also have
called the modal class. the raw data. From the table, the
For this data: class with the highest frequency is
Modal class = 10–14. 10–14.
5 Find the mode, or modal class, for the following distributions.

a x 3 4 5 6 7
f 2 3 6 4 1
b x 12 13 14 15 16
f 4 6 5 3 2
c x 50 51 52 53 54 55
f 3 5 8 6 2 4
d x 8 9 10 11 12
f 12 28 23 28 9
e x f f Mass (kg) Frequency (f )

24 9 60–62 2
25 11 63–65 5
26 18 66–68 7
27 0 69–71 4
28 12 72–74 2

g Score (x) Frequency (f ) h Patients per day (x) Frequency (f )
41–50 3 10–19 13
51–60 0 20–29 15
61–70 9 30–39 16
71–80 9 40–49 10
81–90 7 50–59 4
91–100 2 60–69 2
EXAMPLE 11A–4 Finding the mean and the mode from a stem-and-leaf plot
For the data in this stem-and-leaf plot, find the:
Stem Leaf
a mean b mode.
2 2336
3
4 123556668
5 1557777
6 12355567
7 00
Solve Think Apply

a ¯x = 51.3 Using the statistics function on your Find the sum of the scores and divide
calculator, enter the scores and determine that by the number of scores, or use the
the mean. statistics function on a calculator.
b Mode = 57 The leaf that occurs most often is the 7 in Find the leaf that occurs most often: this
the 50s row. So: Mode = 57. is part of the score that occurs most often.
6 For the data given in the following stem-and-leaf plots, find the:
i mean ii mode.
a Stem Leaf b Stem Leaf
5 12 2 466
6 025 3 0115
7 1455 4 5889
8 67 5 168
9 3 6 7
c Stem Leaf d Stem Leaf

10 56888 1 2334
11 2336 1* 56
12 01 2 0113
13 8 2* 66689
14 3556
15 1137
Note: the stems have been split into 1 and 1*, and 2 and 2*. The stems of 1 and 2 can have leaves of 0, 1, 2,
3 and 4. The stems of 1* and 2* can have leaves of 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

7 The marks scored by 30 students in a test are shown below.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N 25 35 8 61 45 70 47 21 52 72 56 36 20 44 54
51 32 60 16 61 44 34 42 60 41 47 61 76 53 62
a Calculate the mean of this data.
b Organise the data into frequency distribution tables, using these classes:
i 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, 15–19, … ii 0–9, 10–19, 20–29, 30–39, …
iii 0–19, 20–39, 40–59, … iv 0–39, 40–79, …
c Calculate an approximation for the mean of this data using each of the grouped frequency tables from part b.
d Compare the approximations for the mean in part c with the actual mean found in part a. What is the
effect of the size of the class interval on the approximations for the mean?
8 a The mean mark in a test for the 24 students in

Class 11M1 was 70 out of 100. What was the total
of the marks scored by this class?
b The mean mark for the same test done by the 17
students in Class 11M2 was 56. What was the total
of the marks scored by Class 11M2?
c What was the combined mean mark of both
classes?
9 The distance from Broken Hill to Tibooburra is

360 km. A motorist travels from Broken Hill to
Tibooburra at an average (mean) speed of 90 km/h and
returns at an average speed of 60 km/h. What is the
average speed of the motorist for the whole journey?
10 a Find the mean of these x scores: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

CHALLENGE
This is the theoretical mean of the one-digit numbers in a table of random numbers, because,
theoretically, each occurs, with the same frequency.
b From the table of random numbers given below, take samples of one-digit numbers and find the mean and
mode of each sample. To make this task simpler, work in pairs and take samples of the following sizes.
i 5 ii 10 iii 20 iv 50
48047 45381 33232 35178 46971 85879 31458 22016 08695 58112 96070 91910
18868 52251 99827 32581 90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691 58547 01331 62538 79181
33071 63766 73613 24470 85566 81574 71965 20977 48005 83418 58738 98771
40942 42373 38710 39916 08187 00133 16288 64277 80553 58331 62724 74004
09344 91315 25791 40296 27328 85758 45342 98884 36034 79836 94902 80442
c Compare the means you found in part b with the theoretical mean found in part a. Is it true that, as the
sample gets larger, the sample mean gets closer to the theoretical mean? Discuss this with your class.
d i On the blackboard, write the mean of your sample of size 10, from part bii. (All the other students
in the class should do likewise.)

ii Find the mean of all the sample means on the blackboard.
iii Compare you result from part ii with the theoretical mean from part a. Is it true that the mean of a
large number of sample means approaches the value of the theoretical mean? Discuss this with your
class.
e Comment on the modes for your samples, found in part b.

11B Median
• Interactive 11B.1: Explore mean, median, mode and range
• Interactive 11B.2: Explore summary statistics of stem-and-leaf plots
The median divides the data into two parts, with equal numbers of scores below it and
above it.
median The median is the middle score after the scores have been arranged in ascending
the middle score order; that is, from the smallest to the largest. For an odd number of scores, there is
after the set of one middle score. For an even number of scores, the median is the number midway
scores has been
between the two middle scores.
arranged in
ascending order To find the location of the median in a set of n scores arranged in numerical or
ascending order:
1 cross off equal numbers of scores from each end until there is one or two middle
scores, or
2 n+1 to determine where the middle score is placed within

calculate the value of ____
2
the set.
EXAMPLE 11B–1 Finding the median of an odd number of scores

Find the median of the following scores.
7 9 3 9 8
Solve Think Apply
Median = 8 First arrange the five scores in ascending order: Sort the scores into
3, 7, 8, 9, 9. ascending order and
For an odd number of scores there is one locate the middle
middle score. By observation, the middle score score.
is 8 because there are two scores below it and
two scores above it:
Median = 8.
Note:
• The median can be found by crossing off equal numbers of scores from each end of
the ordered arrangement:
3 7 8 9 9
↑
Median = 8
• If the number of scores, n, is odd, the median is the value of the score in the
n+1 th position.
____
2
In this example, n = 5, so n+1
____ = 3; meaning the median is the 3rd score (which is 8).
2

EXAMPLE 11B–2 Finding the median of an even number of scores
Find the median of the scores 3, 4, 8, 9, 8, 9, 3, 5.
Solve Think Apply

5+8
Median = ____ Arrange the scores in numerical order: Sort the scores into
2
3 3 4 5 8 8 9 9 ascending order and,
= 6.5
Cross off equal numbers of scores from each end: because there is an
3 3 4 5 8 8 9 9 even number of scores
In this case there are two middle scores, 5 and 8. locate the two middle
Median = the number midway between 5 and 8 scores. The median is
= the mean of 5 and 8 the number midway
5+8
= ____ between the two
2 middle scores. This
= 6.5
is found by averaging
3 3 4 5 8 8 9 9
these scores.
↑
Median = 6.5
Note:
• There are four scores less than 6.5 and four scores greater than 6.5.
• The median is not always one of the scores.
n+1 = 4.5.
• For this example, n = 8 and ____
2
This indicates that the median is the number midway between the 4th and 5th scores.
EXERCISE 11B Median

1 Find the median of the following sets of data by:
UNDERSTANDING FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION
i rearranging the scores into numerical order, where necessary

ii crossing off equal numbers of scores from each end.
a 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 9, 10 b 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
c 11, 13, 13, 16, 17 d 27, 28, 29, 27, 30, 31, 27, 31, 30
e 0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 6, 4, 5, 4, 0, 1 f 20, 20, 20, 23, 25, 27
g 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 57, 58, 59 h 1, 1, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10
i 240, 243, 245, 246, 244, 243 j 104, 101, 104, 102, 104, 105, 106, 101
2 For the following sets of data:

i rearrange the scores, into numerical order, where necessary.
n+1 , where n = number of scores.
ii calculate the value of ____
2
iii find the median.
a 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 11 b 20, 21, 21, 22, 22, 23, 23
c 15, 15, 16, 16, 17, 17, 18, 19 d 48, 49, 49, 49, 50, 50, 50, 51, 52, 52
e 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 49, 50, 50, 51, 55, 53 f 2, 1, 0, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4, 3, 1, 0, 2
g 34, 35, 38, 40, 37, 36, 33, 38, 34, 39, 36, 37, 38, 37

EXAMPLE 11B–3 Finding the median from a frequency distribution table
Find the median of the set of scores given below.
x 20 21 22 23 24
f 5 7 11 9 4
Solve Think
Add a cumulative frequency column to the table.
x f Cumulative frequency x f Cumulative frequency Scores
20 5 5 20 5 5 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th
21 7 12 21 7 12 6th, 7th, 8th,…, 11th, 12th
22 11 23 22 11 23 13th, 14th, 15th,…, 22th, 23rd
23 9 32 23 9 32 24th, 25th, 26th,…, 31st, 32nd
24 4 36 24 4 36 33rd, 34th, 35th, 36th
Because n = 36, the median is n+1 = 18.5.
From the table, n = Σf = 36, so, ____
2
the average of the 18th and 19th This indicates that the median is the number midway between the
scores. 18th and 19th scores; that is:
From the table, the 18th and 19th Median = the mean of the 18th and 19th scores
scores are both 22. From the cumulative frequency column, we can see that the 18th
So: Median = 22 22+22 = 22.
and 19th scores are both 22, so: Median = ______
2
Apply
Add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use it to find the middle score(s).
3 Complete the following tables to find the median of each set of scores.
a b
x f Cumulative Scores x f Cumulative Scores
frequency frequency
3 2 2 1st, 2nd 12 4 4 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
4 3 5 3rd, 4th, 5th 13 7 11 5th, 6th, …, 11th
5 7 12 6th, 7th, …, 12th 14 5 16 12th, …
6 4 13th, … 15 3
7 1 16 2
4 Find the median of each set of scores below.

a x
b x
50 51 52 53 54 55 33 34 35 36 37
f 3 5 8 6 2 4 f 2 4 9 10 5
c x 8 9 10 11 12 d x 24 25 26 27 28
f 12 28 25 26 9 f 9 11 18 0 12

EXAMPLE 11B–4 Finding the median for grouped data
Find the median of the scores given in this frequency distribution table.
300–324 3
325–349 18
350–374 47
375–399 32
400–424 14
425–449 6
Solve Think Apply

Add a cumulative frequency column to the table The 60th and 61st scores Draw a cumulative
and use the data to draw a cumulative frequency are in the 350–374 class, frequency polygon.
polygon. but it is not possible to state Estimate the
exact values from the table. median by locating
Height (mm) Frequency Cumulative
The class containing the the point halfway
frequency
median is sometimes called (vertically) up the
300–324 3 3
the median class. We could polygon.
325–349 18 21 estimate the median to be at
350–374 47 68 the class centre (362), but
375–399 32 100 a more accurate estimate
400–424 14 114 can be found by using the
class centres and cumulative
425–449 6 120
frequency to help you draw
____ 120+1 = 60.5
n+1 = ______ the cumulative frequency
2 2 histogram and polygon
So the median is the mean of the 60th and 61st scores. (ogive). To find the median,
The 60th and 61st scores are in the 350–374 class so locate the point half way up
an exact value for the median cannot be found. the cumulative frequency
The best estimate is found by reading the value from 1 × 120 = 60, and
axis, __
the polygon when the cumulative frequency is 60. 2
So: Median ≈ 370. draw a horizontal line across
Height to the polygon. Draw a
120 vertical line to the score axis
112 (Height) and use it to read
104
96
the median, on the horizontal
88 scale. In this example:

80 Median ≈ 370
72
64
56
48
40
32
24
16
8
0
300 325 350 375 400 425 450
Height (mm)

5 Estimate the median from the ogives drawn below.
a Mass b Height
100 80
Cumulative frequency 90 70
80 60
70 50
60 40
50 30
40 20
30 10
20 0
10 14 21 28 35 42 49
0 Height (cm)
2 7 12 17 22 27
Mass (kg)
c Mark d Days absent

60 140
50 120
40 100
30 80
20 60
10 40
0 20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0
Mark 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of days
6 Consider each of the grouped frequency distributions below.

i Copy each table and add columns for class centre and cumulative frequency.
ii Draw the ogive for each distribution.
iii Use your ogives from part ii to help you estimate the median score for each set of data.
a Score Frequency b Mass (kg) Frequency

41–50 5 60–62 4
51–60 0 63–65 7
61–70 12 66–68 9
71–80 10 69–71 6
81–90 9 72–74 4
91–100 4
c d
Height (cm) Frequency Patients per day Frequency
155–159 19 10–19 13
160–164 21 20–29 15
165–169 24 30–39 16
170–174 19 40–49 10
175–179 17 50–59 4
60–69 2

EXAMPLE 11B–5 Finding the median from a stem-and-leaf plot
Find the median for the data in this stem-and-leaf plot. Stem Leaf
2 2336
3
4 123556668
5 1557777
6 12355567
7 00
Solve Think Apply
Stem Leaf Cross off numbers in pairs, starting with the The median can be
lowest and highest numbers, 22 and 70. The found by crossing off
2 2336
two middle scores remaining are 55 and 55. pairs of numbers from
3 55+55 = 55
So: Median = ______ the top and bottom of
4 123556668 2
the stem-and-leaf plot
5 1557777 Or, because there are 30 scores, the median is or by identifying the
the average of the 15th and 16th scores. The middle score(s).
6 12355567
scores are already in order, and the 15th and
7 00 16th scores are both 55. So: Median = 55.
Median = 55
7 Find the median of the data in each of these stem-and-leaf plots.

a Stem Leaf b Stem Leaf c Stem Leaf d Stem Leaf
5 12 2 466 10 56888 1 2334
6 025 3 0115 11 2336 1* 56
7 1455 4 5889 12 01 2 0113
8 67 5 168 13 8 2* 66689
9 3 6 7 14 3556
15 1137
8 Use the data from the stem-and-leaf plot on the right to answer the following Stem Leaf
questions.
3 02238
a Find the mean, mode and median of the data.
b Complete a frequency distribution table using the classes 30–39, 40–49, etc. 4 136
c Calculate the mean from the grouped data. Compare this with the mean 5 2444889
found in part a. 6 15567
d Add a cumulative frequency column to your table from part b.
e Draw the ogive and estimate the median. Compare this with the exact median value found in part a.
f Why are some later answers different from those in part a?
9 Repeat question 8 using classes of 30–34, 35–39, etc. Explain any differences from the question 8 answers
in your results this time.
10 a Show that the median of the scores 2, 5, 5, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 44 lies between the mode and the mean.
CHALLENGE
b Show that the mean of the scores 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7 and 7 lies between the mode and the median.
c Find a set of scores for which the mode lies between the median and the mean.
d Find a set of scores for which the mean lies between the median and the mode.
e Find a set of scores that has the same mean, mode and median.

11C Relative merits of
mean, mode and median
The mean, the mode and the median were introduced in this chapter as measures of central
tendency; that is, single numbers that are central to or typical of all the numbers under
consideration. Which of these measures is the most appropriate in a given situation? There
is no general rule; rather it depends on the nature of the data and the relative merits of the
measures. We will investigate some of the properties of the mean, mode and median.
EXAMPLE 11C–1 Finding the mode and comparing it to the mean and median
a Find the mode of each of these sets of scores.
i 14, 15, 15, 16, 16, 16, 17, 18 ii 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21 iii 14, 15, 16, 17, 26, 26, 26
b Consider the relative merits of the mode, the mean and the median for each of the cases above.
Solve/Think Apply
a i Mode = 16, because the number 16 occurs the most times. The mode is the number that occurs
with the highest frequency.
ii There is no mode because all the numbers have the same
frequency.
iii Mode = 26, because the number 26 occurs the most times.
b i The mode (16) is central and typical of the scores. The There are cases in which the mode
mean (15.9) and the median (16) are also good measures is important even if it is not a central
of central tendency. value. For example, if the numbers are
the sizes of hats sold by a shop, then
ii There is no mode, so the mode is not a satisfactory
the size that is sold most often would
measure of central tendency. The mean (17) and the
be important to the shop owner and
median (16.5) are both good measures of central tendency.
hat manufacturer.
iii The mode (26) occurs at one end of the set of scores; it is
not a central value. The mean (20) and the median (17) are
both good measures of central tendency.
EXERCISE 11C Relative merits of mean, mode and median

1 a Find the mode of each of the following sets of scores.
i 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 9 ii 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 iii 23, 24, 25, 26, 35, 35, 35
b Is the mode a satisfactory measure of central tendency for each set of data in part a?
c Consider the relative merits of the mean and the median for each of the sets of data from part a.

EXAMPLE 11C–2 Finding the mean and comparing it to the mode and median
a Find the mean of each of these sets of scores.
i 5, 5, 6, 7, 8 ii 5, 5, 6, 7, 80
b Consider the relative merits of the mean, the mode and the median for each of the sets of data above.
Solve/Think Apply
a 5+5+6+7+8 = 6.2
i Mean = ____________ The mean is the sum of the scores
5
divided by the number of scores.
5+5+6+7+80 = 20.6
ii Mean = _____________
5
b i The mean (6.2) is central and typical of the data, so it The mean has the disadvantage of being
is a good measure of central tendency. The mode (5) is affected by extremely large (or small)
not a central value, but the median (6) is both central values. Very small or very large atypical
and typical. scores are called outliers. In some
ii Four out of five scores are less than the mean (20.6), cases it may be useful to ignore outliers
so the mean is not a central value and is not typical of the when calculating the mean.
size of any of the scores. The mode (5) is not a central Note: If we ignore the outlier 80 in
value. The median (6) is unaffected by the extreme value part b ii: Mean = 5.75
and would be the best measure of central tendency.
2 a Find the mean of each of the following sets of scores. outlier

i 8, 8, 9, 10, 11 ii 8, 8, 9, 10, 110 an extreme piece
of data or a score
b Is the mean a satisfactory measure of central tendency for each set of data in part a? that is much
c Find the median and the mode, and consider the relative merits of these measures higher or much
for each set of data in part a. lower than the
rest of the data in
the data set
EXAMPLE 11C–3 Finding the median and comparing it to the mean and mode
a Find the median of this data about the number of goals scored by a footballer over 10 games:
1 2 2 3 6 6 6 6 6 6
b Consider the relative merits of the median, mode and mean for this data.
Solve/Think Apply
a Median The median is the middle score, after
= average of 5th and 6th scores the scores have been arranged in
=6 ascending order.
b For this pattern of scores the median happens to be the The most appropriate measure is the
end score (which is also the mode). In this case, the mean one that is a central value.
(4.4) would be a better measure of central tendency.
3 a Find the median of these scores: 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5.

b Is the median a satisfactory measure of central tendency for these scores?
c Consider the relative merits of the mode and the mean for this data.
4 Which measure of central tendency depends on the value of every score in a data set?
5 Which is the only measure suitable for categorical data?

Summary – choosing the appropriate measure
Mean
• This is the most commonly used, is easy to understand and is easy to calculate.
• Its value depends on the value of every score in the data set.
• Its main disadvantage is that its value is easily distorted by very large or very small atypical scores
(outliers).
• It has the best sampling stability: if we choose random samples of the same size from a large
population, the mean is the measure that varies the least from sample to sample.
• It is not suitable for categorical data.
Mode
• This is the most frequent value in a set of data.
• Its value is easy to determine and it is not affected by outliers.
• There may be no mode, or more than one mode, in a data set.
• It may not be a central value.
• When comparing random samples of the same size taken from a large population, the mode is the
measure that varies the most.
• It is the only measure suitable for categorical data.
Median
• This is easy to understand: there are equal numbers of scores above and below it.
• It is not affected by outliers, since its value depends on the number of scores above and below it, not
on the values of these scores.
• For some unusual patterns of scores it may not be a central value; e.g. 0, 1, 1, 5, 5, 5, 5
• When comparing samples, it varies more than the mean but much less than the mode.
• It is not suitable for categorical data.
6 A shoe store had a discount sale of women’s running shoes and sold shoes of the following sizes in one day.
6 10 4 7 8 7 6 5 7 8 7 5 6 4 3 7
a For the sizes of shoes sold, find the:
i mean ii mode iii median.
b Which of these measures would be of most use to the shop owner?
7 The Beacon Lamp Company has a total of 30 employees 1 general manager $260 000
whose annual salaries are listed on the right. 1 marketing manager $100 000
a What is the total annual wage bill for this company? 1 accountant $120 000
b Calculate the mean wage for the employees. 1 engineer $100 000
c How many employees earn: 1 warehouse manager $100 000
i less than the mean wage from part b? 15 production workers $50 000 each
ii more than the mean wage from part b? 10 tradespeople $60 000 each
d What is the median wage? e What is the modal wage?
f In a wage determination case for the employees of this company, which measure of central tendency
would you use to support your argument if you were the representative for:
i the general manager? ii the production workers?
g Which measure of central tendency is the most appropriate to represent the wages of the employees of
this company? Give reasons for your answer.

8 The times to the nearest minute that 10 patients, chosen at random, spent in the waiting room of a hospital were:
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N 18 19 19 20 20 27 28 29 29 29
a Find the mean, mode and median of these waiting times.
b Consider the relative merits of these three measures for this data.
9 Geoff scored these marks in a series of topic tests: 6 3 6 3 6 2 6 1
a Find the mean, mode and median for Geoff’s marks.
b Which of these ‘averages’ would Geoff prefer to tell his parents?
10 The prices of land sold by a real-estate agent in a particular suburb in one month were:
$510 000 $630 000 $960 000 $540 000 $560 000
a The real-estate agent claimed that, for this month, the ‘average’ price of houses in the suburb was
$640 000. To which ‘average’ is the estate agent referring?
b Is the ‘average’ from part a an appropriate ‘average’ to use? Give reasons for your answer.
11 The eye colours of a group of 10 students are recorded below.
brown blue brown green blue grey brown brown blue green
Which, if any, of the mean, mode and median can be used with this categorical (qualitative) data?
12 The number of mistakes made by 100 students in a spelling Number of Tally Frequency
test is shown (no-one made more than 9 mistakes). mistakes
4 8 0 4 7 4 5 3 8 1 3 3 2 3 2 3 5 1 7 8
0
4 6 9 7 1 8 5 8 7 9 3 1 4 5 8 2 2 0 1 6
0 8 6 9 4 5 8 1 1 2 9 6 0 7 0 9 1 9 1 0 1
1 8 8 6 8 5 2 2 5 1 9 9 8 2 7 3 2 6 8 1 2
9 0 0 7 0 9 8 8 7 3 8 9 8 4 6 5 0 9 5 3 3
a i Complete the frequency distribution table for the first …
20 students. (Start at 4 and work to the right.)
9
ii Use your calculator to find the mean, mode and
median of the number of mistakes made by the 20 students from part i.
b Repeat part a for the:
i second group of 20 students ii third group of 20 students
iii fourth group of 20 students iv fifth group of 20 students.
c Complete a table similar to the one on the right 1st 20 2nd 20 3rd 20 4th 20 5th 20
to summarise the results for the samples of
Mean
20 students in parts a and b.
d Which of these measures (mean, mode or Mode
median) varies the most between samples? Median
e Which of the measures varies the least?
13 The weights, in kilograms, of the players in a women’s hockey team are:
55, 56, 63, 48, 58, 56, 48, 54, 55, 62, 64, 157
a Are there any outliers in this data set? Discuss possible reasons for this score.
b Calculate the mean weight of the team, with and without the outlier.
c Find the median weight of the team. What is the modal weight?
d Which measure of central tendency is the most appropriate to represent the weights of the players?
14 The number of injuries sustained in workplace accidents in a factory over a period of 12 months are:
CHALLENGE
2, 0, 1, 0, 5, 0, 0, 3, 0, 1, 2, 2
a For the number of injuries, find the: i mean ii mode iii median.
b Which of these measures of central tendency is the most appropriate for this data? Explain your answer.

11D Range and interquartile
range
• Worksheet 11D: Practise your skills with extra problems on summary statistics
measure of • Investigation 11D: Explore the effect on the IQR when data values are changed
dispersion • assess quiz 11D: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
a single number
that indicates the
spread of scores,
Consider these two sets of data:
also known as 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 0, 1, 5, 9, 10.
a a measure For both sets, the mean is 5. However, it is obvious that these sets of scores are quite different
of spread; e.g. in nature. The first set of scores is closely grouped around the mean, but the second set is quite
the range, the
scattered about the mean. So, as well as having a central value for a set of scores, it is useful
interquartile
range and the
to have some measure of the scatter, or spread, of the scores. Such measures of spread are
standard deviation called measures of dispersion. The first two we will investigate in this topic are the range
and the interquartile range.
range
the difference
The range is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score in a
between the
highest score and data set.
the lowest score Range = highest score – lowest score
in a data set
EXAMPLE 11D–1 Finding the range

Find the range of each of these sets of scores.
a 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 7 b 1, 9, 0, 5, 10
Solve Think Apply

a Range = 7 − 3 Highest score = 7, Lowest score = 3 Range = highest score − lowest score
=4
b Range = 10 − 0 Highest score = 10, Lowest score = 0
= 10 Range = highest score − lowest score
= 10 − 0
= 10
EXERCISE 11D Range and interquartile range

1 Find the range of each of these sets of scores.
a 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 9, 10 b 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
c 11, 13, 13, 16, 170 d 27, 28, 29, 27, 30, 31, 27, 31, 30
e 0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 6, 4, 5, 4, 0, 1 f 20, 20, 20, 23, 25, 27
g 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 57, 58, 59 h 104, 101, 104, 102, 104, 105, 106, 101

2 Find the range of the scores in each of these sets of data.
UNDERSTANDING FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION a b c
x f x f x f
3 2 50 3 12 4
4 3 51 5 13 3
5 6 52 8 14 5
6 4 53 6 15 6
7 1 54 2 16 2
55 4
interquartile range
measure of
Some situations in which the range is useful are the measurement of temperature, dispersion found
height, length and blood pressure, but a major disadvantage of the use of the range by calculating the
is that it depends only on the extreme values of the data. The extreme values can difference between
the upper quartile
be atypical scores (outliers), such as the 170 in question 1c. The outliers are often
and lower quartile;
caused by an error of measurement and, in these cases, the range is of little use. this, IQR = Q3 − Q1
To avoid this problem, we can find the difference between two numbers that are quartiles
not at the extremes of the data. One such measure is called the interquartile three measures
range. We are already familiar with the concept of the median, which divides the that divide a set
data into two equal parts. In the same way, we can find measures that divide the of scores (in
ascending order)
data into four parts, with equal numbers of scores in each part. These measures
into four parts
are called quartiles. Each set of data has three quartiles: the lower quartile, the with an equal
middle quartile (this is the median) and the upper quartile, usually denoted by number of scores
Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively. in each part; the
measures are the
The interquartile range (IQR) is the difference between the upper and lower
lower quartile (Q1),
quartiles: middle quartile or
Interquartile range = Q3 − Q1 median (Q2), and
upper quartile (Q3)
EXAMPLE 11D–2 Finding the interquartile range (quartiles are scores in the set)
Find the lower, middle and upper quartiles and the interquartile range for these scores:
2 2 3 5 6 6 7
Solve Think Apply
2 2 3 5 6 6 7 Write the scores in numerical order, if necessary. Find the median (Q2).
↑ ↑ ↑ n+1
Find the median (2nd quartile): ____ This divides the data
Q1 Q2 Q3 2
into two groups with
The median is the 4th score: Q2 = 5
Interquartile range equal numbers in each.
Note: the median divides the data into two parts with
= Q3 − Q1 The middle score of
three scores in each.
=6−2 the lower group is the
The lower part contains the scores 2, 2, 3. The lower
=4 lower quartile (Q1).
quartile is the score that divides this set into two equal
The middle score of
parts; it is the middle score of this set. So, Q1 = 2.

the upper group is the
The upper part contains the scores 6, 6, 7. The upper
upper quartile (Q3).
quartile is the score that divides this set into two equal
The interquartile range
parts; it is the middle score of this set. So, Q3 = 6.
(IQR) = Q3 − Q1.
We can see that the quartiles have divided the data into
four parts with one score in each.
Interquartile range = Q3 − Q1 = 6 − 2 = 4

3 Complete the following to find the interquartile range of these scores.
7 8 10 12 13 13 14 Q1 = ____
↑ ↑ IQR = ____ − ____ = ____
Q2 Q3
4 Find the interquartile range for each of these sets of scores.

a 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 25 b 10, 11, 11, 13, 13, 14, 14, 15, 18, 20, 20
EXAMPLE 11D–3 Finding the interquartile range (quartiles are not scores in the set)
Find the lower, middle and upper quartiles and the interquartile range for these scores:
a 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 6
b 23 27 25 23 24 25
c 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6
Solve Think Apply
a 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 The scores are already in numerical order. First find the median
↑ ↑ ↑ n+1 = 5.
In this case n = 9, so ____ (Q2). This divides the
2
Q1 Q2 Q3 data into two groups
So, the median is the 5th score = 4.
Q2 = 4 with equal numbers
Q1 is the middle score of the set 1, 2, 2, 3.
in each. The middle
5+6 = 5.5
2+2 = 2, Q = ____ Q3 is the middle score of the set 5, 5, 6, 6.
Q1 = ____ score of the lower
2 3 2 The quartiles have divided the data into
group is the lower
IQR = Q3 − Q1 four parts with two scores in each.
quartile (Q1).
= 5.5 − 2
The middle score of
= 3.5
the upper group is
b 23 23 24 25 25 27 Arrange the scores in numerical order. the upper quartile
↑ ↑ ↑ n+1 = 3.5.
In this case n = 6, so ____
2 (Q3).
Q1 Q2 Q3
The median is the number midway IQR = Q3 − Q1
24+25 = 24.5
Q2 = ______ between the 3rd and 4th scores.
2
Q1 = 23, Q3 = 25 Q1 is the middle score of the set 23, 23, 24.
IQR = 25 − 23 = 2 Q3 is the middle score of the set 25, 25, 27.
c 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 The scores are already in numerical order.

↑ ↑ ↑ n+1 = 4.5.
In this case n = 8, so ____
2
Q1 Q2 Q3 The median is the mean of the 4th and 5th
3+4 = 3.5
Q2 = ____ scores.
2
Q1 is the middle score of the set 1, 2, 2, 3.
2+2 5+6 = 5.5
Q1 = ____ = 2, Q3 = ____
2 2 Q3 is the middle score of the set 4, 5, 6, 6.
IQR = 5.5 − 2 = 3.5
5 Complete the following to find the interquartile range of the following scores.
42 44 45 48 53 61 64 68 71 Q1 = = ____
↑ ↑ Q3 = ____
Q1 Q2 IQR = ____ − ____ = ____
6 Find the interquartile range of each of these sets of scores.

a 170, 170, 170, 185, 188, 189, 194, 196, 203 b 2, 3, 5, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 15, 17, 18

7 Complete the following to find the interquartile range of these scores.
UNDERSTANDING FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION 17 19 20 22 24 26 Q2 = ____
↑ So Q1 = ____ Q3 = ____ IQR = ____
Q2
8 Find the interquartile range for each of the following sets of scores.
a 50, 50, 52, 55, 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60 b 33, 35, 38, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 55, 58, 61, 64, 66, 68
9 Complete the following to find the interquartile range of the scores below.
4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 Q1 = ____ Q3 = ____ IQR = ____
↑ ↑
Q1 Q2
a 17, 20, 20, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28 b 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5
a 34, 31, 33, 31, 32, 35, 30 b 16, 16, 14, 15, 14, 13, 16, 14, 10
c 5, 6, 6, 3, 7, 4, 5, 6, 7, 4 d 80, 82, 81, 81, 80, 83, 82, 83
EXAMPLE 11D–4 Finding the interquartile range from an ogive

Estimate the lower quartile and upper quartile from Marks
the data graphed on the ogive shown. Find the 120
interquartile range of the scores. 110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2 7 12 17 22 27 32
Q1 = 15 Q2 = 25
Mark
Solve Think Apply

From the ogive: For large numbers of scores, the lower and upper Estimate the lower quartile
Q1 ≈ 15 quartiles can be estimated from the ogive. by finding the point on the
Q3 ≈ 25 The lower quartile can be estimated by locating the point polygon that is one-quarter
IQR = Q3 − Q1 one-quarter of the way up the cumulative frequency axis of the way up the vertical
≈ 25 − 15 and drawing a horizontal line across to the polygon. Next scale. Estimate the upper
= 10 draw a vertical line from this point to the horizontal axis quartile by locating the point
and read the value of the lower quartile. on the polygon that is three-
The upper quartile can be estimated by locating the point quarters of the way up the
three-quarters of the way up the cumulative frequency vertical scale.
axis and drawing a horizontal line across to the polygon. Then IQR = Q3 − Q1.
Next draw a vertical line from this point to the horizontal
axis and read the value of upper quartile.

12 By first estimating the values of the lower quartile and upper quartile, find the interquartile range for each
ogive drawn in question 5 of Exercise 11B.
13 By first drawing an ogive, find the interquartile range of the scores (discrete) in each of these frequency
distribution tables. (For help with drawing an ogive, refer to Topic 7G on page 266.)
a x f b x f c x f
33 2 8 12 24 9
34 4 9 28 25 11
35 9 10 25 26 18
36 10 11 26 27 0
37 5 12 9 28 12
14 Consider the following grouped data.

i Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon for the data in each table.
ii Estimate the interquartile range from an ogive for each set of data.
a Score Frequency b Patients per day Frequency
41–50 5 10–19 13
51–60 0 20–29 15
61–70 12 30–39 16
71–80 10 40–49 10
81–90 9 50–59 4
91–100 4 60–69 2
c Mass (kg) Frequency d Height (cm) Frequency

60–62 4 155–159 3
63–65 7 160–164 8
66–68 9 165–169 12
69–71 6 170–174 7
72–74 4 175–179 6
EXAMPLE 11D–5 Interpreting what the interquartile range indicates

In the term test, the median result for Kelly’s class was 65 and the interquartile range was 20. For Sean’s class,
the median was 65 and the interquartile range was 12. What conclusions could be made about these results?
Solve Think Apply

The marks for Sean’s The median mark for both classes is 65: half of the students The smaller
class are more scored less than 65 and half scored more than 65. However, the value of the
closely clustered the interquartile range for Sean’s class is smaller, indicating interquartile range,
about the median that the marks for Sean’s class are more closely clustered the closer the scores
than those for Kelly’s around the median than the marks for Kelly’s class (or the are clustered about
class. marks for Kelly’s class are more spread out from the median). the median.

Note:
• For a relatively large number of scores:

25% of the scores are less than Q1 and 75% are greater than Q1.
50% of the scores are less then Q2 and 50% are greater than Q2.
75% of the scores are less than Q3 and 25% are greater than Q3.
So the interquartile range contains the middle 50% of the scores.
• The interquartile range gives an indication of the spread of the scores from the median. The greater
its value, the greater the spread. A smaller value indicates that the scores are more closely clustered
around the median.
• The advantage of using the interquartile range instead of the range is that it is not affected by
atypical extreme scores (outliers).
15 In a test, the median result for Linda’s class was 58 and the interquartile range was 21. In Lara’s class, the
median was also 58 but the interquartile range was 10. From this information, what conclusions could be
made about the results?
16 At the end of the cricket season, Tom’s median batting score

was 31 with an interquartile range of 8. Matthew’s median
score was 31 and the interquartile range was 24. On the basis
of the information given:
a which batsman was more consistent?
b who is more likely to make a high score?
c who is more likely to make a low score?
17 Can you find the range of the scores, given the information
in the table? Explain your answer.
300–324 3
325–349 18
350–374 47
375–399 32
400–424 14
425–449 6
18 The summary statistics of two sets of data are given. A B

CHALLENGE
a By comparing the range and interquartile range,

Mean 20.6 21.9
determine which set of data, A or B, has an outlier.
Median 22 18
b Which measures are most affected by the outlier?
Range 26 50
IQR 7 9
Upper quartile 24 25
Lower quartile 17 16
Lowest score 4 15
Highest score 30 65

11E Deciles and percentiles
deciles For large sets of data, a natural and useful extension of the concept of quartiles is to divide the
nine numbers that data into 10 parts with equal numbers of scores in each. The scores that separate these 10 parts
separate the set are called deciles.
of ordered scores
into ten parts with Decile 1 is the score that has 10% of the scores below it and 90% above it.
an equal number Decile 2 is the score that has 20% of the scores below it and 80% above it.
of scores in
each part Decile 3 is the score that has 30% of the scores below it and 70% above it, etc.
Decile 5 is the median.
percentiles
99 numbers that If a large set of data is divided into 100 equal parts with equal numbers of scores in each, the
separate the set scores that separate these 100 parts are called percentiles.
of ordered scores
in 100 parts with
The 35th percentile (P35) is the score that has 35% of the scores below it (and 65% of the
an equal number scores above it).
of scores in each The 90th percentile (P90) is the score that has 90% of the scores below it (and 10% of the
part.
scores above it). This is equivalent to decile 9.
EXAMPLE 11E–1 Finding deciles from an ogive

Use the ogive shown to find the 1st, 4th and
9th deciles for the given data. 120 10
110 9
100
8
90
7
80
70 6 Decile
60 5
50 4
40
3
30
2
20
10 1
0 0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Score
Solve Think Apply
Decile 1 = 13 Add another vertical scale to the graph and divide this scale into 10 Divide the vertical
Decile 4 = 27 equal parts. The deciles can be found as shown on the graph above. scale into 10 equal
Decile 9 = 48 From the ogive, Decile 1 = 13, Decile 4 = 27 and Decile 9 = 48. parts. The scores
So 10% of the scores are less than 13 (and 90% are greater than 13); that separate these
40% of the scores are less than 27 (and 60% are greater than 27); parts are deciles.
and 90% of the scores are less than 48 (and 10% are greater than 48).

EXERCISE 11E Deciles and percentiles
1 Use the ogives drawn below to find the 1st, 4th and 9th deciles for the given data.
a b
80 160
Cumulative frequency 70 140
120
60 100
50 80
40 60
30 40
20 20
10 0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
0 Score
10 20 30 40
Score
c d 120
100
90 110
100
80 90
70 80
60 70
50 60
40 50
40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Score Score
EXAMPLE 11E–2 Finding percentiles from an ogive

For the ogive on the right, estimate P35 and P87.
300 100
270 90
240 80
210 70
180 60
Percentiles
150 50
120 40
90 30
60 20
30 10
0 0
150 160 P35 170 180 P87 190 200
Height
Solve Think Apply

P35 ≈ 162 Add another vertical scale to the graph and divide this into Divide the vertical scale
P87 ≈ 184 100 equal parts. The percentiles can be estimated from into 100 equal parts. The
the ogive. scores that separate these
P35 ≈ 162 P87 ≈ 184 parts are percentiles.
So 35% of the scores are less than 162 and 87% of the
scores are less than 184.

2 Use the ogives from question 1 parts a and b to estimate the 15th, 45th and 78th percentiles of each data set.
3 In a frequency distribution, what percentage of scores are:

a less than P47? b more than P95?
4 In a frequency distribution, determine the percentile that is equivalent to:

a decile 4 b decile 8 c the lower quartile
d the upper quartile e the median.
5 The chart below shows the body mass index-for-age (BMI) for boys aged 2 to 20 years. Use the chart to
answer the following questions.

Body mass index-for-age for boys aged 2–20 years
31
95
30
29
90
28
27 85
26
75
25
24
23 50
BMI (kg/m2)
22
21 25
20 10
19 5
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Age (years)
a What is the BMI for 12-year-old boys in the 85th percentile?

b What percentage of 15-year-old boys have a body mass index that is less than 17.1?
c For what age group is the median BMI equal to 15.4?
d Boys are considered to be obese if their BMI is greater than the 95th percentile for their age.
i What is the BMI above which 19-year-old boys are considered obese?
ii John is a 9-year-old boy whose BMI is 21.5. Is he considered to be obese, according to this chart?

e Boys are considered to be underweight if their BMI is less than the 5th percentile for their age.
i What is the BMI below which 4-year-old boys are considered to be underweight?
ii A 13-year-old boy has a BMI of 15.8. According to the chart, is he considered to be underweight?
f The BMI of boys is considered to be normal (not underweight, and not overweight) if it lies between the
5th and 85th percentiles for their age. What range of BMIs is considered to be normal for 17-year-old
boys?
g Calculate the interquartile range for the BMI of 8-year-old boys.
6 Use this chart to answer the following questions.

PRACTICE EXAM QUESTION
a What is the height of 16-year-old girls in the 5th percentile?

b In what percentile band is a 15-year-old girl who is 157 cm tall?
c What percentage of 12-year-old girls are shorter than 156 cm?
d What percentage of 18-year-old girls are taller than 175 cm?
e A 17-year-old girl is 173 cm tall. In which decile band is her height?

11F Box plots
box plot (box-
and-whisker plot)
a diagram made
up of a box and
two ‘whiskers’
displaying five key These resources are available on your obook assess:
values for a data
• Worksheet 11F: Practise your skills with extra problems for box plots
set; these values
are known as • Investigation 11F: Analyse data for the men’s 100 m sprint in the Olympic Games
the five-number • assess quiz 11F: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
summary
five-number A useful way of displaying and comparing sets Whisker
Box
Whisker
summary of data is by means of a box plot (or a box-and-
five key values for whisker plot). A box plot is a diagram that displays Lowest Highest
a data set; lowest score Q1 Median Q3 score
the extremes (the highest and lowest scores), the
score, highest Q2
score, median, median and the upper and lower quartiles of the data.
lower quartile and These five values are also known as the five-number summary.
upper quartile
EXAMPLE 11F–1 Finding the range, median and interquartile range from a
box plot
For the box plot shown, find the:
a i highest score
ii lowest score
iii range of the scores.
b For the data displayed, find the: 10 20 30 40 50 60
i median ii upper quartile iii lower quartile iv interquartile range.

Solve Think Apply
a i Highest score = 53 The highest score is at the right-hand end of the The ends of the
right-hand whisker. Using the scale, this is 53. ‘whiskers’ indicate
ii Lowest score = 10 The lowest score is the first point on the left-hand the lowest score and
whisker. Using the scale, this is 10. highest score. The ends
iii Range = 53 − 10 The range is the highest score minus the lowest of the ‘box’ indicate the
= 43 score. lower quartile and upper
quartile. The vertical
b i Median = 36 The median is the score indicated by the vertical
line drawn inside
line drawn inside the box. This is 36.
the box indicates the
ii Q3 = 45 The upper quartile is the score indicated by the median.
right-hand end of the box. This is 45. The five numbers used
iii Q1 = 18 The lower quartile is the score indicated by the (lowest, Q1, Q2, Q3 and
left-hand end of the box. This is 18. highest) are referred
iv IQR = 45 − 18 The interquartile range is the upper quartile minus to as a five-number
= 27 the lower quartile. summary of the data set.
Note: From these results we can say:
• the bottom 25% of the scores take values from 10 up to, but less than, 18
• the top 25% of the scores take values from, but not including, 45 up to 53
• the middle 50% of the scores lie between and including 18 and 45.
Because the median is closer to the upper quartile than to the lower quartile, we can say that the
top half of the scores are clustered closer to the median than the bottom half of the scores.

EXERCISE 11F Box plots
1 For each of the box plots shown, find these values.
i highest score ii lowest score iii range of the scores iv median

v upper quartile vi lower quartile vii interquartile range
a b
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
c d
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
EXAMPLE 11F–2 Drawing a box plot from a given five-number summary

Draw a box plot using the following five-number summary of a data set.
Highest score = 82 Lowest score = 25 Median = 64 Lower quartile = 49 Upper quartile = 71
Solve Think Apply

Draw a number line Mark the positions of the five
to include scores scores on a number line. Draw
from 25 to 82. On the box using the lower quartile
the number line, and upper quartile as endpoints
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
mark the position and draw the median line inside
Draw a number line to include scores from 25 to of each of the five the box. Draw the whiskers by
82. Mark the position of each of the five scores scores given and joining the lowest score and
given and draw the box plot. draw the box plot. highest score to the box using
straight lines.
2 Draw a box plot using the five-number summary given for each data set below.
Lowest score Highest score Lower quartile Median Upper quartile
a 15 40 23 28 32
b 130 153 139 141 148
c 6 28 7 10 18
d 71 83 73 78 80
e 1 9 3 5 7
EXAMPLE 11F–3 Drawing a box plot

Draw a box plot for the following set of data.
35 35 36 36 37 38 39 39 39 40
Solve Think/Apply
Find the five scores required and draw the box plot as before.
Lowest score = 35, Highest score = 40. Use a diagram:
35 35 36 36 37 38 39 39 39 40
↑ ↑ ↑
Q1 Q2 Q3
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
Q1 = 36, Q2 = 37.5, Q3 = 39

3 Draw a box plot for each of the following sets of data.
a 4, 5, 8, 8, 10, 12, 12, 14, 15, 19 b 21, 21, 23, 24, 24, 24, 26, 28, 30
c 89, 90, 92, 95, 95, 98, 102, 103 d 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 29, 30, 30, 30, 31
EXAMPLE 11F–4 Drawing a box plot from a stem-and-leaf plot

Consider the data given in this stem-and-leaf plot. Stem Leaf
a Determine the five-number summary.
2 14
b Draw a box plot.
3 02258
4 13469
5 478
Solve/Think Apply
a Lowest score = 21, Highest score = 58. Find the five scores required and
There are 15 scores, So Q2 = 8th score = 41 draw the box plot.
Q1 = middle of bottom seven scores (21, 24, 30, 32, 32, 35, 38)
= 32
Q3 = middle of top seven scores (43, 44, 46, 49, 54, 57, 58)
= 49
b
20 30 40 50 60
4 Consider the data given in these stem-and-leaf plots.

i Determine the five-number summary for each set of data.
ii Draw a box plot for each set of data.
a Stem Leaf b Stem Leaf c Stem Leaf
5 3 1 779 4 2
6 12589 2 0114 5 46
7 023679 3 25667 6 337
8 446 4 1338 7 1889
5 45 8 56
5 This parallel box plot shows the times (in seconds) male and female competitors take to complete a triathlon.
a What was the fastest time for the event?
Triathlon
b What was the difference in time between the
Females
slowest male and slowest female competitor?
c How long did it take the first half of the male
Males
competitors to finish?
d How long did it take the top 75% of the males
to finish?
6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10 000 10 500
e How long did it take the first 25% of the Time (s)
females to finish?
f Which group had the greatest range of times?
g Which group had the smallest interquartile range of times?
h Which group had the fastest overall times?

6 The average monthly rainfall, in millimetres, for Adelaide and Melbourne is shown in this table.
Adelaide 17 19 22 38 59 52 65 50 43 38 24 23
Melbourne 48 48 52 58 58 50 49 51 59 68 60 59
Use the rainfall data to help you complete the following and draw two box plots on the same scale.
First write the data in ascending order.
Adelaide: 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 38, 38, 43, 50, 52,
Average monthly rainfall
59, 65
Adelaide
Melbourne: 48, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 58, 59,
59, 60, 68
Adelaide median = ___ Melbourne
Q1 = ___
Q3 = ___
Melbourne median = ___ 0 10 20 — — — 60 70 80
Rainfall (mm)
Q1 = ___
Q2 = ___
7 The average monthly rainfall, in millimetres, for Canberra and Hobart is shown in this table.
Canberra 58 57 56 53 49 37 40 47 50 67 63 53
Hobart 48 40 47 52 49 56 54 52 52 64 55 52
a Use the given rainfall data to draw two box plots on the same scale.
b What comparisons can be made using the box plots?
8 The weights in kilograms of a group of students are shown.

Girls: 62, 45, 53, 58, 50, 48, 56, 65, 78, 54
Boys: 68, 75, 84, 77, 86, 70, 55, 68, 67, 69
a Display the data for weights in kilograms using two box plots on the same scale.
b Make comparisons between the weights of boys and girls using the fact that box plots divide the data
into four groups of 25%.
9 The towns of Karuah and Buladelah both have Karuah Buladelah

CHALLENGE
a speed limit of 60 km/h. The speeds of the first

Mean 59 60
100 cars travelling through these towns, from
9:00 am to 10:00 am on Saturday, were measured Median 58 58
and the results are shown in the table. Lower quartile 52 50
a Draw box plots to display this data. Interquartile range 18 9
b Use this data to give a reason why the police Highest speed 85 105
might target Karuah for speeding. Also give a Lowest speed 35 40
reason why police might target Buladelah.

11G Standard deviation
• Worksheet 11G: Practise your skills with extra problems on centre and spread
• Investigation 11G.1: Compare the mean and standard deviation of different samples
• Investigation 11G.2: Analyse the data from a sporting team
The interquartile range is a better measure of the spread of a set of scores than the range, but
its weakness is that its value depends on only two scores, the upper quartile and lower quartile.
A more commonly used measure, whose value depends on all the scores, is the standard deviation.
standard
deviation Standard deviation, σn, is determined by finding the distances of all the scores from
a measure of the mean and then calculating an ‘average’ of these distances.
dispersion or
spread whose
value depends In the same way as the mean, mode and median are ‘typical’ scores of the set of data, the
on all the scores;
standard deviation is a ‘typical’ distance of the scores from the mean. The smaller the standard
determined by
calculating an deviation, the smaller the ‘typical’ distance of the scores from the mean, therefore the smaller
‘average’ of the the spread of the scores.
distance of each Standard deviation can be calculated using an algebraic formula, but it is simpler and quicker
score from the
to use the statistics mode on a scientific calculator.
mean
Note: the interquartile range is a measure of the spread of the scores about the median. The
standard deviation is a measure of the spread of the scores about the mean.
EXAMPLE 11G–1 Finding the standard deviation

Find the standard deviation of the following scores.
2 3 5 1 4 6 5 2 1 4
Solve Think Apply
σn = 1.7 (to one decimal place) Use your calculator’s instruction Put the calculator into statistics
manual or ask your teacher to help mode and enter the data. To obtain
you determine the appropriate steps the standard deviation press the
for your calculator. keys for σn.
Note: there is another key on the calculator labelled σn−1. This is another kind of standard
deviation which we will investigate later in this section.
EXERCISE 11G Standard deviation

1 Use your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation of each of the following sets of scores.
a 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 b 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
c 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 d 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33
e 88, 89, 89, 91, 91, 92 f 239, 245, 248, 250, 253, 253, 254, 258
g 7, 5, 9, 9, 3, 3 h 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5

2 Determine the mean and standard deviation of each of the following sets of data.
a Score b Score
2 3 4 5 6 15 16 17 18 19
Frequency 5 7 4 8 1 Frequency 3 8 11 5 3
c Score 0 1 2 3 4 d Score 121 122 123 124 125

Frequency 12 15 24 14 5 Frequency 4 6 6 3 5
EXAMPLE 11G–2 Finding the mean and standard deviation for grouped data
Find the mean and standard deviation for the following grouped data.
Height (mm) 300–324 325–349 350–374 375–399 400–424 425–449
Frequency 3 18 47 32 14 6
Solve Think Apply
Height (mm) Class centre (x) Frequency (f) For grouped data we Put the calculator into
300–324 312 3 again assume that statistics mode and
the scores are evenly enter the data using
325–349 337 18
distributed throughout the class centres as
350–374 362 47
each class and we the ‘scores’. Press
375–399 387 32
use the class centres. the keys for x̄ (mean)
400–424 412 14
Apply the appropriate and σn (standard
425–449 437 6
steps to enter the data deviation).
x̄ = 373.3 (to one decimal place)
into your calculator.
σn = 27.7 (to one decimal place)
3 Find the mean and standard deviation for each of these data sets.
a b
Mass (kg) Frequency Score Frequency
60–62 2 41–50 3
63–65 5 51–60 0
66–68 7 61–70 10
69–71 4 71–80 8
72–74 2 81–90 7
91–100 2
c Patients per day Frequency d Height Frequency

10–19 13 155–159 4
20–29 15 160–164 7
30–39 16 165–169 10
40–49 10 170–174 5
50–59 4 175–179 2
60–69 2

4 a Find the mean and standard deviation of these scores: 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6.
b i Add 5 to each of the scores from part a and recalculate the mean and standard deviation.
ii What do you think would happen to the mean and standard deviation if we added 10 to each score
from part a? Check by calculation.
c i Multiply each score from part a by 5 and recalculate the mean and standard deviation.
ii What do you think would happen to the mean and standard deviation if we multiplied each score
from part a by 10? Check by calculation.
5 For a set of scores, the mean is 17 and the standard deviation is 4. Determine the new mean and new
standard deviation if:
a 3 is added to each score in the set b each score is multiplied by 5 c 5 is subtracted from each score
6 If the standard deviation of a set of scores is zero, describe the data.
population
In the same way that there are different averages, there are two types of standard
standard
deviation. The standard deviation we have been calculating above is called the deviation
population standard deviation. However, it can be shown that when σn is calculated standard deviation
for a sample from a large population, its value tends to underestimate the spread of for a population,
scores in the whole population. For this reason, the algebraic formula for standard denoted by σn
deviation is altered slightly and this value, denoted by σn−1, called the sample sample standard
standard deviation, is used when determining the standard deviation for a sample. deviation
The value of σn−1 may be determined on a calculator using a similar method to that standard deviation
for a sample,
for σn.
denoted by σn−1
EXAMPLE 11G–3 Finding the sample standard deviation

A random sample of 16-year-old boys was selected and their weights measured. The results are shown in
the table. Find the mean and standard deviation for this data.
Weight (kg) 35–39 40–44 45–49 50–54 55–59 60–64 65–69 70–74 75–79 80–84
Frequency 1 8 11 12 7 5 4 0 1 1
Solve Think Apply

Find the class centres. Enter the Enter the scores
Weight Class centre Frequency
data into a calculator using class into a calculator and
35–39 37 1
centres for scores. Press the x¯ press appropriate
40–44 42 8 key for mean. Because we are keys for mean (x¯)
45–49 47 11 dealing with a sample from a larger and sample standard
50–54 52 12 population, press the σn−1 key for deviation (σn−1).
55–59 57 7 sample standard deviation.
60–64 62 5
65–69 67 4
70–74 72 0
75–79 77 1
80–84 82 1
Using the class centres for scores and the
frequency, the calculator values are:
x¯ = 53, σn−1 = 9.4 (to one decimal place).

Note:
• For the distribution in Example 11G-3, σn = 9.3.
• For large numbers of scores there is very little difference between σn−1 and σn.
• For situations in which both population values (parameters) and sample-based estimates (statistics)
are being considered, different notations are often used to distinguish between them. The following
table is a guide.
Sample statistic Population value Description
n N number of members of sample or population
x¯ (x bar) μ (mu) mean
s, σn−1 σ, σn standard deviation
7 The shoe sizes of a random sample of Year 11 girls are recorded below. Find the sample standard deviation
of this data.
5, 4, 7, 5, 6, 7, 4, 8, 5, 6, 4, 6, 7, 5, 9
8 A sample of 20 families is chosen at random and the number of children in each family is recorded in this
table. Calculate the mean and sample standard deviation.
Number of children Frequency
0 2
1 3
2 10
3 4
4 0
5 1
9 A woman measures the time it takes her to get to work each day. The times, in minutes, for a two week
period are summarised in the table below. Determine the mean and sample standard deviation of these times.
Time Frequency
24–26 2
27–29 3
30–32 3
33–35 1
36–38 1
10 The weights (in kilograms) of 17-year-old soccer players were: 69, 64, 58, 77, 85, 90, 72, 61, 73, 59.
a Find the population standard deviation (σn) and the sample standard deviation (σn−1) of these weights.
b Compare the values obtained in part a. Which would be more appropriate to use?
11 Two machines produce chocolates with an advertised weight of 60 g. Samples of the output from these
machines were selected and weighed. The weights of the sample chocolates, in grams, are listed.
Machine 1: 50, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60
Machine 2: 50, 50, 55, 55, 60, 60, 60
a For machine 1 and machine 2 find the:
i range ii interquartile range ii standard deviation.
b Where are the scores clustered for machine 1?
c Which machine produces chocolates of a more consistent weight? Explain your answer.

12 In a game of golf, the player with the lowest score wins the hole. Usually the player with the lowest total
score wins the match. Carrie and Laura play nine holes of golf. Their scores are listed in the table below.
a For each player, find the:
i mean score ii median score.
b How many holes did each player win?
c For each set of scores, compare the:
i range
ii interquartile range
iii standard deviation.
d Use the data to present an argument that Laura is the better player.
e Use the data to present an argument that Carrie is the better player.
Hole Carrie Laura
1 5 4
2 8 6
3 6 5
4 3 3
5 5 4
6 8 8
7 4 4
8 7 6
9 8 15
Total 54 55
13 The marks scored by Julie and Alison in the eight topic tests they did in mathematics over the year are shown.
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Julie 72 71 81 74 72 65 78 44
Alison 71 70 76 73 78 62 76 69
a Find the total marks scored by each student.
b For the marks scored by each student, find the:
i mean mark ii median mark.
c In how many tests did Julie score higher marks than Alison?
d For each student’s marks, compare and comment on the:
i range ii interquartile range.
e Calculate the standard deviation of each student’s marks.
f Which student’s performances were more consistent?
g The Mathematics Prize is to be given to the better of these two students. Use the data to present a case
for each student to receive the award.
14 a Find the standard deviation (σn) for each of these data sets.
i 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9 ii 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 90
b Discuss the effect of outliers on the standard deviation.
c Find the range and interquartile range for each data set.
d Does the outlier affect the range or the interquartile range?

15 a From the table of random numbers below, choose an arbitrary starting point and select a random sample
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N of 20 one-digit numbers. Find the standard deviations for your sample.
48047 45381 33232 35178 46971 85879 31458 22016
08695 58112 96070 91910 18868 52251 99827 32581
90070 98873 89846 50953 92529 68249 54949 83829
10132 27359 13017 41045 13817 65603 87615 55691
58547 01331 62538 79181 33071 63766 73613 24470
85566 81574 71965 20977 48005 83418 58738 98771
40942 42373 38710 39916 08187 00133 16288 6427
80553 58331 62724 74004 09344 91315 25791 40296
27328 85758 45342 98884 36034 79836 94902 80442
64584 20776 86792 42340 83522 62139 14038 88433
b Use a summary table on the board to combine your results with those of the rest of the class.
c For a table of random numbers the theoretical value of the population standard deviation is 2.87, correct
to two decimal places. (This is based on the assumption that each digit occurs the same number of
times.)
i Compare your results for part b with the theoretical standard deviation of the population.
ii Which standard deviation (σn or σn−1) is usually closer to the theoretical value?
iii Discuss the results from parts i and ii with the class.
16 Investigate examples from the media to illustrate appropriate and inappropriate use or misuse of measures of
central tendency and spread.
17 Spreadsheets have inbuilt functions to find various statistics for a set of data. The spreadsheet below left
contains the marks out of 50 obtained on some tests and the formulas for finding statistics. The spreadsheet
below right contains the statistics generated by the formulas in the first spreadsheet shown.
The marks in cells B2 down to B6 can be added using the sum function in the formula =SUM(B2:B6).
The mean mark can be found using the formula =AVERAGE(B2:B6) or =AVG(B2:B6).
The standard deviation can be found using =STDEV(B2:B6).
A B A B
1 Test Mark 1 Test Mark
2 1 33 2 1 33
3 =A2+1 23 3 2 23
4 =A3+1 45 4 3 45
5 =A4+1 18 5 4 18
6 =A5+1 44 6 5 44
7 Total =SUM(B2:B6) 7 Total 163
8 Mean =AVERAGE(B2:B6) 8 Mean 32.6
9 Standard deviation =STDEV(B2:B6) 9 Standard deviation 12.14
a Enter some marks of your own and find the total, mean and standard deviation.
b Try these formulas:
=COUNT(B2:B6) =MAX(B2:B6) =MIN(B2:B6)
Explain what each of these formulas does.
c Investigate the FORMULA functions of the spreadsheet.

11H Identifying outliers
• Video tutorial 11H: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 11H-1
• Investigation 11H: Explain the effect of outliers on summary statistics
• assess quiz 11H: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
As previously discussed, outliers are scores which appear to be abnormally higher or lower
than the rest of the scores. It is up to statisticians to decide what is abnormal. Here are two
general methods that statisticians use to identify outliers.
1 Using the median and quartiles:

Outliers are scores which lie outside the range: Q1 – 1.5 × IQR to Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
This is the preferred method for identifying outliers because the median and quartiles are usually
not affected by outliers. The method can be used for skewed data.
2 Using the mean and standard deviation:
Outliers are scores which lie outside the range:
mean – 3 × standard deviation to mean + 3 × standard deviation
This method is less favoured because the calculation of the mean and standard deviation have
been affected by the presence of the outlier(s). The method is not suitable for skewed data.
EXAMPLE 11H–1 Identifying outliers from a set of scores

Consider the sample of scores 30, 50, 50, 52, 55, 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60.
Identify any outliers using:
a the median and quartiles b the mean and sample standard deviation.
Solve/Think Apply
a 30 appears to be much lower than the other scores which are For this method, outliers are scores
clustered from 50 to 60. which lie outside the range
30, 50, 50, 52, 55, 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60 Q1 – 1.5 × IQR to Q3 + 1.5 × IQR.
↑ ↑ ↑
Q1 Q2 Q3
Median = Q2 = 55, Q1 = 50, Q3 =58
IQR = Q3 – Q1 = 58 – 50 = 8
Lower limit = Q1 – 1.5 × IQR
= 50 – 1.5 × 8
= 38
Since 30 < 38 that means 30 is an outlier.
b Sample mean = x¯ = 53.1 Outliers are scores which lie outside
Sample standard deviation = σn−1 = 8.4 the range:
Lower limit = x¯ – 3 × σn−1 mean – 3 × standard deviation
= 53.1 – 3 × 8.4 to mean + 3 × standard deviation.
= 27.9
Since 30 > 27.9, it is not regarded as an outlier using this method.

EXERCISE 11H Identifying outliers
Consider each of the data sets in this exercise to be samples from a larger population.
1 Identify any outliers in each data set using:

i the median and quartiles
ii the mean and sample standard deviation.
a 3, 24, 25, 26, 26, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32 b 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 21
c 17, 31, 32, 32, 34, 35, 35, 36, 38, 41, 44, 45 d 49, 50, 51, 51, 51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 63, 64, 75
EXAMPLE 11H–2 Identifying outliers from a frequency table

For the given data set, identify any outliers using: x f
a the median and quartiles 3 1
b the mean and sample standard deviation. 4 1
5 1
6 3
7 5
8 1
Solve/Think Apply
Add a cumulative Find Q1, Q2, Q3 and the IQR
a x f cf
frequency column. There and use Q1 – 1.5 × IQR for the
3 1 1
are 12 scores so the lower limit and Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
4 1 2 median is the average of for the upper limits.
5 1 3 the 6th score (which is
6 3 6 6) and the 7th score (which
7 5 11 is 7); i.e. Q2 = 6.5.
8 1 12 Q1 is the middle of the
first 6 scores = 5.5.
Median = Q2 = 6.5 Q3 is the middle of the
Q1 = 5.5 last 6 scores = 7.
Q3 =7
IQR = Q3 – Q1 = 7 – 5.5 = 1.5
Lower limit = Q1 – 1.5 × IQR
= 5.5 – 1.5 × 1.5
= 3.25
Any score below 3.25 is an
outlier, so 3 is an outlier.
Upper limit = Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
= 7 + 1.5 × 1.5
= 9.25
So 8 is not an outlier.
b Sample mean = x¯ = 6.1 Use your calculator to find
Sample standard deviation = σn−1 = 1.4 the mean and sample standard
Lower limit = 6.1 – 3 × 1.4 = 1.9 deviation and substitute into:
Upper limit = 6.1 + 3 × 1.4 = 10.3 mean – 3 × standard deviation
Using this method, none of the scores are outliers. and mean + 3 × standard
deviation.

2 Identify any outliers in each of these data sets using:
i the median and quartiles

ii the mean and sample standard deviation.
a x f b x f
3 1 12 1
6 1 13 2
7 4 14 12
8 8 15 3
9 5 18 1
10 3
3 For each data set in question 2, which method of identifying outliers is the most suitable?
EXAMPLE 11H–3 Identifying outliers from a stem-and-leaf plot

Consider the data in the stem-and-leaf plot shown.
a Calculate the median, Q1, Q3 and IQR for the data shown. Stem Leaf
b Calculate the limits for outliers in this data. 5 0
c Is 50 an outlier? Explain your answer. 6
7 99
8 128
9 11466678
10 0013458
11 36
Solve Think Apply

a Median = 96 There are 23 scores, so the median is the 12th The interquartile
Q1 = 88 range is calculated
score. There are 11 scores on either side of the
Q3 = 103 median. Q1 is the 6th score and Q3 is the 18th as usual. The
IQR = 103 − 88 score. scores can be
= 15 crossed off from
either end to find
b Lower limit = Q1 − 1.5 × IQR Find the lower limit and the upper limit using
the median, Q1
= 88 − 1.5 × 15 the appropriate formula.
and Q3.
= 65.5
The formulas used
Upper limit = Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
for the limits are
= 103 + 1.5 × 15
Q1 − 1.5 × IQR
= 125.5
and
c Since 50 < 65.5, it is an outlier. The score of 50 is below the lower limit of 65.5. Q3 + 1.5 × IQR.
There are no very high outliers.

4 Consider the data in the stem-and-leaf plots shown below.
UNDERSTANDING FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION i Calculate the median, Q1, Q3 and IQR.
ii Calculate the limits for outliers in this data.
iii Are any of the scores outliers?
a Stem Leaf b Stem Leaf c Stem Leaf
1 23688 0 5 3 9
2 2567789 1 37 4 2 5
3 44 2 2246 5 2 2 3
4 3 0115889 6 0 1 3 4 4 7 8
5 9 4 2336 7 0 0 2 4 5 5 7 9 9
5 15 8 1 3
6 4
d Stem Leaf e Stem Leaf f Stem Leaf

8 3 6 556789 1 99
9 015 7 01334699 2 024
10 6 6 7 7 8 9 9 8 2258 3 8889
11 0 1 3 5 7 8 9 9 13 4 05599
12 0 0 3 1 10 0 2 5 222677
13 4 11 8 6 34589
5 The weights, in kilograms, of the players in a women’s hockey team are recorded as:
55, 56, 63, 48, 58, 56, 48, 54, 55, 62, 64, 157
a Show that 157 is an outlier, using both methods discussed earlier.
b Discuss possible reasons for the score of 157.
c Calculate the following measures, with and without the outlier:
i mean and median weight of the team
ii the interquartile range
iii the population standard deviation.
d Which measures are affected the most by the outlier?
e Describe the weights of the team members using the most appropriate measures of location and spread.

11I Graphical data displays
• Video tutorial 11I: Watch and listen to an explanation of Examples 11I-1 and 11I-2
• Investigation 11I: Examine ways of displaying the distribution of data
• assess quiz 11I: Test your skills with an auto-correcting multiple-choice quiz
The shape of frequency curves may be described in terms of smoothness, symmetry and number
of modes. The mode is the score with the highest frequency, so has the highest value on the graph.
Graph A is a smooth curve, Graph B is not smooth.
Graph A Graph B
f f
Graph C is unimodal (has one mode) and graph D is bimodal (has two modes).
Graph C Graph D
unimodal
f f
description of a
distribution graph
for a data set with
one mode
bimodal
description of a
distribution graph
for a data set with Note: A curve with two distinct humps, even if the frequency at each hump is not the same,
two modes is called bimodal. If a curve has three or more modes it is sometimes described as being
multimodal multimodal. (Note: bimodal can be considered as a special case of multimodal.)
description of a Graph E is symmetrical, Graph F is asymmetrical. Graphs that are not symmetrical are said to
distribution graph be skewed.
for a data set with
Graph E Graph F
many modes f f
skewed
description of a
distribution graph
of a data set for
which the shape is
not symmetrical
negatively f
skewed If the longer tail of the graph is to the left, then the
description of a distribution is negatively skewed. This would occur, for
skewed graph example, if we graphed the distribution of the results of a very
which has a
easy test. Most of the students would score high marks and
longer tail to the
left only a few would score low marks.

If the longer tail is to the right, then the distribution is f positively skewed
positively skewed. This would occur for the distribution of description of a
the results of a very hard test. skewed graph
which has a
longer tail to the
right
bell-shaped
f description of
The curve on the right is described as bell-shaped. It is a distribution
often referred to as a normal distribution. It occurs for many graph of a set for
naturally occurring characteristics, such as the number of which the shape is
symmetrical
tomatoes on a plant, the number of peas in a pod, the heights
of a particular age group of females. More will be learnt
about this curve in Year 12.
EXAMPLE 11I–1 Describing graphs

Describe the shape, smoothness, symmetry and modality of the following curves.
a b
Number of families
Number of pods
Number of peas Number of children
c d
Number of games played
Number of students
Score on test Points scored
Solve Think/Apply
a The curve is bell-shaped, smooth, symmetrical Symmetry is the first feature examined, followed
and has one mode. by the number of ‘bumps’ or modes.
b The curve is positively skewed, smooth, not
symmetrical and has one mode.
c The curve is smooth, symmetrical and bimodal.
d The curve is not smooth or symmetrical and is

multimodal.

EXERCISE 11I Graphical data displays
1 Match each description with one of the curves A B
Number of games played

shown.
Number of people
a smooth, unimodal, positively skewed
b smooth, unimodal, negatively skewed
c smooth, symmetrical, bell-shaped, unimodal
d smooth, symmetrical, bimodal
e not smooth, asymmetrical, multimodal
Team score Blood pressure
C D E
Number of students
Number of people
Number of plants
at concert
Shoe size Time Number of tomatoes
EXAMPLE 11I–2 Describing the nature of a graph

Comment on the nature of the data graphed in Example 11I-1.
Solve Think Apply
a The number of peas in a pod is This graph is a symmetrical distribution. Smooth symmetrical
evenly spread on both sides of graphs give detail about
the mode. populations.
b More families have small This graph’s positive skew indicates
numbers of children and fewer that there are more families with fewer
have large families. children at the left side of the curve.
c A large number of students This graph is symmetrical with two
scored high marks on a test and modes. The graph could show, for
a large number of students did example, that a large number of
poorly. engineering students scored high
marks on a test and a large number of
commerce students did poorly.
d There is no pattern of points No real pattern.
scored in the games recorded.
2 Comment on the nature of the data graphed in question 1.
3 For graphs A–E in question 1, place a cross on the horizontal axis to indicate the mode(s).
4 Match each of the following descriptions to one of the curves, A to D, shown on the next page.
a the heights of 1000 randomly selected adult women b the results in a difficult examination
c the weights of jockeys and wrestlers d the results in an easy examination

A B C D
UNDERSTANDING FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION f f f f
Score Score Score Score
EXAMPLE 11I–3 Describing the shape of a distribution from a dot plot

The number of pets that each student in a class owns are graphed in this
dot plot.
a Draw a curve showing the shape of the distribution.
b Describe the distribution.
c Mark the location of the mode on the horizontal axis. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of pets
Solve Think Apply

a Draw the curve showing the shape of The smooth curve
the distribution. shows the shape of the
distribution.
The mode is the score
where the graph peaks.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of pets
b Positively skewed distribution. The tail points right, so the skew is

More students have a small positive. This means there are more
number of pets. small numbers than large numbers.
c The mode is marked with a cross The highest point on the graph
on the scale of the graph in part a. shows the location of the mode.
5 For each dot plot below:

i Draw a curve showing the shape of the distribution.
ii Plot the position of the mode, if one exists, by placing a cross on the horizontal axis.
iii Describe the shape of the distribution.
a b
5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6
c d
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

EXAMPLE 11I–4 Describing the shape of the distribution from a stem-and-leaf plot
For the data given in the stem-and-leaf plot: Stem Leaf

a Determine whether the distribution of scores is symmetrical,
0 3
positively skewed or negatively skewed.
1
b Are there any clusters? If so, where are they located?
2 89
3 124
4 01135567
5 2335789
6 45
Solve Think Apply
a The frequency curve is Turn the stem-and-leaf plot on its side Outliers and clusters
negatively skewed. and draw a curve to fit the height of each show properties of
column. distributions.
Leaf 7
6 9
5 8
5 7
3 5
4 1 3
9 2 1 3 5
3 8 1 0 2 4
Stem 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
b This set of scores is clustered The rows with the most numbers can form
in the 40s and 50s. a cluster of scores.
6 Consider the data given in the stem-and-leaf plots below.

i Determine whether the distribution of scores is symmetrical, positively skewed or negatively skewed.
ii Are there any clusters? If so, where are they located?
a Stem Leaf
b Stem Leaf c Stem Leaf
1 23688 0 5 3 9
2 2567789 1 37 4 25
3 44 2 2246 5 223
4 3 0115889 6 0134478
5 9 4 2336 7 002455799
5 15 8 13
6 4
Stem Leaf Stem Leaf Stem Leaf

d e f
8 3 6 556789 1 99
9 015 7 01334699 2 024
10 6677899 8 2258 3 8889
11 0135789 9 13 4 05599
12 0031 10 02 5 222677
13 4 11 5 6 34589

EXAMPLE 11I–5 Describing the shape of a distribution from a box plot
The data from the stem-and-leaf plot in Example 11I-4 has been drawn as a box plot. Describe the shape of
the distribution.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Solve Think Apply

The distribution is Each of the four parts of the box plot contain Check the first and last 25% and
negatively skewed. 25% of the scores. The first 25% of scores are 50% of scores to see how spread
spread from 3 to 34. The first 50% are spread out they are. This will indicate
from 3 to 45, The last 25% of scores are spread skewness. If all four parts of the
from 55 to 65. The second 50% are spread box plot are evenly spread, then the
from 45 to 65 Therefore the first 25% and 50% distribution is symmetrical. If not,
of scores are spread out much further than the then it is skewed.
last 25% and 50% of scores. This gives a tail
pointing left; that is, it is negatively skewed.
7 The box plot below is drawn from the data in the stem-and-leaf plot shown. Explain why the distribution is
positively skewed.
Stem Leaf
3 789
4 03578
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
5 222699
6 018
7 4
8 7
8 These box plots are drawn from the stem-and-leaf plots in question 6. What is the shape of each
distribution? What aspect of the box plot shows this?
a b
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
c d
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
e f
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

9 Answer the following questions for each of the box plots below.
i Describe the shape of the data distribution in each box plot.

ii Determine Q1, Q2, Q3 and IQR. iii Are there any outliers?
a b
15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30
c d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
e f
20 22 24 26 28 30 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
g h
50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60
i j
40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50
10 The histogram on the right shows the results of 47 students

14
for a test marked out of 10. 12
a Draw a smooth curve on the histogram.
Frequency
10
b Describe the shape of the curve. 8
c What comments can be made about the test based on 6
4
the shape of the curve? 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
11 The histogram on the right shows the results of 18

81 students for a test marked out of 10. 16
14
a Draw a smooth curve on the histogram.
Frequency
12
c What comments can be made about the test based on 8
the shape of the curve? 6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score

12 The histogram on the right shows the number of peas in
20
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N 75 pods. 18
a Draw a smooth curve on the histogram. 16
Frequency
c What comments can be made about the number of 12
10
peas in a pod based on the shape of the curve?
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of peas in pod
13 The histograms below show the weights, to the

nearest 10 kg, of the people in two row boats.
Row boats can also carry a non-rower called a
cox. Generally the cox will be as lightweight as
possible.
Boat 1
4
Frequency
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Weight (kg)
Boat 2
4
Frequency
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Weight (kg)
a Draw a smooth curve on each histogram.

b Describe the shape of the curve on each histogram.
c Which boat has a cox? Explain in terms of the shape of the distribution and any outliers.
14 Use summary statistics and statistical displays to compare and comment

CHALLENGE
on related pairs of data. Examples are provided below.

a Collect data. Determine the means, modes, medians and spreads of
the sets of scores you collect.
b Display the data using multiple displays, including comparative
box plots.
c Comment on similarities and differences between the following

data sets.
• Home scores and away scores for national sporting competitions
• The ages of Oscar-winning male actors and female actors
• The blood pressure of males versus females
• The heights (or weights) of males versus females
• The waiting times of customers at a fast-food outlet on two
different days of the week

CHAPTER 11 REVIEW EXPLORING AND DESCRIBING DATA
✔ calculate mean, mode and median
✔ select the appropriate measure to use by recognising its merits and limitations
✔ determine the range and interquartile range for a set of data
✔ find deciles and percentiles for a data set
✔ interpret and draw box plots and parallel box plots
✔ calculate and use population and sample standard deviation
✔ identify outliers and describe their effect on summary statistics
✔ analyse data using measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median) and measures of dispersion (range,
interquartile range, standard deviation)
✔ describe, compare and interpret the distributions of graphical displays.
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Score Frequency

23 4
11A 1 Which are the correct values for the data set in the frequency table on the right? 24 11
A Mean = 36.9, Mode = 11 B Mean = 36.9, Mode = 24 25 9
C Mean = 24.6, Mode = 11 D Mean = 24.6, Mode = 24
26 6
Class Frequency
11A 2 The mean of the scores in the table on the right is:
A 2.5 B 9.3 C 9.5 D 35 0–4 3
5–9 4
10–14 6
11A 3 The modal class of the data in the table in question 2 is:
A 0–4 B 5–9 C 10–14 D 15–19 15–19 2
Weight
11B 4 The median of the data in the table in question 1 is:
80
A 24 B 25 C 24.5 D 10
70
11B 5 For the scores 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 12, which of the
60
following values are correct? 50
A Mean = 9.3, Mode = 8, Median = 8.5 40
B Mean = 9, Mode = 8.5, Median = 8 30
C Mean = 9.3, Mode = 8, Median = 9 20
D Mean = 9, Mode = 9, Median = 8.5 10
0
11B 6 The median of the data shown in the ogive on the right is: 52 57 62 67 72 77
Weight (kg)
A 64.5 B 62 C 67 D 63.5
Stem Leaf
11B 7 The data in this stem-and-leaf plot has:
A Mode = 6, Median = 6 B Mode = 6, Median = 4 3 024
C Mode = 46, Median = 46 D Mode = 46, Median = 4 4 13666
5 0488

11C 8 The most appropriate measure of central tendency for the scores 5, 5, 5, 9, 10 and 44 is the:
A mode B mean C median D range
11C 9 If we choose random samples from a large population, which of the following is the measure that varies the most?
A mean B mode C median D all vary the same amount
11D 10 For the ogive shown in question 6, the interquartile range is approximately:
A 15 B 40 C 69 D 10
11D 11 Which of the following statements is not true for the data in this back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot?
A The median for class B is greater than the median for class A.
Class A Class B
B The mean for class B is greater than the mean for class A. Stem
Leaf Leaf
C The interquartile range for class B is greater than the interquartile
range for class A. 85220 4 25
D The range for class B is greater than the range for class A. 97631 5 33699
87432 6 014888
11E 12 For the data graphed in question 6, the 7th decile is approximately;
A 53 B 66 C 68 D 74 9865 7 1137
9 8 011
11E 13 For the data graphed in question 6, the 65th percentile is
approximately;
A 45 B 66 C 72 D 77
11F 14 For the box plot shown, the:

A Range = 20, Interquartile range = 23
B Range = 27, Interquartile range = 15
C Range = 10, Interquartile range = 5
D Range = 15, Interquartile range = 27 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
11G 15 What is the population standard deviation of the data in the following table?
A 1.21 B 1.41 C 2.28 D 2.55
Mark 5 6 7 8 9
Number of students 5 5 8 7 2
11G 16 The sample standard deviation of the scores 23, 23, 24, 25, 25, 25 and 26 is:
A 1.13 B 1.05 C 171 D 7
11H 17 Which of the following can be used to identify outliers in a sample of data?
A mean – 1.5 × IQR B Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
C median + 1.5 × IQR D Q1 – 5 × σn−1
11I 18 The graph shown on the right is: f

A smooth, unimodal, positively skewed
B smooth, unimodal, negatively skewed

ANALYSIS
C smooth, symmetrical, bimodal

D smooth, symmetrical, U-shaped.
11I 19 The graph in question 18 could represent:

STATISTICAL
A the class marks for an easy test B the class marks for a hard test
C a uniform distribution of class marks D no recognisable pattern of marks.

REVIEW SET 1
1 Find the mean, mode, median and range of these scores: 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10.
2 Consider the grouped data in the table on the right.

Class Frequency
a Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column.
b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive. 1–5 12
c From the ogive, you drew in part b determine the: 6–10 8
i median 11–15 18
ii fourth decile 16–20 31
iii 65th percentile.
21–25 11
3 For each of the following data sets, find the:
i 1st, 2nd and 3rd quartiles
ii interquartile range.
a 9, 9, 10, 11, 12, 12, 13 b 8, 9, 9, 10, 11, 12, 12, 13, 14
c 8, 9, 9, 10, 11, 12, 12, 12, 14, 14 d 8, 8, 9, 10, 10, 11, 12, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15
4 Draw a box plot for this five-number summary:

Highest score = 42, Lowest score = 25, Upper quartile = 36, Lower quartile = 30, Median = 32.
5 Find the mean and sample standard deviation of these scores: 17, 25, 19, 20, 23, 19, 21.
6 For the scores 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 and 10 find the:

a mean b median c population standard deviation.
7 The prices of apartments sold in one month by a real-estate agent are listed below.
$250 000 $280 000 $240 000 $300 000 $290 000 $550 000
a Calculate the:
i mean price ii median price.
b Identify any outliers.
c Which of these measures (mean or median) is the more appropriate average to use for these prices?
Give reasons for your answer.
8 The maximum temperature recorded each month for two towns is shown in the table below.
Town A 31 30 28 26 23 18 17 19 24 27 28 30
Town B 36 34 30 26 22 17 13 20 25 27 32 35
a For each town, find the:
i mean temperature ii median temperature.
b For each town’s temperatures, find the:
i range ii interquartile range iii population standard deviation.
c Write a short description comparing the temperatures for the two towns. In your description include the
shape of each distribution and any clustering or outliers.
9 a Describe the shape of the distribution represented by this

box plot.
b Identify any outliers.
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

REVIEW SET 2
1 Find the mean, mode, median and range for the data Score 85 86 87 88
in this table.
Frequency 9 15 24 12
2 Consider each of the following sets of scores.
i Find the mean, mode and median.
ii Discuss the relative merits of each measure of central tendency for representing the data.
a 4, 5, 5, 6, 100 b 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7 c 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 6
3 Use the ogive shown on the right to

120
find the: 110
a median 100
b upper quartile 90
80
c lower quartile
70
d interquartile range 60
e 2nd decile 50
f 45th percentile. 40
30
4 Which of the following measures is 20
10
suitable for analysing categorical data? 0
A range B mean 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
C mode D median Mark
5 Calculate the mean and population 6 For the data 22, 23, 23, 25, 26, 26, 27, 29, 31, 31,
standard deviation of the data given in this table. find the:
Weight Frequency a mean
4.3 6 b median
c range
4.4 9
d interquartile range
4.5 4
e standard deviation.
4.6 5
4.7 6
7 a Draw a smooth curve representing the data in the histogram on the right. 9
b Describe the curve in terms of skewness. 8
7
8 Two groups of students are given pairs of shoes to wear to school.
Frequency
6
5
The students in group X are given rubber-soled shoes and those in 4
group Y are given shoes with soles made of a new synthetic material. 3
2
The thickness (in millimetres) of the soles of the shoes after 6 months
1
is shown below. 0
ANALYSIS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Group X: 5, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 5, 6, 2, 6, 4, 4, 5, 3, 5, 6, 7, 6, 6, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5 Number of snacks
Group Y: 3, 4, 5, 6, 5, 6, 4, 8, 5, 3, 4, 7, 6, 5, 2, 8, 5, 6, 5, 6, 8, 7, 3, 4
a For each group of results, find the:
i mean ii median.
STATISTICAL
b For each group of results determine the:

i range ii sample standard deviation.
c For the given data draw two box plots on the same scale.
d Is the new synthetic sole an improvement on the rubber soles? Justify your answer.

REVIEW SET 3
1 Consider the data in the table on the right. Class Frequency
a Determine the modal class. 30–39 5
b Complete the table by adding a column for the class centres.
40–49 10
c Find the mean.
50–59 14
2 Draw a box-plot for these scores: 60–69 13
6 6 7 8 8 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 70–79 0
3 Use the data given in the table in question 1. 80–89 8
a Draw the ogive.
b Using your ogive from part a estimate the:
i lower quartile ii upper quartile iii interquartile range
iv median v 9th decile.
4 The number of goals scored by two basketballers in 20 games are shown below:
Adrian: 8, 9, 8, 6, 7, 7, 9, 4, 8, 8, 6, 7, 5, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10
Zoltan: 8, 7, 5, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 8, 5, 7, 10, 6, 6, 9, 5, 7, 8, 8, 10
a For each player, calculate the:
i mean ii median iii range
iv interquartile range v sample standard deviation.
b i Draw two box plots of the basketballers data on the same scale. ii Compare the box plots.
c Who is the better player, Adrian or Zoltan?
Given reasons for your answer. 18
16
5 a Draw a smooth curve representing the data in this histogram. 14
Frequency
b Describe the curve in terms of skewness. 12

10
c Are there any outliers?
8
6 The following are the scores in a language test: 6
60 61 59 50 65 77 63 58 36 88 66 74 61 43 58 4
2
a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot for this data. 0
b Describe the shape of the distribution. 10 11 12 13 14
c Use your stem-and-leaf plot to determine: Score
i the range ii the mode iii the median
REVIEW SET 4
1 Find the mean, mode, median, range and standard deviation (σn) of these scores:
2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6
2 The results in a test given to two classes are shown below.
Class A: 24, 34, 16, 18, 30, 26, 36, 40, 22, 26, 32, 20, 8, 38, 14, 28, 32, 30, 24
Class B: 6, 16, 28, 24, 24, 34, 38, 26, 22, 20, 28, 18, 24, 12, 36, 36, 22, 10, 2
a Construct back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots for this data.
b For each class find the:
i mean ii median iii range iv population standard deviation.
c Describe the shape of the distribution for each class.
d Use the median and interquartile range to identify any outliers.
e Which class performed better? Explain.

3 Find the range and interquartile range of these scores: 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 10.
4 a Draw a smooth curve representing the data in this dot plot.

b Describe the curve in terms of skewness.
c What does the shape of the curve tell you about the data?
5 Consider the box plot on the right. 0 1 2 3 4

a From the box plot, determine the value of the: Number of children
i lowest score ii lower quartile
iii median iv upper quartile
v highest score.
b Describe the shape of the distribution.
c Identify any outliers. 25 30 35 40 45

1 a The following information is given about a set of 12 scores:
Lowest score = 3, Highest score = 17, Mean = 9.5, Median = 10, Mode = 11.
The highest score (17) is replaced by 71. For the new data set, find the:
i median ii mode iii mean. (3 marks)
b Calculate the population standard deviation for the scores given in this stem-and-leaf plot. (1 mark)
Stem Leaf
1 06
2 112588
3 356
4 11
c The annual incomes ($) for a sample of 12 people are given below.
40 000 43 000 32 000 29 000 37 000 75 000
60 000 51 000 52 000 45 000 38 000 25 000
i Determine the lower quartile, middle quartile and upper quartile for this data. (3 marks)
ii Construct a box plot for the data. (2 marks)
iii Use the median and interquartile range to identify any outliers. (3 marks)
iv Calculate the sample standard deviation. (1 mark)
d The ogive for a set of data is shown below.
From the graph determine the:
i 9th decile (1 mark)
ii 15th percentile 100 (1 mark)
90
80
70
ANALYSIS
60
50
40
30
STATISTICAL
20
10
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Score TOTAL: 15 marks

12
Linear relationships
▶
▶
▶
graphing linear relationships
calculating and interpreting gradients
finding and interpreting the vertical intercept
▶ using and interpreting graphs of the form
y = mx + c
▶ developing equations from descriptions of how
one quantity directly varies with another
▶ constructing and analysing linear models
▶ solving direct variation problems
▶ recognising the limitations of models.
ALGEBRA
MS-A2 Linear Relationships

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

Use this diagram to answer questions 1 to 3. 12A 6 Which table shows x and y values for the rule
y = 3x – 5?
A x 4 6 7
y 7 9 10
B x 2 6 8
y 1 5 7
C x 1 4 5
y –2 7 10
x 2 3 7
D
y –1 4 14
12A 7 Which rule links the values of x and y
12A 1 What are the coordinates of point F? in this table?
A (4, 3) B (3, 4)
x 2 6 8
C (2, 3) D (3, 2)
y 6 22 30
12A 2 What are the coordinates of point B? A y = 2x + 2 B y = 2x – 5
A (2, –5) B (–5, 2) C y = 4x – 2 D y = 3x
C (–2, 5) D (5, –2)
12B 8 What is the gradient of y
12A 3 For which two points is the x-coordinate this straight-line graph? 3
the same? A 2 B –2
2
1
A G and E B D and H C 1 D –1
C B and C D A and F −2 −1 1 2 x
12A 4 What is the value of the expression 5p – 4q 12B 9 What is the gradient of
when p = 3 and q = –5? y
this straight-line graph? 2
A 35 B 8 A 2 B –2 1
C –5 D –37 C 1 D –1 −2 −1 1 2 x
12A 5 What is the value of the expression 3a – 5b + 5 −2

−3
when a = –2 and b = 4?
−4
A 31 B –21
C –12 D –17
Q1 Support sheet 12A.1 The Cartesian plane (positive numbers)
Q2–3 Support sheet 12A.2 The Cartesian plane (four quadrants)
Q4–5 Support sheet 12A.3 Substituting for pronumerals
Q6–7 Support sheet 12A.4 Tables of values and rules
Q8–9 Support sheet 12B.1 Finding the gradient of a linear graph
Chapter 12 Linear relationships 447

12A Straight-line graphs
• Investigation 12A: Plot and interpret a linear relationship for height of an aircraft
independent Many situations are modelled using straight-line graphs. Sometimes, points are plotted on
variable a number plane and a line is drawn through them. At other times, a rule or relation is given
variable whose
and ordered pairs are calculated. The graph of a linear relationship between two variables
outcomes are
not due to those
produces a straight line. The values of the dependent variable depend on the values of the
of another independent variable.
variable; usually
represented on
the horizontal EXAMPLE 12A–1 Drawing a straight-line graph from a table
axis of a graph; of values
e.g. for the linear
Bulk washing powder is sold for $1.40 per kilogram. The table shows weight versus cost
relationship
y = 2x + 1, the for washing powder.
independent Weight (kg) 1 2 5 10 15 20
variable is x
Cost ($) 1.40 2.80 7.00 14.00 21.00 28.00
dependent
variable a Draw the graph of weight versus cost.
variable whose b Use the graph to find the cost of 12.5 kg of washing powder.
value depends
upon that of
Solve Think
another; usually
represented on a Washing powder Because cost depends on the number of
the vertical axis of 28 kilograms, it is the dependent variable, and
a graph; e.g. for is placed on the vertical axis. The number of
24
the relationship
y = 2x + 1,
20 17.5 kilograms, the independent variable, is placed
Cost ($)
the dependent 16 on the horizontal axis. Choose a suitable scale

variable is y (as it 12 for each axis.
depends on the 8 Plot the points from the table, (1, 1.40),
value of x) 4 (2, 2.80), etc. and draw a straight line through
12.5
0 them.
4 8 12 16 20
Weight (kg)
b The cost of 12.5 kg of washing Find the point 12.5 kg on the ‘Weight’ axis.
powder (read from the graph) is Draw a vertical line to intersect the graph. From
$17.50. this point, draw a horizontal line to the ‘Cost’
axis. Read the value at this point: $17.50.
Apply
Place the dependent variable on the vertical axis and the independent variable on
the horizontal axis. Remember to label the axes and use equal divisions on the
scale. Plot the points and draw a straight line through them.
Find the required value on the horizontal axis and draw a line to intersect the graph.
From this point, draw a line to meet the vertical axis. Read the value.

EXERCISE 12A Straight-line graphs
1 Oranges are sold for $3.50 per kilogram. The table shows weight versus
cost for the oranges.
Weight (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cost ($) 3.50 7.00 10.50 14.00 17.50 21.00
a Draw the graph of weight versus cost. Which is the dependent
variable?
b Use your graph from part a to find the cost of 2.5 kg of oranges.
2 Mobile telephone calls cost 65 cents per minute. This table shows the cost of calls of different duration.
Time (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cost ($) 0.65 1.30 1.95 2.60 3.25 3.90
a Draw the graph of time versus cost. Which is the independent variable?
b Use your graph from part a to find the cost of a call of 2.5 minutes duration.
c A call cost $3.00. How long was that call?
3 Rema earns $18 per hour. The table shows her income versus hours worked.
Time (h) 2 4 6 8 10
Income ($) 36 72 108 144 180
a Draw the graph of income versus hours worked.
b Use your graph from part a to find Rema’s income for 7 hours.
c How many hours must she work to earn $90?
EXAMPLE 12A–2 Completing a table of values to draw a graph

The cost of travelling in a hire car is $10 booking fee plus
$3.20 per kilometre.
a Complete the table of values below for the hire car.
b Plot the points and sketch the graph of hire car costs.
c Find the cost of a journey of 25 km.
d How far can the hire car be driven for $50?
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
Cost ($)
Solve/Think Apply
a Calculate the cost by
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
multiplying the cost
Cost ($) 10 42 74 106 138 per kilometre by the
For a journey of 10 km: Cost = $10 + $3.20 × 10 = $42 number of kilometres and
For a journey of 20 km: Cost = $10 + $3.20 × 20 = $74 adding this result to the
booking fee.
ALGEBRA
For a journey of 30 km: Cost = $10 + $3.20 × 30 = $106

For a journey of 40 km: Cost = $10 + $3.20 × 40 = $138

Solve/Think Apply
b Hire car charges Place the dependent

Put cost on the vertical axis. Plot
variable on the vertical
140 the points ((0, 10), (10, 42), etc. and
axis. Plot the points from
120 draw a straight line through them.
100
the table and draw a
Cost ($)
80 straight line through them.

60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40
Distance (km)
c The cost of a journey of 25 km is $90. Find the point on the line

Find the point on the line with first coordinate 25 km and read the second with the given coordinate
coordinate, $90, on the vertical axis. and read the unknown
d The hire car can be driven 12.5 km for $50. coordinate on the
Find the point on the line with second coordinate $50 and read off the appropriate axis.
first coordinate, 12.5 km.
4 The cost of hiring a taxi is $3.00 flagfall and $2.40 per kilometre travelled.
a Copy and complete this table of costs for taxi hire.
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
Cost ($) 3 27
b Draw the graph showing the cost of hiring the taxi.
c How much does it cost to travel 35 km?
d How far could you travel for $15?
5 The cost of hiring a taxi at night is $5.00 flagfall and

$3.20 per kilometre travelled.
a Copy and complete this table of costs for taxi hire.
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
Cost ($)
b Draw a graph showing the cost of hiring the taxi.
d How far could you travel for $75?
6 A person drives non-stop from Taree to Sydney, a distance of 300 km. The rule giving the distance from
Sydney is d = 300 − 100t where d is distance in kilometres and t is time in hours.
a Copy and complete this table of values for the given rule.
b Draw a graph of distance from Sydney versus time.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3
c How far is the driver from Sydney after 1__1 h?
2 Distance (km) 300 100
d How far has the driver travelled after 1 h?
7 On a particular day, $100 Australian buys $60 US. Use this and the fact that A$0 = US$0 to draw a
conversion graph for A$ and US$. Put A$ on the horizontal axis (values up to $100) and US$ on the vertical
axis. How many A$ can be bought for US$40?

8 Sumeyra is travelling to Europe. At the time Sumeyra is travelling, $100 Australian will buy 70 euros. Draw
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a conversion graph with A$ on the horizontal axis (values up to $100) and euros on the vertical axis. From
the graph, how many A$ could be bought for 60 euros?
9 Shailesh is filling his car with petrol. He puts in 80 litres of fuel and the cost is $110.
a Draw a straight-line conversion graph for this information.
b How many litres of fuel would $70 buy?
c What would be the cost for 55 litres of fuel?
10 Karolin is filling her car with petrol. She puts in 50 litres of fuel and the cost is $65.
a Draw a straight-line conversion graph for this information.
b How many litres of fuel would $25 buy?
c What would be the cost for 35 litres of fuel?
11 This table shows the rates for taxi travel in the day and Distance Cost for Cost for special
at the special night rate. (km) day rate ($) night rate ($)
a Plot the points and draw the graphs for both rates on 0 3.60 6.10
the same set of axes. 5 14.55 19.25
b Use your graph to determine how much further you 10 25.50 32.40
can travel for $75 during the day compared with the
15 36.45 45.55
special night rate.
c Use your graph to find the difference in cost 20 47.40 58.70
between a 42 km journey at the day rate and at the 25 58.35 71.85
special night rate. 30 69.30 85.00
35 80.25 98.15
40 91.20 111.30
45 102.15 124.45
50 113.10 137.60
55 124.05 150.75
60 135.00 163.90
12 Here is part of a spreadsheet for

A B C
the data in question 11 showing the
formulas for calculating the costs. 1 Taxi rates
a Create a spreadsheet or use 2 km rate ($/km) 2.19 2.63
the one provided in your 3 Flagfall ($) 3.6 6.1
obook assess. Fill down to 4
complete the spreadsheet for
5 Distance (km) Day rate Special night rate
the data provided in the table in
question 11. 6 0 =B3 =C3
b Use your spreadsheet to answer 7 5 =A7*$B$2+$B$3 =A7*$C$2+$C$3
question 11. 8 10 =A8*$B$2+$B$3 =A8*$C$2+$C$3
c Edit the kilometre rate and
9 15 =A9*$B$2+$B$3 =A9*$C$2+$C$3
flagfall to see how that affects
ALGEBRA
the graph.

12B Gradient and vertical
intercept
• Interactive 12B: Explore gradient and intercepts of a linear graph
• Worksheet 12B: Practise your skills with extra problems for gradient
gradient (slope) The words slope and gradient are used when talking about the steepness of a line graph.
steepness of a Gradient or slope is associated with house roofs, escalators, hills, etc. The steeper the slope,
line (defined as the larger the gradient.
m) that can be
measured using vertical rise
Slope = ____________
any two points on horizontal run
the line or interval The slope is also referred to as the gradient.
rise
Gradient = ____ vertical
run rise
Note: for a horizontal line the vertical rise is 0, therefore the
slope is 0.
For a vertical line the horizontal run is 0, so the slope is infinite horizontal
run
or undefined.
The following illustrations indicate slopes of varying amounts.
a House roof b Leaning Tower of Pisa
2m
8m
56 = 14
Slope = ___
56 m 4
2 = __
Slope = __ 1
8 4
4m
When line segments are drawn on graph paper we can easily determine the slope of the line
segments by drawing horizontal and vertical lines to complete a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLE 12B–1 Finding the slope of a line segment (positive)

Find the slope of AB. B
Solve Think Apply

B Complete a right-angled Complete a right-angled triangle using
triangle using AB as the the line segment between two points on
2
A hypotenuse. the line as the hypotenuse.
5 Vertical rise = 2 Determine the vertical rise and
2 Horizontal run = 5
vertical rise = __
Slope of AB = ____________
horizontal run between the two points
horizontal run 5 Slope = __ 2 rise
and calculate: Gradient = ____
5 run

EXERCISE 12B Gradient and vertical intercept
1 a Complete the table using the line segments shown.
N L
Line segment Horizontal run Vertical rise Slope J
AB
H
CD
EF M F
GH I G
IJ K E D
KL C
A B
MN
b Complete the following.

The slope of a horizontal line is ______. The slope of a vertical line is ______ or ______.
As the line segments become steeper, their slopes ______.
2 Find the slope in each of these situations.

a Playground slide b Road up a hill
150 m
1 km
3m
G F
4m
E D
3 Determine the slope of each of the line segments on the right.
a OA b OB c OC d OD
e OE f OF g OG
C
B
O A
4 a Complete the table using the line shown below right.

b State, in sentence form, any conclusions you can draw from the graph and table.
Line segment run rise rise

_____
run
BC 2 1 1
__ F
2 E
DE D
AC C
B
BE
A
AE
ALGEBRA
AF

EXAMPLE 12B–2 Finding the gradient of a line (negative)
Find the gradient (slope) of this line.
Solve Think
+2 Choose two convenient points on the line. To get from the left-hand
point to the right-hand point, we move 2 units to the right horizontally
and 4 units down vertically.
−4
(By convention, moving horizontally to the right is taken as the
positive direction, and to the left as the negative direction. Moving
vertically, up is the positive direction, and down is the negative
−4
rise = ___ direction.)
Gradient=____
run +2 = −2
Apply
rise
Calculate the slope using: Gradient = ____
run
Note: Moving from left to right, ‘uphill’ lines have positive slopes and ‘downhill’ lines have negative slopes.
5 Determine the slope of each of the line segments on the right. A P

a AP b AQ c AR d AS
e AT f AU g AV R Q
T S
V U
6 Imagine you are walking across the countryside from O to W (from left to right). This graph represents the
profile of your walk.
U
S
Q
P
W
R T V
O
a When are you going uphill? b When are you going downhill?
c Where is the steepest positive slope? d Where is the steepest negative slope?
e Where is the slope zero? f Where is the slope not zero but least?

EXAMPLE 12B–3 Finding the gradient of a line that passes through the origin
Find the gradient of this line.
y
6 (2, 6)
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 x
Solve Think Apply

rise
Gradient = ____ Draw a right-angled triangle with the points Draw a right-angled triangle
run
+6
___ (0, 0) and (2, 6) as the endpoints of the with (0, 0) and the given
=
+2 hypotenuse.Moving from left to right, the point as the endpoints of the
= +3 horizontal run is +2 and the vertical rise is +6. hypotenuse. Determine the
y vertical rise and the horizontal
6 (2, 6) run and calculate the gradient.
5 rise
Gradient = ____
run
4
3 +6
2
1
+2 2 3 4 5 x
7 Find the gradient of each of these lines.
a y b y c y
10 2
2 4 6 x
8 (2, 8) −2
2 4 6 x
6 −2 −4
4 −4 (2, −4) −6
(2, −8)
2 −6 −8
−10
−2 2 4 6 x
d y e y f y
8 2 30
(4, 6) 24
6 (4, 24)
2 4 6 x 18
4 −2
2 −4 12
(4, −3)
−6 6
−2 2 4 6 x
−2 2 4 6 x
ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 12B–4 Finding the gradient and y-intercept of a line
a Find the gradient of this line. y

b Find where the graph cuts the 3
vertical axis (y-intercept). 2
1
1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
Solve Think Apply

a rise
Gradient = ____ Choose any two points on the line; Choose two convenient points
run
for example, (0, 3) and (4, −2). on the line and complete a right-
−5
= ___
+4 y angled triangle. Determine the
3 (0, 3) vertical rise and horizontal run
5
= −__
4 2 and calculate the gradient.
1 rise
Gradient = ____
b The line cuts the vertical axis −5 run
at the point where y = 3. 1 2 3 4 x
−1
(3 is called the y-intercept of (4, −2)
−2
the line.) +4
The rise is −5 and the run is +4.
8 Find the gradient and y-intercept of each line below.
a y b y c y y-intercept
1 4 2 point where a line
crosses the y-axis
−1
2 4 6 x
−4
4 8 12 x
−2
2 4 6 x of a number plane
−2 −8 −4
−3 −12 −6
9 Find the slope of each of these lines. Be careful, because the scales are not the same.
a y b y c y
300 160 60
200 120 45
100 80 30
40 15
−10 −5 5 10 15 20 x
−100
–10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 x 2 4 6 8 10 x
y
d e 16
f 800
0.2
12 600
0.1 8 400
4 200
0 0
–20 –15 –10 –5 5 x 10 20 30 40 50 60 1000 2000 3000
10 Find where each line in question 9 cuts the vertical axis.

11 Consider the tax graph shown below. It is a piecewise graph. The points where the tax piecewise graph
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N rate changes are marked. graph made up
of several joined
a Find the tax payable on $40 000. straight lines with
b Find the income on which tax of $20 000 is payable. different gradients,
c Find the gradient of the section between taxable incomes of $30 000 and $40 000. not just one single
What does the gradient represent? straight line
d Find the gradient of the section between taxable incomes of $60 000 and $70 000.
What does the gradient represent?
Tax
25
Tax payable ($’000)
20
15
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Taxable income ($’000)
12 This is another piecewise graph. The points where the tax rate changes are marked.
a Find the tax payable on $90 000. Tax
b Find the income on which tax of
25
$20 000 is payable.
c Find the gradient of the section
20
between taxable incomes of $60 000

and $80 000. What does the gradient
15
represent?
d What is the tax rate for taxable incomes 10
between $100 000 and $150 000?
e Find the gradient of the section of the 5
graph between taxable incomes of
$20 000 and $40 000. 0
f Find the tax rate for incomes over 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Taxable income ($’000)
$150 000.
13 One application of gradient is to give an indication

CHALLENGE
to drivers of the steepness of the road going up or GRADIENT

STEEP
down a steep incline. Examples of steep inclines IS
GRADES
TRUCKS USE 1 IN 8
include Mount Victoria Pass, Mount Ousley and LOW GEAR
Bulli Pass. Some examples of signs are shown.

a Find examples of road signs that express gradient and copy them.
ALGEBRA
b Find the steepest gradient that can be driven up and driven down by:
i trucks ii cars
iii four wheel drives iv trains.

12C The equation y = mx + c
• Interactive 12C.1: Explore key ideas for plotting linear graphs
• Interactive 12C.2: Explore key ideas for sketching linear graphs
• Worksheet 12C: Practise your skills with extra problems for linear graphs
The rules or equations for straight-line or linear graphs may all be written in a similar form.
The convention is to write the rule for straight-line graphs in the form y = mx + c
where x is the independent variable, because any value may be used
y is the dependent variable, because it depends on the value of x
m is the gradient of the line
c is the y-intercept.
This relationship connects every point on a straight-line graph.
EXAMPLE 12C–1 Drawing a linear graph by first completing a table of values

Draw the graph of y = −3x + 5 by first completing a table of values.
Solve Think Apply
x −2 −1 0 1 2 First set up a table. Choose at least three

Substitute values of x into the equation convenient values of x for
y 11 8 5 2 –1
y = −3x + 5. the table. Substitute these
y x = −2 gives y = −3 × −2 + 5 = 11 values into the equation
12
x = −1 gives y = −3 × −1 + 5 = 8 to find the corresponding
10
x = 0 gives y = −3 × 0 + 5 = 5, etc. value of y for each x.
8
Plot the points (−2, 11), (−1, 8), (0, 5), Plot the points from the
6
etc. Draw a straight line through these table and draw a straight
4
points. line through them.
2
−2 2 4 x
EXERCISE 12C The equation y = mx + c

1 Draw the graphs of the following linear relationships by x −2 −1 0 1 2
first completing tables of values similar to the one shown
y
on the right.
a y = 3x + 1 b y = 2x + 2 c y = −2x − 1

2 Draw the graphs of the linear relationships with the following equations.
UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING a y = 2x + 7 b y = 4x − 6 c y=x−1 d y = −x + 3
e y = −3x + 2 f y = −2x − 2 g y = ___1 x − 1 h y = −___3 x + 1
2 4
3 From the graphs you drew, find the gradient and y-intercept of each of the lines in question 2.
EXAMPLE 12C–2 Writing the gradient and y-intercept of a line from its equation
Write the gradient and y-intercept of each of the following lines.
a y = 7x + 8 b y = −3x − 1 2x
c y = ___
3
Solve Think Apply
a Gradient = 7, y-intercept = 8 From question 3 above, the When the equation of a
number by which x is being line is written in the form
b Gradient = −3, y-intercept = −1 multiplied is the gradient, and the y = mx + c, m is the
constant term is the y-intercept. gradient of the line and c is
c 2 , y-intercept = 0
Gradient = __
3 the y-intercept.
4 Write the gradient and y-intercept for each of the following lines.
a y = 5x − 1 b y = −2x + 11 c 3x
y = ___ d y = −x − 2
4
e x +3
y = __ f y = x − 15 g 7x −1
y = −___ h y = __x − __2
2 5 6 5
EXAMPLE 12C–3 Sketching a linear graph

Sketch the following straight lines without using a table of values.
a y = 3x − 2 b y = −2x + 1
Solve Think Apply
a y Gradient = 3 and y-intercept = −2. Find the gradient and
2 y-intercept of the line.
(1, 1) Start at the y-intercept (0, −2).
1
Because the gradient is __3 , move up 3 units then Use (0, c) as the first
1
right 1 unit. This gives a second point (1, 1) on point on the line.
1 2 3 4 x rise
−1
the line. Use Gradient = ____
run
−2 (0, −2) to find a second point on
Rule a line through these two points.
−3 the line.
Note: we could have moved up 6 units and right
2 units. Discuss why.
b y Gradient = −2 and y-intercept = 1.
2
(0, 1) Start at the y-intercept (0, 1).
1
Because the gradient is −__ 2 , move down 2 units
1
1 2 3 4 x then right 1 unit. This gives a second point
−1
(1, −1)
−2 (1, −1) on the line.
−3 Rule a line through these two points.
ALGEBRA
5 Sketch each of the lines in question 4 without using a table of values.

EXAMPLE 12C–4 Finding the equation that describes a simple linear relationship
Find a linear equation that describes the pattern shown in each of the following tables.
a x 2 3 4 5 6 b x 1 2 3 4 5
y 5 6 7 8 9 y −3 −2 −1 0 1
c d x 0 1 2 3 4
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 3 6 9 12 y 3 6 9 12 15
Solve Think Apply

a y=x+3 By inspection y is 3 more than x each time. For simple patterns, find the
b y=x−4 By inspection y is 4 less than x each time. equation by inspection.
c y = 3x By inspection y is 3 times x each time.

d y = 3(x + 1) By inspection y is 3 times one more than x each time.
6 Find a linear equation that describes the pattern shown in each of the following tables.
a x 1 2 3 4 5 b x 2 3 4 5 6
y 6 7 8 9 10 y −1 0 1 2 3
c x 0 1 2 3 4 d x 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 5 10 15 20 y −2 0 2 4 6
7 The KNOT ME Tie Company has fixed costs of $800 per day and a
variable production cost of $2 per tie. The daily cost can be modelled
using the straight-line equation C = 2n + 800.
a Explain each term in the formula C = 2n + 800.
b Complete this table of values.
n 0 50 100 150 200 250
C
c Draw the straight-line graph C = 2n + 800.

d Use your graph from part c to find the number of ties produced
when the daily cost is $940.
8 The Chilly Frozen Yoghurt Shop has a monthly fixed expense of $1500 and the cost of making each serve of
yoghurt is $1.40.
a Write an equation modelling this information. Use C for monthly cost in dollars and n for the number of
serves of yoghurt made.
n 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
C
c Draw the straight-line graph.

d What is the value of the gradient?
e Use the graph to find the number of serves of yoghurt made if the cost is $3250.

9 The Pulp-Free Fruit Juice company has weekly fixed costs of $750. The cost to produce a cup of fruit juice
is $1.80.
a Write an equation modelling this information. Use C for the weekly cost in dollars and n for the number
of cups of fruit juice.
b What value is used for the gradient? Why?
c Where does the graph cut the vertical axis? n 0 200 400 600 800 1000
d Complete this table of values. C
e Draw the straight-line graph.
f Use the graph to find the number of cups of juice made if the cost is $1560.
Questions 10–13 may be completed manually, or by using a graphics calculator, online graphing software or
CHALLENGE
other digital technology. There are many websites that offer free access to an online graphing calculator (for
example, https://www.desmos.com).
The following instructions are for drawing the graph of y = 2x + 3 with a CASIO graphics calculator.
Step 1: Press MENU to obtain the MAIN MENU screen and select GRAPH.
Step 2: At Y1:, enter the right-hand side of the equation y = 2x + 3 by pressing 2 X, θ, T + 3 and then EXE .
(You can enter more equations at Y2:, Y3:, etc. to draw more than one relationship on the same
number plane.)
Step 3: Select DRAW to draw the graph.
Step 4: The graph should appear on the screen. If the scale of the axes needs adjustment, access V-Window and
adjust as needed. Then EXIT to return to the graph.
10 a Draw graphs of y = 3x + 1, y = 3x – 1, y = 3x, and y = 3x + 2 on the same number plane.
b What do you notice about all four graphs? Explain.
c Without plotting any points, add the graph of y = 3x + 3 to the number plane. Explain how you knew
what to draw.
11 a Draw the graphs of y = 2x + 1, y = 2x – 1 and y = 2x + 3 on the same number plane. What do you notice?.
b Draw the graphs of y = –3x, y = –3x – 1 and y = –3x + 2 on the same number plane. What do you notice?
c Draw the graphs of y = x + 2, y = x and y = x – 5 on the same number plane. What do you notice?
d What conclusion can be drawn about straight lines with the same gradient?
12 a Draw the graphs of y = 2x + 1, y = 3x + 1 and y = x + 1 on the same number plane.

b What do you notice about all three graphs?
c Without plotting points, add the graph of y = 4x + 1 to the number plane. Explain how you knew what
to draw.
d Draw the graphs of y = 3x – 1, y = 2x – 1 and y = –4x – 1 on the same number plane. What do you notice?
e What conclusion can be drawn about straight lines with the same constant term?
13 a On the same number plane, draw the graphs of y = x + 1 and y = –x + 1.

b What do you notice about the two graphs from part a? Explain.
c On a second number plane, draw the graphs of y = x and y = –x.
d What do you notice about the two graphs from part c? Explain.
e On a third number plane, draw graphs of y = 2x + 1 and y = –2x + 1.
f What do you notice about the two graphs from part e? Explain.
ALGEBRA

12D Direct variation
relationships
direct variation Quantities such as time, distance, cost and length change depending on the situation. These
relationship are called variables.
relationship
between two
Mathematics uses the relationship between variables in many circumstances. When there is a
quantities or direct variation relationship between two quantities or variables, one of the quantities can be
variables in expressed as a constant multiplied by the other quantity.
which one of the
In the table below, when x is multiplied by 3, y is also multiplied by 3. As one quantity
quantities can
be expressed increases, the second quantity increases.
as a constant
multiplied by the ×3
other quantity
x 1 2 3 4 5
directly
proportional y 5 10 15 20 25
two quantities
or variables ×3
are directly
proportional 1 ) so is y. As one quantity
In the table below, when x is divided by 4 (or multiplied by __
when an increase 4
decreases, the second quantity also decreases.
(or a decrease)
in one causes
÷4
a proportional
increase (or x 1 2 3 4 5
decrease) in
the other; e.g. y 7 14 21 28 35
y is directly ÷4
proportional
y
to x if __x is a Many applications of this exist in the real world, such as:
constant value
• a person’s wage and the number of hours worked
• the cost of fuel and the amount of fuel bought
• the amount of paint used and the area painted
• the distance travelled at constant speed and the time taken
• the total cost of drinks and the number of drinks purchased.
If two quantities are directly proportional, then an increase (or a decrease) in one causes a
proportional increase (or decrease) in the other.

EXAMPLE 12D–1 Graphing a direct variation relationship
A train is travelling at a constant speed of 75 km/h.
The distance, d km, the train travels in t hours is shown in the table.
t 0 1 2 3
d 0 75
a Complete the table.
b Graph this information on a number plane.
c Write an equation to describe the relationship
between time and distance.
Solve Think Apply

a t Multiply t by 75 to obtain d. The constant speed is the
0 1 2 3
gradient of the graph.
d 0 75 150 225
Because t = 0 and d = 0,
b Train travel Plot points and draw the line. the graph starts at the
Notice that this graph passes origin (0, 0).
250 through the origin. Any straight line through
the origin indicates
Distance in kilometres (d)
200 direct variation. Because

the line passes through
150 the origin, c = 0 and,
therefore, the equation is
100 of the form y = mx.
50
0
1 2 3 4
Time in hours (t)
c The equation is d = 75t. The gradient of the line is 75.
The graph in Example 12D-1 shows a direct correlation between the two quantities time and constant of
distance. To find distance, time is multiplied by 75; that is, the ratio of distance to time is variation (or
always 75:1. proportionality)
constant value
y
(k) for __x when
there is a
y
If __x is always a constant, then we say that y varies directly as x. direct variation
y relationship
The equation connecting two quantities is __ x = k or y = kx where k is called the between y and x.
constant of variation or constant of proportionality. The equation
The notation for variation is y ∝ x and is read as: connecting y and
x can be written
‘y is proportional to x’ or ‘y varies directly as x’.
as y = kx where k
If y ∝ x, the graph of y plotted against x is a straight line through the origin, with is the constant of
gradient k. variation.

EXERCISE 12D Direct variation relationships
1 a Complete this table, which shows the price of packets of pencils.
Number of packets (N) 1 2 3 4 5

Price ($P) 1.50 4.50 7.50
b Plot the values in the table on a number plane and join the points, extending the
line through the origin.
c P.
Find the gradient which is the constant of variation k where k = __
N
d Write the linear equation for P in terms of N.
e Find the cost of 9 packs of pencils.
f If the price for N packs of pencils is $27, find N.
2 a Complete this table for the equation C = πD. Diameter (D) 1 2 3 4

b Graph the information from your completed table on a Circumference (C)
number plane.
c Does the circumference of a circle vary directly with the length of
its diameter? What feature of the graph supports your answer?
d What is the constant of variation, which is the gradient of the line?
e From the graph, find the approximate value for:
i the circumference of a circle with diameter 2.5 cm
ii the diameter of a circle with circumference 16 cm.
3 Consider each of the direct variation graphs below.

i By drawing a right-angled triangle using the given point and the origin as vertices each time,
calculate the gradient of each line.
ii State the relationship between x and y as a linear equation.
a y b y c y
(10, 21)
10 10 20
8 (2, 8) 8 16
6 6 12
(5, 5)
4 8
4
4
2 2
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
2 4 6 8 x
2 4 6 8 x
4 Which of the following graphs indicates that y is directly proportional to x?

A y B y C y D y
x x x x

EXAMPLE 12D–2 Determining whether a direct variation relationship exists
y
By calculating the values for __
x for each of there tables, determine if y ∝ x.
a x 1 3 5 b x 3 7 9
y 8 24 40 y 12 21 36
Solve Think Apply

a y
x 1 3 5 Calculate __x for each entry in the table. Direct proportion
y
y requires __x to equal
y 8 24 40 Because __x is the same number for
the same value for all
__y every entry, y varies directly as x.
x 8 8 8 ordered pairs (x, y.)
In this case, y = 8x.
The origin (0, 0)
y ∝ x and the constant of satisfies any direct
proportionality is 8. proportion equation.
b x __y is not the same number for
3 7 9 x
y 12 21 36 every entry, so y does not vary
y directly as x.
__
x 4 3 4
Direct variation does not exist.
y
5 Calculate values for __x for each of the following tables.
a x 1 2 5 b x 2 3 6
y 4 8 21 y 14 21 42
c x −4 −1 2 d x −7.5 −8.4 11.1

y −8 −2 4 y 2.5 2.8 −3.7
i In each case, state whether or not direct proportionality exists between x and y.
ii When direct proportionality exists, find the constant of variation and express y in terms of x.
EXAMPLE 12D–3 Finding the equation of a direct variation relationship

Given that y ∝ x and y = 4.5 when x = 13.5, find:
a the constant of variation b the equation for y in terms of x
c y, when x = 42 d x, when y = 7.
Solve Think Apply
y
a y∝x If y ∝ x then y = kx and __x = k. If y ∝ x then y = kx and dividing related
y = kx Substitute the values for y and x x and y values will give the value of k. The
4.5 = k × 13.5 into y = kx. value k can be a whole number, a fraction or
4.5 = k
____ 4.5 directly.
Alternatively, find ____ a decimal. The line with equation y = kx is
13.5 13.5
1 the same as the line with equation y = mx.
k = __
3 The gradient and the constant of variation
b y = kx The equation is always y = kx are equal.
ALGEBRA
y
1x
= __ with k = __x .
3
x
= __
3

Solve Think Apply
c x
y = __ x.
Substitute x = 42 into y = __ Substitute the known value for x or y into the
3 3
equation and solve it to find the unknown
42
= ___
3 quantity.
= 14
d x
y = __ x.
Substitute y = 7 into y = __
3 3
x
7= __
3
x=7×3
= 21
6 a Given that y ∝ x and y = 42 when x = 5, find:

i the constant of variation ii the equation connecting x and y
iii y when x = 7 iv x when y = 51.
b Given that a ∝ b and a = 9.6 when b = 1.6, find:
i the constant of variation ii the equation connecting a and b
iii a when b = 21 iv b when a = 11.
7 i Find the values of a, b and c in the tables below given that y ∝ x.

ii For each table write the relationship between x and y as a linear equation.
a x 2 3 5 b b x 4 12 1 b
y 36 54 a 20 y 2 6 a 24
c x 11.1 −12 34.2 c d x a 5.1 −7.8 c

y 3.7 a b 17.1 y 14.4 22.95 b 31.05
8 The amount of petrol used by a car travelling at a constant speed is directly proportional to the distance
travelled. A car uses 6 L of petrol to travel 50 km.

a Complete the working below to find an equation linking the amount of petrol used, P, with the distance
travelled, d.
P ∝ _____
P = kd
___ = k × ___
k = ____
So P = _____
b Use your equation to find the amount of petrol used to travel 180 km at the same speed?
travelled. A car uses 6 L of petrol to travel 56 km. How much petrol will be used to travel 140 km at the
same speed?
travelled. A car uses 8 L of petrol to travel 75 km. What distance will the car cover if it travels at the same
speed and uses 24 L of petrol?

11 The amount of paint needed to paint a wall is directly
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N proportional to the area covered. A 4-litre can of paint will
cover 12 m2.
a Find an equation linking the number of litres of paint,
P, with the area covered, A.
b Find the number of litres of paint needed to paint a
wall 63 m2 in area.
12 The amount of varnish needed to paint a timber deck is

directly proportional to the area covered. A 4-litre can
of varnish will cover 14 m2. Find the number of litres of
varnish needed to varnish a deck 46 m2 in area.
13 A 10-litre can of paint will cover 35 m2.

a Find the number of litres of paint needed to paint a wall 175 m2 in area.
b How many cans of paint must be purchased?
14 Three packets of chips cost $6.45.

a Find an equation linking the cost, C, with the number of packets, P.
b Use the equation from part a to find the cost of 17 packets.
15 The amount of water dripping into a bucket from a tap is directly proportional to the length of time the
tap drips. Water dripping from a tap fills a 5-litre bucket in 8 hours. How long will it take to fill a 12-litre
bucket?
16 The cost of a 2.8 m length of hose is $4.20.

a Find an equation linking the cost, C, with the number of
metres of hose, H.
b Find the cost of 6.7 m of hose.
c How much hose can be purchased for $30?
17 The resistance, R ohms, to the flow of electricity in a wire

varies directly with the length, l cm, of the wire and, when
l = 20 cm, R = 0.08 ohms.
a Find R when l = 85 cm.
b Find l when R = 6 ohms.
18 The currency exchange rate on a particular day was

A$1 = 0.651 British pounds.
a Write the rule connecting British pounds, P, and Australian dollars, D, on that day.
b How many Australian dollars could be bought with 850 pounds on that day?
19 The current required to operate a car’s starter motor varies directly as the voltage. The current is 150 amps
CHALLENGE
when the battery voltage is 12 volts.

a Write the rule connecting current, I amps, and voltage, V volts.
b What current is drawn if the battery voltage drops to 10 volts?
c The car cannot start if the current falls below 95 amps. What is the lowest battery voltage that will allow
ALGEBRA
the car to start?

12E Linear modelling
Graphs and equations can be used to model real situations. A graph allows a comparison
between two variables. In this topic, we will look at straight-line graphs to model physical
situations. The gradient and the intercept on the vertical axis of linear graphs have meaning in
practical situations. This section examines these applications. A straight-line graph of the form
y = mx (or y = kx) shows a direct variation relationship between the two variables. A straight-
line graph of the form y = mx + c shows a relationship between x and y, the gradient m, and a
constant term c.
EXAMPLE 12E–1 Interpreting the graph of a linear model
The graph on the right models printing costs. Printing costs

a Find the cost of printing 500 books. 5000
b Find the number of books that can be 4500
printed for $3000. 4000
c Find the gradient of the line. What is its
3500
meaning in this situation?
Cost ($)
3000
d Find the vertical intercept. What is its
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
100 200 300 400 500
Number of books

Solve Think Apply
a $4800 Find the point on the line whose horizontal Find the point on the
coordinate (number of books) is 500. The vertical line with the given
coordinate (cost) is $4800. coordinate and read
Printing costs off the unknown
5000 coordinate on the
4500 appropriate axis.
4000
3500
Cost ($)
3000
2500
3200
2000
1500
1000 400
500
0
100 200 300 400 500
Number of books
b 270 books Find the point on the line whose vertical coordinate
(cost) is 3000. The horizontal coordinate (number of
books) is 270.
c 3200 = 8
Gradient = _____ Using points (0, 800) and (400, 4000): The gradient is
400 3200 .
rise = _____
This is the cost per Gradient = ____
run
expressed as the unit
400
of the rise per unit of
book after the initial set Because the units of the vertical rise are dollars and
the run.
up costs. the units of the horizontal run are books, the unit for
Cost = $8/book the gradient is $/book.
d Vertical intercept is The vertical intercept is the cost of printing zero The vertical
$800. This is the fixed books. intercept is the point
cost for setting up. where the line cuts
the vertical axis.
EXERCISE 12E Linear modelling

1 This graph models taxi charges. Taxi hire charges
a From the graph, find the cost of travelling 22 km by taxi.
b How far can a passenger travel for $30? 100
c Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this situation? 80
Cost ($)
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its

60
40
20
ALGEBRA
0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Distance (km)

2 This graph models catering charges. Catering charges
a How much would it cost to cater for 24 people?

b How many people could be catered for $360? 400
c Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this situation? 320
Cost ($)
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its meaning in 240
this situation? 160
80
0
8 16 24 32 40 48 56
Number of people
3 This graph models plumbing charges. Plumbing charges

a Find the cost of the plumber for 4 __1 hours.
2 600
b Find the number of hours worked if the charge is $250. 500
c Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this context?
Cost ($)
400
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its meaning in 300
this context?
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (h)
Sales commission paid

4 The graph models the income of a salesperson.
a What was the value of sales if the salesperson was paid $320 600
for the week? 500
b What wage would be paid if the salesperson sold $3500
Wage ($)
400
worth of goods?
300
200
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its meaning in
this context? 100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sales ($’000)
5 This graph models the height of a burning candle. Height of a burning candle
a What is the height of the candle: 320
i initially? ii after 5 hours? 280
b How long does it take for the height to decrease to 240
Height (mm)
210 mm? 200

c How long does it take for 50 mm of the candle 160
to be used?
120
d Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this
80
context?
40
e Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its
meaning in this context? 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (h)

EXAMPLE 12E–2 Exploring direct variation applications
The interest, $I, earned on a principal of $P for 1 year is given by the formula I = kP, where k is a constant.
a If an investment of $6000 earns interest of $300, find P 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000
the value of the constant k.
I 300
b Use the value of k from part a to complete the table.
c Draw a graph of this linear relationship.
d Calculate the gradient of the graph line. What is the meaning of the gradient in this context?
Solve Think Apply
a 300 = k × 6000 I = $300 when P = $6000. The value of the
300
_____ = k Substituting into I = k × P constant is found
6000
k = 0.05 gives 300 = k × 6000. by substituting the
Solve the equation by dividing given values into
both sides by 6000. the formula. Use
b P 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 The equation connecting I and the value of the
P is I = 0.05P. constant to complete
I 100 200 300 400 500
Substituting P = 2000 gives the table. Plot
I = 0.05 × 2000 = 100. points and draw the
Substituting P = 4000 gives straight line.
I = 0.05 × 4000 = 200, etc.
c Interest earned in 1 year Plot the points (2000, 100),
(4000, 200), ... and draw a
600
straight line through them.
500
Interest ($)
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Principal ($’000)
d Gradient = ____ 200

rise = _____ amount of interest
Gradient = _______________ rise .
Gradient = ____
run 4000 = 0.05 amount invested run
The gradient is the rate of interest being expressed as a decimal. This The meaning is
earned on the investment. is dollars earned per dollar indicated by the
invested; that is, the rate of units of the gradient.
interest (equivalent to 5%).
6 The interest, $I, earned on a principal of $P for 1 year is given by the formula I = kP, where k is a constant.
a If an investment of $8000 earns interest of $240, find the value of the constant k.
b Use the value of k from part a to complete the table below.
P 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000
I 240
ALGEBRA

d What is the meaning of the gradient of this line in this context?

7 The distance, d km, travelled by a train in a time of t 1 3 5 7 9
t hours is given by the relationship d = mt, where m is

d 400
a constant.
a Use the information in the table to find the value of the constant m.
b Use the value of m from part a to complete the table.
d What is the meaning of the gradient of this line in this context?
8 The volume, V cm3, of a solid with a fixed cross-

h 4 8 12 16 20
section and height h cm is given by V = kh, where k is
a constant. V 34
a Use the information in the table on the right to find
the value of the constant k.
b Use the value of k from part a to complete the table.
d Calculate the gradient of this line. What is its meaning in this context?
EXAMPLE 12E–3 Modelling direct variation

At an athletics carnival, Celine runs 100 m in 16 s.
It is assumed that she runs at a constant rate.
a Draw a straight-line graph to model Celine’s run.
b Find the gradient of the graph from part a.
c Write an equation to model the relationship between
distance and time for Celine’s run.
Solve Think Apply

a Celine’s 100-m run Put time on the horizontal axis, and Draw the straight
distance on the vertical axis. Draw line between
100
a straight line through the points (0, 0) and the
Distance (m)
80
(0, 0) and (16, 100), because Celine point whose
60
100 runs 0 m in 0 s and 100 m in 16 s. coordinates are
40
given by the
20
16 information
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 supplied in the
Time (s) question.
100 = 6.25
rise = ____ Then calculate the
b Gradient = ____
run
The vertical rise between these two
16 points is 100 m and the horizontal run gradient using
The gradient is Celine’s speed in m/s. rise .
Gradient = ____
She runs at an average speed of 6.25 m/s. is 16 s. The units for the gradient are run
m/s. This is speed. The meaning of
c If d is distance (in m) and t is time (in s) Use pronumerals to define the two the gradient is
then d = 6.25t. variables and write an equation in the indicated by its
form y = mx. units.

9 Christopher runs 100 m in 25 s.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Draw a straight-line graph to model Christopher’s
run, assuming he runs at a constant rate.
b How long would it take him to run 30 m?
c Find the gradient, and hence, Christopher’s speed
in metres per second.
d Write an equation to model the relationship
between distance and time.
10 Craig drives 200 km in 4 hours.

a Draw a straight-line graph to model Craig’s drive,
assuming he drives at a constant rate.
b How far does Craig drive in 1__1 hours?
2
c Find the gradient of the graph you drew in part a.
d What are the units of the gradient in this case?
e Write an equation to model the relationship between distance and time.
11 On a particular day A$100 buys 78 euros.

a Draw a conversion graph with A$ on the x-axis.
b How many A$ are needed to purchase 50 euros?
c Find the gradient of the graph you drew in part a.
d What is the meaning of the gradient in this context?
e Write an equation to model the relationship between A$
and euros.
f Extend your graph to A$500. Is it still accurate as an
exchange model?
12 Use the information in question 9 and extend the graph to cover a

distance of 500 m.
a Is the gradient still the same? Why or why not?
b The graph is no longer accurate as a model for Christopher’s run. Explain, including some reference to
the gradient.
13 Use the information in question 10 and extend the graph to cover a distance of 1000 km.
a Is the gradient still the same? Why or why not?
b Is the graph still accurate as a mathematical model for Craig’s drive? (Hint: consider petrol.)
14 The rate for taxi fares varies depending on the time of day. The graph on Taxi fares day and night
the right shows the cost in dollars compared to the distance travelled in Day rate
180
kilometres for travel during the day and at night. Night rate
160
a What is the meaning of the gradient in this context?
140
b Find the gradient of each line. What does the steeper slope of one of
120
the lines indicate?
100
Cost ($)
c For each line, find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is the 80
meaning of the intercept for each situation? 60
d For each line, write an equation which models the linear relationship. 40
ALGEBRA
20
15 Write a report based on one of the algebraic models presented in this
0
chapter. Explain how the model works and its limitations. Give examples 20 40 60
of ways of improving the model. Explain the value of having the model. Distance (km)

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW LINEAR REL ATIONSHIPS
✔ generate a table of values from a linear equation
✔ produce straight-line graphs with pencil and paper, and using technology
✔ calculate and interpret gradient
✔ find and interpret the vertical intercept
✔ complete tables, plot points, and draw graphs of the form y = mx + c
✔ generalise linear number patterns using algebraic symbols
✔ graph and interpret quantities that vary directly
✔ construct and analyse linear models
✔ solve practical direct variation problems
✔ recognise the limitations of models.

Use the graph on the right, showing the distance a car travels over a period of time, to answer questions 1 to 3.
12A 1 What is the time taken to travel 200 km? Distance travelled
A 2h B 2__ 1 h
2 400
Distance (km)
C 3h D 3 __ 1 h 300
2
200
12A 3 h?
2 What is the distance travelled after 3__
4 100
A 5 km B 250 km 0
1 2 3 4
C 300 km D 6 km Time (h)
12B 3 What is the slope of the graph?

A __ 4 B __5 C 100 D 80
5 4
y
Use the graph shown on the right to answer questions 4 and 5.
10
12B 4 What is the gradient of the line? 5
A 3 B __ 1 1
C − __ D −3
3 3 −2 1 2 3 x
−5
12B 5 What is the y- intercept? −10
A 2 B 34 C −3 D −2
12C 6 Which diagram shows the graph of y = 2x – 1?

A y B y C y D y
6 6 1 6
4 4 4
−2 −1 1 2 x
2 2 −1 2
−2
−4 −2 2 4 x −4 −2 2 4 x −4 −2 2 4 x
−2 −2 −3 −2

12C 3x − 1?
7 What are the gradient and y-intercept of the line y = ___
3 and −1 2 3 and 1 3 and − __
1
A 3 and −1 B __ C __ D __
2 2 2 2
12C 8 What is the form of the linear equation describing the pattern in this table? x 1 2 3 4 5
A y = 2x + c B y = 3x + c
y 3 7 11 15 19
C y = 4x + c D y = 5x + c
Tax
Use the tax graph shown to answer questions 9 and 10.
12C 9 The tax payable on $65 000 is closest to: 30

A $20 000 B $21 000
C $23 000 D $25 000 20
12C 10 The income on which tax of $10 000 is payable is closest to:
10
A $2000 B $36 000
C $30 000 D $2500
0
12C 11 The Clear View Water Company purifies water. The weekly fixed 20 40 60 80
costs are $250 and the cost per glass is $3. Which of the following Taxable income ($’000)
equations represents this information?

A C = 3n + 250 B C = 250n + 3 C C = 250n − 3 D C + 250 = 3n
12C 12 The equation C = 4n + 520 models an ice-cream shop’s costs. What could the 520 represent?
A number of ice creams sold B the cost per ice cream
C fixed daily cost D number of ice creams made
12D 13 Which table of values below represents a direct variation relationship?

A x 1 3 5 B x 1 3 5
y 10 26 42 y 8 24 40
C x 1 3 5 D x 1 3 5
y 4 6 8 y 8 10 12
12D 14 The table on the right shows values of x and y which are in direct x 6 12 24 b
proportion. What are the values of a and b? y 2 4 a 12
A a = 8, b = 4 B a = 8, b = 36
C a = 72, b = 4 D a = 72, b = 36
12D 15 The amount of petrol used by a car travelling at a constant speed is directly proportional to the distance travelled.
A car used 7 L of petrol to travel 52.5 km. The amount of petrol used to travel 126 km at the same rate is:
A 2.4 L B 7.5 L C 16.8 L D 945 L
12E 16 What does the slope of the distance–time graph for question 1 represent?
A speed B time taken C distance travelled D all of these
REVIEW SET 1
1 Dog shampoo is sold in bulk amounts for Capacity (L) 1 2 3 4 5 6
ALGEBRA
$4.50 per litre. This table shows capacity, in Cost ($) 4.50 9.00 13.50 18.00 22.50 27.00
litres, versus cost for the liquid.
a Draw the graph of capacity versus cost. Which is the dependent variable?
b Find the cost of 3.5 L of shampoo.

2 A person drives non-stop from Condobolin to Sydney, a distance of 400 km. The linear relationship for finding
the distance the driver is from Sydney is d = 400 − 100t, where d is distance in kilometres and t is time in hours.
a Complete this table of values.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4
b Draw the graph of distance to Sydney.
1 h of driving? Distance (km) 400 200
c How far is it to Sydney after 1 __
2
d How far has the car travelled after 2 __1 h?
2
3 Find the gradient and y -intercept of the straight-line graph shown on the right. y
4
4 Sketch the graph of y = 3x + 5. 3
5 On a particular day, A$100 buys 68 euros. 2
1
a Draw a conversion graph with A$ on the horizontal axis.
b How many A$ are needed to purchase 50 euros? −3 −2 1 x
−1
c Find the gradient. −2
d What is the meaning of the gradient in this context?
e Write an equation to model the relationship between A$ and euros.
f Extend your graph to A$500. Is it still accurate as an exchange model?
x 0 1 2 3 4
6 Find a linear equation that describes the pattern shown in this table. y −5 −2 1 4 7
7 The distance, d kilometres, travelled by a train over time t hours is d = 70t.

a Complete this table of values for t and d.
b Draw the graph showing the distance travelled by the train versus time. t 1 2 3 4 5
c How far away is the train after 3__1 hours? d

2
d When is the train 200 km away? e Is this an example of direct variation? Explain.
REVIEW SET 2
1 Chocolate frogs are sold by weight. This table shows Weight (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
weight, in kilograms, versus cost for the chocolate frogs.
Cost ($) 10 20 30 40 50 60
a Draw the graph of weight versus cost. Which is the
dependent variable?
b Use the graph to find the cost of 4.5 kg of chocolate frogs.
2 The distance, d km, travelled by a bus Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4

in time t hours is given by d = 60t.
Distance (km) 0 120
a Complete this table of values.
b Draw the graph of distance travelled versus time. Catering charges
c How far away is the bus after 1__ 1 h?
2 300
d When is the bus 100 km away?
3 Sketch the straight-line graph of y = 3 − 2x.

Cost ($)
200
4 The graph on the right models catering charges.

a How much would it cost to cater for 35 people? 100
b For how many people would catering cost $300?
c Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this context? 0
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its meaning 10 20 30 40
Number of people
in this concept?

5 The Hats Are Tops company has fixed costs of $900 per n 0 50 150 200 250
day and a variable cost of $5 per hat. The daily cost can be
C
modelled using the straight-line equation C = 5n + 900.
a Explain each term in the formula C = 5n + 900.
b Complete the table of values.
c Draw the straight-line graph C = 5n + 900, for 0 ≤ n ≤ 250.
d Use the graph to find the number of hats produced when the cost is $1500.
y
6 By calculating the values for __
x from the table on the right, determine whether y ∝ x. x 1 2 5
y 6 14 30
REVIEW SET 3
1 Cashew nuts are sold by weight. This table shows Weight (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
weight, in kilograms, versus cost for the nuts.
Cost ($) 15 30 45 60 75 90
a Draw the graph of weight versus cost. Which is the
dependent variable?
b Use the graph to find the cost of 3.8 kg of nuts.
c How many kilograms of nuts can be purchased for $50?
2 The cost of hiring a night-time taxi is $7.00 flagfall and $3.80 per kilometre travelled.
a Complete this table of costs for taxi hire.
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
b Draw the graph showing the cost of hiring the taxi.
c How much does it cost to travel 15 km? Cost ($)
d How far can a passenger travel for $75?
y
3 Find the gradient and y -intercept of the straight-line graph on the right. 6
5
4 Sketch the straight-line graph of y = 3x − 4.
4
5 On a particular day, A$100 buys 87 euros. 3
a Draw a conversion graph with A$ on the horizontal axis. 2
1
b How many A$ are needed to purchase 50 euros?
c Find the gradient. What is its meaning in this context? −3 −2 1 x
−1
d Extend your graph to $500 Australian. Is it still accurate as an exchange model?
6 Find a linear equation that describes the pattern shown

x 1 2 3 4 5
in this table.
y −1 −4 −7 −10 −13
7 The Socks Are Us company sells socks for $16 a pair. Sales may be modelled using the straight-line equation
I = 16n.
a Explain each term in the formula I = 16n. n 0 50 150 200 250
b Complete the table of values. I
c Draw the straight-line graph I = 16n.
d Use the graph to find the number of pairs of socks sold when the income is $1840.
ALGEBRA
e Is this a direct variation relationship? Explain.

REVIEW SET 4
1 Mobile telephone calls cost 85 cents per minute. This table shows time versus cost for the calls.
Time (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cost ($) 0.85 1.70 2.55 3.40 4.25 5.10
a Draw the graph of time versus cost. Which is the independent variable?
b Use the graph to find the cost of a 2.5 min call.
c What is the maximum length of a call that costs $3.00?
2 a The cost of hiring a car is $10 flagfall and $3.40/km Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
for each kilometre travelled. Complete this table of Cost ($) 10.00 44.00
values for car hire.
b Draw the graph showing the cost of hiring the car.
d How far can a driver travel for $15?
e Is this an example of direct variation? Explain
Taxi hire charges
3 Sketch the straight-line graph of y = −2 − 4x.
40
4 The graph on the right models taxi charges.
Cost ($)
a Find the cost of travelling 65 km. 20
b How far can a passenger travel for $40?
0
d Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its meaning 20 40 60 80
in this context? Distance (km)
5 This graph shows the total cost of hand-made Christmas cards. Total cost of Christmas cards
a What is the cost of buying:
120
i 6 cards?
ii 18 cards?
Cost ($)
80
iii 30 cards?
b How many cards can be bought for: 40
i $20?
ii $65? 0
10 20 30 40
iii $100?
Number of Christmas cards
c If you buy 10 cards what is the cost per card?
d i What is the gradient of the line segment for the cost of buying more than 30 cards?
ii What does the gradient represent in this situation?
6 The Tight Squeeze belt company has weekly fixed costs of $400. The cost per belt is $7.
a Write an equation to represent this information.
n 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Use A for cost and n for the number of belts.
b Complete the table of values. A
c Draw a straight-line graph.
d Use the graph to find the number of belts made when the cost is $2000.
7 a Find the values of a, and b in the table on the right, given that y ∝ x. x 2 3 5 b
b From the table, write the relationship between x and y as a linear equation.
y 32 48 a 8

1 a The speed, s m/s, at which Ben can row his boat depends on the number of strokes, r, he takes per minute.
This is called his rating. Graph A shows his performance when he is training on a lake.
i Use the graph to find the rating necessary
for a speed of 2 m/s. Ben’s performance (1 mark)
ii Find Ben’s speed if his stroke rating is
7
32 strokes/min. ph
B (1 mark)
6 Gra
iii Calculate the time, in minutes and
5
Speed (m/s)
A
seconds, that it takes to row one kilometre r ph
4 e rive Gra
t h
at the speed sound in part ii. 3 On (1 mark)
ke
2 the la
b Graph B represents Ben’s performance on On
1
a river when he rows downstream, with the
0
same rating as his rating on the lake. 10 20 30 40
i Find his speed on the river if his stroke Rating (strokes/min)
rating is 20 strokes/min. (1 mark)
ii How fast is the river flowing? (1 mark)
c Ben’s coach records the speed and rating

Kate’s performance
of another rower, Kate. The graph on the right s
shows Kate’s performance when she is rowing 5
on the same river as Ben, but it is flowing at 4
Speed (m/s)
a different speed. 3
2
i Is Kate rowing upstream against the flow
1
or downstream? Give reasons. (1 mark)
0
ii How fast is this river flowing? 10 20 30 40 r (1 mark)
−1
Rating (strokes/min)
d Find the linear equation that describes the
pattern shown in the table below. (2 marks)
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 7 3 −1 −5 −9
e The diagram on the right shows a straight-line graph. y

i Calculate the gradient of the line. 2 (1 mark)
ii What is the y-intercept? (1 mark)
2 4 6 x
−2
−4
−6
f The cost of pies varies directly with the number purchased. Three pies cost $13.50.
i Form an equation linking cost, $C, and the number of pies purchased, n. (1 mark)
ii What is the constant of variation k? (1 mark)
iii Draw the graph of C versus n for 0 ≤ n ≤ 10. (1 mark)
iv How much would 8 pies cost? (1 mark)
ALGEBRA
TOTAL: 15 marks

13 Units of energy
and mass
▶ converting between metric units of mass
▶ solving problems using metric units of mass
▶ converting between metric units of energy
▶ solving problems using metric units of energy
▶ using units of energy and mass to solve problems
related to food and nutrition
▶ using units of energy to solve problems involving
the amount of energy expended in activities
▶ using units of energy to solve problems involving
the consumption of electricity.
MEASUREMENT

ARE YOU READY?
ARE YOU READY?

13A 1 What is 35.41 × 1000? 13C 8 Which of the following rates is equivalent
A 3541 B 35 410 to 20 errors in 16 games of tennis?
C 0.3541 D 0.035 41 A 0.2 errors/game
B 0.25 errors/game
13A 2 What is 35.41 ÷ 1000?
C 0.75 errors/game
A 3541 B 35 410
D 1.25 errors/game
C 0.3541 D 0.035 41
13C 5 of 78?
9 What is __
13A 3 What is 1452.63 + 324 – 96.97? 6
A 1873.6 B 1031.66 A 93.6 B 65
C 1679.66 D 1262.87 C 0.83 D 1.2
13A 4 What is 12.18 ÷ 2.1 × 6.7? 13D 10 What is the value of 3x + 4y – 2z if x = 7,

y = 5 and z = 3?
A 38.86 B 0.87
A 59 B 47
C 171.37 D 1.16
C 35 D 18
13A 5 What is 17.096 rounded to two decimal places?
13D 11 How many centimetres are there in 2.01 km?
A 17.09 B 17.1
A 201 cm B 2010 cm
C 17.10 D 17.16
C 20 100 cm D 201 000 cm
13A 6 What is 234.6 rounded to the nearest whole
13D 12 What is the solution of the equation
number?
84 = a × 4 × 3?
A 230 B 234
A a = 21 B a=7
C 235 D 236
C a = 28 D a = 112
13A 7 How many kilograms are there in 454 g?
A 454 000 kg B 45.4 kg
C 4.54 kg D 0.454 kg
Q1–2 Support sheet 13A.1 Multiplying and dividing by 10, 100, 1000, etc.
Q3–4 Support sheet 13A.2 Operations with decimal numbers
Q5–6 Support sheet 13A.3 Decimal places and rounding
Q7 Support sheet 13A.4 Converting between kilograms and grams
Q8 Support sheet 13C.1 Writing rates
Q9 Support sheet 13C.2 Finding a fraction of a whole number
Q10 Support sheet 13D.1 Substituting for pronumerals
Q11 Support sheet 13D.2 Converting units of length
Q12 Support sheet 13D.3 Solving simple linear equations
Chapter 13 Units of energy and mass 481

13A Units of mass
• Interactive 13A: Explore key ideas for units of mass
• Worksheet 13A: Practise your skills with extra problems for units of mass
The metric system of measurement uses base units to measure quantities such as length, mass,
capacity, area and volume.
The international standard (SI) unit for mass is kilograms. Common units of mass are
tonnes (t), kilograms (kg), grams (g) and milligrams (mg).
Prefixes such as ‘kilo-’ and ‘milli-’ are used to indicate the factor of 10 by which a unit is
multiplied.
EXERCISE 13A Units of mass

1 Complete this conversion diagram for mass.
× 1000 × 1000

(t) (kg) (g) (mg)
÷ 1000
EXAMPLE 13A–1 Converting grams to milligrams

Convert each of the following to milligrams.
a 2g b 0.6 g c 0.35 g
Solve Think Apply
a 2 g = (2 × 1000) mg Multiply each measurement by Grams are larger than milligrams.
= 2000 mg 1000, because 1 g = 1000 mg. So the measurement in grams must
be multiplied by the conversion
b 0.6 g = (0.6 × 1000) mg
factor of 1000.
= 600 mg
c 0.35 g = (0.35 × 1000) mg
= 350 mg
2 Convert each of the following to milligrams.

a 3g b 5g c 7g d 9g
e 2.5 g f 2.2 g g 1.3 g h 3.4 g
i 0.4 g j 0.3 g k 0.15 g l 0.22 g
m 0.05 g n 0.037 g o 0.002 g p 0.003 g

EXAMPLE 13A–2 Converting milligrams to grams
Convert each of the following to grams.
a 3000 mg b 200 mg c 43 mg
Solve Think Apply
a 3000 mg = (3000 ÷ 1000) g Divide each measurement Milligrams are smaller than
= 3g in milligrams by 1000, grams. So the measurement in
b 200 mg = (200 ÷ 1000) g because 1 g = 1000 mg. milligrams must be divided by
= 0.2 g the conversion factor of 1000.
c 43 mg = (43 ÷ 1000) g
= 0.043 g
3 Convert the following to grams.

a 3000 mg b 7000 mg c 4000 mg d 8000 mg
e 2500 mg f 4200 mg g 7500 mg h 6200 mg
i 400 mg j 350 mg k 270 mg l 120 mg
m 60 mg n 38 mg o 4 mg p 2.5 mg
EXAMPLE 13A–3 Converting units of mass involving decimal values

Convert:
a 3.6 t to kilograms b 780 g to kilograms
Solve Think Apply
a 3.6 t = (3.6 × 1000) kg 1 t = 1000 kg Multiply tonnes by
= 3600 kg Tonnes are bigger than kilograms, so we 1000 to get kilograms.
multiply by the conversion factor.
b 780 g = (780 ÷ 1000) kg 1 kg = 1000 g Divide grams by 1000
= 0.78 kg Grams are smaller than kilograms, to get kilograms.
so we divide by the conversion factor.
4 Convert these masses.

a 2.7 t to kilograms b 4.5 g to milligrams c 23.92 kg to grams
d 0.34 t to kilograms e 5.6 kg to grams f 1.758 t to kilograms
g 23.49 t to kilograms h 0.8 g to milligrams i 4.05 kg to grams
j 0.875 kg to grams k 2.05 t to kilograms l 0.05 g to milligrams

a 4000 kg to tonnes b 8500 g to kilograms c 1650 mg to grams
MEASUREMENT
d 750 g to kilograms e 45 mg to grams f 1480 g to kilograms

g 400 kg to tonnes h 950 mg to grams i 90 g to kilograms
j 9 mg to grams k 5 kg to tonnes l 200 g to kilograms

6 Choose a convenient unit (tonnes, kilograms, grams,
milligrams) to use for measuring the mass of each of

these items.
a a man b a jar of jam c a packet of biscuits
d a bag of sand e a truck f an elephant
g a vitamin pill h a knitting needle i a paperclip
7 Jay adds up the following masses: 2.4 kg, 421 g, 0.7 kg, 35 g and 200 g.
He obtains an answer of 659.1 kg. Give Jay some advice on how to
answer the question correctly, and state the correct answer.
8 The average mass of an egg is 70 g.

a What is the mass of each of the following quantities of eggs?
i half a dozen eggs
ii a dozen eggs
iii four cartons of a dozen eggs
b Are there other factors to consider when determining the mass of four cartons of eggs? Explain.
9 A can of soup has a mass of 265 g. If the soup is delivered to the supermarket in cartons of 12 cans, what is
the total mass of five cartons? The mass of each empty cardboard carton is 210 g.
Give you answer in kilograms.
10 The total mass of a transport vehicle when fully laden with six cars is 9.43 t. If the unloaded car transport
vehicle has a mass of 2700 kg, what is the average mass of each car, to the nearest kilogram?
11 Kyna needs to find the mass of one sheet of paper, but does not have a scale sensitive enough to measure
something that light.
a Suggest a possible way Kyna could find this mass.
b If the mass of a ream (500 sheets) of paper is 2.25 kg, calculate the mass of one sheet of paper.
12 Look at the tin of tomatoes shown on the right.

a Net mass refers to the mass of the contents of
the container. What is the net mass of this tin?
b Gross mass is the mass of the container plus contents.
If you measured the gross mass as 450 g, what is the
mass of the tin itself?
c If you know that the mass of the empty tin is actually
75 g and the gross mass is 450 g, what does this mean
that the net mass is?
d Is the net mass, calculated in part c, more or less the
advertised net mass?

EXAMPLE 13A–4 Calculating the amount of medication
A patient is prescribed 400 mg of a painkiller. The medication the chemist provides contains 80 mg of the
painkiller in 10 mL. How much of this medication should be given to the patient?
Solve Think
400 ÷ 80 = 5 Calculate the number of doses of 10 mL

Amount = 5 × 10 mL required, by dividing the amount prescribed
= 50 mL by the amount contained in 10 mL of
or: medication. Multiply this answer by 10 mL to
strength required
Volume required = ______________ × volume of stock obtain the amount required. In this formula:
stock strength Strength required = 400 mg
400
= ____ × 10
80 Stock strength = 80 mg
= 50 mL Volume of stock = 10 mL
Apply
Deciding whether more or less than 10 mL is to be given is the key to answering this question. Because
the amount of painkiller required is greater than the amount in 10 mL of the medication, more than
10 mL of the medication needs to be given.
13 A patient is prescribed 600 mg of a painkiller. Calculate how much of each of the following medications he
must be given if the medication is available in these concentrations.
a 20 mg in 5 mL b 30 mg in 10 mL c 50 mg in 1 mL
d 120 mg in 5 mL e 100 mg in 20 mL f 60 mg in 5 mL
g 5 mg in 1 mL h 50 mg in 5 mL i 75 mg in 5 mL
14 A patient is prescribed 800 mg of an anti-nausea drug. Calculate how much of each of the following
medications she must be given if the medication is available in these concentrations.
d 160 mg in 10 mL e 200 mg in 20 mL f 80 mg in 5 mL
g 20 mg in 5 mL h 40 mg in 5 mL i 80 mg in 10 mL
15 Lana needs to give her dog some antibiotics. The instructions say that for
every 5 kg of body mass, the dog needs half a tablet.
a How many antibiotic tablets would Lana’s dog need if it has a mass of
30 kg?
b How many antibiotic tablets would be given to dogs of the following
masses?
i 10 kg ii 15 kg
iii 20 kg iv 12.5 kg
c Rhys gives his dog 2.5 tablets. What is the mass of his dog?
16 A pharmaceutical company produces paracetamol tablets using a

CHALLENGE
machine which holds a maximum of 47 kg of paracetamol powder. What

MEASUREMENT
is the maximum number of 60 tablet packets of 480 mg tablets that can

be produced from the 47 kg?

13B Units of energy
Energy is measured in kilojoules (kJ) or calories (cal).

The international standard (SI) unit of energy is the joule (J). One joule is roughly equal to
the energy required to lift a mass of 1 kg through 10 cm on the surface of Earth. The joule is a
very small unit, so the kilojoule is often used instead.
1 kJ = 1000 J
The calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy needed to heat 1 gram of water by
1°C. It is now defined in terms of the joule as:
1 cal = 4.184 J
While the calorie is the unit of energy mainly used in physics and chemistry, 1 calorie is too
small to be used for describing the energy content of food. Another energy unit called the
Calorie or Cal (using a capital C) is used for representing the energy contained in the food we
eat. The Calorie is equivalent to 1000 calories (using a lower case c) or 1 kilocalorie (kcal).
So: 1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4184 J = 4.184 kJ
Confusingly, in labels describing the energy content of food, we sometimes see references to
both calories and Calories interchangeably, even though they do describe different amounts of
energy. To avoid this confusion, in nearly every country, including Australia, kilojoules instead
of Calories are used as the official unit for the energy value of food or drink. Some nutrition
labels may show kilocalories or Calories as well as kilojoules.
EXAMPLE 13B–1 Converting between kilojoules and joules

If 1 kilojoule (kJ) is 1000 joules, convert:
a 15.36 kJ to joules b 7584 J to kilojoules
Solve Think Apply
a Number of joules = 15.36 × 1000 1 kJ = 1000 J To convert kilojoules
= 15 360 The kilojoule unit is bigger than to joules, multiply the
the joule unit, so we multiply number of kilojoules
by the conversion factor. by 1000.
b Number of kilojoules = 7584 ÷ 1000 1000 J = 1 kJ To convert joules to

= 7.584 The joule unit is smaller than kilojoules, divide
the kilojoule unit, so we divide the number of joules
by the conversion factor. by 1000.

EXERCISE 13B Units of energy
1 Convert each of the following to joules.
a 7.2 kJ b 12.08 kJ c 1.209 kJ d 0.64 kJ e 0.054 kJ
2 Convert each of the following to kilojoules.

a 8200 J b 2503 J c 895 J d 88 J e 15 406 J
EXAMPLE 13B–2 Converting between kilocalories and calories

If 1 kilocalorie (kcal) is 1000 calories (cal), convert:
a 9.103 kcal to calories b 740 cal to kilocalories
Solve Think Apply
a Number of calories = 9.103 × 1000 1 kcal = 1000 cal To convert kilocalories to
= 9103 The kilocalorie unit is calories, multiply the number
bigger than the calorie of kilocalories by 1000.
unit, so we multiply by
the conversion factor.
b Number of kilocalories = 740 ÷ 1000 1000 cal = 1 kcal To convert calories to
= 0.74 The calorie unit is smaller kilocalories, divide the
than the kilocalorie unit, number of calories by 1000.
so we divide by the
conversion factor.
3 Convert each of the following to calories.

a 7.254 kcal b 16.169 kcal c 0.78 kcal d 26.3 kcal e 1.008 kcal
4 Convert each of the following to kilocalories.

a 22 560 cal b 7604 cal c 687 cal d 48 300 cal e 98 cal
EXAMPLE 13B–3 Converting calories to joules

Convert each of the following to joules.
a 38 cal b 4.23 kcal
Solve Think Apply

a Number of joules 1 cal = 4.184 J To convert calories
= 38 × 4.184 The calorie unit is bigger than to joules, multiply the
= 158.992 the joule unit, so we multiply number of calories
= 159 (to the nearest whole number) by the conversion factor. by 4.184.
b Number of joules 4.23 kcal = 4.23 × 1000 cal To convert kilocalories
= 4.23 × 1000 × 4.184 Then convert to joules. to joules, first convert
MEASUREMENT
= 17 698.32 kilocalories to calories

= 17 698 (to the nearest whole number) and then multiply the
number of calories
by 4.184.

5 Convert each of the following to joules (to the nearest whole number).
a 256 cal b 5840 cal c 3.6 kcal d 20.3 kcal e 0.47 kcal
EXAMPLE 13B–4 Converting joules to calories

Convert each of the following to calories.
a 260 J b 18 kJ
Solve Think Apply
a Number of calories 4.184 J = 1 cal To convert joules to
= 260 ÷ 4.184 The joule unit is smaller than calories, divide the
= 62.141 … the calorie unit, so we divide number of joules by
= 62 (to the nearest whole number) by the conversion factor. 4.184.
b Number of calories 18 kJ = 18 × 1000 J To convert kilojoules

= 18 × 1000 ÷ 4.184 Then convert to calories. to calories, first
= 4302.103… convert kilojoules
= 4302 (to the nearest whole number) to joules and then
divide by 4.184.
6 Convert each of the following to calories (to the nearest whole number).
a 580 J b 6923 J c 15.9 kJ d 0.65 kJ e 252 kJ
Example 13B–5 Converting between kilojoules and Calories or kilocalories

Convert each of the following energy values for food.
a 120 Cal to kilojoule b 850 kJ to Calories c 350 kcal to kilojoules
Solve Think Apply
a Number of kilojoules For food energy values, To convert Calories into
= 120 × 4.184 1 Cal = 4.184 kJ. kilojoules, we multiply
= 502.08 The Calorie unit is bigger the number of Calories by
= 502 kJ (to the nearest whole number) than the kilojoule unit, 4.184. Note the difference
so we multiply by the between Calories and
conversion factor. calories (1 Cal is equivalent
to 1000 cal or 1 kcal).
b Number of Calories The kilojoule unit is To convert kilojoules into
= 850 ÷ 4.184 smaller than the Calorie Calories, divide the number
= 203.15… unit, so we divide by the of kilojoules by 4.184.
= 203 Cal (to the nearest whole number) conversion factor.
c Number of kilojoules 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ. To convert kilocalories
= 350 × 4.184 The kilocalorie unit is into kilojoules, multiply
= 1464.4 bigger than the kilojoule the number of kilocalories
= 1464 kJ (to the nearest whole number) unit, so we multiply by by 4.184.
the conversion factor.

7 Convert each of the following energy values in Calories to kilojoules (to the nearest whole number).
a 30 Cal b 150 Cal c 248 Cal d 305 Cal e 650 Cal
8 Convert each of the following energy values in kilojoules to Calories (to the nearest whole number).
a 1000 kJ b 926 kJ c 1240 kJ d 20 000 kJ e 7590 kJ
9 Convert each of the following energy values in kilocalories to kilojoules (to the nearest whole number).
a 40 kcal b 690 kcal c 137 kcal d 1050 kcal e 2520 kcal
10 Convert each of the following energy values into kilocalories (to the nearest whole number).
a 730 kJ b 2690 kJ c 9500 kJ d 1950 Cal e 3425 Cal
11 The estimated daily energy requirement from food for an average adult is stated as 8700 kJ. How many
Calories is this?
12 Individual dietary requirements may be higher or lower than the average, depending on age, gender, height,
weight and physical activity levels. The questions below relate to the estimated daily energy requirements
for people with a low level of physical activity (for example office workers or students).
a The estimated daily energy requirement for a 17-year-old male who weighs 70 kg is 12 700 kJ.
Convert this energy requirement to kilocalories.
b The estimated daily energy requirement for a 17-year-old female who weighs 60 kg is 2400 Calories.
Convert this energy requirement to kilojoules.
c The estimated daily energy requirement for a 32-year-old female who weighs 65 kg is 9200 kJ.
Convert this energy requirement to Calories.
d The estimated daily energy requirement for a 55-year-old male who weighs 80 kg is 2865 kilocalories.
Convert this energy requirement to kilojoules.
13 Use this nutrition label to answer the following questions.
MEASUREMENT
a How many Calories of energy are in each serving?

b How many Calories of energy are in the contents of the whole container?
c How many kilocalories of energy are in each serving?
d How many kilojoules of energy are in the contents of the whole container?

13C Food and nutrition:
energy intake
• Investigation 13C.1: Compare the sugar and fibre content of common fruits
• Investigation 13C.2: Analyse information from nutrition labels
The food we eat provides our bodies with the energy they need to function. Most of that
energy comes from the carbohydrates, protein, fat and dietary fibre in the food we consume. In
Australia, the energy content of food and drinks is measured in kilojoules.
The average amount of energy provided by these nutrients is:
• protein 17 kJ/g
• fat 38 kJ/g
• carbohydrate 17 kJ/g
• dietary fibre 8 kJ/g
To calculate our total energy intake
from a serving of food, we take the
amount of each of these nutrients,
multiply each by the energy it provides
and add the subtotals.
EXAMPLE 13C–1 Calculating the energy intake from foods

One 265 g serve of chicken soup contains 7.7 g of protein, 13.0 g of fat, 18.8 g of carbohydrate and 4.0 g of
dietary fibre. Calculate the total energy intake from eating one serve of this soup.
Solve Think Apply

Energy intake from protein = 7.7 × 17 Calculate the number of To calculate the total
= 130.9 kJ grams of protein × 17 + energy intake, multiply
Energy intake from fat = 13.0 × 38 the number of grams of the amount of each
= 494.0 kJ fat × 38 + the number of nutrient, in grams, by
Energy intake from carbohydrate = 18.8 × 17 grams of carbohydrate × the amount of energy it
= 319.6 kJ 17 + the number of produces per gram and
Energy intake from fibre = 4.0 × 8 grams of fibre × 8. then add the results.
= 32.0 kJ
Total energy intake from one serving
= 130.9 + 494.0 + 319.6 + 32.0
= 976.5 kJ
= 977 kJ (to the nearest kilojoule)

EXERCISE 13C Food and nutrition: energy intake
1 One serve of baked beans contains 6.2 g of protein, 0.7 g of fat, 16.8 g of carbohydrate and 7.0 g of dietary
fibre. Calculate the total energy intake from eating one serve of baked beans.
2 There is 7.6 g of protein, 4.6 g of fat, 16.5 g of carbohydrate and 2.0 g of dietary fibre per 100 g of savoury
biscuits. Calculate the total energy intake from consuming 100 g of biscuits.
3 A 100 g serving of ice cream contains 3.3 g of protein, 4.9 g of fat, 30.6 g of carbohydrates and no fibre.
Calculate the total energy in one 100 g serving.
4 Sea salt potato chips contain 2.2 g of protein, 6.3 g of fat, 17.8 g of carbohydrates and 1.1 g of dietary fibre
per serve.
a Calculate the total energy in one serve of these potato chips.
b Convert your answer for part a to:
i joules ii calories iii kilocalories.
c If the serving size of the potato chips is 28 g, calculate the amount of energy provided by eating 60 g of
chips, in:
i kilojoules ii joules iii calories iv kilocalories.
d Calculate the energy intake per 100 g of chips in:
i kilojoules ii joules iii calories iv kilocalories
5 Rice contains 7.0 g of protein, 0.4 g of fat, 79.8 g of carbohydrates and 1.4 g of dietary fibre per 100 g.
a What is the total energy intake from the consumption of 100 g of rice?
b The average size of a serving of rice with a meal is 60 g. How much energy is provided by one serving?
c Convert your answer for part b to kilocalories.
d Show that 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ.
e Complete the following table using the conversion shown in part d.
Nutrient Energy kJ/g Energy kcal/g
Protein 17
Fat 38
Carbohydrate 17
Dietary fibre 8
f Using the table from part e, calculate the total energy
provided by 100 g of rice, in kilocalories.
g What is the energy intake, in kilocalories, from eating
a 60 g serve of rice? Compare your answer with your
answer to part c.
6 Milk contains 3.4 g of protein, 3.4 g of fat, 4.8 g of carbohydrate and no fibre per 100 mL.
a Calculate the total energy intake per 100 mL of milk.
b Health experts recommend that women in the 19–50 age group should have a minimum of 2__1 servings
MEASUREMENT
2
of milk (or other approved dairy food) per day. If one serving is 250 mL, what would be the energy
provided by 2__1 servings of milk?
2

7 Every 100 g of chocolate biscuits contains about 5.2 g of protein, 30.1 g of fat, and 59.9 g of carbohydrate.
Chocolate biscuits contain almost no fibre.

a What is the total energy intake from the consumption of 100 g of chocolate biscuits?
b If one chocolate biscuit has a mass of 13.3 g, what would be the energy intake from eating two biscuits?
d Using the table you completed for question 5e, what is the total energy intake, in kilocalories, from
eating 100 g of chocolate biscuits?
e If one chocolate biscuit has a mass of 13.3 g, what is the energy intake, in kilocalories, from eating two
biscuits? Compare your answer with your answer for part c.
Table 13-1 below shows a list of common foods, their serving sizes and the average number of kilojoules of
energy in each serving. Note: tablespoon is written as tbs, and teaspoon is written as tsp.
Table 13–1: Energy intake per serve of common foods
Food Serving Energy (kJ) Food Serving Energy (kJ)
Carbohydrates Fruit and vegetables
Grain bread 2 slices 830 Leafy salad (no dressing) 1 cup 65
Cornflakes 1 cup 455 Broccoli 1 cup
__ 65
2
Plain boiled pasta 1 cup 670 Carrot 1 cup
__ 110
2
Instant porridge 1 sachet 595 1 cup
__
Peas 2
220
Natural muesli 1 cup
__ 510
3 Corn 1 cobette 385
White bread 2 slices 753 Potato (boiled) 1 small 295
Dairy foods Banana 1 420
Skimmed milk 1 cup 370 Orange 1 230
Reduced fat milk 1 cup 530 Apple 1 330
Regular milk 1 cup 730 Beverages
Low-fat yoghurt 1 tub (200 g) 650 Flavoured milk 600 mL 1980
Cheddar cheese 1 slice 345 Water 600 mL 0
Meat, poultry and fish Regular soft drink 600 mL 895
Roast lamb 1 slice 350 Fruit juice 1 cup 420
Sausage (grilled) 1 850 Chocolate powder 1 tbs 110
Steak (grilled) 140 g 1040 Beer (full strength) 375 mL 575
Beef stir-fry 1 cup
__ 965 White wine 200 mL 550
2
Red wine 200 mL 390
Skinless baked chicken 1 thigh 620
Spreads and sauces
Egg (boiled) 1 medium 310
Butter 1 tbs 580
Takeaway food
Peanut butter 1 tbs 630
Crumbed fish (fried) 1 fillet 1380
Vegemite 1 tsp 45
Hot chips 140 g 1520
Jam 2 tsp 150
Meat pie 1 1750
Margarine 1 tbs 500
Sausage roll 1 1720
Honey 2 tsp 190
Sushi 3 long rolls 1760
Tomato pasta sauce 250 g 570
Pizza 3 slices 2750
Tomato sauce 1 tbs 90
Burger 1 2290

EXAMPLE 13C–2 Calculating the total energy intake from meals
Jack consumes the following meals on one day.
Breakfast: 1 cup of orange juice, 1 cup of cornflakes, 2 cups of regular milk, 3 slices of white bread
with 3 tbs of butter and 3 tbs of jam
Lunch: 2 sausage rolls with 2 tbs of tomato sauce, 1 flavoured milk (600 mL)
Dinner: 2 slices of roast lamb with 1 small boiled potato, __ 1 cup of carrots
1 cup of peas and __
2 2
Snacks: 2 bananas
Use the information in Table 13-1 to help you calculate Jack’s total energy intake for the day. Express the
energy intake for each food item to the nearest kilojoule.
Solve Think Apply

1 cup of orange juice = 420 kJ Find the required Use the table to find the energy
1 cup of cornflakes = 455 kJ information for each intake from each food and add
2 cups of regular milk = 2 × 730 = 1460 kJ food in the table to find the total energy intake
753 × 3 = 1130 kJ
3 slices of white bread = ____ and adjust for the for the day.
2 quantity consumed,
3 tbs of butter = 3 × 580 = 1740 kJ
150 × 3 = 225 kJ where necessary.
3 tsp of jam = ____
2
2 sausage rolls = 2 × 1720 = 3440 kJ
2 tbs of tomato sauce = 2 × 90 = 180 kJ
1 flavoured milk (600 mL) = 1980 kJ
2 slices of roast lamb = 2 × 350 = 700 kJ
1 small potato = 295 kJ
1 cup of peas = 220 kJ
__
2
1 cup of carrots = 110 kJ
__
2
2 bananas = 2 × 420 = 840 kJ
Total energy intake ≈ 13 195 kJ
8 Annabel consumes the following meals during one day. Use the information from Table 13-1 to help you
calculate her total energy intake for the day.
1 tbs of
Breakfast: 1 sachet of instant porridge, 1 cup of reduced fat milk, 1 slice of grain bread with __
2
margarine, 1 medium boiled egg, 1 banana
Lunch: 1 baked chicken thigh (skin removed), 1 cup of leafy salad (no dressing), 1 apple
Dinner: 1 cup of broccoli,
1 cup of beef stir-fry, __
2
1 corn cobette, 1 glass of red wine (200 mL)
9 Josh consumes the following meals on one day. Use the

information from Table 13-1 to help you calculate his total
energy intake for the day.
Breakfast: 2 grilled sausages, 2 tbs of tomato sauce, 2 slices
of white bread, 1 tbs of margarine, 1 tbs of peanut
MEASUREMENT
butter, 1 tsp of vegemite, 2 tbs of chocolate powder

in 1 cup of regular milk
Lunch: 1 burger, 1 regular soft drink (600 mL)
Dinner: 2 fried fillets of crumbed fish, 1 serve of hot chips,
2 glasses (each 375 mL) of full strength beer

13D Energy expenditure
• Video tutorial 13D.1: Watch and listen to an explanation of Example 13D-1
energy out Energy out refers to the amount of energy the body uses to sustain its basic physiological
amount of energy functions (breathing, digestion, maintaining body temperature, muscle activity, etc.) and to
the body uses perform normal daily physical activities. The amount of energy the body needs to perform
to sustain basic
these activities is influenced by a number of factors including gender, age, weight, height and
functions and
perform normal level of fitness.
daily physical Table 13-2 below shows the estimated number of kilojoules burned per kilogram of body
activities
weight for every 30 minutes of common activities.
Table 13-2: Energy burned per kilogram of
weight in a 30-minute time period
Activity kJ/kg/30 min

Aerobics 10.8
Basketball 20.3
Cycling (15 km/h) 11.7
Dancing 9.1
Golf 9.3
Hiking (with a 10 kg load) 18.2
Jogging 17.8
Running 27.9
Tennis (singles) 14.7
Tennis (doubles) 10.0
Please note that the figures above are
Walking 8.1
estimates only, for individuals of average
Weight training 17.5 weight, average height and average fitness.
EXAMPLE 13D–1 Estimating the energy burned to perform activities

Use Table 13-2 above to estimate the energy burned by the following people’s
bodies during the given activities.
a A 60 kg girl walks for 30 minutes.
b A 65 kg woman does aerobics for 50 minutes.
c A 70 kg boy plays basketball for 20 minutes.

Solve Think Apply
a Energy out = 8.1 × 60 × 1 From Table 13-2, find the rate of Choose the appropriate
= 486 kJ energy use, substitute weight (60 kg) rate from the table, then
and the number of 30-minute time use the formula:
intervals of activity (1). E=r×W×t
50 where:
b Energy out = 10.8 × 65 × ___ From Table 13-2, find the rate of
30 E = energy burned
= 1170 kJ energy use, substitute weight (65 kg)
r = rate of energy used
and the number of 30-minute time
( )
50 .
intervals of activity ___
30
(in kJ/kg/30 min)
W = weight (in
c 20
Energy out = 20.3 × 70 × ___ From Table 13-2, find the rate of kilograms)
30
= 947 kJ (to the energy use, substitute weight (70 kg) t = number of 30-minute
nearest kilojoule) and the number of 30-minute time time intervals of the
( )
20 .
intervals of activity ___
30
activity
EXERCISE 13D Energy expenditure

1 Use Table 13-2 to estimate the energy that is burned
by the following people’s bodies during the given

activities.
a A 76 kg boy runs for 30 minutes.
b A 55 kg girl takes part in a dance class for
45 minutes.
c A 62 kg woman cycles for 25 minutes.
d A 84 kg man plays golf for 4 hours.
e A 96 kg man walks for 40 minutes.
f A 58 kg girl jogs for 20 minutes.
g A 92 kg boy does weight training for 40 minutes.
Another method for calculating the amount of energy used in an activity involves
using the concepts of basal metabolic rate and a physical activity factor.
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) of a person refers to the minimum amount of
basal metabolic
energy needed to sustain basic bodily functions (that is, to keep the person alive) for rate (BMR)
a 24-hour period. An estimate can be calculated using either the Schofield formula minimum amount
or the Harris–Benedict formula, discussed later (pages 496 and 497). of energy needed
to sustain basic
The physical activity level (PAL) is the result of the comparison: bodily functions for
total energy needed for the activity
_____________________________ a 24-hour period,
BMR measured in kJ/day
For example, a physical activity factor of 1.7 indicates that the activity requires physical activity
1.7 times more energy than the BMR. level (PAL)
the total energy
The energy output needed is then given by:
MEASUREMENT
needed for an
Energy out = basal metabolic rate × physical activity level activity compared
to the BMR
or:
Energy out = BMR × PAL

Table 13-3 below shows how to calculate the estimated BMR for females and males of a particular age using
their weight. The formula used is known as the Schofield formula.

Table 13-3: The Schofield formula for using
weight (W kg) to estimate BMR, in kJ/day
Age BMR (kJ/day)

Females Males
<3 244 × W – 130 249 × W – 127

3–10 85 × W + 2033 95 × W + 2110
11–18 56 × W + 2898 74 × W + 2754
19–30 62 × W + 2036 63 × W + 2896
31–60 34 × W + 3538 48 × W + 3653
>60 38 × W + 2755 49 × W + 2459
EXAMPLE 13D–2 Calculating BMR using the Schofield formula

Use the Schofield formula, shown in Table 13-3, to calculate the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for:
a a 17-year-old female who weighs 58 kg
b a 35-year-old man who weighs 92 kg.
Solve Think Apply
a BMR = 56 × 58 + 2898 The age of 17 is in the 11–18 age group. Select the formula for
= 6146 kJ/day From the information in Table 13-3, for the appropriate gender
females, the appropriate formula to use is: and age group, and
BMR = 56 × W + 2898 substitute the weight.
b BMR = 48 × 92 + 3653 The age of 35 is in the 31–60 age group.
= 8069 kJ/day Using the information from Table 13-3, for
males, the appropriate formula to use is:
BMR = 48 × W + 3653
2 Use the Schofield formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for:
a a 24-year-old woman who weighs 55 kg b a 16-year-old boy who weighs 73 kg
c a two-year-old girl who weighs 12.1 kg d a 70-year-old man who weighs 72 kg.
The Harris–Benedict formula for estimating BMR, in kJ/day, from weight in kilograms, height in
centimetres and age in years is shown below.
For females:
BMR (kJ/day) = 2783 + (40.0 × weight in kg) + (7.7 × height in cm) – (19.6 × age in years)
For males:
BMR (kJ/day) = 278 + (57.5 × weight in kg) + (20.9 × height in cm) – (28.2 × age in years)

EXAMPLE 13D–3 Calculating BMR using the Harris–Benedict formula
Use the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for:
a a 17-year-old boy who weighs 82 kg and whose height is 178 cm
b a 16-year-old girl who weighs 59 kg and is 164 cm tall.
Solve Think
a BMR = 278 + (57.5 × 82) + (20.9 × 178) – (28.2 × 17) Into the formula, substitute:
= 8234 kJ/day (to the nearest kJ/day) Weight = 82 kg, Height = 178 cm,
Age = 17
b BMR = 2783 + (40.0 × 59) + (7.7 × 164) – (19.6 × 16) Into the formula, substitute:
= 6092 kJ/day (to the nearest kJ/day) Weight = 59 kg, Height = 164 cm,
Age = 16
Apply
Substitute the values for weight, height and age into the appropriate formula.
3 Use the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate

(BMR) for:
a an 18-year-old boy who weighs 88 kg and whose height is 183 cm
b a 15-year-old girl who weighs 55 kg and is 160 cm tall
c a 37-year-old woman who weighs 56 kg and whose height is 1.64 m
d a 70-year-old man who weighs 82 kg and is 1.73 m tall.
4 Use Table 13-2 on page 494 to help you answer the following questions.
a Estimate the energy used by a 52 kg girl who plays tennis doubles for
45 minutes.
b How much more energy would the girl have used if she had played singles,
instead of doubles, for the same length of time?
5 Ben (86 kg) and his brother Noah (93 kg) go on a 75-minute run together. Who
burns the most energy during the run and by how much?
Table 13-4 below shows the physical activity level (PAL) for different lifestyles.
Table 13-4: Energy expenditure for different lifestyles
Lifestyle Examples PAL

1 Little to no exercise, sedentary, lying (on bed) Hospital patient, or infirm person 1.2
with limited ability to move
2 Little physical activity at work or leisure Office worker 1.45
3 Seated work with some occasional walking and Laboratory assistants, drivers, 1.65
standing, no strenuous leisure activity students, assembly line workers
4 Predominantly standing or walking Homemakers, salespeople, waiters, 1.85
MEASUREMENT
mechanics
5 Heavy occupational work or highly active leisure Construction workers, fitness trainers 2.2
6 Significant amounts of exercise in addition to Add extra
2, 3, or 4 above PAL units

EXAMPLE 13D–4 Estimating the energy output required to maintain lifestyle
A 17-year-old male student who weighs 82 kg does little exercise.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the student’s BMR.
b Use Table 13-4 (page 497) and the following formula to estimate the energy required by the student to
maintain this lifestyle:
Energy out = BMR × PAL
Solve Think Apply

a BMR = 74 × 82 + 2754 Since 17 is in the 11–18 Select the formula for the
= 8822 kJ/day age group, the appropriate appropriate gender and age
Schofield formula for males is: and substitute the weight.
BMR = 74 × W + 2754.
b Energy out Multiply the BMR by the Energy out = BMR × PAL
= 8822 × 1.65 physical activity level for the
≈ 14 556 kJ/day (to the nearest kJ/day) lifestyle.
From Table 13-4, this person’s
lifestyle matches lifestyle 2.
So PAL = 1.65.
Note: it is important to remember that the calculations above are broad general guidelines only. Energy
output depends on a number of variables including age, gender, body size and composition, and the amount
and intensity of physical activity or exercise. The lifestyles and corresponding PALs in Table 13-4 are
generalisations only. Each calculation needs to be adjusted to suit the characteristics of each individual. The
energy output estimated above corresponds to the amount of energy that must be consumed, by eating food, to
maintain the current weight of the person (that is, the amount of food that must be consumed to maintain the
balance between energy in and energy out for the nominated lifestyle).
6 A 68-year-old woman who weighs 48 kg has a totally sedentary lifestyle.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the woman’s BMR.
b Using Table 13-4, estimate the energy output this woman requires to maintain her lifestyle.
7 A 36-year-old male construction labourer weighs 94 kg and is 184 cm tall.

a Use the Harris–Benedict formula to estimate the labourer’s BMR.
b Estimate the energy the labourer requires to maintain his lifestyle.
8 A 28-year-old woman, who weighs 57 kg and is

160 cm tall, works as a salesperson and stands for
most of the day.
a Use the Harris–Benedict formula to estimate
the woman’s BMR.
b Estimate the energy the woman requires to
maintain her lifestyle.
9 A 24-year-old male truck driver weighs 83 kg.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the truck
driver’s BMR.
b Estimate the energy required by the truck driver
to maintain this lifestyle.

10 A 17-year-old female office worker weighs 55 kg and does little exercise.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the office worker’s BMR.
b Estimate the energy the office worker requires to maintain her lifestyle.
The table below shows the physical activity level (PAL) for different activities and sports.
Table 13-5 Energy expenditure
for various activities
Activity/Sport PAL
Walking 4 km/h 2.9
Walking 7 km/h 5.2
Running 9 km/h 8.6
Running 14 km/h 12.8
Cycling 16 km/h 4.0
Swimming 1.2 km/h 3.3
Swimming 3 km/h 10.0
Soccer 10.0
Cross-country skiing 7.5
Table tennis 5.4
Volleyball 6.5
EXAMPLE 13D–5 Estimating the energy required to perform individual

activities
A 35-year-old woman who weighs 52 kg plays table tennis for 2 hours.
b Use the information from Table 13-5 and the following formula to calculate the amount of energy
required by the woman to perform the exercise described:
Energy out = (duration of activity in hours) × (BMR in kJ/hour) × PAL
Solve Think Apply

a BMR = 34 × 52 + 3538 Use the information for females from Select the Schofield formula
= 5306 kJ/day Table 13-3 on page 496. for the appropriate gender
The age of 35 is in the 31–60 age and age group and substitute
group. So the appropriate formula is: the weight.
BMR = 34 × W + 3538
where W = 52.
b Energy out Activity duration = 2 h Substitute the appropriate
5306 × 5.4
= 2 × _____ 5306 kJ/h values into the formula:
24 BMR = _____
24 Energy out = (activity
≈ 2388 kJ (to the nearest PAL = 5.4 (from Table 13-5) duration in hours) ×
kilojoule)
(BMR in kJ/hour) × PAL.
MEASUREMENT
Note that each formula for

BMR gives the result in
kJ/day. The formula for
this calculation requires the
BMR in kJ/hour.

11 A 38-year-old man who weighs 88 kg plays volleyball for 1__12 hours.
a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the man’s BMR.

b Use the information from Table 13-5 and the following formula to calculate the amount of energy
required by the man to perform the exercise described:
Energy out = (duration of activity in hours) × (BMR in kJ/hour) × PAL
12 A 27-year-old man, who weighs 76 kg and is 174 cm tall,

swims at 3 km/h for 45 minutes.
a Use the Harris–Benedict formula to estimate the
man’s BMR.
b Calculate the amount of energy required for the man
to perform the exercise described.
13 A 48-year-old man, who weighs 86 kg, runs at 9 km/h for

80 minutes.
a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the man’s BMR.
b Calculate the amount of energy required for the man
to perform the exercise described.
14 A 16-year-old girl, who weighs 47 kg and is 157 cm tall, goes cross-country skiing for 3 hours.
a Use the Harris–Benedict formula to estimate the girl’s BMR.
b Calculate the amount of energy required for the girl to perform this exercise.
1 hours.
15 A 52-year-old woman, who weighs 58 kg, walks at 4 km/h for 2__
2
b Calculate the amount of energy required for the woman to perform this exercise.
EXAMPLE 13D–6 Estimating the time needed to burn kilojoules

A 25-year-old woman weighs 62 kg.
b How long would it take the woman to burn 1500 kJ of energy by cycling at 16 km/h?
Solve Think Apply
a BMR = 62 × 62 + 2036 Use the information for females from Select the Schofield
= 5880 kJ/day Table 13-3 on page 496. formula for the
The age of 25 is in the 19–30 age appropriate gender and
group. So the appropriate formula is: age group, and substitute
BMR = 62 × W + 2036 the weight.
where W = 62.
b Energy out = (activity duration in Energy out = 1500 kJ Substitute the relevant
hours) × (BMR in kJ/hour) × PAL BMR = 5880 kJ/day = _____5880 kJ/h values into the formula:
24
Let T = activity duration, in hours. PAL = 4.0 (from Table 13-5) Energy out = (activity
5880 × 4.0
1500 = T × _____ Multiply the number of hours by duration in hours) ×
24
60 to convert to minutes. (BMR in kJ/hour) × PAL
1500 = T × 980
1500 Solve the resulting
T = _____
980 equation.
= 1.5306… h
= 1 h 32 min (to the nearest
minute)

16 A 17-year-old girl weighs 51 kg.
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the girl’s BMR.
b How long would it take the girl to burn 1500 kJ of
energy playing soccer?
17 A 42-year-old man weighs 86 kg.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the
man’s BMR.
b How long would it take the man to burn 1800 kJ of
energy by walking at 7 km/h?
18 A 35-year-old woman weighs 67 kg.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the woman’s
BMR.
b How long would it take the woman to burn 1000 kJ
of energy playing table tennis?

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate the
man’s BMR.
b How long would it take the man to burn 1200 kJ of
energy by swimming at 1.2 km/h?

b How long would it take the woman to burn 1000 kJ of energy by running at 9 km/h?
21 Ben consumes the following meals in one day.

CHALLENGE
Breakfast: __13 cup of natural muesli, 1 cup of regular milk, 3 slices of grain bread,
3 tbs of margarine, 1 grilled sausage, 1 boiled egg, 1 orange
Lunch: 4 slices of pizza, 1 flavoured milk (600 mL), 1 banana
Dinner: a 140 g piece of grilled steak, 1 serve of hot chips, __12 cup of carrots, __12 cup of peas,
glass of water
Snacks: 1 orange, 1 apple, 1 tub of low-fat yoghurt, 2 slices of cheddar cheese
a Using the information in Table 13-1 on page 492, calculate Ben’s total energy intake on this day.
b In order to stay the same weight we need to
consume about the same amount of energy as we
burn. The average energy intake recommended
to maintain a normal lifestyle for a healthy adult
is 8700 kJ/day. What percentage of the average
daily intake for an adult is Ben’s energy intake?
c What could Ben do to maintain his body weight?
d Ben is 28 years old and weighs 98 kg.
i Use the Schofield formula to estimate
Ben’s BMR.
ii For how long would Ben need to run at
9 km/h to burn the energy he consumed on
the day described?

13E Energy consumption
power rating Electricity is a form of energy used in homes and businesses for room heating and cooling,
rate at which lighting, cooking, water heating and running machinery. Domestic users are usually charged
an appliance for their household electricity by way of a quarterly bill. Electricity bills are based on the cost
uses electricity,
measured in
of getting the electricity to the user – that is, the cost of generating the electricity and the cost
watts (W) or of supplying and maintaining the poles and wires. This is often referred to as the ‘electricity
kilowatts (kW) service availability charge’ or the ‘supply charge’. The users are also charged for the amount
energy of electricity they use.
consumption All electrical appliances have a power rating. This is the rate at which the appliance uses
energy used by
electricity. Power is measured in units called watts (W). One kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W.
an appliance,
measured in A satisfactory unit for measuring the energy consumption of an appliance is the
kilowatt-hours kilowatt-hour (kWh or kW-h). This is the energy used by a one kilowatt appliance in one hour.
(kWh) The energy consumption of an appliance can be calculated using:
Energy (kWh) = power (kW) × time (h)
EXERCISE 13E Energy consumption

1 Use the sample electricity account on the opposite page to answer these questions.
a i What is the supply period for this bill?

ii How many days is the supply period?
b The electricity service availability charge is an amount electricity users pay for having electricity
available to their properties (that is, the cost of generating the electricity and supplying and maintaining
the poles and wires).
i What is the daily electricity service availability charge?
ii Write the total electricity service availability charge for this account.
c The usage charge is what we pay for the amount of electricity we use.
i What was the total amount of electricity used by the Smith household for the billing period shown
on the bill?
ii What is their average daily usage?
d The cost of usage is broken down into peak energy rate, shoulder energy charge and off-peak energy
rate. What percentage of usage occurred in the:
i shoulder period?
ii off-peak period?
e i What is the peak energy rate per kilowatt-hour?
ii What is the difference between the peak and off-peak rates per kilowatt-hour?
f i What is the total energy usage charge for this quarter?
ii What is the total cost (availability and usage charges) for this quarter, including the 5% discount
and GST?
iii What is the average daily cost?

UNDERSTANDING, FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATING FIRST COMBINATION energy
Customer Number 0123456

Mr P Smith
71 Winter Grove Due Date 17 June 2018
SUMMERTON Amount Payable $688.22
Quarterly Electricity Account AVERAGE DAILY USAGE
LOCATION: 71 Winter Grove, SUMMERTON Electricity
Previous Amount Payable 711.45

Payment Received — Thank You –711.45 Cr
20 kWh
20 kWh
18 kWh
Electricity (23/02/2018 to 23/05/2018) $658.58
Electricity Discount 5% (23/02/2018 to 23/05/2018) –32.93 Cr
Last Bill This Bill Same Period
Last Year
Subtotal of Charges before GST 625.65 Bill Days
Total GST Payable 10% 62.57 93 90 90
Consider reducing your environmental
Total Charges including GST 688.22 impact. Greenhouse gas released
Total Amount Payable $688.22 to produce your electricity this
period = 1946.7 kg of CO2
Energy
Energy
Used
Used
andand
Costs
Costs
METER
METER
ID ID THIS
THIS – – LAST
LAST = = ENERGY
ENERGY x x RATE
RATE = = COST
COST
READING
READING READING
READING USED
USED
Peak
Peak
Energy
Energy
Rate
Rate
— Contract
— Contract
(23/02/2018
(23/02/2018
to 23/05/2018)
to 23/05/2018)
EDX009745/001
EDX009745/001 595.6
904.9 0.0 0.0 595.6
904.9 kWhkWh 52.50c
52.50c $312.69
$407.07
Shoulder
Shoulder Energy
Energy Charge
Charge — Contract
— Contract (23/02/2018
(23/02/2018 to 23/05/2018)
to 23/05/2018)
EDX009745/002
EDX009745/002 1122.7
950.2 0.0 0.0 1122.7
950.2
kWhkWh 24.40c
24.40c $231.85
$273.94
Off-Peak
Off-Peak (Night
(Night Rate)
Rate) Energy
Energy Rate
Rate — Contract
— Contract (23/02/2018
(23/02/2018 to 23/05/2018)
to 23/05/2018)
EDX009745/003
EDX009745/003 390.4
290.7 0.0 0.0 390.4
290.7
kWhkWh 12.76c
12.76c $37.09
$49.82
Electricity Service
Electricity Availability
Service Charge
Availability Charge 90 days
90 days 85.5c/day
85.5c/day $76.95
$76.95
Total
Total Electricity
Electricity Before
Before GSTGST 2418.0
1836.5
kWhkWh $658.58
$807.78
PowerSmart Home Electricity Usage Summary
Supply Period: ELECTRICITY USAGE COMPARISON

22 February 2018 to 23 May 2018 — 90 days 5000
Peak
USAGE BREAKDOWN 4500
Energy Consumption (kWh)
Shoulder
Peak 596 kWh 32.44% 4000 Off-Peak
Shoulder 950 kWh 51.71% 3500

Off-Peak 291 kWh 15.84% 3000
2500
TOTAL ENERGY 1,837 kWh
2000
MEASUREMENT
1500
1000
500
0
Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb May
16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18

g Assuming the same fixed and usage charges, was this bill smaller or larger than:
i the previous bill? ii the bill for the same period last year?
h Consider the bill for the same period last year.
i What was the average daily usage?
ii Calculate the total amount of electricity used for that period.
i Consider the electricity usage comparison. In which quarter was the:
i most energy consumed? ii least shoulder rate energy used?
iii most off-peak rate energy used?
EXAMPLE 13E-1 Calculating the cost of running an appliance

Calculate the cost of running a 300 W television for 6 hours if the domestic rate is 47.77 cents/kWh.
Solve Think Apply
Energy used = 0.3 × 6 300 W = 0.3 kW Energy (kWh) = power (kW) × time (h)
= 1.8 kWh 47.77 cents = $0.4777 and:
Cost = 1.8 × 0.4777 Cost = energy used (kWh) × rate ($/kWh)
= $0.86
2 Complete the following to find the cost of running a 2400 W heater for
5 hours per day for 60 days if the energy rate is 39.95 cents/kWh.
Energy used = ___ (kW) × ___ (number of hours) = ___ kWh
Cost = ___ (kWh) × $0.3995 = $___
3 Calculate the cost of running each of the following appliances.

a An 8000 W electric oven is used for 3 hours. The domestic energy
rate is 47.77 cents/kWh.
b A 1500 W hair dryer is used for 10 minutes every day for 30 days. The energy rate is 19.4 cents/kWh.
c A 1200 W iron is used for 2 hours per day for 5 days. The energy rate is 24.4 cents/kWh.
d A 100 W light globe is left on for 5 hours per day for a year. The rate is 52.5 cents/kWh.
4 Many appliances consume electricity even when they are not operating. This is generally referred to
as stand-by power consumption.
i Calculate the annual energy consumption in kilowatt-hours for each household appliance listed
below if it is left on stand-by for 24 hours a day for a year.
ii Determine the annual cost of stand-by energy used for each appliance if the cost of electricity is
26 cents/kWh.
a Cordless phone with an average stand-by power consumption of 3 W
b Television with an average stand-by power consumption of 10 W
c Computer monitor with an average stand-by power consumption of 5 W
d Clock radio with an average stand-by power consumption of 4 W
e Personal computer with an average stand-by power consumption of 2 W
5 a Calculate the cost of running a 1400 W pool filter for 2 hours per day for a year if the peak rate is
47.77 cents/kWh.
b How much could be saved by programming the filter to operate in the off-peak period of the day when
the cost is 19.4 cents/kWh?

6 What is the difference in the annual running costs for the two models of dishwasher in each of the
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G , R E A S O N I N G A N D J U S T I F I C AT I O N following pairs of washers, given that the energy cost is 39.65 cents/kWh?
a Gold DL10: energy consumption of 230 kWh/year
and: Gold DL20: energy consumption of 275 kWh/year
b Speedy G123: energy consumption of 231 kWh/year
and: Speedy G456: energy consumption of 324 kWh/year
7 What is the difference in the annual running costs for the two models of television in each of the following
pairs of televisions, given that the energy cost is 42.84 cents/kWh?
a Sonic LED 138.8 cm screen: energy consumption of 261 kWh/year
and: Sonic LED 98 cm screen: energy consumption of 141 kWh/year
b Yanso LCD 66 cm screen: energy consumption of 241 kWh/year
and: Yanso LCD 100 cm screen: energy consumption of 561 kWh/year
8 The energy consumption of four 450 L refrigerators is shown in this table.

a Calculate the annual cost of running each of the
refrigerators if the cost of electricity is $0.47/kWh. Brand Energy Energy consumption
b How much can be saved per year using a refrigerator rating (kWh/year)
1 stars compared with a
with a rating of 3__ A 3__12 stars 352
2
refrigerator with each of the following ratings? B 3 stars 396
i 3 stars C 2__12 stars 484
ii 2__1 stars D 1__12 stars 586
2
iii 1__1 stars
2
9 a A house uses 12 standard 100 W light globes. Assuming that, on average, each globe is used for
3 h/day, calculate the annual cost of the lighting for the house if electricity costs 39 cents/kWh.
b How much could be saved each year by replacing the standard globes with energy-efficient
20 W globes?
energy
10 Power is the rate at which energy is used; that is, Power = ______.
CHALLENGE
time
The international standard (SI) unit for power is the watt (W), which
is defined as:
1 watt = 1 joule/second, where the amount of energy is measured in
joules (J)
So: 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W = 1000 J/s
Investigate the rate of energy consumption (the power rating) of
these common appliances and physical activities:
a an electric kettle b fast running
c playing tennis d an electric room heater
e doing aerobics f a car engine
g swimming or cycling h a laptop computer
Hint: the power ratings of electrical appliances can be found
directly from labels on the appliances or from power rating
tables. For the physical activities, convert the rate of energy use
to joules/second (watts).

CHAPTER 13 REVIEW UNITS OF ENERGY AND MASS
✔ convert between the commonly used metric units for mass and energy
✔ calculate the total energy intake from food based on the amount of protein, fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre it
contains
✔ calculate the total energy intake consumed in meals
✔ given the length of time a physical activity is performed, estimate the number of kilojoules burned per kilogram
of body weight
✔ use the Schofield formula and the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate a person’s basal metabolic rate (BMR)
✔ use basal metabolic rate and physical activity level to estimate the energy output required to maintain a lifestyle
✔ use basal metabolic rate and physical activity level to estimate the energy required to perform individual
activities
✔ estimate the time required to burn kilojoules
✔ interpret information about a household electricity bill
✔ interpret the energy ratings of household appliances and calculate the cost of running these appliances.

13A 1 Which of these mass measurements is equivalent to 5.06 g?
A 0.005 06 mg B 5060 mg C 0.0506 mg D 506 mg
13A 2 A patient is prescribed 480 mg of a painkiller. The painkiller is supplied in a syrup with a concentration of
16 mg/3 mL. The amount of this syrup that should be given to the patient is:
A 9 mL B 90 mL C 2560 mL D 10 mL
13B 3 Which of the following is equivalent to 570 joules?

A 0.057 kJ B 0.57 kJ C 57 000 kJ D 570 000 kJ
13B 4 To the nearest joule, which of the following is equivalent to 1.4 kcal?
A 1.4 kJ B 0.586 kJ C 5.858 kJ D 0.335 kJ
13C 5 Two slices of wholegrain bread contain 8.6 g of protein, 4.0 g of fat, 24.8 g of carbohydrate and 6.2 g of dietary
fibre. The average amount of energy provided by these nutrients is:
• protein 17 kJ/g
• fat 38 kJ/g
What is the energy supplied by one slice of this bread?
A 192.35 kJ B 384.7 kJ C 769.4 kJ D 1538.5 kJ
13D 6 A person who performs aerobics burns 10.8 kJ/kg/30 minutes. The energy burned by a 58 kg woman who does
50 minutes of aerobics is:
A 376 kJ B 626 kJ C 1044 kJ D 1253 kJ

13D 7 The Harris–Benedict formula for estimating basal metabolic rate (BMR) in kJ/day from weight in kilograms,
height in centimetres and age in years is:
Females:
BMR (kJ/day) = 2783 + (40.0 × weight in kilograms) + (7.7 × height in centimetres) – (19.6 × age in years)
Males:
BMR (kJ/day) = 278 + (57.5 × weight in kilograms) + (20.9 × height in centimetres) – (28.2 × age in years)
Using the appropriate formula, an estimate of the BMR of a 45-year-old man, who weighs 87 kg and
is 1.78 m tall, is:
A 5395 kJ B 6752 kJ C 4049 kJ D 7732 kJ
13D 8 A woman who weighs 52 kg has a BMR of 5306 kJ/day. The physical activity level (PAL) for cross-country
skiing is 7.5. The energy burned by the woman if she goes cross-country skiing for 2 hours is:
A 1531 kJ B 3316 kJ C 79 590 kJ D 172 432 kJ
13D 9 A man has a BMR of 6854 kJ/day. How long, to the nearest minute, would it take him to burn 2000 kJ by
running if the PAL for this exercise is 10.1?
A 5768 min B 177 min C 84 min D 42 min
13E 10 Given that the cost of electricity is 52.68 cents/kWh, which of the following is the cost of running
a 2200 W electric heater for 5 hours a day for 70 days?
A $81.13 B $579.49 C $162.26 D $405.64
REVIEW SET 1
1 Convert:
a 2.4 g to kilograms b 5630 g to kilograms c 4.846 t to kilograms
2 A patient is prescribed 400 mg of a painkiller. Calculate how much medication must be given if it is available
in these concentrations.
a 5 mg in 1 mL b 50 mg in 5 mL c 100 mg in 5 mL.
3 Convert:
a 19.28 kJ to joules b 2634 J to kilojoules c 820 kJ to Calories.

a 47 cal b 1.096 kcal c 2 Cal
5 Every 100 g of chicken and sweetcorn soup contains 2.0 g of protein, 2.3 g of fat, 7.0 g of carbohydrate and
1.0 g of dietary fibre. If one serving of the soup is 265 g, calculate the total energy content in one serving.
6 Use Table 13-2 on page 494 to estimate the energy burned by the body when performing each of the following
activities.
a A 55 kg girl walks for 45 minutes.

b A 62 kg woman does aerobics for 40 minutes.
c A 78 kg boy plays basketball for 1 hour.
MEASUREMENT
7 Use the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
a a 27-year-old man who weighs 86 kg and whose height is 176 cm
b a 36-year-old woman who weighs 62 kg and is 167 cm tall.

1 hours.
8 A 25-year-old woman, who weighs 58 kg, plays table tennis for 1__
2
a Use the Schofield formula to estimate her BMR.
b Use Table 13-5 on page 499 to help you calculate the amount of energy required to perform the exercise
described.
9 Calculate the cost of running a 350 W television for 8 hours when the cost of electricity is 47.77 cents/kWh.
REVIEW SET 2
1 Convert:
a 2900 mg to grams b 7.06 kg to grams c 940 kg to tonnes.
2 A patient is prescribed 600 mg of a painkiller. Calculate how much medication must be given to the patient if
the medication is available in these concentrations.
3 Convert:
a 1.608 kcal to calories b 5205 cal to kilocalories c 10 000 cal to Calories

a 345 J b 2.84 kJ c 7.65 Cal
5 Use Table 13-1 on page 492 to help you calculate Eliza’s total energy intake for the day if she consumes the
following meals.
Breakfast: __1 cup of natural muesli, 1 cup of reduced fat milk, 1 boiled egg, 1 slice of grain bread,
3
1 tbs of margarine
__
2
Lunch: 2 long sushi rolls, 1 tub of low-fat yoghurt (200 mL), 1 apple, 1 bottle of water (600 mL)
Dinner: 2 baked chicken thighs (skin removed), 1 boiled potato, __1 cup of broccoli, __
1 cup of carrots,
2 2
1 glass of white wine (200 mL)
6 Use the Schofield formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
a a 31-year-old female who weighs 59 kg b a 65-year-old man who weighs 88 kg.
7 A 42-year-old male bus driver weighs 83 kg and does no strenuous leisure activities.
a Use the Schofield formula to estimate his BMR.
b Using the information in Table 13-4 on page 497, estimate the energy output required to maintain the bus
driver’s lifestyle.

a Use the Schofield formula to estimate
her BMR.
b Using the information in Table 13-5 on
page 499, how long would it take for the
woman to burn 1200 kJ by swimming at
3 km/h?
9 Calculate the cost of running a 175 watt ceiling

fan for 4 hours a day for 60 days when the cost
of electricity is 54.6 cents/kWh.

REVIEW SET 3
1 Convert:
a 17.61 g to milligrams b 62 805 g to kilograms c 3.604 t to kilograms.
2 A man has been prescribed 750 mg of penicillin for an infection. The penicillin is available in a syrup which
contains 125 mg of penicillin in every 8 mL. How much syrup should be given?
3 Convert:
a 23.05 kJ to joules b 2900 J to kilojoules c 415 kJ to Calories.

a 124 cal b 1.08 kcal c 7.5 Cal
5 Every 100 g of canned spaghetti and tomato sauce contains 1.7 g of protein, 0.2 g of fat, 11.0 g of
carbohydrate and 0.8 g of dietary fibre. Calculate the total energy intake if you ate one 220 g can of this
spaghetti and tomato sauce.
6 Use Table 13-2 on page 494 to estimate the energy that is burned by the
following people’s bodies during the given activities.
a A 70 kg girl walks for 1__12 h.
b A 95 kg man plays golf for 3__12 h.
c A 65 kg boy plays tennis for 80 minutes.
7 Use the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
a a 48-year-old woman who weighs 72 kg and whose height is 170 cm
b a 14-year-old girl who weighs 48 kg and is 1.55 m tall.
8 A 52-year-old man, who weighs 79 kg, plays volleyball for 50 minutes.

b Use the information from Table 13-5 on page 499 to help you calculate the
amount of energy required for the man to perform the exercise described.
9 a Complete this table to find the total usage charges for the electricity bill to which it refers.
Energy used (kWh) Rate ($/kWh) Cost ($)

Peak 583.6 0.5144
Flexi 892.8 0.2136
Off-peak 291.7 0.139
Total
b The service availability charge is 78.67 cents/day. If the billing period was 91 days, calculate the total
availability charge for the bill.

c Find the total amount payable for the bill if a 5.5% discount is applied and then GST is added.
d Would it make any difference to the amount paid if the discount was applied after the GST had been added?
MEASUREMENT
10 a A computer monitor has a stand-by power usage of 4 watts. Calculate the annual energy consumption in
kilowatt-hours if the monitor is left on stand-by for 20 hours every day for a year.
b Determine the cost of the stand-by energy used when the cost of electricity is 26.9 cents/kWh.

REVIEW SET 4
1 Convert:
a 780 mg to grams b 31.206 kg to grams c 289.6 kg to tonnes.
2 A woman is prescribed 60 mg of an anti-nausea drug which is available in a suspension containing

15 mg/8 mL. How much of the suspension should she be given?
3 Convert:
a 3.14 kcal to calories b 980 cal to kilocalories c 60 Cal to kilojoules.

a 178 J b 3.05 kJ c 4.93 Cal
5 Use Table 13-1 on page 492 to calculate

Jamie’s total energy intake for the day if he
consumes the following meals.
Breakfast: 1 cup of cornflakes, 1 cup of
regular milk, 3 slices of white
bread (toasted) with 2 tbs
of butter and 3 tsp of honey,
1 banana
Lunch: 1 meat pie, 1 serve of hot chips,
1 flavoured milk (600 mL)
Dinner: 1 cup plain boiled pasta,
250 g of tomato pasta sauce,
2 glasses of red wine (each
200 mL)
6 Use the Schofield formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
a a 10-year-old boy who weighs 32 kg b a 7-year-old girl who weighs 23 kg.
7 A 27-year-old woman, who weighs 54 kg, works as

a fitness trainer.
a Use the Schofield formula to estimate her
BMR.
b Use the information in Table 13-4 on page 497
to help you estimate the energy output required
for this fitness trainer to maintain her lifestyle.

b Use the information in Table 13-5 on page 499
to help you calculate how long it would take for
the man to burn 1500 kJ by walking at 7 km/h?
9 Calculate the annual cost of running the average

Sydney home, which uses 21 kWh of energy
each day, given that the cost of electricity is
47.77 cents/kWh.

1 a A large park of area 1.2 ha is to be fertilised at the rate of 14 g/m2.
i Calculate, in kilograms, the amount of fertiliser needed. (2 marks)
ii If the fertiliser is only available in 25 kg bags, how many bags are needed? (1 mark)
b Convert 3.6 kcal to kilojoules. (Answer to the nearest kilojoule.) (2 marks)
c Every 100 g of savoury biscuits contains 7.8 g of protein, 23.1 g of fat, 62.2 g of carbohydrates
and 3.7 g of dietary fibre. The average amount of energy provided by these nutrients is:
• protein 17 kJ/g
• fat 38 kJ/g
Calculate the energy intake from eating 30 g of these biscuits. (2 marks)
d i In order to stay the same weight, we need to consume about the same amount of energy
as we burn. For an 18-year-old girl, who does an average level of activity, to maintain
a normal lifestyle, the recommended average energy intake is 9100 kJ/day. Jennifer is
18 years old and her energy intake from meals in one day was 10 200 kJ. What percentage
of the average daily intake for an 18-year-old girl is Jennifer’s energy intake? (1 mark)
ii Jennifer weighs 64 kg. Calculate her BMR using the Schofield formula, shown in the
table below, where W is weight in kilograms. (1 mark)
Age Formula (kJ/day)
<3 244 × W – 130

3–10 85 × W + 2033
11–18 56 × W + 2898
19–30 62 × W + 2036
31–60 34 × W + 3538
>60 38 × W + 2755
iii For how long would Jennifer need to play soccer to burn the extra energy she consumed
on this day, given that the PAL for this exercise is 9.8? (3 marks)
e i Calculate the amount of energy needed to run a 2200 watt room heater for 4 hours a day
for 90 days. (2 marks)
ii If the price of electricity is 33.6 cents/kWh, how much could be saved in a year by only
putting the heater on for 3 hours a day instead of 4 hours a day? (1 mark)
TOTAL: 15 MARKS
MEASUREMENT

1 The table below shows part of the rates and charges notice for a Sydney council.
Details Rate ($) Rateable value ($) Amount ($)
Residential – on land value 0.001 334 74 per $ 499 000 666.04
rateable value
Residential – base amount 525 525
Domestic waste availability charge 180 180
Domestic waste-management charge 388 388
Total of this notice
a What is the rateable value of the land on which this property is situated?
b Consider the charges for residential land.
i What is the residential rate, in dollars, for properties in this council area?
ii Multiply the residential rate from part i by the rateable value of the land. Is this the amount in the
last column for ‘Residential – on land value’?
c Consider the charges for domestic waste services.
i What is the availability charge?
ii What is the management charge?
iii Calculate the total charge for waste services.
d Calculate the total rates payable.
e Calculate the total rates payable for another residential property in this municipality if that property has
a rateable land value of $635 000.
2 The stamp duty on the purchase of a motor car is 3% of the value up to $45 000 and 5% for amounts in
excess of $45 000.
a Calculate the stamp duty on a car valued at $16 950.
b Calculate the stamp duty on a car valued at $105 000.
3 The following table gives the monthly repayments ($) for every $1000 borrowed on a reducing-balance
car loan.
Interest rate (%p.a.) Term of loan (months)
12 24 36 48 60
8 86.99 45.23 31.34 24.41 20.28
9 87.45 45.68 31.80 24.89 20.76
10 87.92 46.14 32.27 25.36 21.25
4 A car depreciates in value from $40 900 to $25 440 in 3 years.

a Use the straight-line method to calculate the annual amount of depreciation.

5 a A car travels 520 km on 48 L of petrol. Calculate the fuel consumption for the trip in:

i km/L ii L/km iii L/100 km.
b How far can a vehicle travel on 45 L of fuel if fuel consumption is 8.4 L/100 km?
6 Tugre is in Year 11 and lives at home with her parents. She has a
part-time job and earns $170 per week. She pays $40 per week
for board, spends $100 per month on clothes, $65 per fortnight
on entertainment, and $85 per fortnight on driving lessons. She
saves whatever is left.
a Prepare a budget for Tugre.
b Tugre wants to buy a car at the end of the year. How much
will she expect to have saved to spend?
c If Tugre wants to spend more on a car, what aspects of her
budget can she modify to help her save more?
7 a Find the mean, mode, median and range of these scores:

Class Frequency
6 6 6 7 8 8 8 8 10
b Consider the grouped data shown in the table on the right. 1–5 16
i Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column. 6–10 8
ii Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive. 11–15 18
iii From the ogive, determine the median and fourth decile. 16–20 31
iv Estimate the interquartile range. 21–25 9
c For the scores 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12 and 13, find:
i the 1st, 2nd and 3rd quartiles ii the interquartile range.
d Organise the following data into a stem-and-leaf plot:
56, 58, 74, 62, 54, 50, 51, 73, 60, 71, 59, 65, 49, 78, 65, 56, 48, 48, 64, 57
e Use your stem-and-leaf plot from part d to determine the:
i range ii mode iii median iv interquartile range.
f Draw a box-plot for these scores: 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 12.
g The mean of a set of data is 11.3 and the standard deviation is 2.9. What is the new mean and standard
deviation if:
i 5 is added to each score? ii each score is multiplied by 5?
h Find the mean, mode, median, range and population standard deviation (σn) of these
scores: 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6.
8 a Draw a smooth curve representing the data in this histogram.

b Describe this curve in terms of skewness.
14
12
10
Frequency
8
6
4
2
0
8 9 10 11 12 13
Number

9 The following are scores in a mathematics test:
40, 41, 39, 30, 45, 57, 43, 38, 16, 68, 36, 54, 41, 23, 38.
a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot of this data.
b Determine whether the distribution of scores is symmetrical, positively skewed or negatively skewed.
10 For the scores 3, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10 and 10, determine the:
a mean b median c range
d interquartile range e population standard deviation.
11 The comparative box-plots on the right show the times (in seconds)
for male and female competitors to complete a triathlon.
Females
a What was the fastest time for this event?
b How long did it take the first half of the male competitors
Males
to finish?
c How long did it take the first quarter of the female
competitors to finish?
6000 7000 8000 9000 10 000 11 000
d Which group had the greatest range of times? Time (s)
e Which group had the smallest interquartile range of times?
12 a Mobile telephone calls cost 75 cents per minute. This table shows time versus cost for the calls.
Time (min) y
1 2 3 4 5 6
8
Cost ($) 0.75 1.50 2.25 3.00 3.75 4.50 6
4
i Draw the graph of time versus cost. Which is the dependent variable?
2
ii Use the graph to find the cost of a 2.5 min call.
−1 1 2 3 x
iii What is the maximum length of a call that costs $2.50? −2
−4
b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the straight-line graph on the right.
c Sketch the straight-line graph y = −3 − 4x.
d A graph modelling taxi charges is shown on the right. Taxi hire charges
i Find the cost of travelling 75 km.
50
ii How far can you travel for $50? 40
Cost ($)
iii Find the gradient. What is the meaning of the gradient 30

in this context? 20
iv Find the intercept on the vertical axis. What is its 10
meaning in this context? 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
v Is this an example of direct variation? Explain. Distance (km)
e Given that y ∝ x, and y = 4.5 when x = 18, find:

i the constant of variation ii the equation for y in terms of x
iii y, when x = 48 iv x, when y = 8.
13 Complete this table of values for y = 3x − 2 and draw the straight-line graph on a number plane.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y

14 For its bow ties, the Polka Dot Tie Company has fixed costs of $900 per day and a variable cost of $8 per

tie. The daily cost may be modelled using the straight-line equation C = 8n + 900.
a Explain each term in the formula.
n 0 50 100 150 200 250
C
c Draw the straight-line graph of C = 8n + 900.

d Use your graph from part c to find the number of ties produced if the cost is $1940.
15 a Convert each of the following masses to kilograms.
i 3.4 g ii 14 630 g iii 4.113 t
b A patient is prescribed 500 mg of a painkiller. Calculate how much must be given if the medication is
available in these concentrations.
i 5 mg in 1 mL ii 50 mg in 5 mL iii 10 mg in 5 mL
c Convert:
i 1.428 kcal to calories ii 6605 cal to kilocalories. iii 1200 kJ to Calories
d Convert each energy measurement to calories.
i 245 J ii 1.84 kJ iii 6.5 Cal
e Every 100 g of canned ravioli contains 1.8 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 12.0 g of carbohydrate and
0.7 g of dietary fibre. Calculate the total energy intake if one 220 g can is eaten.
16 a Use the Schofield formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
i a 34-year-old female who weighs 58 kg
ii a 62-year-old man who weighs 92 kg.
b Use the Harris–Benedict formula to calculate the basal metabolic rate for:
i a 39-year-old woman who weighs 75 kg and whose height is 170 cm
ii a 14-year-old girl who weighs 55 kg and is 1.45 m tall.
17 Calculate the annual cost of running the average Sydney home, which uses 27 kWh of energy each day,
given that the cost of electricity is 47.77 cents/kWh.

ANSWERS b i $21.53
c i $32.39
ii $28.70
ii $43.18
d i $28.05 ii $37.40
CHAPTER 1 EARNING AND MANAGING MONEY 3 $865.74 4 $1163.40
5 $701.72 6 $739.03
ARE YOU READY? 7 $565.60
8 a 8, 5, $1368 b 3, $90
1 A 2 D 3 C 4 C c $1368, $90, $1458
5 D 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 $750.50 10 $918.50
9 D 10 B 11 A 12 A 11 $613 12 3, $43 600, $1308
13 C 14 A 13 a $2650 b $7400 c $11 112.12
d $19 632 e $25 345.20 f $40 664.40
EXERCISE 1A EARNING AN INCOME 14 a $619.50 b $660.80 c $708 d $672.60
1 a $19 884.80, $1657.07 b 52, $382.40 15 4, $2692; 17__21 , $2692, $471.10; $471.10, $3163.10
c $19 884.80, 26, $764.80 16 $2528.60
2 $1671.62 17 a $2871.70 b $2476.90 c $5081.17
3 a i $3241.92 ii $748.13 iii $1496.27 18 a $1997.50 b $1692 c $2021
b i $2258.83 ii $521.27 iii $1042.54 d $3172.50 e $4219.43
c i $2508.17 ii $578.81 iii $1157.62 19 a $2550.08 b $446.26 c $2996.34
d i $9155.83 ii $2112.88 iii $4225.77 20 $760.76 21 $1288.65
e i $6256.33 ii $1443.77 iii $2887.54 22 a $376.60 b No, $336 c $47.08 per hour
f i $4249.17 ii $980.58 iii $1961.15 23 Normal hours Overtime hours Weekly wage
4 a 52, $21 892.00 b 12, $1824.33
a 20 23__21 $1071.85
5 a $19 708 b $1642.33
6 Cooke: $44 092.88, Moussa: $53 095.12, b 20 25__21 $1130.05
Boje: $32 788.08, Lambert: $29 659.76
7 a $796.12 b $676.85 c $1801.43 c 20 30 $1261.00
d $3019.23 e $1661.35 f $6191 d 12 20__1 $829.35
2
8 a Kylie earns $4461.20 more than Stacey.
b Paul earns $8393 more than Roland. e 18 14 $756.60
c Aaron earns $4726.40 more than Joshua. f 20 31 $1290.10
9 a $28.45, $227.60 b $28.45, 38, $1081.10
10 $761.25 11 $794.20 24 $12 522.25
12 a $355.20 b $532.80 c $777.00 d $910.20 25 $762.10 26 $923.75
13 a $259.74 b $505.05 c $577.20 d $692.64 27 $859.44 28 $749
14 a 38, $820.80 b 52, $42 681.60 29 a $1295.61 b $36 895.61
15 $115 398.40 16 $44 005.52 30 a $26 b $24.50
17 a $54 527.20, $1048.60 b $1048.6, 35, $29.96 31 a $539 b $15.40
18 $23.41 19 $21.37 32 b =B6*2*B7
20 a Rodney: i 37 ii $991.60
b Anastasia: i 36 ii $964.80
21
EXERCISE 1C COMMISSION, PIECEWORK AND ROYALTIES
Name Hours worked Hourly rate Weekly wage
1 7, ___
7
, $1350, $94.50
S. Smith 25 __21 $29.40 $749.70 100
2 a $10 500 b $1221 c $59
D. De Souza 32 $26.30 $841.60 d $20 e $2160 f $13 867
A. Bentley 19 $32.20 $611.80 3 $31 200 4 $3360
C. Johnson 17 $30.34 $515.78 5 $45 180
K. Kernell 20 $18.74 $374.80 6 a 9, $2800, $2800, $252 b $252, $532
P. Patrick 23.5 $19.83 $466.01 7 a $278.02 b $357.51 c $555.12
22 $39 683.28 23 $51 251.20 d $672.61 e $685.95 f $865.60
24 a i $855 ii $3705 8 $617.50 9 $19 736
b $28.50 10 $350, 9.4 11 14.5%
25 a 15 b 10 c $444.25 12 12.3%
26 a $1517.38 per week b $33.72 per hour 13 a $3168 b 4% c 14.7%
27 a Option A by $35.83 b Option B by $78.36 d $15 055.20 e 5.75% f $43 253
c Option B by $148.31 14 $3423.60 15 $5880
28 a $35 360 b $650 16 a $135 b $184.50 c $238.44 d $296.80
c Armin by $30 per week 17 a $184.67 b $173.21 c $28 d $228
d This assumes 48 weeks in a year but there are 52. 18 $1.80, $540 19 $1159.20
20 $645 21 $100.50
22 $659.40
EXERCISE 1B ALLOWANCES, BONUSES AND LOADINGS
23 a $130, $1040 b $1040, $29.71
1 a $22.24, 5, $33.36 b $22.24, 2, $44.48 24 a $2320 b $66.29
2 a i $17.75 ii $23.66 25 a $900 b $22.50

26 45, $36; $0.80, 60, $97; $36, $97, $133 c i $1229.59 ii $0
ANSWERS
27 a $624.41 b $632.34 iii $12 943 iv $1229.59
28 12.3, $68 000, $8364 d i $3904.31 ii $2054.90
29 a $3792.33 b $26 798.15 iii $39 043.10 iv $5959.21
c $2979.64 d $37 684.50 e i $2179.30 ii $0
30 a $21 400 b $22 800 c Tony by $1400 iii $22 940 iv $2179.30
31 a Karla b 10.2% f i $6070.60 ii $3834.06
32 The second method is better by $32.25. iii $60 066.94 iv $9904.66
33 $9270 34 $1145.60 12 $920.53, $118.63
35 a $837.40 b $550.10 c $17.19 13 $42 965, $2148.25; $42 965, $2148.25, $40 451.75
36 a $542.60 b $33.91 14 $37 800.47
37 2.5% 15 a $4279.22 b $2334.12
38 a $2835.60 b $3370.06 c $2440 d $3697.32 c $31 615.96 d $608.00
16 a $93 840 b $7820
EXERCISE 1D GOVERNMENT ALLOWANCES AND PENSIONS 17 a $140 943 b $156 972 c $57 973.76
1 a $437.50 per fortnight b $437.00 per fortnight

c $1192.34 per fortnight EXERCISE 1F TAXABLE INCOME
2 a $288.10 per fortnight b $437.00 per fortnight 1 $45 320, $665, $46 452.50, $46 452; $340, $45, $445;
c $939.34 per fortnight $46 452, $445, $46 007
3 a $288.10 per fortnight b $143.00 per fortnight 2 $39 731 3 $29 156 4 $55 805
c $648.67 per fortnight 5 Tasman: $45 830, Polding: $36 932, Flockhart: $72 398,
4 a $437.50 per fortnight b $143.00 per fortnight Gen: $13 303, Old: $26 578
c $901.67 per fortnight 6 2, $42 756, $855.12
5 a $437.50 per fortnight b No 7 a $780.42 b $898.12 c $877.58
c Yes, fortnightly payment reduces by $6.50. d $922.20 e $1219.16 f $0
d $1192.34 per fortnight 8 $24 369, $3034, 3034, $303.40
6 a $288.10 per fortnight 9 a $66.50 b $119.50 c $0 d $0
b Yes, fortnightly payment reduces by $8.50 10 a $2930.58 b $6175.61 c $0 d $2315.96
c No d $648.67 per fortnight 11 a $54 227 b $51 373 c $9832
7 a $288.10 b $501, $64
c 0.50, $32 d $288.10, $256.10 EXERCISE 1G CALCULATING TAX
8 $208.50 9 $403.50
10 $288.10 11 $274.60 per fortnight 1 $37 001–$87 000, third; $47 953, $10 953; $3572, $10 953,
12 $208 per fortnight $7131.73
13 a $573.30 b $524 c $40, $24 2 a $23 360.68 b $7443.08 c $0 d $2432
d $43.50 e $40, $83.50 3 Premier: $143 233, Deputy: $116 754, Minister: $102 614,
f $573.30, $83.50, $489.80 Secretary: $79 283, Whip: $56 658
14 $162.40 per fortnight 15 $184 per fortnight 4 Dentistry: $19 172, Medicine: $11 372,
16 $332.80 per fortnight 17 $174.60 per fortnight Optometry: $17 547, Engineering: $12 997,
18 $1138.10 per fortnight 19 $580.30 per fortnight Computer science: $10 722, Veterinary science: $7797,
20 $1602.60 Education: $12 867, Accounting: $9422,
21 Jessica will no longer receive an age pension. Psychology: $12 022
5 a $34 596 b $3115.24
6 a $6984.50 b $950 c $7934.50
EXERCISE 1E DEDUCTIONS AND NET INCOME 7 a $19 900 b $323 c $0 d $323
1 a $56, $6.80, $62.80 b $642.90, $580.10 8 a $5203, $94 655
2 $663.75 b $94 655, $2612, $92 043
3 a $800.27 b $529.32 c $3572, $94 655, $19 412.90
4 a $670 b $800 d $19 412.90, $1454.50
5 a $19.32 b $83.70 c $251.10 d $996 9 a $35 312 b $706.24
6 a $11.13 b $578.76 c $3.76 d $5.08 c $3251.28 d $1166.38 refund
7 a $23.28 b $8.64 10 a $31 170 b $623.40
8 Intermediate hospital Level 3 ($1000 excess) c $2464.30 d $128.20 refund
9 a Basic hospital Level 2 ($500 excess) 11 a $88 985 b $75 101
b Intermediate hospital Level 2 ($500 excess) c $15 954.80 d $33.20 refund
c Intermediate hospital Level 1 ($250 excess) 12 a $129 340 b $127 990 c $2559.80
d Intermediate hospital Level 3 ($1000 excess) d $34 988.30 e $35 803 f $1745.10 refund
10 a $41 922, $3982.59 13 a $8243.23 b $1027.46 c $561.32 refund
b 4, $41 922, $1676.88
c $41 922, $40 245.12 REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
d $1676.88, $3982.59, $5659.47
1 C 2 A 3 D 4 A 5 D
11 a i $3587.58 ii $377.64
6 A 7 D 8 C 9 B 10 D
iii $37 386.36 iv $3965.22
11 A 12 C 13 B 14 D 15 C
b i $4578.34 ii $3373.51
16 B 17 A
iii $44 819.49 iv $7951.85
Answers 517

ANSWERS REVIEW SET 1 CHAPTER 2 PRACTICALITIES OF MEASUREMENT
1 $79 716 2 $23.16 3 $802.17
4 $885 5 $3271.20 6 $8118 ARE YOU READY?
7 $81.40 8 $6866.64 1 D 2 B 3 B 4 D
9 a $437.50 per fortnight 5 D 6 B 7 A 8 A
b $1192.34 per fortnight 9 C 10 C 11 B 12 C
10 $989.90 per fortnight 13 B
11 $650.69 12 $538.31 13 $14.76
14 $35 022 15 $253.82 EXERCISE 2A SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
16 a $10 191.60 b $2481.21 c $0
d $18 304.25 1 a 5; 6; bigger than, 5370, 5360; 5370
17 a $48 533 b $970.66 b 6; 5; smaller than, 0.0625, 0.0626; 0.0625
c $7320.23 d $687.51 refund 2 a 40 000 b 60 c 5 d 100
e 0.7 f 0.008 g 0.03 h 1000
REVIEW SET 2 3 a 290 000 b 4000 c 25 d 2700
e 8.6 f 0.049 g 0.000 16 h 0.0040
1 $1201.44, $34.33 2 $49 271.04 4 a 3690 b 20 700 c 154 000 d 813
3 $549.70 4 $545 e 14.3 f 0.003 51 g 0.0391 h 2.00
5 a $550.62 b $17.21 5 a i 20 ii 17 iii 17.3
6 $1605.38 7 $186.40 per fortnight b i 0.5 ii 0.45 iii 0.451
8 $452.94 9 $511.95 c i 500 000 ii 520 000 iii 522 000
10 $25.64 11 $1676.16, $207.36 d i 0.002 ii 0.0021 iii 0.002 10
12 $71 782 13 $98.20 6 3.286
14 a $13 285.93 b $2994.81 __
7 1__52 (= 1.4), √2 (= 1.41…), __10 •
(= 1.42…), 1.4 (= 1.44…)
c $222.11 d $0 7
15 a $42 995 b $859.90 8 316.6 mm
c $5520.38 d $583.02 refund 9 a 417.3 km b 73 km/h
10 a 6402.0 km b 40 225 km c 92.8 min
REVIEW SET 3
1 $574.63 2 $20.02 3 $928.20
EXERCISE 2B SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
4 $347.10 5 $3539.10 6 $304.50 1 a Yes b No c No d No
7 $26 048.40 8 $168.00 per fortnight 2 a Yes b No c No d Yes
9 $577.80 10 $739.32 11 $11.13 e No f No g No h Yes
12 $49 561 13 $601.60 3 a 2.430 00; 5, right, 5; 2.43 × 105
14 a $15 127.70 b $4122.55 b 5.86; 4, left, 4; 5.86 × 10−4
c $572.09 d $0 4 a 5.26 × 105 b 2.8 × 104 c 7 × 106
15 a $52 913 b $1058.26 d 4.98 × 104 e 2.8 × 107 f 6.03 × 108
c $8743.73 d $1388.55 payable g 9.1 × 105 h 1.32 × 1010
5 a 4.3 × 10 −4
b 8.21 × 10−3 c 7 × 10−6
REVIEW SET 4 d 2.9 × 10 −5
e 6.5 × 10 −2
f 3.87 × 10−4
g 8.2 × 10−6 h 6 × 10−5
1 $31.58 2 $36 457.20
6 a 6, right, 5 480 000 b 5, left, 0.000 030 9
3 $476.85 4 $597.70
7 a 3 400 000 b 830 000 000
5 a $465.04 b $15.50
c 29 400 000 d 258 000
6 $1866.15 7 $12 367
e 526 000 f 3 020 000 000 000
8 $348.40 per fortnight
g 29 000 000 h 875 000 000
9 $1150.60 per fortnight
8 a 0.000 59 b 0.000 003 2 c 0.000 000 071
10 $741.30 11 $652.23
d 0.002 e 0.000 000 8 f 0.000 026 4
12 $18.59 13 $28 360
g 0.000 000 008 67 h 0.000 002 97
14 a $9497.73 b $2009.25
9 a 1.07 × 1016 b 4.76 × 1022 c 3.22 × 1017
c $0 d $764.75
d 1.39 × 10 −14
e 3.36 × 10 11
f 1.25 × 1020
15 a $54 002 b $1080.04
g 5.28 × 10 −16
h 4.68 × 10 24
i 2.40 × 108
c $9097.65 d $133.25 payable
j 8.25 × 108 k 1.69 × 1021 l 2.62 × 10−55
10 a 2.29 × 108 b 2.54 × 10−11 c 3 × 1027
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION d 1.3 × 105 e 1 × 1013
1 a i $33 904 ii $17.16 11 a 31 600 000 b 0.000 000 89 c 2 600 000
iii No. $33 904 ÷ 12 = $2825.33 d 30 000 000 000 e 0.000 26
b $4446.20 12 a 3 × 105
c No; he would receive $20 less per week. b i 1.8 × 107 km ii 1.08 × 109 km
d $740.68 per fortnight iii 2.592 × 10 km10
iv 9.4608 × 1012 km
e i $1873.28 ii $43 755.72 c 7.38 × 107 km

13 12 a 35 000 L b 15 900 mL c 1650 mL d 850 L
ANSWERS
a 5.1 × 108 km2 b 1.1 × 1012 km3
14 9.4 × 10 km
8 e 60 mL f 1080 L g 15 mL h 5L
15 a 10 000 000 000 b 280 km 13 1 000 000 = 106 mL
17 a i 3.333 × 10–7 ii 3.030 × 10–1 14 a 15 L b 8 kL c 7.6 L d 0.8 L
b 3.030 × 10–1 e 9.28 kL f 0.725 kL g 0.095 L h 0.04 kL
c If the timekeeper starts the stopwatch when he or 15 a mL b kL c L d L
she sees the smoke, he or she will actually start the e L f kL g L h L
stopwatch 0.000 000 333 3 seconds late (because this 16 × 10 000 × 10 000 × 100
is the time it takes for the light to travel this distance). hectare square metres square centimetres square millimetres
Since the stopwatch only measures to the nearest 0.01 (ha) (m2) (cm2) (mm2)
of a second, this will make no difference to the timing
÷ 10 000 ÷ 10 000 ÷ 100
of the race. If the timekeeper starts the stopwatch when
he or she hears the gun, he or she will actually start the 17 a 26 000 m 2
b 49 000 cm c
2
1400 mm2
stopwatch 0.0303 seconds late (because this is the time d 7520 cm2 e 16 500 m2 f 2480 mm2
it takes for the sound to travel this distance). This will g 8 294 000 m2 h 5.671 × 1010 cm2
make the timing of the race 0.03 seconds less than the 18 a 6.3 ha b 12.7 m2 c 8.1 cm2
real time. d 4.568 m2 e 0.298 km2 f 240 ha
19 × 1 000 000 × 1000
EXERCISE 2C METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT cubic metres cubic centimetres cubic millimetres
(m3) (cm3) (mm3)
1 × 1000 × 100 × 10
÷ 1 000 000 ÷ 1000
kilometres metres centimetres millimetres
20 a 5000 mm
(km) (m) (cm) (mm) 3
b 3 900 000 cm c 25 600 mm3 3
÷ 1000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10 d 640 000 cm3 e 415 mm3 f 7 390 000 000 mm3
21 a 7.4 m3 b 56.7 cm3 c 0.69 m3 d 4.258 5 cm3
2 a 3600 m b 8400 mm c 3482 cm 22 a 14 kg b 9L
d 560 m e 290 cm f 964 mm 23 6.4 × 108 kL 24 2.5%
g 65.8 cm h 452 mm i 15 680 m 25 a 5.8 m3 (to one decimal place)
j 36.9 mm k 16 370 mm l 4265 m b i 0.0253 m2 ii 0.0288 m2 iii 2084
3 a i 100 000 ii 1 × 105
b i 1 000 000 ii 1 × 106
4 a 7 km b 5.94 m c 8.93 km EXERCISE 2D PREFIXES FOR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
d 6m e 4 cm f 0.085 km 1 a i 5.7 × 106 (5 700 000) m
g 8m h 32.8 cm i 0.62 m ii 9 × 10−2 (0.09) m
j 14.3 km k 0.86 m l 0.63 km iii 8 × 10−9 (0.000 000 008) m
m 9.4 cm n 0.07 m o 24.895 km b i 8 × 109 (8 000 000 000) g
p 23 m q 14.96 m r 162.7 m ii 4.2 × 10−3 (0.0042) g
s 36 m t 72.945 m iii 5 × 10−6 (0.000 005) g
5 a m b cm or mm c cm d cm c i 3 × 1012 (3 000 000 000 000) L
e cm or mm f mm g km h cm ii 2.8 × 106 (2 800 000) L
i m j km iii 7 × 10−3 (0.007) L
6 × 1000 × 1000 × 1000 2 a i 4.9 × 10−3 (0.0049) km
ii 4.9 × 106 (4 900 000) µm
(t) (kg) (g) (mg) iii 4.9 × 109 (4 900 000 000) nm
b i 2.4 × 10−6 (0.000 002 4) Mg
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
ii 2.4 × 10–12 (0.000 000 000 002 4) Tg
7 a 3600 kg b 7100 mg c 17840 g d 630 kg iii 2.4 × 106 (2 400 000) µg
e 4800 g f 2465 kg g 21590 kg h 600 mg c i 6.5 × 10−6 (0.000 006 5) ML
i 6060 kg j 489 g k 1070 kg l 30 mg ii 6.5 × 103 (6500) mL
8 a i 1 000 000 ii 1 × 106 iii 6.5 × 10–9 (0.000 000 006 5) GL
b i 1 000 000 000 ii 1 × 109 3 a 7.2 × 103 (7200) Mg
c i 1000 ii 1 × 103 b 2.9 × 107 (29 000 000) ng
9 a 8t b 4.3 kg c 2.74 g d 0.69 kg c 8 × 109 (8 000 000 000) km
e 0.065 g f 2.32 kg g 0.7 t h 0.46 g d 4.3 × 104 (43 000) µm
i 0.08 kg j 0.007 g k 0.009 t l 0.3 kg e 8.8 × 106 (8 800 000) ML
10 a kg bg c g d kg e t or kg f 9 × 106 (9 000 000) mL
f t or kg g mg hg i mg j g g 5.3 × 106 (5 300 000) ns
11 × 1000 × 1000 h 1.2 × 103 (1200) ns
4 9.46 × 103 (9460) Tm
5 2580 GL 6 228 000 000 km
kilolitres litres millilitres
(kL) (L) (mL)
7 1.67 × 10−9 ng 8 0.024 µs
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
Answers 519

13 a 292 cm
ANSWERS EXERCISE 2E ERROR AND ACCURACY IN MEASUREMENT b 163.5 cm, 164.5 cm and 127.5 cm, 128.5 cm
1 255 mm c 291 cm, 293 cm d ±1 cm
2 a 84 mm b 4.9 kg c 161 mL d 22.54 s 14 a 99 kg
4 a 13 cm b 14 cm c 14 cm d 15 cm b 46.5 kg, 47.5 kg and 51.5 kg, 52.5 kg
5 a No b 13.5 and 14.5 cm c 0.5 cm c 98 kg, 100 kg d ±1 kg
d Use a ruler with smaller units. 15 a 99.3 kg
6 two; one; three; 10.9 L, one; 37.174 L, 37.2 L, one b 47.35 kg, 47.45 kg and 51.85 kg, 51.95 kg
7 a 36 m b 65.3 L c 2.67 km d 12.9 kg c 99.2 kg, 99.4 kg d ±0.1 kg
8 two; three; 7.5 m, two; 92.25 m2, 92 m2, two 16 a 17.28 m2
9 a 130 m2 b 23 700 cm2 c 1.4 cm3 d 3.1 mm b 5.35 m, 5.45 m and 3.15 m, 3.25 m
10 512 m 11 4.2 cm2 12 11 m2 13 20.8 c 16.8525 m2, 17.7125 m2 d 0.4325 m2
14 a 2990 m2 17 a 642.4 cm2 b 28.55 cm, 28.65 cm
b i three ii 10 m2 c 640.2 cm2, 644.7 cm2 d 2.3 cm2
c 644 m 2
18 a ±0.005 m b ±0.18% and ±0.35%
d i three ii whole square metre c 4.0328 m2 d 4.011 525 m2, 4.054 125 m2
e 3630 m2 e 0.021 325 m2 f 0.53%
g Yes
EXERCISE 2F ABSOLUTE ERROR AND LIMITS OF ACCURACY
1 a units; 1 cm; cm; 1 cm; 1 cm, ±0.5 cm REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
b tenths; 0.1 s; tenth of 1 s; 0.1 s; 0.1 s, ±0.05 s 1 B 2 C 3 A 4 B 5 B
2 a i 1 cm ii ±0.5 cm 6 D 7 C 8 B 9 B 10 B
b i 1g ii ±0.5 g 11 C
c i 1m ii ±0.5 m
d i 1L ii ±0.5 L REVIEW SET 1
e i 0.1 kg ii ±0.05 kg 1 a 3700 b 3659 c 3659.06
f i 0.1 s ii ±0.05 s d 3660 e 3659.1 f 4000
g i 0.1 L ii ±0.05 L 2 a No b No c Yes
h i 0.01 m ii ±0.005 m 3 a 1.05 × 108 b 6.2 × 10−5 c 3.179 × 103
3 a 0.1 b ±0.05 4 a 2.46 × 10 14
b 1.4 × 10 −10
c 0.05, 0.05, 2.55 kg, 2.65 kg c 4.096 × 1023 d 2.9 × 10−6
4 a i 1 mm ii ±0.5 mm iii 11.5 mm, 12.5 mm 5 a 560 mm2 b 4.3 ha
b i 1g ii ±0.5 g iii 347.5 g, 348.5 g c 2 900 000 cm3 d 5.6 cm3
c i 1 mL ii ±0.5 mL iii 374.5 mL, 375.5 mL 6 a 2.3 × 109 m b 52 000 kL
d i 0.1 km ii ±0.05 km iii 8.15 km, 8.25 km c 3000 µs d 7 200 000 000 000 000 mg
e i 0.1 s ii ±0.05 s iii 18.35 s, 18.45 s 7 a i 0.1 m ii ±0.05 m iii 7.45, 7.55 m
f i 0.1 kg ii ±0.05 kg iii 4.85 kg, 4.95 kg iv ±0.7%
g i 0.01 m ii ±0.005 m iii 2.365 m, 2.375 m b i 10 g ii ±5 g iii 275, 285 g iv ±1.8%
h i 0.01 L ii ±0.005 L iii 5.805 L, 5.815 L 8 a 20 cm b 5.5 cm, 6.5 cm and 3.5 cm, 4.5 cm
5 a 50, 50 b 50, ±25 c 18 cm, 22 cm d ±2 cm e 24 cm2
c 25, 25, 725 mL, 775 mL f 19.25 cm , 29.25 cm
2 2
g 5.25 cm2
6 a i 30 g ii ±15 g iii 405 g, 435 g 9 a 33.2 m b 275 m 2
b i 20 mL ii ±10 mL iii 370 mL, 390 mL
c i 1000 ii ±500 iii 37 500, 38 500 REVIEW SET 2
d i __21 h ii ±__41 h iii 6 __41 h , 6 __43 h
1 a 1470 b 1500 c 1472.63
7 a i ±0.5 cm ii ±5%
2 a 7.49 × 105 b 3 × 10−6 c 1.05 × 10−2
b i ±0.5 s ii ±1.6%
3 6.3 × 1015
c i ±0.5g ii ±0.2%
4 a 21 000 m2 b 7.8 cm2
d i ±0.5 min ii ±3.6%
c 9.5 m 3
d 72 000 mm3
e i ±0.5 L ii ±8.3%
5 a 43 000 µm b 2 000 000 Mg
f i ±0.05 kg ii ±2.1%
c 52 ML d 9 100 000 nm
g i ±0.05 s ii ±0.4%
6 a 36.7 m b 78 cm2
h i ±0.005 m ii ±0.04%
7 a i 0.1 kg ii ±0.05 kg
8 Percentage error = __________
absolute error
measurement ×100% iii 12.75 kg, 12.85 kg iv ±0.4%
9 a 7, 4, 22 b 7.5, 3.5, 20, 7.5, 4.5, 24, 20, 24 b i 0.01 m ii ±0.005 m
c 24, 22, 2 iii 12.555 m, 12.565 m iv ±0.04%
10 a 28 cm b 8.5 cm, 9.5 cm and 4.5 cm, 5.5 cm 8 a 12 320 cm2 b 12 203.25 cm2, 12 437.25 cm2
c 26 cm, 30 cm d ±2 cm c 117.25 cm 2
d 0.95%
11 a 7, 4, 28
b 7.5, 3.5; 22.75, 7.5, 4.5, 33.75; 22.75, 33.75 REVIEW SET 3
c 28, 5.25; 28, −5.75; 5.75
1 a 0.0051 b 0.01 c 0.005
12 a 15 m2 b 4.5 m, 5.5 m and 2.5 m, 3.5 m
2 a No b Yes c No
c 11.25 m2, 19.25 m2
3 a 6.7 × 104 b 8.09 × 10–5 c 1.23 × 103
d 4.25 m2

4 a 3 400 000 b 0.000 087 c 20 530 10 a 5 b 13 c 25 d 20
ANSWERS
5 a 1120 mm2 b 12.9 ha 11 a Yes b No, 4a + 4b
c 3 400 000 cm3 d 73 cm3 c No, 6a + 2b d No, −2a − 5b
6 a 4 500 000 m b 2t e No, −2a − 5b f Yes
c 7 000 ns d 0.000 003 5 GL g No, 12a2 + 13ab − 14b2
7 a 100 kg b 48.5, 49.5 kg, 50.5, 51.5 kg h No, 12a2 + 13ab − 14b2
c 99 kg, 101 kg d ±1 kg e ±1% i No, a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
8 a 35 kg b 1.5 g/mL j Yes
12 a i −4 ii −4 iii −4 iv −4
REVIEW SET 4 b All equal −4. c No
d Only expressions a i and iii are always equal.
1 a 2 b 2.1 c 2.07 d 2.070
13 a 23.8, yes b 26.3, no c 22.2, yes
2 a 1365 cm b 3.46 t
14 a 10n + 50 b $110
c 0.276 L d 8300 mm
15 a 3a + 2b + c where a represents the number of goals
3 a 136 500 m2 b 19.6 cm2
scored from behind the three-point line, b represents the
c 3.7 m3 d 6800 m3
number of goals scored inside the three-point line and c
4 a 6000 µL b 4 200 000 kg
represents the number of goals scored on a foul shot
c 8100 ns d 0.000 56 TL
b 43
5 a 6.4 × 108 b 3.0 × 10–7
c One possible answer is a = 10, b = 17 and c = 4.
6 a 1.5 × 10−2 b 1.4 × 1010
16 a 6t + 5 where t represents time in hours
7 a 96.25 cm2
b 8 km c 1.5 h
b 95.55 375 cm2 ≤ area < 96.94 875 cm2
17 Sheet 1: 1.18, Sheet 2: 58.9; Sheet 2 has greater bend
c 0.698 75 cm2 ≈ 0.7 cm2
allowance
d 0.7%
8 a 5.5 m b 1.6 m2
EXERCISE 3B SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION 1 a 3, 35, 7, 5
1 a 1.31 × 10–3 b two b 7, 4x, 4x, 4
c 8.2 × 105 2 a x=4 b p=4 c x = 14 d x=9
d i 94.63 m ii 2 500 000 cm 3 e p = 10 f y = 10 g x = 24 h p=4
e i ±0.25°C ii ±1.3% i m=6 j q = 34 k s = 33 l r = 13
f i 5.52 L ii 5.51 L, 5.53 L mT = 5 n s=9 o m = 16
iii ±0.01 L iv ±0.18% 3 a 5, 32, not a solution b 8, 24, a solution
g 140 cm2 4 a Yes b No c Yes
d Yes e Yes f No
g No h Yes i Yes
CHAPTER 3 FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS 5 a 6, 8, x, −1__53 b 7, 7, 5x, 5, 5, −3__53
6 a x =−__32 b x=1 c x = −3__21 d x = 11
ARE YOU READY? e x = −3 f x = −2 g x=3 h x =__75
1 D 2 D 3 B 4 A i x=9 j x = −4 k x=8 l x = −2__21
5 B 6 C 7 D 8 B m x = −1 n x=3 o x = −5
9 D 10 A 11 C 12 A 7 3, 3, 4, 5, 20
13 C 14 B 8 a x = 10 b x = 15 c x = −25
d x = −42 e x = 42 f x = 50
9 a No b Yes c Yes d No
EXERCISE 3A SUBSTITUTION INTO EXPRESSIONS 10 −3, 11, −14, 7, −2
AND FORMULAS 11 a x = −3 b x = __49 = 2__41 c x = −__51
1 a −3, 15 b 7, 13 10
d x = __37 = 2__31 e x = __ = 1__73 f x = __35 = 1__32
2 a 7 b 3 c 19 d −8 7
e 25 f 50 g 100 h 125 12 a 3x – 5 = 13, x = 6 b 4x – 7 = 13, x = 5
i 13 j 28 k 49 l 29 c 9 + 5x = 34, x = 5 d 7x + 8 = 29, x = 3
13 a x+1
m __21 n 95 o 2__21 p2
b x + x + 1 = 275 or 2x + 1 = 275
3 a −3 b7 c −21 d 16 c x = 137; two consecutive numbers are 137 and 138
e −1 f −__23 g 49 h −21 14 a Let x be the first integer, hence the second integer is
i −80 j −3 k −18 l −21 x + 1; x + x + 1 = 127 or 2x + 1 = 127, x = 63; two
4 a 10 b −4 c 4 d 10 consecutive integers are 63 and 64
e 58 f 40 g 30 h 8 b Let x be the first integer, hence the second integer is
i 5 j 10 k 4 l 7 x + 1 and the third integer is x + 2; x + x + 1 + x + 2
5 2, 35 = 27 or 3x + 3 = 27, x = 8; smallest number is 8
6 a 2500 b 1000 c 1200 d5 c Let x be the first integer, hence the second integer is
7 a 75 b 110 c 150 d 15.36 x + 1, the third integer is x + 2 and the fourth
8 a 904.8 cm3 b 2572.4 cm3 c 9.2 m3 integer is x + 3; x + x + 1 + x + 2 + x + 3 = –6 or
9 a $1610.51 b $1591.98 c $3300.80 d $1461.23 4x + 6 = –6, x = –3; largest number is 0
Answers 521

d Let x be the first even integer, hence the second even d x = −3__31 e x = −3__21 f x = −6__21
ANSWERS integer is x + 2 and the third even integer is x + 4;
g x = __54 h x = −14 i x = −__51
x + x + 2 + x + 4 = 132 or 3x + 6 = 132, x = 42;
smallest number is 42 j a= −1__1 2
k s= −2__15
l x=1__43
15 a Let x be the number of weeks. m a = 3__32 n y = −1__81 o p = 1__ 4
b 67 + 28x = 235 11
c x = 6; Tyler can buy the bat in 6 weeks 8 3, 9, −2, 3, is
16 a Let d be the cost of one dress in dollars; 3d + 19 = 196; 9 a Yes b Yes c No
d = 59; cost of each dress is $59 d Yes e Yes f No
b Let t be the time in hours; 14t + 9 = 85; t = 5.4; tennis 10 Let x be the unknown number in each case.
court can be hired for 5 hours (for a total cost of $79) a 2x + 3 = x + 7; x = 4 b 3x + 8 = x + 4; x = –2
c Let n be the number of goals scored by Andrew; c 2x + 6 = 4x + 4; x = 1 d 5x – 9 = 2x – 3; x = 2
n + n + 5 = 37 or 2n + 5 = 37; n = 16; Andrew scored 11 a 30 = __95 (F − 32) b F = 86 c 86°F
16 goals
d 64.4°F e 25°C because 25°C = 77°F
d Let n be the number of people; 28n + 325 = 1200;
12 a C
n = 31.25; 31 people can attend the party
b n = 11, so there are 11 biscuits in a box
17 a w + 14 b P = 4w + 28
13 a Let x be the cost ($) for 1 kg of cherries;
c w = 32; length is 46 m and width is 32 m
5x + 2 = 2x + 20
18 a Let g be the number of goals scored, b the number of
b x = 6; 1 kg of cherries costs $6
behinds scored and n be the total number of points
14 Let x be the cost ($) for a sushi roll; 7x + 1.5 = 4x + 12;
scored; n = 6g + b
x = 3.5; sushi roll costs $3.50
b 75 points
15 Let x be the result (%) Hayden received in the fourth
c i Kangaroos: 48 points, Swans: 50 points; winner 91 + 69 + 88 + x
test; _____________
4
= 78; x = 64; fourth test
is Swans
result is 64%
ii Eagles: 141 points, Suns: 127 points; winner is
16 Let x be the first even integer; x + x + 2 = x + 4 + 6 or
Eagles
2x + 2 = x + 10; x = 8; integers are 8, 10 and 12
d i 7 ii 14
17 x=4
e i 13 ii 19
18 a x=8 b x=6 c x=7
f n = 6g + b + 3p where p is the number of times a
d x=3 e x=5 f x=4
player hits the goal post instead of kicking a goal
19 a x = –8 b x = –11 c x = –6
g 5
20 Find the integers between which the answer lies. Then use
19 a Let x be the unknown number; __3x – 4 = 8; x = 36
smaller increments between these values. Otherwise guess,
b Let x be the unknown number; __5x – 6 = 7; x = 65 check and refine.
c Let n be the number of caramel chocolates; hence 21 a x = 2.6 b x = –7.75 c x = – 3.4
there are (n + 4) mint chocolates and 2n strawberry 22 a Let x be the current age (in years) of the son; 3x + 11 =
chocolates; n + 4 + 2n + n = 30 or 4n + 4 = 24; 2(x + 11); x = 11; son is currently 11 years old
n = 5; so there are 5 caramel chocolates b Let x be the current age (in years) of Wesley;
20 Let n be the number of fish caught by Marcel; Davina x + 8 + 3 = 2(x + 3); x = 5; Wesley is currently
catches (n + 4) fish, Hayley catches 2n fish. 5 years old
a The total number of fish caught is unknown so we c Let x be the current age (in years) of Sam;
cannot form an equation to solve. 2(45 – x) = 3x + 5; x = 17; Sam is currently
b n + 4 + 2n + n = 65 or 4n + 4 = 65; n = 15.25; this 17 years old
would indicate that Marcel caught 15.25 fish which is
23 a x = __81 b x = __97 2
c x = __
not possible 35
d x = 1__83 7
e x = __
15
f x = 1__65
EXERCISE 3C SOLVING FURTHER LINEAR EQUATIONS
g x = −__91 h x = −1__52 i x = −2__21
1 40, 35, 8, 8, 4__83
2 a x = 7__21 b x = 2__31 c x = 2__21
EXERCISE 3D FINDING THE VALUE OF A VARIABLE IN A FORMULA
d x = 3__53 e x = 5__41 f x = 3__31 1 a t = 12 b a=3
3 a 3, 3, 12, 2, 2, 14, 2__54 2 a c = 25 b t = 40
b 4, 4, 1, 20, 1, 1, 19, 6__31 3 k = 54 4 R = 14.4
5 m = 61.1 (to one decimal place)
4 a x = −10 b x = 17 c x = −20
6 a P = 26 000 b n=7 c r=4
d x = −5 e x = −2__31 f x = 24
7 u=5 8 a=3 9 a=2 10 n = 6
g x = __21 h x = 4__32 i x = 4__21 11 a R = 6 __41 b R = 10
5 a 2x, 2, 6, 2, 3 12 a E = 144 b R=9
b 5x, 8x, 7, 7, −8x, −8, 2 13 a x = y − 2 b x=y−5 c x=y−8
6 a x=4 b x=1 c x=1 p
d x = __5
q
e x = __7 f x = __2r
d x = −3 e x = −2 f x = −2
g x = 3t h x = 5r i x = 8m
g x=9 h x = −10 i x=3
j x=p+3 k x=m+7 l x=z+1
7 a x = −4__21 b x = 1__31 c x = 1__51

14 a x=z−y x=m−n x=p+q 19 a
ANSWERS
b c Speed (km/h) 0 20 40 60 80 100
d x=n+k e x = __ac f x = __ae Stopping distance (m) 0 18 44 78 120 170
g x = vw h x = kt i x=p−q
j x=k+m k x = __ba l x = bt b Reaction-time stopping distance
mp ay 240
15 a x = q ___ b x=m kt
__ c x= b __
220
k d m
d x = __
at e x = __
ez f x = __
kn
200

y−1 y−5 180
16 a x = y − __32 b x = ____
5
c x = ____
2 160
y+4 y+5 y+5 140
d x = ____
7
e x = ____
6
f x = ____
3 120
m−3 m−5 m−7
g x = _____
2
h x = _____
3
i x = _____
5
100
6−m 4−m −(m + 8) 80
j x = _____
5
k x = _____
3
l x = _______
6 60
y−4 y+3 y−c 40
m x = ____
m n x = ____
m o x = ____
m
20
y
p x = ___
mz 0
r−p r+p 20 40 60 80 100 120
c−a
17 a y = ____
b
b y = ____
q c y = ____
x Speed (km/h)
a−b x−t 4−c
d y = ____
c
e y = ____
k
f y = ____
r c i 60 m ii ≈ 230 m
g y= −r −a
_____ h y= p r−k
____ i y=
r + px
_____ 20 a Reaction-time stopping distance
b q
340
18 a N = 3.5 b N = 0.5 No alcohol
320
19 l = 16.9 20 V = 113.4 21 v = ±9.8 Alcohol affected
300
280
EXERCISE 3E TRAVEL CALCULATIONS 260
240
1 a 46 km/h b 73 km/h c 47 km/h d 59 km/h
220
2 a 224 km b 187 km c 474 km d 166 km
200
3 a 8 h 6 min b 4 h 2 min c 4 h 27 min d 56 min 180
70 × 1000
4 a 70 km/h = ________
60 × 60
m/s = 19.4 m/s (to one 160
decimal place) 140
8 × 60 × 60 120
b 8 m/s = _________
1000
km/h = 28.8 km/h
100
5 a 12.5 m/s b 21.1 m/s c 30.6 m/s 80
6 a 54 km/h b 45 km/h c 90 km/h 60
7 55.6 m (to one decimal place) 40
8 69.4 m (to one decimal place) 20
9 a Reaction-time stopping distance 0
20 40 60 80 100 120
85 Speed (km/h)
80
75 b i 45 m ii 60 m iii 150 m
70
65 EXERCISE 3F BLOOD ALCOHOL CONTENT
60
55 1 a 0.375, 1.4 b 2.7, 0.8
50 2 a 1.1 b 1.2 c 1.8
45 d 6.8 e 1.1 f 7.7
10 × 6 − 7.5 ×3
40 3 a BAC male = ____________
6.8 × 83
≈ 0.07
35
10 × 5 − 7.5 × 4
30 b BAC female = ____________
5.5 × 58
≈ 0.06
4 a BAC ≈ 0.03 b BAC ≈ 0.09
0 c BAC ≈ 0.06 d BAC ≈ 0.02
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
10N − 7.5 × 5 10N − 37.5
Speed (km/h) 5 0.05 = __________
6.8 × 80
= ________
544
b i 83 m ii 31 m c About 7 m 27.2 = 10N − 37.5
10 64 m 64.7 = 10N
11 a 100 m b 140 m c 40 m N = 6.47
12 90 000
______ × 2.5 + 0.01 × 902
= 144 m (to the If he has 6.47 standard drinks his BAC = 0.05.
60 × 60
nearest metre) For his BAC < 0.05 he can have up to 6 standard drinks.
6 Up to 3 standard drinks
13 197.4 m
7 a 5 b7 c 4 d6
14 a 58.3 m b 16.7 m
8 6 standard drinks, 3 standard drinks
15 55.6 m 16 58.8 m, 16.8 m, 56 m
9 a 2h b 1h c 2 h 30 min
17 18 m 18 98 m
d 50 min e 1 h 20 min
Answers 523

10 T = _____
0.05 4 a d = 32 b x = 61 c x = 15
ANSWERS 0.015
= 3.33… h = 3 h 20 min
11 a 2 h 40 min b 1 h 20 min c 4 h d 2 h 20 min d x = 11 e x= 12__1 3
f x = 6 __43
12 a Male: 0.0321… ≈ 0.03, Female: 0.0611… ≈ 0.06 g c =−3__94 13
h x = −2__ i x = 3 __32
b Male: 2 h 9 min, Female: 4 h 5 min 14
5 b = 18
13 a Damien: 0.14, Nicole: 0.17 k−n
6 a x=m–y b x = ____ c x = k(m + 4)
b Damien: 10:20 am, Nicole: 12:20 pm 3
7 58.4 km/h 8 0.045 9 2.7 mL
14 a 7.2 b 0.0858 … ≈ 0.09 c 5 h 43 min
10 6.4 mL 11 4 h
EXERCISE 3G MEDICATION CALCULATIONS REVIEW SET 3

1 a 2 1 52 2 2356 cm2 3 3.1 s
b i 12, maximum is 8. ii 4 4 a d = 20 b x = 10 c x=6
c No; took 3 tablets in 24 hours, allowed 4.
d x=7 e x= 6__32 f x = 4__73
2 a 2 b Yes, maximum is 6.
3 a 5 mL b 5.6 mL c 3.6 mL g n=3 i x = __41
h c=3
d 4.3 mL e 11.3 mL f 12.3 mL 5 n = 20
k−y
4 a 53 mL b 95 mL 6 a x = ty b x = ____
m c x = wy + t
5 a 17 mL b 16 mL c 22 mL 7 143.5 m 8 1.4
d 8 mL e 34 mL f 31 mL 9 a 0.05 b 0.035
6 a 25 mL b 15 mL 10 4h
7 a 10 mL b 23 mL c 58 mL 11 a Male: 0.0343, female: 0.06
d 42 mL e 46 mL f 20 mL b Male: 2 h 17 min, female: 4 h
8 a 36 mL b 48 mL c 20 kg 12 36 drops/min 13 19 mL
9 a 175 mL/h b 340 mL/h c 133 mL/h
d 120 mL/h e 28 mL/h f 355 mL/h REVIEW SET 4
10 a 0.9 L b 1.4 L c 3__31 hours 1 908 2 11 310 cm3 3 B = 9.4 mm
11 a 50 drops/min b 63 drops/min c 50 drops/min 4 a d = 16 b x=7 c x = 12
d 75 drops/min e 38 drops/min f 38 drops/min d x = 11 e x = 32 f x = 2__87
12 a 43 drops/min b 23 drops/min g n=6 h c = −__94 i x = − __ 7
12
13 a 10 h b 6 h 40 min c 10 h 5 m = 80 6 R = 50 7 1 h 52 min
d 16 h e 20 h f 22 h 30 min 8 a 15.3 m/s b 77 km/h
14 a 2.1 mL b 1.9 mL c 2.3 mL 9 42 m 10 64 m 11 120 m
d 2 mL; all about 2 mL 12 a
15 a 4 mL b 3.7 mL c 5.1 mL Speed (km/h) 0 20 40 60 80 100
d 4 mL; closest to the mean of all three Stopping distance (m) 0 29 73 131 203 290
16 a 40 mL b 23 mL b Reaction-time stopping distance
c No, but close to overdose
d After 17 minutes 300
270
240
1 D 2 A 3 B 4 D 5 B 6 D 210
7 B 8 A 9 C 10 C 11 A 12 B 180
13 D 14 C 15 C 16 D 17 B 18 A 150
19 C 20 B 120
90
REVIEW SET 1 60
30
1 −18
2 a 1437 cm3 b 180 cm3 c 0.9 m3 0
20 40 60 80 100
3 a F = 392° b F = 68° c F = 131° Speed (km/h)
4 a d = 44 b x = 11 c x = 576
d x=5 e x = 11__21 f x = 24 c i 100 m ii 165 m iii 340 m
g n = 7.75 h c = –12 ___61 i x = __61 13 9 mL

14 a 122 mL/h b 37 drops/min
5 E = 10 000
y+7
6 a x = __3t b x = ____
m c x = ac – d REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION
7 150 m 8 218.4 km 9 4 h 40 min
1 a i x = −15 ii 8
10 3.6 mL 11 15.8 mL 12 50 drops/min
b i The height must be in metres; that is, 1.68 m not 168 cm.
ii 19.5 iii No, her BMI is too low.
REVIEW SET 2 c He added 6 instead of subtracting 6, then divided by 14
1 −31 not −5. Solution is x = – __52 .
2 a 201 cm2 b 707 cm2 c 8.0 m2 d i 78 m ii 20 m
3 a C = 120° b C = 10° c C = 0°

e i 0.075… ≈ 0.08 ii 5 h c Dog owners who have used the new treatment
ANSWERS
f 27 mL d Bank customers
2 a Census b Census c Sample
CHAPTERS 1–3 CUMULATIVE REVIEW d
g
Sample
Census or sample
e Sample
h Sample
f Census
1 a $1077.46 b $25 864.80 c $1268.80 i Census j Census k Census or sample

d $1113.30 e $387.50 l Census m Sample n Census or sample
f i $465.04 ii $14.53 o Census p Sample q Sample
g $1733.40 7 a A self-selected sample is a sample that the participants
h i $938.96 ii $121 choose to be part of.
i $1103.60 b A voluntary response sample
2 a $48 057 b $837.88 c Participants usually select themselves to be part of a
c i $11 985.93 ii $3799.18 study by responding to an advertisement in a newspaper,
iii $222.11 iv $0 magazine, journal or an online noticeboard. The
d i $47 556 ii $43 995 iii $879.90 volunteers are then checked to make sure that they
iv $5845.38 v $1999.72 refund satisfy the criteria of the study.
3 a i 4300 ii 4263 iii 4263.09 d Can reduce the time and expense of finding suitable
iv 4260 v 4263.1 vi 4000 subjects that meet the selection criteria. Volunteers
b i No ii No iii Yes are likely to be committed to take part in the
c i 1.05 × 105 ii 6.27 × 10−5 iii 4.56 × 101 study. They may also show a greater willingness to
d i 2.87 × 1014 ii 5.12 × 1017 iii 4.36 × 104 provide more insight into the subject of the research
e i 6730 m ii 17.5 m iii 4300 mg by giving full detailed responses to open ended
iv 47 t v 6350 mL vi 0.09 L questions.
vii 3.2 × 109 m e Because the people chosen are volunteers, there is likely
viii 52 000 kL to be a degree of self-selection bias. This can either lead
ix 1.65 m2 to the sample not being representative of the population
f i 0.1 m ii ±0.05 m being studied, or exaggerating some particular finding
iii 6.75 m to 6.85 m iv ±0.7% from the study.
4 a 52 b 1508 cm2 8 a Self-selected sample
5 a d = 21 b x=8 c x = 18
d x=5 e x=9 f x=4
EXERCISE 4C RANDOM SAMPLING
g n=5 h c = __49 = 2__41 1
i x = −__
14 1 a 2, 0, 9, 7, 4 b 2, 5, 6, 9, 1
6 a 240 b 4.4 c 2, 3, 7, 9, 4 d 2, 7, 4, 5, 9
7 a x = 16 b x = −8 c x = 13 2 a 20, 97, 74, 80, 5 b 25, 69, 17, 47, 51
d x=3 e x=4 f x=6 c 20, 39, 74, 98, 42 d 20, 79, 41, 50, 91
g x = −__23 h x = −__74 i x = 27 3 a 209, 774, 800, 583, 418 b 256, 917, 475, 186, 655
8 a y = 3p 4−x
b y = ____
3
c y = 2w + x c 209, 399, 740, 988, 423 d 209, 791, 410, 509, 919
9 145 m 5 a Assign each student a number from 1 to 80; random
10 a 0.08 b 5 h 20 min sample contains students with numbers 27, 35, 30, 17,
41, 4, 51, 38, 65, 60
CHAPTER 4 CLASSIFYING DATA AND SAMPLING b Assign each student a number from 1 to 35; random
sample contains students with numbers 27, 30, 17, 4, 15,
1, 33, 16, 25, 18
ARE YOU READY? 6 a Assign each student a number from 1 to 700; random
1 D 2 C 3 B 4 C 5 D 6 D sample contains students with numbers 182, 562, 80,
7 C 8 C 9 B 10 C 11 B 597, 374, 136, 124, 678, 504, 223
b Assign each student a number from 1 to 280; random
sample contains students with numbers 182, 80, 136,
EXERCISE 4A COLLECTING AND CLASSIFYING DATA 124, 223, 190, 219, 154, 84, 41
4 a Numerical discrete b Numerical continuous 7 a Write the workers’ names on pieces of paper, place
c Categorical nominal d Numerical discrete the names in a hat, mix and draw 5 names. Write the
e Numerical discrete f Categorical nominal workers’ names on cards, shuffle the cards and deal 5.
g Categorical ordinal h Numerical discrete b 24, 4, 13, 5, 9
i Numerical continuous j Numerical discrete 8 a Assign the numbers 1 to 70 to each shop assistant.
k Categorical ordinal l Numerical continuous Select 10 random numbers from 1 to 70 using a table of
m Categorical nominal n Categorical ordinal random numbers. The shop assistants whose numbers
o Numerical discrete p Categorical nominal are selected form the sample.
q Categorical ordinal b 49, 24, 63, 67, 4, 13, 49, 26, 61, 27
9 Assign the numbers 1 to 760 to each student. Select 100
EXERCISE 4B CENSUS OR SAMPLE AND SELF-SELECTED SAMPLING random numbers from 1 to 760 using a table of random
numbers. The students whose numbers are selected form
1 a Commuters who use buses on the bus route
the sample.
b Companies that pay road tax
Answers 525

10 a Number the hospitals 1 to 12. Use a table of random
ANSWERS numbers to select 6 random numbers less than or equal to 12.
EXERCISE 4E SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
The hospitals whose numbers are selected form the sample. 1 a Every 12th item b Every 6th item
b 4, 8, 12, 7, 9, 10 c Every 30th item d Every 20th item
11 a (2, 4), (6, 3), (6, 7), (1, 3), (2, 6), (6, 1), (2, 7), (6, 5), 2 a Every 12th name b Every 6th name
(3, 5), (3, 2) c Every 8th name d Every 30th name
3 a Start at any random number and select every 20th student.
b 8
b i 10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190
7 ii 15, 35, 55, 75, 95, 115, 135, 155, 175, 195
6 iii 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, 10
5 iv 45, 65, 85, 105, 125, 145, 165, 185, 5, 25
4 v 113, 133, 153, 173, 193, 13, 33, 53, 73, 93
3 4 a Start at any random number and select every 12th name.
b i 5, 17, 29, 41, 53, 65, 77, 89, 101, 113, 125, 137, 149,
2
161, 173
1
ii 10, 22, 34, 46, 58, 70, 82, 94, 106, 118, 130, 142,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 154, 166, 178
18 a Start at first pair of digits and, moving right, select pairs iii 25, 37, 49, 61, 73, 85, 97, 109, 121, 133, 145, 157,
whose first and second members are each a number from 169, 1, 13
1 to 8. iv 50, 62, 74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 134, 146, 158, 170, 2,
c i 18 seedlings ii 1440 seedlings 14, 26, 38
19 a Method 1: Put all the teachers’ names in a hat, mix and v 120, 132, 144, 156, 168, 180, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72,
select 10 names. 84, 96, 108
Method 2: Assign the numbers 1 to 62 to the teachers. 5 Start at any number and select every:
Use a table of random numbers to select 10 random a 6th name b 9th name c 12th name
numbers less than or equal to 62. The teachers whose d 24th name e 19th name
numbers are selected form the sample. 6 a i Select every 40th part.
b 49, 24, 1, 13, 49, 26, 61, 27, 35, 32 ii Select every 17th part.
c i 30.5 minutes ii 3 hours and 3 minutes 7 a Assign the numbers 1 to 30 to the students, choose the
first number at random and then select every 5th number
EXERCISE 4D STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING until he has 6 students.
b (9), 14, 19, 24, 29, 4
1 Boys: ___
75
140
15
= __
28
65
or 53.6%, girls: ___
140
13
= __
28
or 46.4% c (9), 15, 21, 27, 3
2 Boys: __
19 26
or 42.2%, girls: __ or 57.8% 8 a Assign the numbers 1 to 600 to the soldiers, choose the
45 45
1st number at random and then select every 60th number
3 a Year 7: ___
125
859
142
, Year 8: ___
859
175
, Year 9: ___
859
160
, Year 10: ___
859
, until a sample of 10 has been chosen.
134
Year 11: ___ 123
, Year 12: ___ b (23), 83, 143, 203, 263, 323, 383, 443, 503, 563
859 859 c i Every 12th soldier. ii 5
b 9, 10, 12, 11, 9, 9
c Choose at random 9 students from Year 7, 10 from Year EXERCISE 4F SUITABILITY OF SAMPLE TYPES
8, 12 from Year 9, 11 from Year 10, 9 from Year 11, 9
from Year 12. 1 Possible answers are:
a Systematic sampling b Random sampling
4 a ___
96 ___
, 84 , ___
78 ___
, 65 , ___
439 439 439 439 439 439
56 ___
, 60 c Stratified random sampling d Random sampling
b 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 5 e Stratified random sampling f Systematic sampling
c Choose at random the required number of students from g Self-selected sampling h Random sampling
each year. i Random sampling
5 a Girls: ___
69 51
. boys: ___ b 23 girls, 17 boys j Stratified random sampling
120 120 2 a Census b Categorical 95
c ___
200
19
= __
40
c Choose at random 23 girls and 17 boys. 1
__ 1
__
d i 5 , no ii 5 , no
6 a 0–9: ____
180
2475
4
= __
55
835
, 10–19: ____
2475
167
= ___
495
260
, 20–29: ____
2475
52
= ___
495
,
f i every 40th student, answers will vary
350 14 280 56
30–39: ____
2475
= __
99
, 40–49: ____
2475
= ___
495
, ii every 20th student, answers will vary
250 10 200 8 120 8 iii every 10th student, answers will vary
50–59: ____
2475
= __
99
, 60–69: ____
2475
= __
99
, 70+: ____
2475
= ___
165 iv every 5th student, answers will vary
b 0–9: 3, 10–19: 13, 20–29: 4, 30–39: 6, 40–49: 5, g i ≈ 3 male; ≈ 2 female, answers will vary
50–59: 4, 60–69: 3, 70+: 2 ii ≈ 6 male; ≈ 4 female, answers will vary
c Choose at random the required number of people from iii ≈ 11 male; ≈ 9 female, answers will vary
each age group. iv ≈ 23 male; ≈ 17 female, answers will vary
h The larger the sample, the closer it approximates to the
8 a Bus: ___
87
150
29
= __
50
23
, ride: ___
150
30
, car: ___
150
10
= __51 , walk: ___
150
1
= __
15 population response.
b Bus: 17, ride: 5, car: 6, walk: 2 3 a Percentage = __
12
× 100= 60%
20
c Choose at random 17 students who travel by bus, 5 60
b Number = ___ × 4000= 2400
students who ride bicycles, 6 students who travel by car 100
and 2 students who walk.

5
c Adequate childcare = __ × 4000 = 1000 5 86, 70, 101, 190, 13
ANSWERS
20
8
__
d Unsure = 20 × 4000 = 1600 6 a Vince: ___
56
200
7
= __
25
43
, Sophie: ___
200
51
, Talia: ___
200
,
4 a 62.5% b 31 250 c 35 000 d 3750 50
___
Mohammed: 200 = 4 1
__
5 a 70% b 560 c 240
6 a 30% b 180 c 420 b Vince: 6, Sophie: 4, Talia: 5, Mohammed: 5
7 a It may or may not be representative; it depends on how 7 Self-selected sampling
students are allocated to classes in your school. 9 Method 1: Write names of students on pieces of paper and put
b The sample is too small to be representative of the whole in a box. Select 6 pieces of paper at random from the box.
population of Year 11 students in your state. It may also Method 2: Assign the numbers 1 to 24 to the students.
be biased. Use a table of random numbers to select 6 numbers which
8 a Dentists may be paid by Britex. The sample is not are less than or equal to 24.
representative of the whole population.
b Is the 10% across all positions from senior management REVIEW SET 3
down or is it 10% of the lowest paid workers? This could 1 a Categorical nominal b Quantitative continuous
be misleading as, for example, if it was 10% of the 10 c Quantitative discrete d Categorical ordinal
managers then it would be 1 person. If it was 10% of the 3 a People who use the bus service
500 factory workers then it would be 50 people. b People who use the pool.
c Yes, depending on how the sample was grouped. 4 a i Every 15th part ii Every 25th part
5 Advantages: Can reduce the time and expense of finding
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS suitable subjects that meet the selection criteria. Volunteers
1 B 2 A 3 C 4 D 5 A 6 B are likely to be committed to take part in the study. They
7 C 8 A 9 B 10 D 11 C may also show a greater willingness to provide more
insight into the subject of the research by giving full
REVIEW SET 1 detailed responses to open ended questions.
Disadvantages: Because the people chosen are volunteers,
1 a Quantitative discrete b Quantitative continuous there is likely to be a degree of self-selection bias. This can
c Categorical ordinal d Categorical nominal either lead to the sample not being representative of the
2 a Census b Census c Census d Sample population being studied, or exaggerating some particular
3 a Only people at home on Saturday night are surveyed. finding from the study.
b Only people on electoral roll are surveyed. 6 a 80% b 240 c 60
4 Write the names of the students on cards, shuffle the cards 9 a If there are only a few bus stops on the route then the
and select 12. number of people at one bus stop would be suitable.
5 a Moving left across the list gives (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 2), If there are many bus stops then one bus stop is not
(5, 1), (2, 5). satisfactory.
b5 b No. One carriage on one train out of many trains in
4 service is not suitable.
3
2
REVIEW SET 4
1 1 Self-selected sample
3 Advantage: collects data about every member of the
1 2 3 4 5
population so is detailed and accurate.
6 a Year 7: ___
85
500
17
= ___
100
82
, Year 8: ___
500
41
= ___
250
89
, Year 9: ___
500
, Disadvantage: often expensive, time-consuming and
96
Year 10: ___ 24
= ___ 75
, Year 11: ___ 3
= __ 73
, Year 12: ___ impractical.
20
500 125 500 500
4 a The tyre distributor would only recommend tyres that
b 17, 16, 18, 19, 15, 15 they sell.
7 Assign the numbers 1 to 300 to the students, choose the b The sample is biased towards people whose names start
first number at random and then select every 15th number. with one (or two) letters of the alphabet.
9 a 30% b 120 c 280 5 a Number every employee from 1 to 120. Use a table of
10 a Assign the numbers 1 to 74 to the drivers. Use a table or random numbers to choose 25 different numbers from
calculator to select 8 random numbers less than or equal 1 to 120.
to 74. The drivers whose numbers are selected form the b Put names in a hat and draw names at random. Other
sample. answers are possible.
b 7, 9, 73, 65, 53, 52, 49, 54 c Start at any number and select every 5th employee.
11 a Yes, if the number of classes is small (2 or 3). 6 ‘Biased’ means ‘not free from prejudice’.
b No 7 A good sample is one whose characteristics are
representative of the whole population.
REVIEW SET 2 8 86, 70, 101, 190, 13
2 a Sample b Census 9 a Assign the numbers 1 to 24 to the workers.
3 a Members of the local netball club Use a table or calculator to select five random numbers
b Senior students less than or equal to 24. The workers whose numbers are
4 a Members of another sporting club who may want their selected form the sample.
own facilities improved, or non-sporting people. b 8, 12, 7, 9, 19
b Junior students
Answers 527

3 a 60 mm2 b 750 mm2 c 168 cm2 d 100 m2
ANSWERS REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION 4 a 2.7 m2 b 16.5 km2 c 24 mm2 d 29.9 m2
1 a i Numerical discrete ii Categorical nominal 5 a 45 cm2 b 27.84 m2 c 2.7 km2 d 2185 mm2
b i Sample ii Census 6 a 30 cm2 b 98 m2 c 40 m2 d 1190 mm2
c 7, 9, 73, 65, 53 7 a 78.5 cm2 b 254.5 cm2 c 706.9 cm2 d 314.2 cm2
d i Write names of drivers on pieces of paper and put them e 132.7 cm2 f 38.5 cm2 g 254.5 cm2 h 380.1 cm2
in a hat. Shake and select 6 names. Assign the numbers 8 a Fraction = ____
15° 1
= __
360° 24
1 to 48 to the drivers and select 6 numbers less than or
1
equal to 48 from a table of random numbers (or use a b A = __
24
× π × 7.22 ≈ 7 cm2
calculator to generate the random numbers). 9 a 5 cm2 b 11 cm2 c 14 cm2
67
___ 53
___
e i Boys: 120 girls: 120 ii Boys: 17, girls: 13
, d 48 cm 2
e 184 cm 2
f 64 cm2
f Take a random sample of 17 boys and a random sample g 45 cm 2
h 15 cm 2
i 117 cm2
of 13 girls. 10 a 9 cm b 8 cm
g i intervals of 30 ii 7 c 8 cm d 5.6 m
h 425 11 a 20 025 m2 b 2 ha
c One possible set of dimensions is 225 m by 89 m.
12 33 13 62 cm2 14 40%
CHAPTER 5 PERIMETER, AREA AND VOLUME
EXERCISE 5C AREA OF COMPOSITE FIGURES
ARE YOU READY? 1 a 96 cm2 b 44 m2 c 22 m2
1 C 2 C 3 B 4 C 5 C d 224 cm 2
e 65 cm2 f 45.5 m2
6 A 7 B 8 A 9 D 2 a 168 cm2 b 63 cm2 c 78 cm2
d 130 cm2 e 65 cm2 f 107 m2
3 a 90 cm 2
b 34 m2 c 33 m2
EXERCISE 5A PERIMETER d 30 km 2
e 24 cm2 f 50 m2
1 a 102 mm b 189 mm c 297 mm g 54 cm2 h 75 cm2 i 38 cm2
2 a 7.8 cm b 13.2 cm c 33.6 cm j 265.5 cm2 k 52.5 cm2 l 54.54 cm2
3 x = 6 + 3 = 9, y = 15 – 7 = 8, 4 a 552 cm 2
b 207 cm2 c 90 cm2
P = 15 + 3 + 7 + 6 + 8 + 9 = 48 cm 5 a 127.0 cm 2
b 69.1 cm2 c 49.1 cm2
4 a x = 26, y = 13, P = 174 cm d 190.1 cm2 e 63.3 cm2 f 68.6 cm2
b x = 37, y = 8, P = 142 cm g 144.3 cm2 h 39.8 cm2 i 164.5 cm2
c x = 5, y = 5, P = 74 cm 6 a 85 cm2 b 204 cm2 c 302 cm2
5 a x ≈ 11.3 cm, P ≈ 43.3 cm d 236 cm 2
e 104 cm2 f 415 cm2
b x ≈ 17.2 cm, P ≈ 60.2 cm 7 a 31 cm2 b 40 cm2 c 219 cm2
c x ≈ 14.4 cm, P ≈ 95.3 cm d 113 cm2 e 75 cm2 f 107 cm2
6 a 13 cm b 52 cm 8 a 18.53 m 2
b $10 006
7 a C = πd = π × 12 ≈ 37.7 cm 9 84.8 m2
b C = 2πr, r = 12 ÷ 2 = 6, C = 2 × π × 6 ≈ 37.7 cm 10 a 337 m2 b $3340
8 a 28.3 cm b 20.1 m c 56.9 m d 42.7 m 11 a 37 m2 b $1291.30
e 39.6 m f 49.6 m g 15.7 m h 27.1 m 12 a 113.1 cm2 b 254.5 cm2 c 141.4 cm2
9 a 20.6 cm b 25.7 cm c 86.3 m d 102.8 m d 42.4 cm2 e 28.3 cm2
10 a 21.4 cm b 16.8 cm c 55.7 m d 75.7 cm 13 a 75.4 cm2 b 530.1 mm2 c 35.6 cm2
11 a 21.42 cm b 45.71 m c 57.13 cm d 25.1 cm2 e 25.5 cm2 f 49.1 cm2
14 Some possible answers are:
12 a Fraction = ____
15°
360°
1
= __
24
1
b P = __
24
× 2 × π × 7.2 + 7.2 + 7.2 ≈ 16.3 cm
13 a __
1
24
, P ≈ 14.5 cm b __81 , P ≈ 14.8 cm 6 cm
1
__
c 12 , P ≈ 18.2 cm d __41 , P ≈ 54.6 cm
29 4 cm 4 cm
e __31 , P ≈ 31.9 cm f __
36
, P ≈ 58.6 cm 8 cm
14 a 35.9 cm b 22.4 cm c 46.0 cm 6.25 cm
15 a 6.7 cm b 11.7 cm c P ≈ 36.8 cm 10 cm 2.5 cm 2.5 cm
16 125 cm 1.5 cm 1.5 cm
17 $237.15 5 cm 6 cm
18 a 12.57 m, 12.57 m b Same distance c No difference
19 $744 20 8.0 cm 21 31.8 m 5 cm 2 cm 3 cm
22 a 7200 km b 45 239 km c 1885 km/h
23 64.80 km
EXERCISE 5D PERIMETER AND AREA OF IRREGULAR SHAPES
EXERCISE 5B AREA OF SIMPLE SHAPES 1 A = __21 × 22 × 10 + __21 × 22 × 18 = 308 m2
2 a 28 m2 b 71.5 m2 c 308 m2
1 a 60.63 cm2 b 9.1 cm2 c 64 cm2 d 38.11 cm2
d 1254 m2 e 517 m2 f 5217 m2
2 a 18 m2 b 5 cm2 c 800 m2 d 20 cm2

3 (BC)2 =____ 8 a 880 cm2 b 614 cm2 c 1260.16 cm2
ANSWERS
132 + (5 + 15)2 = 569
BC = √569 ≈ 23.9 d 1050.18 cm2 e 9320 cm2 f 1156.40 cm2
(CD)2 =____
132 + 112 = 290 9 a 1120 cm 2
b $14
CD = √290 ≈ 17.0 10 a Room A = 38.28 m2, Room B = 34.4 m2. Room A has
(AD)2 =____
122 + (15 + 11)2 = 820 the greater area.
AD = √820 ≈ 28.6 b 4 tins c $219.80
(AB)2 =____
122 + 52 = 169 11 7 m2
AB = √169 = 13 12 Weet-Bix: 1161 cm2, Sultana Bran: 1262.5 cm2. Sultana
Perimeter ≈ 23.9 + 17.0 + 28.6 + 13 = 82.5 m Bran box has the greater surface area.
4 d 145.8 m e 91.1 cm f 295.6 m 13 a 313.4 m2 b 5 cans c $412.50
14 a 231.7 cm2 b 285.1 cm2
5 Area △MQP = 2 × (10 + 12 + 3 + 8) × 16 = 264 m
1
__ 2
15 25.56 m2
Area △MRN = __21 × 10 × 11 = 55 m2
Area △TOP = __21 × 7 × 8 = 28 m2 EXERCISE 5F SURFACE AREA OF CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
1 A = 2πrh = 2 × π × 4 × 9 = 226.19… ≈ 226.2 cm2
Area △NOTR = __21 × (12 + 3) × (7 + 11)
2 a 534.1 cm2 b 664.8 cm2 c 1055.6 cm2
= __21 × 15 × 18 = 135 m2 d 256.0 cm2 e 1005.3 cm2 f 89.2 cm2
Area MNOPQ = 264 + 55 + 28 + 135 = 482 m2 3 Diameter = 12 cm, so radius = 6 cm
6 a 3662 m2 b 964 m2 c 16 625 m2 A = 2 × π × 6 × 8 = 301.593… ≈ 301.6 cm2
7 (MN) =____
2
10 + 11 = 221
2 2 4 a 942.5 cm2 b 1017.9 cm2 c 1178.1 cm2
MN = √221 ≈ 14.87 m d 303.5 cm2 e 1372.9 cm2 f 115.5 cm2
(NO)2 =____
(11 − 7)2 + (12 + 3)2 = 241 5 a 301.6 cm 2
b 735.1 cm 2
c 94.2 cm2
NO = √241 ≈ 15.52 m d 830.4 cm 2
(OP)2 =____
72 + 82 = 113 6 Radius = 15.8 ÷ 2 = 7.9 cm
OP = √113 ≈ 10.63 m A = 2 × π × 7.9 × 17.6 + 2 × π × (7.9)2
(PQ)2 =____
(3 + 8)2 + 162 = 377 = 1265.747…
PQ = √377 ≈ 19.42 m ≈ 1265.7 cm2
(QM)2 =____
162 + (10 + 12)2 = 740 7 a 1445.1 cm2 b 603.2 cm2 c 527.8 cm2
QM = √740 ≈ 27.20 m d 2264.4 cm2 e 4246.4 cm2 f 318.7 m2
Perimeter ≈ 14.87 + 15.52 + 10.63 + 19.42 + 27.20 8 a 1809.6 cm 2
b 3.1 m 2
c 53 092.9 mm2
= 87.64 m 9 r = 18 ÷ 2 = 9 cm
≈ 88 m A = 4πr2 = 4 × π × 92 = 1017.876… ≈ 1017.9 cm2
8 a 245.27 m ≈ 245 m b 122.09 m ≈ 122 m 10 a 1963.5 cm2 b 1063.6 cm2 c 48 305.1 mm2
c 514.36 m ≈ 514 m 11 a 452.4 cm 2
b 1256.6 cm 2
c 907.9 cm2
9 Area ≈ __
40
(98 + 52) = 20 × 150 = 3000 m2 12 a 445.46 cm 2
b 207.38 m 2
c 3.03 m2
2 13 a 2827 m2 b 36 cans c $4147.20
10 a 3478 m2 b 3094 m2 c 2260.5 m2 14 141 spheres
11 a 365 m2 b 1380 m2 c 372 m2 15 36 945 cm2
d 1909.5 m2 e 545 m2 f 1024 m2 16 The roller with a diameter of 8 cm and length 25 cm has a
12 a 33 000 m2 b 15 600 m2 c 17 400 m2 larger surface area and so would not need to be re-dipped
d 174 000 m3 as often.
13 a 3000 m2 b 54 000 m3 17 74%
14 a 549 m2 b 551.25 m2 18 No
15 a 225.5 m2 b 2255 m3 c 133 500 m3 19 a 157.7 cm2 b 173.4 m2
16 a 344 m2 b 6880 m3 c 41 280 m3 c 424.1 m2
20 The area of the top surface of the cylinder is the same as
EXERCISE 5E SURFACE AREA OF PRISMS the area not counted when calculating the surface area of
1 a 54 cm2 b 1350 cm2 c 864 cm2 the top of the rectangular prism.
2 a 138.24 cm2 b 1734 mm2 c 0.5766 m2 21 $4220.31
3 Top and bottom: A = 2 × 10 × 6 = 120 cm2
Front and back: A = 2 × 5 × 10 = 100 cm2 EXERCISE 5G VOLUME
Two sides: A = 2 × 5 × 6 = 60 cm2 1 V = A × h = 20 × 3 = 60 m3
Surface area = 120 +100 + 60 = 280 cm2 2 a 75 cm3 b 115.2 cm3 c 420 cm3
4 Area of front and back: A = 2 × 8 × 4 = 64 cm2 d 815.4 cm 3
e 11.96 cm 3
f 120 cm3
Area of both sides: A = 2 × 5 × 4 = 40 cm2 g 648 cm 3
h 116.96 cm 3
i 48 cm3
Area of top and bottom: A = 2 × 8 × 5 = 80 cm2 j 360 cm3 k 140 cm3 l 80 cm3
Surface area = 64 + 80 + 40 = 184 cm2 3 a V = A × h = (9 × 6) × 5 = 270 cm3
5 a 276 cm2 b 424 cm2 c 598 cm2 b V = A × h = (__21 × 5 × 4) × 10 = 100 cm3
d 432 cm 2
e 8970 mm 2
f 8440 m2 4 a 270 cm3 b 420 cm3 c 108 cm3
6 a 280 m2 b 684 mm2 c 382.46 m2 d 343 cm3 e 720 cm3 f 703.08 cm3
7 a 600 cm2 b 224 cm2 c 1490 cm2 g 1037.244 cm3 h 460.6 cm3 i 89.79 cm3
d 300 cm 2
e 3150 cm 2
f 241.6 cm2 j 568.764 cm 3
k 1536 cm 3
l 31.29 cm3
Answers 529

ANSWERS 5 a V = A × h = π × r2 × h = π × 42 × 10 ≈ 502.65 m3 REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
b V = A × h = π × 42 × 25 ≈ 1256.64 m3
6 a 571 cm3 b 5089 cm3 c 40 cm3 1 D 2 C 3 A 4 D 5 A
7 a 942.5 cm3 b 3318.3 cm3 c 2058.9 cm3 6 B 7 C 8 B 9 A 10 C
d 2544.7 cm 3
e 109 858.4 cm 3
f 46 876.3 cm3 11 C 12 C 13 B 14 D 15 C
8 a 7238.2 cm 3
b 0.5 m 3 16 A 17 A 18 C 19 B
c 1 150 346.5 mm3
9 a 8181.2 cm3 b 3261.8 cm3 REVIEW SET 1
c 998 306.0 mm 3
1 a P = 21.2 cm, A = 21 cm2
10 a 904.8 cm3 b 4188.8 cm3 c 2572.4 cm3 b P = 34 cm, A = 48 cm2
11 a 1250.24 cm3 b 397.13 m3 c 0.70 m3 c P = 28.3 cm, A = 63.6 cm2
12 a i 325 cm2 ii 1625 cm3 d P = 17.6 cm, A = 19.4 cm2
b i 622 cm2 ii 5598 cm3 e P = 174.0 cm, A = 2000 cm2
c i 143 cm 2
ii 1144 cm3 f P = 53.4 cm, A = 93.5 cm2
d i 675 cm2 ii 6075 cm3 2 a 405 m2 b 514.5 m2
e i 147.84 cm2 ii 1034.88 cm3 3 a 136 m2 b 1005.3 cm2 c 706.9 cm2
f i 1120 cm2 ii 4480 cm3 4 a 21 cm 3
b 240 cm 3
c 1005.3 m3
13 If r = 3 cm, h = 4 cm, then V = 113.1 cm3. 5 73 622 mm 3
6 2155 mL
If r = 4 cm, h = 3 cm, then V = 150.8 cm3.
Cylinder of radius 4 cm and height 3 cm has the greater REVIEW SET 2
volume. 1 a P = 19.4 cm, A = 12 cm2
14 a 28 cm2 b 7 cm c 0.6 cm b P = 11 cm, A = 6.24 cm2
15 b 48 000 000 mm3 or 48 000 cm3 c P = 30.3 m, A = 54 m2
16 a 100.5 cm3 b 120.7 m3 c 733.0 m3 d P = 22.5 cm, A = 31.2 cm2
e P = 21.7 cm, A = 25.5 cm2
EXERCISE 5H CAPACITY f P = 32 cm, A = 39 cm2
1 a Volume = (6.5 × 1000) cm3 = 6500 cm3 2 a P = 67.9 m, A = 279 m2 b 517.5 m2
b Capacity = (25 600 × 1) mL = 25 600 mL 3 a 320 m2 b 887.7 cm2 c 221.7 cm2
= (25 600 ÷ 1000) L = 25.6 L 4 a 300 m3
b 1967.5 cm 3
c 310.3 cm3
2 a 2000 cm3 b 12 000 cm3 c 2600 cm3 5 0.06 ML
d 450 cm 3
e 975 cm 3
3 a 650 cm3 b 7500 cm3 c 1250 cm3 REVIEW SET 3

d 3780 cm3 e 845 cm3 1 a P = 32.8 cm, A = 67.24 cm2
4 a 1495 mL b 3000 mL c 500 mL b P = 3.6 m, A = 0.7 m2
d 24 000 mL e 6740 mL c P = 47.6 cm, A = 90 cm2
5 a 1.495 L b 3L c 0.5 L d P = 38.1 cm, A = 78.5 cm2
d 24 L e 6.74 L e P = 43.0 cm, A = 96.5 cm2
6 a 2 m3 b 5 m3 c 6.7 m3 f P = 20.0 cm, A = 24.1 cm2
d 0.9 m 3
e 83.2 m 3
2 a P = 170.0 m, A = 1312.5 m2
7 a 0.02 kL b 0.7 kL c 28.4 kL b 1056 m2
d 302 kL e 5660 kL 3 a 311.0 mm2 b 881.2 cm2 c 2123.7 mm2
8 Volume = area of base × height = (π × 3 × 3) × 5 m3 4 a 751.8 cm3 b 120 cm3 c 175.9 cm3
≈ 141.4 m3 5 268.1 kL
Capacity ≈ 141.4 kL
9 a 5832 cm3 b 5832 mL c 5.832 L REVIEW SET 4
10 a 704 000 000 cm3 b 704 000 000 mL 1 a P = 61.7 mm, A = 166.8 mm2
c 704 000 L d 704 kL b P = 15 m, A = 12.7 m2
11 6.8 mL 12 3.6 L 13 40 ML c P = 355.0 mm, A = 10 028.7 mm2
14 Vase 1: 785.4 mL; Vase 2: 730.0 mL; Vase 1 holds d P = 40.8 cm, A = 100 cm2
55.4 mL more e P = 66.0 cm, A = 148.4 cm2
15 a 60 000 cm3 b i 60 000 mL ii 60 L c 54 L f P = 205.7 cm, A = 2856.6 cm2
16 1508 L 2 a 4500 m2 b 1056 m2
17 a 907 200 cm3 b 907.2 L 3 a 779.8 m2 b 949.3 cm2 c 132.7 cm2
18 a 181 m3 b 181 kL 4 a 1481.5 m3 b 2224.6 cm3 c 143.8 cm3
19 735 mL 5 192 kL
20 a 9.2 L b 8 breaths
21 13 m REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION
22 Inside volume of tank = 60 000 cm3.
Suggest dimensions in cm for a rectangular prism where 1 a 25.4 m
length × width × height = 60 000 cm3. One possible b P = 25.2 cm, A = 36.9 cm2
answer is 100 cm by 60 cm by 10 cm. c 833 m2
23 724 mL d SA = 380.1 cm2, V = 696.9 cm3
e 1440 cm3 f 1357.2 cm3 g 1357 mL

CHAPTER 6 INTEREST AND DEPRECIATION 21 No, GST = $475 ÷ 11 = $43.18
ANSWERS
22 The second quote ($2680 including GST) is cheaper
by $15.
ARE YOU READY?
23 $14 787.55 24 $12.39
1 A 2 D 3 C 4 C 5 A 6 D
7 B 8 D 9 A 10 D 11 C 12 B
EXERCISE 6B SIMPLE INTEREST CALCULATIONS
1 P = $800, r = 5 ÷ 100 = 0.05, n = 6
EXERCISE 6A PERCENTAGE APPLICATIONS
I = $800 × 0.05 × 6 = $240
1 a $576 b 26.25 m c 918 kg 2 a $54 b $135
d 179.2 cm e 324 min f $18 c $825 d $657
g 2.03 t h 65 s i 320 L 3 P = $4650, n = 5
2 a 80.5 mm b $364.80 c 210 mL r = 6.47 ÷ 100 = 0.0647
d 3.888 km e 64.5 g f $417.24 I = $4650 × 0.0647 × 5 = $1504.28
g $2932.50 h 38 s i 3.5448 ha 4 a $365.94 b $1723.78
3 a Increase = 55 − 52 = 3 kg c $8382 d $5605.60
3
Percentage increase = __ × 100% = 5.76 … % ≈ 5.8% 5 a $1072 b $3354.40
52
b Decrease = $186 − $154 = $32 c $15 120 d $3300
32 e $4500 f $79 460 g $1010.62
Percentage decrease = ___
186
×100% = 17.20…% ≈ 17.2% 6 a 0.08 b 4%, 0.04
4 a 21.4% b 8.3% c 7.9% c 2%, 0.02 d 0.666…%, 0.0066…
d 168.8% e 100% f 10.4% 7 a 0.03 b 1.5%, 0.015
5 a 25.8% b 7.3% c 1.9% c 0.75%, 0.0075 d 0.25%, 0.0025
d 10.5% e 66.7% f 6.2% 8 Annual 6-monthly Quarterly Monthly
6 a i loss $5500 ii 25% b i profit $70 ii 70%
rate (%) rate (%) rate (%) rate (%)
c i loss $1680 ii 40% d i profit $7500 ii 15%
e i loss $320 ii 53__31 % f i loss $1300 ii 61.9% a 9 4.5 2.25 0.75
7 a Value after 1 year = 106% of $3600 b 10 5 2.5 0.8333…

106 c
= ___
100
× $3600 = $3816 15 7.5 3.75 1.25
b Value after two years = 108% of $3816 d 4.5 2.25 1.125 0.375
108
= ___
100
× $3816 e 7.6 3.8 1.9 0.6333…
= $4121.28 f 10.4 5.2 2.6 0.8666…
c Change = $4121.28 − $3600 = $521.28 g 15.6 7.8 3.9 1.3
521.28
d Percentage profit = _____
3600
× 100% ≈ 14.5% h 0.78 0.39 0.195 0.065
8 a $2760 b $2980.80 c $580.80 d 24.2% i 3.9 1.95 0.975 0.325
9 Value after 1 year = $56 000
9 P = $5300, n = 17
97
Value after 2 years = ___
100
× $56 000 = $54 320 r = 6.47 ÷ 12 ÷ 100 = 0.005 391 666…
Change = $54 320 − $50 000 = $4320 I = 5300 × 0.005 391 666… × 17 = $485.79
4320
Percentage change = _____ × 100% = 8.64%; that is 10 a $160 b $630 c $6825
50 000 d $1435 e $271.40 f $558.31
8.64% profit
11 8% 12 4% 13 6.5%
10 Value after 1 year = ___
110
100
× 80 000 = $88 000 14 4.7 years 15 $2406.25 16 $3.90
90
Value after 2 years = ___ × 88 000 = $79 200 17 a interest rate too high b various
100
Change = $79 200 − $80 000 = −$800 EXERCISE 6C SIMPLE INTEREST GRAPHS
−$800
Percentage change = ______ × 100% = −1%; that is, 1 a 4, Time, across, $280
$80 000
1% loss b across, $400, down, 5.8 years
11 GST = 10% of $750 = ____10
100
× $750 = $75 2 a $540 b 3.9 years
12 a $4.60 b $15 c $0.84 d $45.90 3 a $65 b 3.2 years
e $97.55 f $1.10 g $198 h $1.54 4 a $4000 b 5.6 years
13 a $65.40 b $719.40 5 a Simple interest 5% p.a.
14 a $874.28 b $9617.08
15 a $38.90 b $427.90 500

16 GST paid = 1200 ÷ 11 = $109.09 400
17 a $41.64 b $24 c $3.14 300
d $19.91 e $1.80 f $173.09 200
g $270.91 h $1.35 100
18 a $416.36 b $240 c $31.42 0
d $199.09 e $18 f $1730.91 2 4 6 8 10
g $2709.09 h $13.55 Time (years)
19 $697.40 20 13.4%
b $380 c 3 __21 years
Answers 531

6 a 8 14 260 = 26 900 − D × 4
ANSWERS Time (years) 0 1 2 4 5 10
4D + 14 260 = 26 900
Interest ($) 0 60 120 240 300 600
4D = 26 900 − 14 260
b Simple interest 6% p.a. = 12 640
D = $3160
9 $2150 10 $4000 11 $4460
600
500 12 $850 13 $280 14 $900
400 15 5 years 16 6 years 17 8 years
300 18 6 years
200 19 a $20 000 b $45 000 c 225% d 48%
100
0 EXERCISE 6E COMPOUND INTEREST
2 4 6 8 10
Time (years) 2 a Time Balance + Total Interest
c $570 d a little over 4 years interest balance
7 Simple interest on $1000 Start of 1st year $2400 $144
1200 Start of 2nd year $2400 + $144 $2544 $152.64

11%
1000 9% Start of 3rd year $2696.64 $161.80
$2544 + $152.64
800 8.5%
600 Start of 4th year $2696.64 + $2858.44
400 $161.80
200
0
b $2858.44, $458.44
2 4 6 8 10 3 a Time Balance + Total Interest
Time (years) interest balance
a i $900 ii $1100 iii $850 Start of 1st year $3600 $180
b i $400 ii $500 iii $380
c $250, $200 Start of 2nd year $3600 + $180 $3780 $189
d i 5.5 years ii 4.5 years iii just under 6 years Start of 3rd year $3780 + $189 $3969 $198.45
8 Simple interest on $2000
Start of 4th year $3969 + $198.45 $4167.45
2400 12%
10.5% b $567.45
2000
8% 4 a
1600 Time Balance + Total Interest
1200 interest balance
800 Start of 1st year $980 $29.40
400
Start of 2nd year $980 + $29.40 $1009.40 $30.28
0
2 4 6 8 10 Start of 3rd year $1039.68 $31.19
$1009.40 + $30.28
Time (years)
Start of 4th year $1039.68 + $31.19 $1070.87 $32.13
a i $1600 ii $2400 iii $2100
b i just under $1400 ii just over $2000 Start of 5th year $1070.87 + $32.13 $1103.00
iii just under $1800
c $800, $300 b $123.00
d i 6__41 years ii a little over 4 years 5 a Time Balance + interest Total Interest
balance
iii 4__43 years
Start of $7890 $702.21
EXERCISE 6D STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION 1st year
Start of $7890 + 702.21 $8592.21 $764.71
1 Year Value ($) Depreciation ($) Depreciated 2nd year
value ($) Start of $9356.92 $832.77
$8592.21 + $764.71
1 35 000 3800 31 200 3rd year
2 31 200 3800 27 400 Start of $9356.92 + $832.77 $10 189.69 $906.88
4th year
3 27 400 3800 23 600
Start of $10 189.69 + $906.88 $11 096.57 $987.59
2 a S = $26 990 − $3300 × 2 = $20 390 5th year
b S = $26 990 − $3300 × 4 = $13 790 Start of $12 084.16
$11 096.57 + $987.59
3 a $14 740 b $8800 6th year
4 a $2600 b $600
5 a $30 599 b $17 999 b No, not enough money, only $12 084.16
6 a $3100 b $1000 c Needs another $905.84
7 a $1330 b $250

6 a c
ANSWERS
Time (years) Investment ($)
$250,000
0 1000.00
Investment ($)
$200,000 Compound interest
1 1070.00 8.5% p.a.
$150,000
2 1144.90
$100,000 Simple interest
3 1225.04 $50,000 8.5% p.a.
4 1310.80 0
5 1402.55 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (years)
6 1500.73
7 1605.78
8 1718.19
1 C 2 B 3 B 4 A 5 B
9 1838.46
6 D 7 A 8 A 9 D 10 C
10 1967.15
REVIEW SET 1
b, e
$2,500 1 a 82.4 kg b $246.50
Investment ($)
$2,000 Simple interest 2 a $25 650 b 2.6%

9% p.a. 3 $514
$1,500
4 a $1254.63 b $13 800.93
Compound interest
$1,000 5 a $112.27 b $32.64 c $3.83 d $24.18
7% p.a.
$500 6 $178.50
0 7 a 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 b i 5%, 0.05 ii 2.5%, 0.025 iii 0.83%, 0.0083
Time (years) 8 $448.80
c approx. $1550 d about 6 years 9 Simple interest 7% p.a.
f between 9 and 10 years

700
7 a Time (years) Investment ($)
600
500
0 2000.00 400
1 2186.00 300
200
2 2389.30
100
3 2611.50 0
2 4 6 8 10
4 2854.37 Time (years)
5 3119.83
a $450 or $460 b 3__21 years
6 3409.97
7 3727.10 REVIEW SET 2
8 4073.72 1 28.8% 2 9.87%
9 4452.58 3 a $84.90 b $933.90
10 4866.67 4 $1171.50 5 $633.10 6 5.5%
7 $7000 8 $1950
b, f
$5,000 REVIEW SET 3
Investment ($)
Simple interest 1 2%
$4,000
$3,000 2 a $2258.60 b $24 844.60
3 a $42.50 b $467.50
$2,000 Compound interest
4 a $681.82 b $115.27 c $2.36 d $36.45
9.3% p.a.
$1,000 5 $816
0 6 a 0.06 b 3%, 0.03
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 c 1.5%, 0.015 d 0.5%, 0.005
Time (years) 7 $565.73 8 5.6%
c about $3000 d about $1000 e Just under 9 Simple interest 9% p.a.
8 years 1000
g 14.3% 800
8 a i $185 000 ii $226 098.34 600
b Compound interest gives interest on the interest 400
earned each year. Simple interest is the same amount 200
every year. 0
2 4 6 8 10
Time (years)
a $500 b 1__43 years
Answers 533

10 a 360 cm3 b 274.6 m3 c 4188.8 cm3
ANSWERS REVIEW SET 4
11 a 125.44 m3 b 471.2 cm3
1 20.2% 2 $491.30 12 a 40 cm3 b 70 686 cm3
3 a $325.85 b $3584.35 c 140 cm3 d 2400 cm3
4 a $52 b $572 13 120 kL 14 423 mL
5 a $904.82 b $77.73 c $3.59 d $36.27 15 a 84 kg b 6% c 64.6%
6 $343 d i $1436 ii $15 796
7 a 0.05 b 2.5%, 0.025 e i $72.50 ii $797.50
c 1.25%, 0.0125 d 0.417%, 0.004 17 f $295.82
8 8.2% 9 $354.84 16 a $637.50
10 Simple interest 15% p.a. b i 0.04 ii 2%, 0.02
1600
iii 1%, 0.01 iv __31 %, 0.003
c $381.93 d 8%
1400
1200 e i Interest 7.2% p.a.
1000 700

800
600
600
500
400
400
200
300
0
2 4 6 8 10 200
Time (years) 100
a Just over $1450 b 5__43 years 0
2 4 6 8 10
11 3 years Time (years)
ii about $250 iii about 4.2 years
f i $3300 ii $600
1 a i $44 800 ii $39 424 iii Decrease 1.44% g $2500
b i $1568.50 ii $17 253.50 h Time Balance + interest Total Interest
c $1943.64 balance
d $22 400
e i 0.02 ii 20 iii $9287.17 Start of first $4200 $168
year
iv $3037.17
f $961.26 Start of $4368 $174.72
second year $4200 + $168
CHAPTERS 4–6 CUMULATIVE REVIEW Start of

third year $4368 + $174.72 $4542.72 $181.71
1 a i discrete ii nominal iii continuous
Start of
b Select 10 numbers randomly from 120. fourth year $4542.72 + $181.71 $4724.43
c A sample that is biased is one in which data has been
unfairly influenced by the collection process and is not Total interest = $524.43
truly representative of the whole population.
d 129, 18, 186, 118, 108
e i Assign numbers 1–27 to the workers. Use a table or CHAPTER 7 REPRESENTING DATA
calculator to select 4 random numbers ≤27.
ii 18, 25, 8, 23 ARE YOU READY?
f Proportions are provided as percentages, correct to one
decimal place. 1 B 2 C 3 C 4 A
5 C 6 B 7 C 8 A
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of
18.5% 19.7% 23.3% 16.4% 12.9% 9.3%
EXERCISE 7A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLES
students
1 a Colour Number of cars
g i 46% ii 320
h i 18 ii 9 iii 12 iv 45 White 14
2 a 20 m b 11 cm or 110 mm c 30.8 cm Blue 12
3 a x = 11.3 b 43.3 cm Green 9
4 a 23.715 cm2 b 9.46 m2
Red 11
c 121 cm2 d 421.64 m2
5 a 211.2 mm2 b 41.9 cm2 c 0.7 m2 Other 4
6 a 5497.8 cm2 b 1115.9 mm2 b 50 c White
7 267 m2 d W 28%, B 24%, G 18%, R 22%, O 8%
8 a 116.1 cm2 b 2536.7 cm2
9 a 616 cm2 b 376 m2

2 a 5 a i
ANSWERS
Temperature Number of days Mark Frequency
17 1 0−4 0
18 2 5−9 1
19 4 10−14 0
20 7 15−19 0
21 6 20−24 4
22 6 25−29 1
23 4 30−34 3
b 30 c 1 d 7 35−39 3
3 a Colour Number of students 40−44 4
Blue 10 45−49 3
Brown 11 50−54 4
Green 3 55−59 1
Grey 6 60−64 4
65−69 1
b 30 c Brown
4 a 70−74 0
Score 3 13 20 22 29 31 33 34 38 40 41 42 44 75−79 1
Frequency 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 ii Mark Frequency
Score 45 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 60 61 0−9 1
Frequency 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 10−19 0
20−29 5
Score 62 64 65 66 68 69 70 74 75 79 85 94
30−39 6
Frequency 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
40−49 7
b We are unable to obtain very much information from this 50−59 5
table apart from getting a rank order of the scores. It is 60−69 5
also very time consuming to prepare. 70−79 1
c i The scores from 0 to 9
ii The scores from 60 to 69 iii Mark Frequency
iii Yes. Ten possible scores. 0−< 20 1
iv Class Tally Frequency 20−< 40 11
0–9 | 1 40−< 60 12
10–19 | 1 60−< 80 6
20–29 | || 3 iv Mark Frequency
30–39 |||| 4 0−49 19
40–49 |||| |||| 9 50−99 11
|
50–59 |||| |||| |||| 14

c i Classes overlap ii Class 10−19 missing
|
|
60–69 |||| |||| | 11 iii Classes are different sizes.

|
|
70–79 5 6 a i Number of globes

|||| Time (× 100 h)
|
80–89 | 1 0−4 3
90–99 | 1 5−9 12
Total 50 10−14 23
15−19 2
v 14 vi 2%
d i Twenty possible scores ii Number of globes
Time (× 100 h)
ii Class Tally Frequency 1−<6 5
0–19 || 2
6−<11 16
20–39 |||| || 7 11−<16 18
|
40–59 |||| |||| |||| |||| ||| 23 16−<21 1

|
|
|
|
60–79 |||| |||| |||| | 16 b i No, classes overlap ii Yes

|
|
|
iii Yes, but class size too big

80–99 || 2
c 40
Total 50 d i 15 ii 19 iii 6
iii 7 iv 32
Answers 535

e No, the grouped data only shows how many clients had
ANSWERS EXERCISE 7B CUMULATIVE AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY 6, 7 or 8 arguments.
1 a Number of Frequency Cumulative Relative f No, the grouped data shows three responses in each class
children frequency frequency interval so lowest could be 0, 1 or 2 and highest could be
1 3 3 12%
12, 13 or 14.
6 a c
2 9 12 36% Distance Tally Frequency Cumulative Relative
frequency frequency
3 7 19 28%
180−189 || 2 2 3__31 %
4 4 23 16%
190−199 |||| ||| 8 10 13__31 %
|
5 2 25 8%
200−209 |||| |||| | 11 21 18__31 %
|
|
b i 19 ii 23
c 7
i __ 4
ii __ 210−219 |||| ||| 8 29 13__31 %
|
25 25
d i 36% ii 8% 220−229 |||| |||| ||| 13 42 21__32 %
|
|
2 a Goals/match Frequency Cumulative Relative 230−239 |||| |||| 10 52 16__32 %
|
|
frequency frequency
240−249 |||| 4 56 6__32 %
5 4 4 16%
250−259 |||| 4 60 6__32 %
6 3 7 12%
7 7 14 28% b 60
8 5 19 20% d i 10 ii 42
9 0 19 0% e i 6__32 % ii 21__32 % iii 16__32 %
7 a 25 b 120
10 3 22 12%
c No, the grouped data only shows how many plants were
11 2 24 8% 350–374 mm high.
12 1 25 4% d No, the grouped data only shows that the shortest plant
b i 14 ii 19 is in the class interval 300–324 and the tallest plant is in
the class interval 425–449.
c i __51 4
ii __
25 e Height Frequency Cumulative Relative
d i 12% ii 8% frequency frequency
3 a Score Frequency b Score Frequency 300−324 3 3 2.5%
3 4 12 5 325−349 18 21 15%
4 2 13 6 350−374 47 68 39.2%
5 4 14 8 375−399 32 100 26.7%
6 5 15 10 400−424 14 114 11.7%
7 3 16 5 425−449 6 120 5%
17 2
f i 21 ii 100
c Score Frequency d Score Frequency g 5% h 2.5%
87 23
8 a Maximum daily Frequency Cumulative Relative
8 11
temperature (°C) frequency frequency
9 6 88 25
17 3 3 10%
10 10 89 30
18 4 7 13.3%
11 0 90 28
19 8 15 26.7%
12 5 91 21
20 6 21 20%
13 8 92 11
21 5 26 16.7%
4 a Number of Frequency Cumulative Relative 22 4 30 13.3%
matches frequency frequency
b 15 days c 50% d 0.3
48 9 9 15%
49 12 21 20%
EXERCISE 7C DOT PLOTS AND STEM-AND-LEAF PLOTS
50 18 39 30%
51 10 49 16__32 %
1 a Student’s eye colour
52 6 55 10%
53 5 60 8__31 %
b i 18 ii 21 iii 39 iv 21
c i 20% ii 30% iii 16__2 %
3
iv 65%
v 65% Blue Brown Green Grey
5 a 3 b 40 c 20% d 10% Eye colour

b ii
ANSWERS
Eye colour Frequency Time Frequency
Blue 10 0−9 5
Brown 11 10−19 8
Green 3 20−29 7
Grey 6 30−39 5
2 a Number of children in family 7 a 40

b Stem Leaf
1 8
2 2 2 3 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
3 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 c Stem Leaf
Number of children
1
b Number of children Frequency 1* 8
1 3 2 2 2 3 4
2 9 2* 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
3 7 3 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4
4 4 3* 7 8
5 2
d Most students spend between 25 and 35 hours per week
3 a Stem Leaf doing homework.
3 2367 8 a Melbourne Stem Adelaide
4 257778 1 79
5 00179 2 234
6 02358 3 88
b Lowest = 32, highest = 68 988 4 3
c i 2 ii 0 9988210 5 029
d 47 e 5 f 10
4 a Stem Leaf
80 6 5
12 4566688 b Melbourne has more rain than Adelaide.

13 00029 Melbourne’s rainfall is clustered more than Adelaide’s.
9 a Hobart Stem Canberra
14 00125555689
15 0144688 3 7
b Lowest = 124, highest = 158 9870 4 079

c i 1 ii 2 iii 0 6542222 5 033678
d 145
4 6 37
e i 7 ii 7
5 a 50, 90 b Hobart has a more constant rainfall than Canberra.
b i 3 ii 2 iii 0 iv 0 Canberra has a greater range.
c 54 d 14 10 a Boys Stem Girls
e i 14 ii 8
6 a 25 b Least = 3, greatest = 36 4 58
c 5 d4 5 5 03468
e i Time Frequency 9887 6 25
1−5 2 750 7 8
6−10 4 64 8
11−15 6 b The boys in this sample are heavier than the girls; most
16−20 1 boys are heavier than most girls.
21−25 5 11 a 30 b6
26−30 3
c i Carrots ii Potato
d i Peas ii Pumpkin
31−35 3
e i Potato ii Pumpkin
36−40 1 12 a i 12 ii 2
b i 39 ii 39
c i 20 ii 34
Answers 537

d i 10s and 20s ii 20s and 30s 6 Student exam results
ANSWERS e i 6 ii 1 English
100
f Class 11B Maths
Science
13 a 27 b7 c 8 d 12 e 39 80
Exam mark
60
EXERCISE 7D COLUMN AND BAR GRAPHS 40
1 % protein in foods 20
35 0
30 Reiko James Wendy Hassan Vincent
Protein (%)
25 7 Lifesaving week daily absences

20
15 Year 11R–1
6 Year 11R–2
10 5
Number
5 4
0 3
gs
ce
ilk
sh
2
ef
Eg
Ri
Fi
Be
Food 1
0
2 Month Sales
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
Days of week
($ million)
8 a Scale on vertical axis is irregular.
Jan/Feb 7.7
b Use of area.
Mar/Apr 8.2 c No scale on vertical axis.
May/Jun 3.2 d Use of volume.
Jul/Aug 4.1 9 5 times
Sep/Oct 3.4
10 a Artist Number of Scientific
downloads notation
Nov/Dec 6.0
Rihanna 47 571 000 4.8 × 107
3 Age of vehicle occupants Black Eyed Peas 42 405 000 4.2 × 107
200 Eminem 42 290 000 4.2 × 107
4.2 × 107
Number killed
160 Lady Gaga 42 078 000

120 Taylor Swift 41 821 000 4.2 × 107
80 Katy Perry 36 788 000 3.7 × 107

Lil Wayne 36 518 000 3.7 × 107
40
Beyonce 30 439 000 3.0 × 107
0
Kanye West 30 242 000 3.0 × 107
0– 10–1 0–2930–3 40–4 50–5 60–6 70+
9 9 9 9 9 9
2 Britney Spears 28 665 000 2.9 × 107
Age group
4 Sports injuries b Downloads
AFL 50
Soccer 45
Cricket 40
Number (millions)
Rugby league 35
Rugby union 30
Netball 25
Hockey
20
Indoor cricket 15
Basketball
10
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 5
Injuries (number per year) 0
a
Em s
m
ga
ift
nye e
st
s
ry
Pea
ear
ann
yn
c
e
ine
Sw
yon
Per
Ga
5
W
Wa
Sp
Cholesterol
Rih
yed
Be
dy
lor
ty
Food
ey
Lil
(mg/100 g)
Ka
La
kE
Tay
Ka
itn
c
Br
Lobster 70
Bla
Artist
Beef 80
Chicken 100
Duck 105
Prawns 145

c Downloads 3 Overweight males
ANSWERS
Number (millions)
50 56
48
% overweight
45
40
40 32
35 24
30 16
25 8
a 0
Em s
m
ga
ift
nye e
st
s
ry
Pea
ear
ann
yn
c
9
We
9 9 9 9 9
ine
Sw
yon
Per
Ga
–1 20–2 30–3 40–4 50–5 60–6
Wa
10
Sp
Rih
ed
Be
dy
lor
ty
ey
Lil
Ey
Age group (years)
Ka
La
Tay
Ka
itn
ck
Br
4
Bla
Artist Baby’s weight

The differences are exaggerated in the second graph. 14
11 a Fatal crashes in NSW 12
Weight (kg)
10
8
Number of fatal crashes
200 6
4
150 2
0
100 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Age (months)
50
5 Scale on horizontal axis is irregular.
0 6 a Graph A b No c No
7 a Distance
al
sta wn
rd
d
r
ne
se
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

on
da
s
no
ar
en
(km)
tu
isi
an
Le
nk
ic
ov
St
nl
Fuel
Pr
Licence status 0 2250 4500 6750 9000 11 250

cost ($)
27
b ____
312
≈ 0.085 c 18.8% d 69.3% b, d Fuel costs
e Class discussion
7000 ULP
f i 15.1 ii 6.1 iii Class discussion
12000 LPG
10000
Cost ($)
EXERCISE 7E LINE GRAPHS 8000

1 Summer temperature in Sydney 6000
4000
28 2000
Temperature (°C)
24
0
20 10 20 30 40 50
16 Distance travelled (1000 km)
12
8 c
Distance
4 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000
(km)
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fuel
3500 4865 6230 7595 8960 10 325
am Time pm cost ($)
2 Computer firm’s sales e ≈ 40 000 km

8 a $6500
56 b i $5300 ii $3500
48
Sales ($’000)
40 c i After 2 years ii After 4 years

32 d $500 e $1200
24 9 a
16 Number of years 0 1 2 3
8
Value ($) 26 990 23 690 20 390 17 090
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Answers 539

b, c
ANSWERS Value of car EXERCISE 7F FREQUENCY HISTOGRAMS AND POLYGONS
30 000
1 a Number of snacks
10
25 000
8
Frequency
20 000 6
4
Value ($)
15 000 2
0
10 000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number
b Score
5 000
16
12
Frequency
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
Number of years
4
d After about 4 years.
10 a 0
Road fatalities in NSW from 1950 to 2015 10 11 12 13 14
Score
1400 2 a
Number of people killed
Number of goals
1200 10
1000 8
Frequency
800
6
600
4
400
2
200
0
0 0 1 2 3 4
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Number
Year b Salary
The number of fatalities rose sharply from about 600 in 10

1950 to 1300 in 1970 where it remained steady for the next 8
Frequency
decade. It then decreased from 1980 to 2015, quickly at 6

first and then at a relatively slower rate.
4
b i 1950–55 ii 1985–90
11 a 1 2 3 4 5 6 2
N
0
BAC 0 0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 30 40 50 60 70 80
Salary ($’000)
b Blood alcohol content
0.12 3 Marks
0.1 10
8
Frequency
0.08
6
BAC
0.06 4
2
0.04
0
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0.02 Mark
4 a Score (x) Frequency (f)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 5 3
N
6 4
c i 0.09 ii 0.11
7 8
d4 e 2
8 6
9 2

b ii Number of snacks
ANSWERS
Score (x) Frequency (f)
12 15 40
13 10 35
14 6 30
25
15 8
20
16 11
15
17 14 10
5
5 a Mass
0
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number
Frequency
6
4 b i Score Frequency Cumulative frequency
2 10 7 7
0 11 11 18
61 64 67 70 73
Mass (kg) 12 17 35
b 13 0 35
Score
10 14 5 40
8 ii Score
Frequency
6
40
4
35
2
30
0 25
45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
Score 20
c Patients per day
15
10
16 5
0
12
Frequency
10 11 12 13 14
Score
8
2 a i Number of Frequency Cumulative frequency
4 goals
0 8 8
0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 1 9 17
Number per day
2 6 23
6 a i 24% ii 6%
3 3 26
b i 33% ii 5%
c i 26–39 ii 0–4 4 1 27
d i 40–59 ii 0–4, 5–16
ii Number of goals
e i 26–39 ii 0–4
7 a i 1970, 1980 ii 2010 28
b i 1950–60 ii 1980–90
24
c The number of fatalities rose sharply from about 600 20
in 1950 to 1300 in 1970 where it remained steady for 16
the next decade. It then decreased from 1980 to 2010, 12
quickly at first and then at a relatively slower rate 8
4
EXERCISE 7G CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPHS 0
0 1 2 3 4
1 a i Number of snacks Frequency Cumulative frequency Number
0 5 5 b i Salary Frequency Cumulative
1 7 12 ($’000) frequency
2 9 21 30 8 8
3 7 28 40 6 14
4 6 34 50 7 21
5 4 38 60 3 24
6 2 40 70 0 24
80 1 25
Answers 541

ii ii Number of patients
ANSWERS Salary
28 60
24 50
20 40
16 30
12 20
8 10
4 0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 Number per day
Amount ($’000) 4 a Score Cumulative frequency Frequency
3 a i Mass (kg) Frequency Cumulative frequency 2 3 3
60–62 2 2 3 5 2
63–65 5 7 4 8 3
66–68 7 14 5 13 5
69–71 4 18 6 15 2
72–74 2 20
b Score Cumulative frequency Frequency
ii Mass
18 2 2
20 19 7 5
16 20 13 6
12
21 16 3
8
4 22 19 3
0 23 20 1
61 64 67 70 73
Mass (kg) c Score Cumulative Frequency
Score Frequency Cumulative frequency frequency
b i
41–50 3 3 141 2 2
51–60 0 3 142 7 5
61–70 10 13 143 15 8
71–80 8 21 144 22 7
81–90 7 28 145 27 5
91–100 2 30 146 30 3
ii 5 a Cause of Frequency Relative Cumulative

Score
delay frequency relative
30 (%) frequency (%)

25 No signature 84 70 70
20
No address 20 17 87
15
10 Can’t read 8 7 94
5 Wrong form 5 4 98
0
45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5 Other 3 3 100
Score Total 120
c i Patients/day Frequency Cumulative frequency

10–19 13 13
20–29 15 28
30–39 16 44
40–49 10 54
50–59 4 58
60–69 2 60

Delay in processing loan 7 a
ANSWERS
Type of Frequency Relative Cumulative
applications complaint frequency relative
120 100% (%) frequency
110 (%)
90%
Difficult parking 77 51 51
100
80%
Cumulative relative frequency

Limited sizes 37 25 76
90
70% Limited styles 11 7 83
80
Salesperson rude 9 6 89
70 60%
Frequency
Layout confusing 8 5 94
60 50% Poor lighting 5 3 97
50 40% Other 3 2 100
40 Total 150
30%
30
20% Customer complaints
20 150 100%
10 10%
140
0 0% 90%
130
No signature
No address
Wrong form
Can’t read
Other
120 80%
100

70%
100
Cause of delay
90 60%
b Check signature, check address c 87%
Frequency
6 a 80
Type of Frequency Relative Cumulative 50%
complaint frequency relative 70
(%) frequency (%) 60 40%
Invoice wrong 36 45 45 50
Product 22 27.5 72.5 30%
quality 40
Packaging 11 13.8 86.3 30 20%
Delivery 7 8.7 95 20
10%
Other 4 5 100 10
Total 80 0 0%
Difficult parking
Limited sizes
Limited styles
Salesperson rude
Layout confusing
Poor lighting
Customer complaints Other
80 100%
70 90%
80%
60
70%
50 Type of complaint
Frequency
60%
b 7% c Parking, range of sizes d 76%
40 50%
9 a Type of Frequency Relative Cumulative
30 40%
complaint frequency relative
30%
20 (%) frequency (%)
20%
10 Too expensive 93 46.5 46.5
10%
0% Long delays in 35 17.5 64
0
serving
Invoice wrong
Product quality
Packaging
Delivery
Other
Too noisy 19 9.5 73.5

Small portions 17 8.5 82
Cramped seating 9 4.5 86.5
Dirty washrooms 8 4 90.5
Type of complaint
No atmosphere 8 4 94.5
b Check invoice, check product quality, (ensure correct
Rude staff 6 3 97.5
packaging)
c 72.5% (86.3% if packaging included) Limited menu 5 2.5 100
Total 200
Answers 543

Customer complaints ii
ANSWERS 200 100%
Survey of hair colour
180 90% Grey

160 80%
Red
Hair colour
140 70%
Blond
120 60%
Frequency
100 50% Brown

80 40% Black
60 30%
40 20% 0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of people
20 10%
0 0% 2 Share prices
Too expensive
Long delays in serving
Too noisy
Small portions
Cramped seating
Dirty washrooms
No atmosphere
Limited menu
Rude staff 4
3
Price ($)
2
1
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
Type of complaint Day of week
b Cost of meals, delays in serving, noise, (portion size) 3 Spelling test
c 74% (82% if portion size included)
20
18
1 A 2 C 3 C 4 D 5 C 6 D
16
7 C 8 B 9 D 10 B 11 B
14
REVIEW SET 1 12
1 a Hair colour Frequency Relative frequency
10
8
Black 8 26__32 %
6
Brown 8 26__32 % 4
Blond 9 30% 2
0
Red 2 6__32 % 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grey 3 10% Mark
b 30 c Blond
REVIEW SET 2
d See table above i 26__32 % ii 30%
1, 2 Mark Frequency Cumulative Relative
e i Survey of hair colour frequency frequency
9 1 1 3__31 %
10 2 3 6__32 %
11 3 6 10%
12 2 8 6__32 %
13 3 11 10%
Black Brown Blond Red Grey
14 6 17 20%
Hair colour
15 4 21 13__31 %
16 2 23 6__32 %
17 2 25 6__32 %
18 4 29 13__31 %
19 1 30 3__31 %

3 a 17 b 21 2 a
ANSWERS
Stem Leaf
4 a 20% b 3__31 %
3 3478
5
6 4 368889
Frequency 5 5 1128
4 6 013469
3
b 33, 69
2
c i 2 times ii 0 times
1
d 48 e 6 f 10
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 3 Cause of delay Frequency Relative Cumulative
Mark frequency relative
(%) frequency (%)
6
32 No signature 92 51 51
28 Incorrect address 47 26 77
24 Can’t read 22 12 89
20
Wrong form 14 8 97
16
Other 5 3 100
12
8 Total 180
4
0 Delays in processing
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 credit card applications
Mark 180 100%
7 a 4 160 90%

b 29
8 15 140 80%
70%
120
REVIEW SET 3
Frequency
60%
100
1 a 50 50%
b Sales of sound systems in one week 80
40%
60 30%
Phillips
40 20%
Aiwa
20 10%
Brand
Pioneer
0 0%
National
No signature
Incorrect address
Wrong form
Can’t read
Other
Sony
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number of sales
c Sales of sound systems in one week Cause of delay

16 4 a Vertical axis does not start at zero.
14 b Vertical axis does not start at zero.
c Irregular scale on vertical axis.
12 d Use of area.
Number of sales
10
8
REVIEW SET 4
6 1 a Mark in test
4
60
2 50
40
0
30
l
s
r
a
ny
na
ee
ip
iw
20
So
ill
io
on
A
at
Ph
Pi
10
N
Brand 0
10 11 12 13 14 15
Mark
b i 16 ii 34 iii 26
Answers 545

2 d i {M, A, T, H, S} ii 5
ANSWERS Mark Frequency
e i {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ii 8
10 5
f i {A♥, A♦, A♣, A♠} ii 4
11 11 2 a {boy, girl} b {point up, point down}
12 18 c {lands on an end, lands on curved face}
13 15 d {R, R, R, R, R, B, B, B, W, W}
e {red, green, amber}
14 8
f {a, e, i, o, u}
15 3 g {I, I, N, S, G, H, T}
3 a 8__31 % b 5% h {Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun}
i {win, lose, draw}
4 Mark in test j Discuss with class
3 a Yes b Don’t know c No
20
d No e No
Frequency
15
f Yes g No h Yes
10
i Don’t know j Discuss with class
5
4 a False. The prevailing weather pattern determines the
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 chance of rain.
Mark b False. Not all swimmers are of equal ability.
c False. The letter Z is more common (or less common) in
different cultures.
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION d False. The candidates do not necessarily have the same
1 a i Class centre Cumulative frequency
qualifications, financial backing, etc.
e False. Not all students may be old enough, have access
2 7 to a car, etc.
7 18 5 None of them
12 33 6 1st question 2nd question Outcomes
17 47 T TT
T
22 50 F TF
T FT
11 F
ii 33 iii __
50
or 22% iv 34% F FF
v Test scores 7 {HH, HT, TH, TT}, yes
8 {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
50 9 a Second die
40 1 2 3 4 5 6
30 1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
20 2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
First die
10 3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)

0 4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
2 7 12 17 22 5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
Score
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
b5
b 36 c yes d 6
c i 31 ii 7 iii 15 iv 24%
10 a Second die
d i ≈ 2% ii Midnight to 5:59 am Sunday
iii Saturday 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CHAPTER 8 RELATIVE FREQUENCY AND PROBABILITY 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

First die
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ARE YOU READY? 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 C 2 C 3 B 4 D 5 B 6 D
7 D 8 B 9 A 10 B 11 C 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b 11
EXERCISE 8A SAMPLE SPACE AND NUMBER OF OUTCOMES c No, 4 appears three times and 6 appears five times in
the table
1 a i {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} d 7
ii 12 e 2 and 12, 3 and 11, 4 and 10, 5 and 9, 6 and 8
b i {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ii 7 f 10
c i {R,R,R,R,R,B,B,B} ii 8

11 a Second die
ANSWERS
EXERCISE 8C PROBABILITY
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 a __61 b __21 c __31 d __31 e 0 f 1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
12
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 2 a __
23
1
b 2311
__ c 23__
d 1
First die
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 3 a 2 1
__ b __31 c __61 d __65 e 0 f 1
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 4 a __81 b __81 c __41 d __21 e __21
5 4 3 2 1 0 1
f __83 g __41 h 0 i 1
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
b6 5 a 52 1
__ b 13 1
__ c 4 1
__ 1
d __
26
1
e __
26
c Yes, 3 and 6 each appear six times in the table
f __21 g __21 h 0 i 1
d1
e 24 6 a ___
200
1 1
b ___
100
1
c __
40
1
d __
20
1
e __
10
f 1
12 {BBB, BBG, BGB, BGG, GBB, GBG, GGB, GGG}, yes 1
7 a __4 b __61 1
c __ 5
d __ 7
e __
13 {bax, bay, bex, bey, cax, cay, cex, cey, dax, day, dex, dey} 12 12 12
14 {John Paul George, John George Paul, Paul John George, 11
f __ g __61 h 0
12
Paul George John, George John Paul, George Paul John}
15 16 16 12 8 a 9 4
__ b 3 1
__ c __92 d __97 e __95
17 {RR, RG, RA, GR, GG, GA, AR, AG, AA}, no f __32 g __31 h __92 i 0 j 1
18 {1.8AO, 1.8AB, 1.8AR, 1.8MO, 1.8MB, 1.8MR, 2.2AO,
2.2AB, 2.2AR, 2.2MO, 2.2MB, 2.2MR} 9 a __
1
20
19
b __
20
c __21 d __21 9
e __
20
11
f __
20
19 {CMR, CRM, MCR, MRC, RCM, RMC} 3
g __ 7
h __ i 0 19
j __ 9
k __ 11
l __
20 a {RR, RB, RG, BR, BB, BG, GR, GB, GG} 10 10 20 20 20
10 Other answers possible.
b {RB, RG, BR, BG, GR, GB}
a i P(7) = 0 ii P(odd or even) = 1
21 a {55, 57, 59, 75, 77, 79, 95, 97, 99}
b i P(yellow) = 0 ii P(red or white) = 1
b {57, 59, 75, 79, 95, 97}
c i P(17) = 0 ii P(red or black) = 1
22 S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, T1, T2, T3, T4]
11 a Wrong, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 b Wrong, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
23 1024
c Possible
24 {SS, SVS, SVV, VSS, VSV, VV}
13 a __31 b-e Disscuss with class
EXERCISE 8B RELATIVE FREQUENCY 14 a i __21 ii __ 3
iii __51
10
1 a On its end: ___
76 19
= __ or 38%
200 50 15 a i __41 ii __41 iii __41 iv __41
124
___ 31
__
On its side: 200 = 50 or 62%
17 Other answers possible.
19 31
b i __50
or 38% ii __
50
or 62% 1
a P(3) = __ b P(odd) = __21
10
2 a __
3
10
or 30% 7
__
b 10 or 70% c P(10) = 0 d P(number less than 10) = 1
3 a Australia ___
169
500
153
, Japan ___
500
, Germany ___77
500
, 3
e P(number divisible by 3) = __
10
62 31 39
Korea ___
500
= ___
250
, Other ___
500
9
f P(number less than 9) = __
10
169 31
b ___
500
or 33.8% c ___
250
or 12.4% g Impossible h Impossible
4 ____
107
5284
or 2%
EXERCISE 8D COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS
5 a ___
23
200
or 11.5% 43
b ___
270
or 15.9%
1 a {H, T}
6 a 25.3% b 17.1% c 7.2% b i {T} ii {H}
7 a 0 3
b __ or 6% 21
c __ 39
or 42% d __ or 78% 2 a {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
50 50 50 b i {not spinning a 3} = {1, 2, 4, 5}
8 a __
1
50
or 2% 1
b ___
100
6
or 1% c __
25
19
or 48% d __
25
or 76% ii {not spinning an odd number} = {spinning an even
9 a i 99 260 99 260
ii ______ iii 99.26% number} = {2, 4}
100 000 iii {not spinning a number greater than 3} = {spinning
b 99.393%
c i Male 97.1%, Female 98.4% a number less than or equal to 3} = {1, 2, 3}
ii Male 90.9%, Female 94.6% iv {spinning a 5} = {5}
iii Male 57.8%, Female 72.3% 3 a B b D c A d E e F f C
d i 95 141 ii 71 589 iii 75.2% iv 75.2% 4 a {not selecting a ♦} = {selecting a ♥, ♣ or ♠}
e i 97 251 ii 82 305 iii 84.6% iv 84.6% b {not selecting a ♦ or ♥} = {selecting a ♣ or ♠}
c {not selecting a ♦, ♥ or ♣} = {selecting a ♠}
10 ____
339
1000
or 33.9% d {not selecting a red card} = {selecting a black card}
e {not selecting an ace} f {selecting a king}
5 a {HH, HT, TH, TT}
b i {HT, TH, TT} ii {HH, TH, TT} iii {HH, TT}
iv {HT, TH, HH} v {TT} vi {HH}
Answers 547

6 a __41 8 a {PSA, PSF, PFA, PFF, PCA, PCF, BSA, BSF, BFA,
ANSWERS b 0.7 c 85%
BFF, BCA, BCF}
7 a __81 b 0.33 c 52% b i __ 1 1
ii __ iii __61 iv __31
12 12
8 a ___ 1 99
___
b 100 c 10 1
__ 9
__
d 10 e 100 9
___
100 v __32 vi __21 vii __41
91
___ 2
__ 23
__ 1
__ 9
__
f 100 g 25 h 25 i 10 j 10 9 a {RR, RB, RW, BR, BB, BW, WR, WB, WW}
1 24 7 93
k __
25
l __
25
m ___
100
n ___
100 b i __91 ii __31 iii __32 iv __31
5
51
9 a __
25
b __
25
c __ d __
12 11
e __
3
f __4 v __92 vi 9 vii 9 4
__ __ viii __94
52 26 26 13 13
10 a i __81 ii __81 iii __83 iv __83 v __81 10 a {RB, RW, BR, BW, WR, WB}
b i 0 ii 0 iii 1 iv __31
b i No tails ii __87
v __31 vi __32 vii __32 viii __31
c i No heads ii __87
11 a {HH, HD, HS, HC, DH, DD, DS, DC, SH, SD, SS, SC,
11 a __
2
25
23
b __
25
1
c __
20
19
d __
20 CH, CD, CS, CC}
1
e __ 49
f __ 11
g ___
100
89
h ___
100
b i __
16
1 1
ii __
16
iii __81 iv __41 v __43
50 50
vi __41 vii __41 viii __41 ix __21 x __81
EXERCISE 8E PROBABILITY FOR MULTISTAGE EVENTS 9
c i __83 7
ii __ iii __43 iv __
1 a {TT, TF, FT, FF} 16 16
12 a {KMH, KHM, MKH, MHK, HKM, HMK}
b i __41 ii __41 iii __21 iv __41
2 a {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6} b i __31 ii __31 iii __31 iv __21
b i __1 1
ii __ iii __41 iv __61 v __21 vi __61 vii __32
12 12
3 a {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5}
1
b i __ ii __51 3
iii __
EXERCISE 8F PROBABILITY TREE DIAGRAMS
10 10
1 a
4 a Second die
1st marble 2nd marble Outcomes
5
9 R RR
3
1 2 3 4 7 R
4
9
B RB
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4)
First die
5
4 9 R BR
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) 7 B
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4)
4
9
B BB
16
__
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) b 63
1 1 1
b i 16 __ ii 4__ iii 8 __
2 a 1st card 2nd card Outcomes
3
iv __41 v __41 vi __41 1
4 A AA
2 A
3
__ 7
__ 1 Q AQ
c i 8 ii 16 4
3
A KA
5 a 1 4
Second die 2 K
1 Q KQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 4
3
__
b 8
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) 3 a 1st disc 2nd disc Outcomes
First die
4
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) 9 G GG
4
9 G
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) 5 Y GY
9
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) 4
9 G YG
5
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) 9 Y
5
9
Y YY
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__
b i 36 ii 6 iii 18 iv 18 16 25 20 20
b i __
81
ii __
81
iii __
81
iv __
81
v __41 vi __41 vii __91 1
viii __
18 4 a i 0.4 ii 0.6
c 7 b i 0.5 ii 0.5
5 11
d i __
18
ii __
36 c Class 11A Class 11B Outcomes
6 a {BB, BG, GB, GG} 0.5 G GG
0.6 G
b i __41 ii __41 iii __41 iv __21 v __41 0.5 B GB
7 a {BBB, BBG, BGB, BGG, GBB, GBG, GGB, GGG} 0.5 G BG
0.4 B
1
__ 1
__ 3
__ 3
__
b i 8 ii 8 iii 8 iv 8 0.5 B BB
v __81 vi __87 vii __21 viii __81 d i 0.2 ii 0.3 iii 0.2

5 a 12 a i __41 ii __21 iii __41
ANSWERS
1st child 2nd child Outcomes
0.51 B BB b i 25 ii 50 iii 25
0.51 B
0.49 G BG 13 a 1st child 2nd child 3rd child Outcome
0.51 B GB G GGG
0.49 G GGB
G B
0.49 G GG G G GBG
B
b i 0.2601 ii 0.2499 B GBB
G BGG
iii 0.2499 iv 0.2401 G
B BGB
6 a i 0.6 ii 0.4 B
G BBG
b 1st toss 2nd toss Outcomes B
B BBB
0.4 H HH
0.4 H b i __81 ii __83 iii __83 iv __81
0.6 T HT
0.4
c i 25 ii 75 iii 75 iv 25
H TH
0.6 T 14 a __21 15 a __41
0.6 T TT
c i 0.16 ii 0.24 iii 0.24 iv 0.36 b i 50 b i 26
7 a 0.72 b 0.08 c 0.18 d 0.02 c i 500 c i 260
8 a 0.48 b 0.32 c 0.12 d 0.08
16 a Second spinner
9 a __
9
20
3
b __
20
3
c __
10
1
d __
10
1 2 3
10 a 0.81
First spinner
b 0.01 c 0.18 d 0.99
11 a 1st set 2nd set 3rd set Outcome 1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3)
K KK
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3)
K
K KLK 1 1
L b i 9 __ ii 3 __ iii __92
L KLL
c i 50 ii 150 iii 100
K LKK
K
L
L LKL
L LL 1 C 2 A 3 B 4 C 5 B 6D
i 0.25 ii 0.25 iii 0.25 iv 0.25 7 C 8 D 9 D 10 D
b i 0.36 ii 0.288 iii 0.16 iv 0.192
REVIEW SET 1
1 a {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} b {BB, BG, GB, GG}
EXERCISE 8G EXPECTED FREQUENCY AND SIMULATIONS 2 0.18
1 Expected number of tails = __21 × 400 = 200 3 a __
1 1
b __ c __41
52 13
2 a 153 b 147 3
d __ e __21 1
f __
13 26
3 438 4 35
4 a Any impossible event
5 68 6 21
b e.g. Getting heads when a coin is tossed.
7 Royal flush 2, Four of a kind 240, Full house 1441,
c Any certain event
Straight 3925, Three of a kind 21 128, Two pairs 47 539,
One pair 422 569 5 a __83 b __41 c __41 d __87
8 45
e __85 f __81 g 0
9 a i 6 1
__ ii 2 1
__ iii 31
__ iv 3 2
__
6 a 12 1
__ b 41
__ 1
c __ d __61
12
1
__
b i 6 × 600 = 100 7 a __81 b __41 c __81 d __41
1
__
ii 2 × 600 = 300 8 a 50 b 150 c 200
iii __31 × 600 = 200 9 45
2
__
iv 3 × 600 = 400
REVIEW SET 2
10 a i __83 ii __21 iii __81 1 {PMY, PYM, MPY, MYP, YPM, YMP}
b i 150 ii 200 iii 50 2 a 0.03 b 0.01 c 0.28 d 0.72
11 a i __21 ii __41 1
iii __ 1
iv __ 3 41
__
13 26
b i 130 ii 65 iii 20 iv 10 4 a __81 b __81 c __21 d0
1
__
e 1 f 4
Answers 549

5
5 65% b i __61 1
ii __ iii __
ANSWERS 36 36
6 a __41 b __43 1
c __ 25
d __ c i 10 ii 1 or 2 iii 8 or 9
26 26
8 a 1st week 2nd week Outcomes
e __21 f 1
0.3 R RR
7 a Second die R
0.5
S RS
0.3 0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 F RF
0.3 R SR
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) 0.5
S 0.5
0.2
S SS
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) F SF
First die
0.3 R FR
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) 0.2
F 0.5
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) 0.2
S FS
F FF
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) b i 0.09 ii 0.25 iii 0.04 iv 0.51
b i __1
36
ii __61 iii __61 iv 0 REVIEW SET 4
8 a __
1
b 108 1 a __
1
13
8
b __
13
3
c __
13
1
d __
13
e 0
25
9 340 2 1
3 a __41 b __31 5
c __ 7
d __ e __32
REVIEW SET 3 12 12
4 a ___ 1 199
b ___ 1
c ___ 99
d ___ 9
e ___
1 a {RR, RB, RG, BR, BB, BG, GR, GB, GG} 200 200 100 100 200
191 29 49
b {RB. RG, BR, BG, GR, GB} f ___
200
11
g __
40
h __
40
i __
50
j __43
2 a 0.11 b 0.34 c 0 5 a 1st question 2nd question Outcome
3 a 0.01 b 0.09 c 0.1 d 0.9 e 0.01 A AA
f 0.09 g 0.99 h0 i 0.8 j 0.5 B AB
A
4 a Second set of cards C AC
D AD
1 2 3 4 5 A BA
First set of cards
B BB
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) B
C BC
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) D BD
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) A CA
B CB
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) C
C CC
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) D CD
1 2 1 4
A DA
b i 25 ii 25 __
iii 25 iv 25 __ __ __ v 0 B DB
D
5 a 1st bag 2nd bag Outcome C DC
3 D DD
7 R RR 1 1 1 9 7
3 R b i __16
ii __
16
iii __
16
iv __
16
v __
16
7 4
7
G RG 6 a 1st card 2nd card Outcome
3 H HH
4 7 R GR
D HD
7 G H
C HC
4 G GG
7 S HS
15 29 11 H DH
b i __
56
ii __
56
iii __
14 D DD
D
6 a 1300 b 650 c 200 d 100 C DC
S DS
e 50 f 100
H CH
7 a Second die D CD
C
C CC
1 2 3 4 5 6 S CS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 H SH
S D SD
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 C SC
First die
S SS
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 b i __
16
ii __81 iii __41 iv __21
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

7 a 36 4 b
ANSWERS
Equator
b Second die
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1, 1 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4 1, 5 1, 6 N
First die 2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6
3 3, 1 3, 2 3, 3 3, 4 3, 5 3, 6
4 4, 1 4, 2 4, 3 4, 4 4, 5 4, 6 5 a A 40°N, B 80°S, C 0°, D 20°S, E 60°N, F 20°N, G 80°N,
H 40°S, I 60°S, J 0°
5 5, 1 5, 2 5, 3 5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
6 a C b I c H, M
6 6, 1 6, 2 6, 3 6, 4 6, 5 6, 6 d D, P e B f L, R
1 g A, G h J, O i K, Q
c i __
36
ii __61 11
iii __
36
iv __61
j F k E
v __41 vi __41 7 a 90°N b 90°S
1 7 8 a i 40°N ii 70°N iii 0° iv 30°S
d i __ ii __61 1
iii __ iv __ v 0
18 36 36 v 60°S
5 5
e i __61 ii 18__ iii 18 1
__ iv 18 __ v 0 b i 70°N ii 40°N iii 0° iv 30°S
v 60°S
8 2
9 a i 60°N ii 40°N iii 30°N iv 0°
v 15°S vi 35°S vii 45°S
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION b i 40°N ii 15°S iii 45°S iv 0°
1 a i {RR, RG, RB, GR, GG, GB, BR, BG, BB} v 30°N vi 60°N vii 35°S
ii {RG, RB, GR, GB, BR, BG} 10 i 34°S ii 51.5°N iii 41°N iv 23.5°S v 23.5°N
b i 0.16 ii 0.66 11 a A 110°E, B 60°E, C 50°W, D 95°W, E 50°W, F 95°W, G
c 59% 0°, H 60°E, I 0°, J 110°E
1 199 b C, G b E, H, I c A, D d B, F, J
d i ___ ii ___ iii __54
200 200 12 a i 70°E ii 120°E iii 60°W
e i __41 ii 112 or 113 b i 60°W ii 0° iii 70°E iv 120°E
f i 1st 2nd 13 a i 50°E ii 80°E iii 120°E
child child Outcome iv 70°W v 100°W
0.55 B BB b i 100°W ii 70°W iii 0°
B iv 50°E v 80°E vi 120°E
0.55
0.45 G BG 14 i 151°E ii 0° iii 74°W
0.55 B GB
0.45
G EXERCISE 9B POSITION ON EARTH’S SURFACE
0.45 G GG 1 a i A, B, C, D ii C, F, K, Y, Z, V iii C
ii 0.495 b i Q, R, Z, T ii A, H, I, P, Q, X iii Q
g 8 2 A(50°N, 75°W), E(30°N, 100°E), G(30°N, 0°), I(15°N,
75°W), K(15°N, 45°E), M(0°, 100°E), O(0°, 0°), Z(30°S,
45°E), U(60°S, 100°E), W(60°S, 0°)
CHAPTER 9 WORKING WITH TIME 3 a D bI c V d R e J
f H g T hU i P j F
ARE YOU READY? kX l O mL n B o C
4 a Australia b China
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 B 5 C 6 C c Antarctica d Mexico
7 D 8 C 9 B 10 D 11 C 12 B e Kenya f France
13 A 14 B 5 a i S ii N iii N
b i W ii E iii E
EXERCISE 9A LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 6 a i (25°S, 95°E) ii (45°S, 95°E)
1 a Parallel of latitude b Meridian of longitude iii (35°S, 105°E) iv (35°S, 85°E)
c Parallel of latitude d Meridian of longitude b i (35°N, 150°E) ii (15°N, 150°E)
e Meridian of longitude f Parallel of latitude iii (25°N, 160°E) iv (25°N, 140°E)
2 a S b E c i (10°S, 90°W) ii (30°S, 90°W)
c W d N iii (20°S, 80°W) iv (20°S, 100°W)
d i (40°S, 40°W) ii (60°S, 40°W)
3 b Equator
iii (50°S, 30°W) iv (50°S, 50°W)
7 a (25°N, 75°W) b (5°N, 75°W)
c (15°S, 75°W) d (50°S, 75°W)
N 8 a (15°N, 165°W) b (32°S, 170°W)
c (18°S, 160°E) d (34°N, 150°E)
9 a B is 15°S and 20°E of A
b B is 5°S and 10°W of A
c B is 15°N and 10°E of A
Answers 551

d B is 15°S and 40°W of A 5 a 1 hour b 2 hours c 3__21 hours
ANSWERS e B is 30°N and 130°W of A d 2 hours e 9 hours f 10 hours
f B is 40°N and 60°E of A 6 a 5:00 pm b 7:00 pm c 11:00 am
10 c i Sydney ii Beijing d 4:00 am e 1:00 am f 6:00 am
iii Rome iv Johannesburg 7 a 6:00 pm b 11:00 pm c 8:00 am
v Moscow vi Los Angeles d 7:30 pm e 10:00 am f 9:00 pm
d i (36°N, 140°E) ii (52°N, 0°) 8 a 2:00 am Sunday b 3:00 am Sunday c 9:00 am Sunday
iii (41°N, 74°W) iv (36°N, 51°E) 9 a 9:00 pm Monday b 7:00 pm Monday
v (23°S, 43°W) vi (49°N, 123°W) c 2:00 pm Monday
11 a i Canberra ii Darwin 10 a San Francisco 4:00 am, Sydney 10:00 pm
iii Hobart iv Cairns
b i Sydney ii Alice Springs b San Francisco London Sydney
c i Brisbane ii Hobart
4:00 am 12:00 noon (Monday) 10:00 pm
12 2°S, 4°E 13 3°S, 6°W
6:00 am 2:00 pm 12.00 am
EXERCISE 9C TIME UNITS AND INTERVALS 8:00 am 4:00 pm 2:00 am

10:00 am 6:00 pm 4:00 am
1 × 24 × 60 × 60
12:00 pm 8:00 pm 6:00 am
days hours minutes seconds
(d) (h) (min) (s) 2:00 pm 10:00 pm 8:00 am
÷ 24 ÷ 60 ÷ 60
4:00 pm 12:00 midnight 10:00 am
2 a 2.5 hours 3
b
hours 3__1 6:00 pm 2:00 am 12.00 pm
c 5 minutes d
3 hours 13 minutes 8:00 pm 4:00 am 2:00 pm
e 8 minutes 5 seconds f
10 hours 35 minutes 10:00 pm 6:00 am 4:00 pm
g 277 minutes h
2832 seconds
12:00 am 8:00 am 6:00 pm
i 137 hours j
4 days 4 hours
k 604 800 seconds l
2 hours 46 minutes 2:00 am 10:00 am 8:00 pm
40 seconds 4:00 am 12:00 noon (Tuesday) 10:00 pm
3 a 2:06 pm b 12:51 am c 8:05 pm c 10:00 pm London time
d 1:22 am e 9:25 am f 9:21 pm
g 7:15 pm h 12:12 pm i 12:54 pm 11 Longitude Local time Longitude Local time
j 5:49 pm k 6:22 am l 10:54 pm west east
4 a 0743 b 1720 c 0135 0° 12:00 noon Wed 0° 12:00 noon Wed
d 1243 e 1620 f 0146
45°W 9:00 am Wed 45°E 3:00 pm Wed
g 0608 h 2027 i 0920
j 2308 k 1200 l 0000 90°W 6:00 am Wed 90°E 6:00 pm Wed
5 a 0830 b 1135 c 0736 135°W 3:00 am Wed 135°E 9:00 pm Wed
d 1610 e 1755 f 0832 180°W 12:00 midnight 180°E 12:00 midnight
g 1222 h 1240 i 0649 Tue Wed
6 a 8 days 10 hours b 6 days 20 hours
c 3 days 7 hours d 5 days 19 hours 31 minutes 12 a Same meridian b Differ by one day
e 4 days 8 hours 23 minutes f 7 days 8 hours 19 minutes c Change of one day
7 a 1 day 13 hours 52 minutes b 4 days 5 hours 7 minutes d No, due to countries needing to be on the same day.
c 4 days 13 hours 23 minutes d 1 day 5 hours 39 minutes e i Add one day ii Subtract one day
e 3 days 5 hours 51 minutes f 5 days 18 hours 51 minutes 13 Sunday 26 March 8:30 pm
8 a 1242 b 5 hours 18 minutes 14 a 3:00 pm Monday b 3:00 am Tuesday
c 2005 d 3 days 6 hours 45 minutes 15 a 7:00 am Monday b 11:00 pm Monday
9 a 8:10 pm Wednesday 16 May 16 a 10:00 am Sunday b 1:30 am Monday
b 7:14 pm Sunday 3 June 17 a i 8:00 pm Friday 30 November 2018
c 1 hour 28 minutes ii 26 days 2 hours 30 minutes
iii 10:30 pm Wednesday 26 December 2018
b i 2:30 pm Monday 21 January 2019
EXERCISE 9D WORLD TIME ZONES ii 30 days 2 hours 13 minutes
1 a 8:00 pm b 4:00 am c 3:00 pm iii 4:43 pm Wednesday 20 February 2019
d 8:00 am e 2:00 pm f 4:00 pm c 81 days 9 hours 43 minutes
2 a 11:00 pm b 7:30 pm c 9:00 am
d 8:00 am e 3:00 pm f 11:30 pm EXERCISE 9E AUSTRALIAN TIME ZONES
3 a 7:00 am Wednesday b 2:30 am Wednesday
c 1:00 am Wednesday d 5:00 am Wednesday 1 a 8:00 am b 10:00 am c 5:00 pm
e 7:00 am Wednesday f 4:00 am Wednesday d 6:30 pm e 7:20 pm f 3:00 pm
4 a 10:00 pm Sunday b 8:00 pm Sunday 2 a 7:00 pm b 12:30 pm
c 11:00 pm Sunday 3 1:00 pm Saturday
d 12:00 midnight end of Sunday
e 11:00 pm Sunday f 1:00 am Monday

4 a To allow greater use of daylight hours in summer 4 a T bQ c R dP
ANSWERS
b ACT, NSW, SA, Tas, Vic 5 a 255 minutes b 10:46 am
c Start first Sunday in October and finish first Sunday c 1546 d 1 days 17 hours 48 minutes
in April 6 a 10:00 pm b 4:00 am c 12:00 pm
5 City Time 7 a 3:00 pm Tuesday b 2:00 am Wednesday
8 5:30 pm
Brisbane 12:00 pm
9 a 0.9 m and 0.86 m
Sydney 1:00 pm b 7 hours 1 minute and 6 hours 29 minutes
Canberra 1:00 pm
Melbourne 1:00 pm REVIEW SET 2
Hobart 1:00 pm 1 a Circle parallel to the equator
Adelaide 12:30 pm b Circle passing through both poles
2 a (44°N, 60°E) b (44°N, 30°W)
Darwin 11:30 am
c (0°, 30°W) d (0°, 60°E)
Perth 10:00 am e (32°S, 60°E) f (32°S, 30°W)
6 11:30 pm 7 5:00 pm 8 12:00 midnight 3 a (41°N, 105°E) b (11°N, 105°E)
9 Adelaide 9:30 pm, Sydney 10:00 pm, Brisbane 9:00 pm c (26°N, 120°E) d (26°N, 90°E)
10 10:00 am 4 a South b West
5 a 113 hours b 2142
c 5 days 8 hours 26 minutes
EXERCISE 9F INTERPRETING TIMETABLES 6 1:00 am Friday 7 2:00 am 8 5:50 pm
1 a i 1802 ii 1825 9 a 1 hour 18 minutes b 10:15 am
b 1853
c i 21 minutes ii 45 minutes REVIEW SET 3
iii 43 minutes iv 32 minutes 1 a E(32°N, 15°W) b H(0°, 80°W)
d i 1 hour 3 minutes, 53 minutes, 1 hour 3 minutes, c P(16°S, 40°W) d F(0°, 120°W)
51 minutes, 51 minutes 2 a D bM c D or E dM
ii delay at Clyde 3 a i North ii East
2 a i 88 minutes ii 40 minutes b i South ii East
iii 52 minutes iv 31 minutes, change at Blacktown c i North ii West
b i 0943 ii 0945 iii 1008 iv 1018 d i South ii West
c i No ii Strathfield iii 0930 4 a (32°N, 45°W) b (14°N, 15°W)
iv Strathfield 0938 v 1037 c (20°N, 100°W) d (16°S, 85°W)
vi 1 hour 7 minutes vii 53 minutes 5 a 6 days 13 hours b 3:34 pm
3 a i 8 minutes ii 1048 iii 12 minutes c 1528 d 2 days 15 hours 52 minutes
b i 17 minutes ii 1045 iii 5 hours 24 minutes 6 3:00 am Friday 7 5:00 pm Friday 8 11:58 am
4 a i 2 9 Adelaide 9:00 pm, Sydney 9:30 pm, Brisbane 8:30 pm
ii 6 hours 56 minutes, 5 hours 39 minutes 10 a 4:50 pm b 5:10 pm
iii 1.23 m and 0.63 m
b i 13 June 2245, 1.74 m REVIEW SET 4
ii 12 June 0408, 0.47 m
iii 6 hours 1 minute, 6 hours 27 minute 1 a (45°N, 55°E) b (0°, 65°W)
iv Times of the tides c (0°, 0°) d (10°S, 65°W)
c 14 May, 15 May, 16 May, 23 May, 4 June, 5 June, 12 2 a V, W bV c Z d E, D
June, 13 June, 14 June, 26 June and 27 June 3 a (20°N, 65°W) b (10°S, 95°W)
5 Off at 0856 Vaucluse, on at 0925 Vaucluse, off Rose Bay c (15°S, 55°E) d (60°S, 105°E)
0937, on 0952 Rose Bay, off Double Bay 1003, on Double 4 a 3 hours 47 minutes b 11:27 am
Bay 1018, off Kings Cross 1025, on Kings Cross 1040, off c 1123 d 2123
City - Town Hall 1048, on City - Town Hall 1103, arrives 5 2:00 am 6 5:00 am Tuesday 7 5:30 pm
City - Walsh Bay 1116. 8 11:30 pm
9 a 17 minutes b 11:00 am c 3 hours 35 minutes
1 C 2 A 3 C 4 D 5 C 6 A
7 C 8 D 9 A 10 B 11 A 12 D 1 a UTC 0°
13 A 14 D 15 C 16 B 17 C 18 C b i 6:27 pm ii 3 hours 43 minutes
19 A 20 D c B(60°N, 30°W)
d 8:30 am
REVIEW SET 1 e i 9 hours ii 11:40 pm Sunday
iii 19 hours 35 minutes
1 a one whose centre is not the centre of Earth f i 9:28 am ii 10:10 am iii 11:50 am
b one whose centre is the centre of Earth
2 a 50°S b 0° c 20°N d 35°N
3 a 50°E b 0° c 40°W d 100°W
Answers 553

ANSWERS CHAPTERS 7–9 CUMULATIVE REVIEW b
60
50
1 a Colour Number Relative frequency 40
10 __
Black 10 __
30
=1 3
30
20
6
Brown 6 __
30
= __1 5 10
9
__ 3
__ 0
Blond 9 = 10
30 2.5 6.5 10.5 14.5 18.5 22.5 26.5 30.5
Red 1
1
__ Score
30
4
__ 2 5 a {GGG, GGB, GBG, GBB, BGG, BGB, BBG, BBB}
Grey 4 30
= __
15
1 1
b i __52
ii __
13
iii __41 iv __21
b 30 c black 23
c ___
100
3
d i __31 ii __
10 1
d i __12
ii __41 1
iii __
12
iv __61
e i Hair colour
6 a 3; not rolling a 3
b 1, 3, 5; rolling an even number
c 4, 5, 6; rolling a number less than 4
7 a GG, GB, GW, BF, BB, BW, WG, WB, WW
b i __91 ii __31 iii __31 iv __31
Black Brown Blond Red Grey v __32 vi __91 vii __92 viii __94
Hair colour
8 a GB, GW, BG, BW, WG, WB
ii Hair colour b i 0 ii 0 iii 1
Black iv __31 v __31 vi __21
Brown vii __31 viii __32 ix __32
Blond
9 a 100 b 200 c 300
Red
10 a i PQR, TUV, XYZ ii TUV
Grey
iii PTX, QUY, RVZ
0
2 4 6 8 10 b P(60°N, 150°W), U(0°, 15°W), Y(15°S, 15°W)
Frequency c i True ii True iii False iv False
2 a 8 b 26 d i (15°S, 10°W) ii (52°N, 15°W)
3 a 11 a 115 hours b 4 hours 49 minutes
Class B Stem Class A
c 2 days 13 hours 52 minutes
7 0 12 a i 1:00 pm ii 5:00 am
751 1 39 b i 7:00 pm Thursday ii 7:30 am Friday
99977531 2 135799 c i 8:00 am ii 10:00 am
iii 5:00 pm iv 7:30 pm
9331 3 11355779
13 a 28 minutes b 8:00 am c 32 minutes
311 4 135 d 8:28 am e 28 minutes
b Class A because it had more higher scores than class B.
4 a
Score Class centre Frequency Cumulative
frequency
CHAPTER 10 BUDGETING AND HOUSEHOLD EXPENSES
1–4 2.5 1 1
ARE YOU READY?
5–8 6.5 4 5
1 C 2 C 3 D 4 A 5 D 6 D
9–12 10.5 7 12
7 A 8 B 9 D 10 A 11 D
13–16 14.5 12 24
17–20 18.5 9 33 EXERCISE 10A HOUSEHOLD BILLS
21–24 22.5 8 41
1 a i 1/01/18 to 31/03/18 ii 90 days
25–28 26.5 4 45 b $201.43
29–32 30.5 5 50 c i 68 kL ii 756 L
d i $2.17 ii $348.99 iii $3.88
e i Larger ii Smaller
f i $134.76 ii $336.19
g $7.72
h This bill was 185 L greater than the local average.
i i Larger ii 111 L iii 9.25 buckets
2 a 587 L/day b 367 L/day
c 477 L/day d 739 L/day

3 $453.19 10 a
ANSWERS
Price 3% of the price 5% of the price Total
4 a i $510.50 ii $842 ($000) up to $45 000 over $45 000
b i $207 ii $451 iii $506 iv $254 10 $300 – $300
c $1480
20 $600 – $600
5 a i 22/11/17 to 22/02/18 (inclusive)
ii 93 days 30 $900 – $900
b i 74.7 cents/day ii $69.47 40 $1200 – $1200
c i 1861.4 kWh ii 20 kWh 45 $1350 – $1350
d i 50.54% ii 14.54%
50 $1350 $250 $1600
e 47.77 cents/kWh f 35.87 cents/kWh
g i $525.18 ii $621.41 iii $6.68/day 60 $1350 $750 $2100
h i Larger ii Larger 70 $1350 $1250 $2600
i i 13 kWh ii 1235 kWh 80 $1350 $1750 $3100
j i 431.1 kWh ii 624.2 kWh iii 179.6 kWh
k i $348.40 ii $70.97 b Stamp duty on vehicle
iii $419.37 iv $438.24 3200
l i August 2017 ii February 2017 iii August 2016 2800
6 a i 2/02/18 to 3/05/18 ii 91
Stamp duty ($)

2400
b i $17.08 ii 10% 2000
c 4850 MJ 1600
d i $0.029 67 ii $0.017 58 1200
e i $40.31 ii $181.30 800
f i 53.30 MJ ii $2.06 400
g 0.3 t h 4799.7 MJ 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
7 a i $0.001 454 74 ii $871.39, yes Price ($000)
b $361 c $1697.39 d $1882.14
8 a $257.54 b $321.93 c $305.83 c i $1050 ii $2350 iii $3000
9 a 52 560 L b $144.54
10 a Top-loader $79.56, front-loader $37.44 EXERCISE 10C FINANCING A PURCHASE
b $42.12 1 48; 48, $26.33; 22.70; $26.33, 22.70, $597.69
c i $104 ii about 2__21 years 2 a $646.25 b $432.48 c $905.20
3 a i $461.55 ii $3954.40
EXERCISE 10B PURCHASING A CAR b i $393.50 ii $744
1 976 to 1154, $240 c i $773.95 ii $11 637
2 a $448 b $240 c $293 4 $5250, $35 000, $5250, 3, 35 000, 5250, 19 250
3 a $249 b $129 c $170 5 $1999 6 $8960 7 $703.87
4 a 3% of $17 900 = 0.03 × $17 900 = $537 8 a At 12% over 60 months, the monthly repayment is
b 3% of $45 000 + 5% of ($52 380 − $45 000) $435.90, so yes.
= 0.03 × $45 000 + 0.05 × $7380 b At 14% over 60 months, the monthly repayment is
= $1719 $456.09, so no.
5 a $659.70 b $1070.97 9 a $24 000 b $31 500
c $1550 d $3780 10 a $8500 b 23.6%
6 11 a $7153.33 b 15.93%
Costs Holden Mazda Toyota Toyota Yamaha
sedan SUV motorcycle EXERCISE 10D FUEL CONSUMPTION
RRP ($) 37 990 31 450 18 000 52 870 14 999 1 a Fuel consumption = ______
400 km
35 L
= 11.43 km/L
1 637 1 440 1 040 1 970 35 L
Weight (kg) b Fuel consumption = ______
400 km
= 0.0875 L/km
Private (P) or B P P B P
business (B) c Fuel consumption = 0.0875 L/km × 100 = 8.75 L/100 km
2 a i 9.3 km/L ii 0.108 L/km
Registration ($) 697 293 240 697 62
iii 10.8 L/100 km
Stamp duty ($) 1139.70 943.50 540 1743.50 449.97 b i 11.6 km/L ii 0.086 L/km
CTP 620 487 528 660 280 iii 8.6 L/100 km
insurance($) c i 8.8 km/L ii 0.114 L/km
Dealer delivery 790 585 499 887 389 iii 11.4 L/100 km
($)
3 Distance travelled = ___
45
6.4
× 100 = 703 km
1089 790 560 1185 299
Insurance ($)
4 a 417 km b 688 km c 770 km
Total ($) 42 325.70 34 548.50 20 367.00 58 042.50 16 498.97 5 1160
Fuel used = ____
100
× 10.6 = 122.96 ≈ 123 L
6 a 27.3 L b 65.88 L c 18.09 L
7 $32, 0.03 × $43 900 = $1317, $1560, $46 809 7 $581.01
8 $25 112 9 $16 046.70
Answers 555

8 $3300.74 b $2350
ANSWERS 9 a $90.64 b $75.91 c $14.73 2 a Income: ($270 × 26) = $7020
10 a ULP $3018.99, LPG $1739.07 Expenses:
b $1279.92 c $106.66 Board ($25 × 52) = $1300
d ≈ 24.4 months e ≈ 38 600 km Golf = $450
11 a i $2544.26 ii $1722.79 iii $821.47 Personal items ($150 × 12) = $1800
b $68.46 c ≈ 17.5 months d ≈ 19 000 km Total = $3550
EXERCISE 10E RUNNING COSTS OF A CAR b Yes
3 a Income: ($590 × 52) = $30 680
1 Toyota hatchback total = $8519 Expenses:
Honda SUV service and repairs = $868 Board ($100 × 52) = $5200
Toyota SUV fuel = $2340 Fares ($53 × 52) = $2756
Ford sedan cost/week = $254.02 Lunches ($42 × 52) = $2184
Holden sedan cost/km = 84.9c Entertainment ($150 × 52) = $7800
2 a Toyota hatchback b Ford sedan Personal items ($84 × 26) = $2184
3 a Ford hatchback b Toyota hatchback Clothes ($380 × 12) = $4560
4 a Toyota SUV b Ford sedan Total = $24 684
5 a 22% b 20% Income − expenses = $5996
6 a 12.7c/km b 15.6c/km b No, she will only have $17 988.
7 a 5% b 8% 4 a Income: ($640 × 52) = $33 280
8 $173.87 Expenses:
9 $46.65 more for Holden sedan Rent ($120 × 52) = $6240
10 $224.80, 77.93c/km 11 $221.46, 76.77c/km Food ($110 × 52) = $5720
12 a $12 220 b $9105 Entertainment ($145 × 52) = $7540
13 a $2.54 b $3.40 Personal items ($75 × 52) = $3900
14 a 40 c/day b 57c/day Car loan repayments ($380 × 12) = $4560
15 $6900 16 a $10 860 17 6.6% Petrol ($95 × 52) = $4940
18 Nissan 4WD Car servicing ($380 × 2) = $760
Depreciation $8 417 Car registration and insurance = $1148
Mobile phone ($64 × 12) = $768
Interest $4 055
Total = $35 576
On-road costs $1 248 Income − expenses = $2296
Fuel $3 484 b He needs to reduce his expenses by approximately
Tyres $276 $45 per week; for example, cut entertainment to
Service/repairs $1 030 $100 per week.
5 a Income:
Total $18 510
Allowance ($407.70 × 26) = $10 600.20
Cost/week = $356.96 Job ($120 × 52) = $6240
Cost/km = 123.4c/km Total = $16 840.20
Expenses:
19 Richard Stephanie Lilly Paul
Rent ($320 × 12) = $3840
a $10.12 $9.33 $9.56 $9.59 Food ($90 × 52) = $4680
b i $202.40 $186.60 $191.20 $191.80 Phone ($110 × 4) = $440
Entertainment ($70 × 52) = $3640
ii $151.80 $139.95 $143.40 $143.85
Books = $350
Total = $12 950
20 Helen Greg Peta
Income − expenses = $3890.20
a 18.1c 19.1c 23.3c b Car costs = $3400, yes
b i $173.76 $183.36 $223.68 6 a Income:
Julie ($490 × 52) = $25 480
ii $115.84 $122.24 $149.12
Robert ($380 × 52) = $19 760
Interest ($230 × 2) = $460
EXERCISE 10F BUDGETING Total = $45 700
1 a Income : ($160 × 52) = $8320 Expenses:
Expenses: Home loan repayments ($980 × 12) = $11 760
Board ($20 × 52) = $1040 Food ($160 × 52) = $8320
Lessons ($80 × 26) = $2080 Electricity ($480 × 4) =$1920
Entertainment ($45 × 26) = $1170 Telephone ($110 × 12) = $1320
Clothes ($140 × 12) = $1680 Council rates ($340 × 4) = $1360
Total = $5970 Water rates ($186 × 4) = $744
Income − expenses = $2350 Car registration and insurance = $780 per year
Comprehensive car insurance = $810 per year

ANSWERS
Car loan repayments ($108 × 52) = $5616 REVIEW SET 3
Car running expenses ($190 × 12) = $2280
Clothes ($350 × 12) = $4200 1 $537.64 2 $1930.15
Personal items ($45 × 52) = $2340 3 a $58 663 b $40 663
Total = $41 450 c i $992.58 ii $6980.84
Income − expenses = $4250 d i 8.06 km/h ii 0.12 L/km iii 12 L/100 km
b Yes, they could increase them by at most $354 per year. 4 a Elizabeth $7.44, Monique $9.33, Tanya $9.59
Should leave some savings for emergencies. Look at b Elizabeth $111.60, Monique $139.95, Tanya $143.85
reducing expenses. c Elizabeth $74.40, Monique $93.30, Tanya $95.90
7 a Income: 5 a Income: ($170 × 52) = $8840
Beautician ($180 × 52) = $9360 Expenses:
Wedding ($100 × 6) = $600 Board ($30 × 52) = $1560
Total = $9960 Lessons ($80 × 26) = $2080
Expenses: Entertainment ($85 × 26) = $2210
Bus fares ($30 × 26) = $780 Clothes ($170 × 12) = $2040
Make up ($45 × 52) = $2340 Total = $7890
Clothes and entertainment ($200 × 12) = $2400 Income − expenses = $950
Total = $5520 b $950
b i Yes REVIEW SET 4
ii Income: 1 $883.50
Beautician ($270 × 52) = $14 040 2 a 62.05 kL b $176.84
Wedding ($250 × 6) = $1500 3 $108.53
Total = $15 540
4 a Average annual Ford Holden Toyota
Expenses:
running costs hatchback sedan SUV
Bus fares ($30 × 26) = $780
(small) (large)
Make up ($45 × 52) = $2340
Depreciation ($) 3120 5928 4784
Clothes and entertainment ($200 × 12) = $2400
Loan repayment ($50 × 26) = $1300 Interest ($) 1524 2444 2288
Total = $6820 Road service ($) 1248 962 1061
Income − expenses = $8720 Fuel ($) 1898 2626 2340
iii $100
Tyres ($) 146 146 208
iv $4280
On-road costs ($) 671 634 952
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Total ($) 8607 12 740 11 633
1 C 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 B Cost/week ($) 165.52 245 223.71

7 A 8 B 9 A 10 A 11 C Cost/km (c/km) 57.4 84.9 77.6
REVIEW SET 1 b Running cost Nissan 4WD

1 $493.69 Depreciation ($) 7250
2 a $171.08 b $90.29 Interest ($) 3380
3 $111.92 4 $170 5 $2900
On-road costs ($) 1196
6 a $39 785 b $23 285
7 $12560.97 Fuel ($) 3064
8 a $550.38 b $7122.80 c $1495.25 Tyres ($) 294
9 a Monthly payment over 5 years is $378.08, so yes. Service and repairs ($) 967
b Minimum payment at 14% is $395.59, so no. Total ($) 16 151
10 $12 000
Cost/week ($) 310.60
REVIEW SET 2 Cost/km (c/km) 107.7
1 a $2.17 b $201.43 c $358.32

2 $1819.59 3 $1880 4 $18 113.70 REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION
5 a $332.31 b $1513.16 1 a i $243.75 ii $435.26
6 a 10.2 km/L b 0.098 L/km c 9.82 L/100km iii Aria $128.65, Ezra $229.72
7 404 km 8 32.13 L 9 $861.22 b i $683.70 ii $3113.20
10 Diesel by $7.67 iii $645 iv $385
11 a ULP cost = $2860.09, LPG = $1647.54 v $3475 vi $16 500
b $1212.55 c $101.05 c 692 km d $2000.92
d 25 months e 37 500 km
12 $5250
Answers 557

i Income: ($272 × 52) = $14 144 ii 9.92
ANSWERS e
3 a Mass (kg) Class centre (x) Frequency (f )
Expenses: f×x
Board ($70 × 52) = $3640
60–62 61 2 122
Fares ($12 × 52) = $624
Lunch ($15 × 52) = $780 63–65 64 5 320
Entertainment ($50 × 52) = $2600 66–68 67 7 469
Personal items ($25 × 26) = $650 69–71 70 4 280
Clothes ($100 × 12) = $1200
72–74 73 2 146
Total = $9494
Income − expenses = $4650 Σ f = 20 Σ f x = 1337
ii Yes, with $250 to spare. ∑fx
___ 1337
____
Mean ≈ = = 66.85
∑f 20
CHAPTER 11 EXPLORING AND DESCRIBING DATA b Patients

per day
Class centre
(x)
Frequency
(f )
f × x
10–19 14.5 13 188.5

ARE YOU READY?
20–29 24.5 15 367.5
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 B 6 A
30–39 34.5 16 552.0
7 A 8 B 9 B
40–49 44.5 10 445.0
EXERCISE 11A MEAN AND MODE 50–59 54.5 4 218.0

60–69 64.5 2 129.0
1 a i Score (x) Frequency (f ) f × x
Σ f = 60 Σ f x = 1900
3 2 6
∑fx
___ 1900
____
4 3 12 Mean ≈ = ≈ 31.7
∑f 60
5 6 30 4 a i Height (mm) Class centre (x) Frequency (f )
6 4 24
155–159 157 4
7 1 7
160–164 162 7
Σ f = 16 Σ f x = 79 165–169 167 10
ii 4.9 170–174 172 5
b i Score (x) Frequency (f ) f ×x 175–179 177 2
12 4 48
ii 165.9 mm
13 6 78
b i Number of Class centre Frequency (f )
14 5 70 arguments (x)
15 3 45 0–2 1 8
16 2 32 3–5 4 18
Σ f = 20 Σ f x = 273 6–8 7 10
9–11 10 3
ii 13.65
12–14 13 1
c i Score (x) Frequency (f ) f×x
ii 4.8
50 3 150 c i Score Class centre (x) Frequency (f )
51 5 255
41–50 45.5 3
52 8 416
51–60 55.5 0
53 6 318
61–70 65.5 10
54 2 108
71–80 75.5 8
55 4 220
81–90 85.5 7
Σ f = 28 Σ f x = 1467 91–100 95.5 2
ii 52.4 Σ f = 30
d i Score (x) Frequency (f ) ii 72.83
f×x
8 12 96
5 a 5 b 13 c 52 d 9, 11 e 26
f 66–68 g 61–70, 71–80 h 30–39
9 28 252
6 a i 70.9 ii 75
10 25 250 b i 41.7 ii 26, 31, 48
11 26 286 c i 127.95 ii 108
12 9 108 d i 20.2 ii 26
Σ f = 100 Σ f x = 992

7 a 46.2 e ii 6 iii 50
ANSWERS
b i Mark Frequency f ii 6.5 iii 2.5
0−4 0 g ii 7.5 iii 37
3 a x f Cumulative frequency Scores
5−9 1
10−14 0 3 2 2 1st, 2nd
15−19 1 4 3 5 3rd, 4th, 5th
20−24 2 5 7 12 6th, 7th, …, 12th
25−29 1 6 4 16 13th, …, 16th
30−34 2 7 1 17 17th
35−39 2 Median = 5 (9th score)
40−44 4 b x f Cumulative frequency Scores
45−49 3 12 4 4 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
50−54 4 13 7 11 5th, 6th, …, 11th
55−59 1 14 5 16 12th, …, 16th
60−64 6 15 3 19 17th, 18th, 19th
65−69 0 16 2 21 20th, 21st
70−74 2
Median = 13 (11th score)
75−79 1 4 a 52 b 35.5 c 10 d 26
5 a 14 b 29 c 41 d 23
ii Mark Frequency 6 a i
Score Frequency Class centre Cumulative
0−9 1
frequency
10−19 1
41–50 5 45.5 5
20−29 3
51–60 0 55.5 5
30−39 4
61–70 12 65.5 17
40−49 7
71–80 10 75.5 27
50−59 5
81–90 9 85.5 36
60−69 6
91–100 4 95.5 40
70−79 3
ii Score
iii Mark Frequency 40
0−19 2 35
20−39 7 30
25
40−59 12
20
60−79 9
15
iv 10
Mark Frequency
5
0–39 9 0
40–79 21 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
Score
c i 46.7 ii 47.5 iii 48.2 iv 47.5
iii 74
d The smaller the class interval, the closer the
approximation to the real mean. b i
Mass (kg) Frequency Class Cumulative
8 a 1680 b 952 c 64.2 centre frequency
9 72 km/h 10 a __45
10
= 4.5 60–62 4 61 4
63–65 7 64 11
EXERCISE 11B MEDIAN 66–68 9 67 20
1 a 6 b5 c 13 d 29 e 4 69–71 6 70 26
f 21.5 g 56 h4 i 243.5 j 104 72–74 4 73 30
2 a ii 5 iii 8
b ii 4 iii 22
c ii 4.5 iii 16.5
d ii 5.5 iii 50
Answers 559

ii
ANSWERS Mass b Scores Frequency
30–39 5
30
25 40–49 3
20 50–59 7
15 60–69 5
10
5 c 50.5; reasonably close
0 d Scores Frequency Cumulative frequency
61 64 67 70 73
Mass (kg) 30–39 5 5
iii 67 40–49 3 8
c i Height Frequency Class Cumulative 50–59 7 15
(cm) centre frequency 60–69 5 20
155–159 19 157 19
e Scores
160–164 21 162 40
165–169 24 167 64 20
170–174 19 172 83 16
12
175–179 17 177 100
8
ii Height 4
0
100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
90 Score
80 Median is approximately 52.

70 This is smaller than the exact median of 54.
60 f Median of a stem-and-leaf plot is exact, but median of
50 grouped data is an estimate.
40 9 b Scores Frequency
30
30–34 4
20
10 35–39 1
0 40–44 2
157 162 167 172 177 45–49 1
Height (cm)
50–54 4
iii 167 55–59 3
d i Patients Frequency Class Cumulative 60–64 1
per day centre frequency
65–69 4
10–19 13 14.5 13
c Mean is 50.25, which is close to 50.4.
20–29 15 24.5 28
d Scores Frequency Cumulative frequency
30–39 16 34.5 44
30–34 4 4
40–49 10 44.5 54
35–39 1 5
50–59 4 54.5 58
40–44 2 7
60–69 2 64.5 60
45–49 1 8
ii Patients per day 50–54 4 12
55–59 3 15
60
50 60–64 1 16
40 65–69 4 20
30
e Scores
20
10 20
0 16
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5
Number per day 12
8
iii 32 4
7 a 72.5 b 45 c 120.5 d 21 0
8 a mean = 50.4, mode = 54, median = 54 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Score
Median = 52

e Smaller than the exact median 7 Q2 = 21, Q1 = 19, Q3 = 24, IQR = 5
ANSWERS
f Median of a stem-and-leaf plot is exact, but median of 8 a 6 b 19
grouped data is an estimate. 9 Q1 = 4.5, Q3 = 9, IQR = 4.5
10 a Median = 8, mode = 5, mean = 12.3 10 a 6.5 b3
b Mode = 3, mean = 4.6, median = 5 11 a 3 b 2.5 c 2 d2
12 a ≈14 b ≈10 c ≈15 d ≈9
EXERCISE 11C RELATIVE MERITS OF MEAN, MODE AND MEDIAN 13 a 1 b2 c 1
1 a i 7 ii No mode iii 35 14 a i Score

b i Yes ii No iii No, not a central value
40
c i Mean = 6.9 and median = 7 are both good measures.
35
ii Mean = 5 and median = 4.5 are both good measures.
30
iii Mean = 29 and median = 26 are both good measures.
25
2 a i 9.2 ii 29
20
b i Yes ii No; it is affected by outlier 110.
15
c i Median = 9 is good measure. Mode = 8 is not a
10
central value.
5
ii Median = 9 is satisfactory.
Mode = 8 is not a central value. 0
45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
3 a 5 b No, it is not a central value. Score
c Mode = 5 is not central; mean = 4 is satisfactory.
ii 20
4 Mean 5 Mode
b i Patients per day
6 a i 6.25 ii 7 iii 6.5
b Mode, as it is the shoe size with highest sales.
60
7 a $2 030 000 b $67 667 50
c i 25 ii 5 40
d $55 000 e $50 000
30
f i Mean ii Mode
20
g Median: half the employees earn more and half earn less.
10
8 a Mean = 23.8, mode = 29, median = 23.5
0
b Mean and median are central and typical. Mode is not 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5
central but is important because more people had to wait Number per day
this length of time than any other. ii 20
9 a Mean = 4.1, mode = 6, median = 4.5
c i Mass
b Mode
10 a Mean = $640 000
30
b The mean has been affected by the high price $960 000. 25
No mode. Median = $560 000 and is the most appropriate. 20
11 Mode
15
12 a, b Results are summarised in part c.
10
c
1st 20 2nd 20 3rd 20 4th 20 5th 20 5
Mean 4.05 4.8 4.3 5.05 5.4 0
61 64 67 70 73
Mode 3 1, 8 0, 1, 9 8 0, 8, 9 Mass (kg)
Median 3.5 5 4.5 5.5 6.5 ii 6
d Mode e Mean d i Height
13 a 157 is an outlier possibly caused by an error in
35
measurement or recording of measurement.

30
b 56.3 kg (without), 64.7 kg (with)
25
c i 56 kg ii 48, 55, 56 kg
20
d median or mean without outlier
15
14 a i 1.3 ii 0 iii 1
b Mode; number of injuries of main concern and need to 10
be minimised 5
0
157 162 167 172 177
EXERCISE 11D RANGE AND INTERQUARTILE RANGE Height (cm)
1 a 8 b7 c 159 d4 ii 9
e 7 f 7 g 8 h5 15 The IQR is smaller for the results for Lara’s class and so
2 a 4 b5 c 4 there is less spread than for Linda’s class.
3 Q1 = 8, Q3 = 13, IQR = 13 − 8 = 5 16 a Tom b Matthew c Matthew
4 a 7 b7 17 No; as the individual heights are not given.
5 Q1 = 44.5, Q3 = 66, IQR = 66 − 44.5 = 21.5 18 a Set B b Range, mean
6 a 25 b 6.5
Answers 561

d
ANSWERS EXERCISE 11E DECILES AND PERCENTILES 18 22 27 30 31
1 a Decile 1 = 12, decile 4 = 24, decile 9 = 35

b Decile 1 = 55, decile 4 = 96, decile 9 = 170
18 29 22 24 26 28 30 32
c Decile 1 = 27, decile 4 = 36, decile 9 = 51
d Decile 1 = 25, decile 4 = 44, decile 9 = 74 4 a i Lowest = 53, Q1 = 65, Q2 = 72, Q3 = 79,
2 a 14, 26, 32 b 65, 110, 151 highest = 86
3 a 47% b 5% ii 53 65 72 79 86
4 a P40 b P80 c P25 d P75 e P50
5 a 21 b 10 c 5 year olds
d i 29.8 ii Yes
50 60 70 80 90
e i 14 ii No
f 17.6 to 24.9 g 2.2 b i Lowest = 17, Q1 = 21, Q2 = 35.5, Q3 = 43,
6 a 152 cm b 25th c 75% d 2% e 90th highest = 55
ii 17 21 35.5 43 55
EXERCISE 11F BOX-PLOTS
1 a i 83 ii 35 iii 48 iv 60
v 75 vi 50 vii 25 10 20 30 40 50 60
b i 75 ii 40 iii 35 iv 54 c i Lowest = 42, Q1 = 59.5, Q2 = 69, Q3 = 78.5,
v 65 vi 45 vii 20 highest = 86
c i 78 ii 36 iii 42 iv 61 ii 42 59.5 69 78.5 86
v 73 vi 45 vii 28
d i 76 ii 46 iii 30 iv 59
v 69 vi 56 vii 13
40 50 60 70 80 90
2 a 15 23 28 32 40
5 a 6800 s b 400 s
c 8200 s d 8700 s
e 8100 s f Ranges were the same.
15 20 25 30 35 40 g Males h Males
b 130 139 148 153 6 Average monthly rainfall
Adelaide
141
130 135 140 145 150 155 Melbourne
c
6 10 18 28
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
7
Rainfall (mm)
5 10 15 20 25 30 38 + 38
Adelaide median = ______
2
= 38,
d 71 73 78 80 83
22 + 23 50 + 52
Q1 = ______
2
= 22.5, Q3 = ______
2
= 51
52 + 58
Melbourne median = ______
2
= 55,
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 49 + 50 59 + 59
Q1 = ______
2
= 49.5, Q3 = ______
2
= 59
e 1 3 5 7 9
7 a Average monthly rainfall
Canberra
0 2 4 6 8 10
Hobart
3 a
4 8 11 14 19
30 40 50 60 70
Rainfall (mm)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
b Canberra has a greater spread of rainfall than Hobart. The
b 21 22 24 27 30
two cities have similar rainfall in the middle 50% of values.
8 a Weights of students
20 22 24 26 28 30 Girls
c 89 91 95 100 103 Boys
88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 40 50 60 70 80 90

Weight (kg)

b More than 75% of boys weigh more than 75% of girls.
ANSWERS
75% of girls weigh less than the lower quartile of 25% EXERCISE 11H IDENTIFYING OUTLIERS
of boys. 1 a i 3 ii No outlier
9 Karuah
b i 21 ii No outlier
c i 17 ii No outlier
d i No outlier ii No outlier
Buladelah
2 a i 3 ii No outlier
b i No outlier ii 18
3 a Median and IQR b Mean and standard deviation
32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104
4 a i Q1 = 18, Q2 = 26, Q3 = 29, IQR = 11
Car speed through town ii 1.5, 45.5 iii 59
Karuah has more drivers exceeding the speed limit and b i Q1 = 23, Q2 = 35, Q3 = 43, IQR = 20
so more drivers would be fined for speeding. Buladelah ii −7, 73 iii No outlier
has fewer speeding drivers but the highest speed is very c i Q1 = 56.5, Q2 = 67.5, Q3 = 75, IQR = 18.5
dangerous, so it would be targeted for safety. ii 28.75, 102.75 iii No outlier
d i Q1 = 106, Q2 = 110, Q3 = 119, IQR = 13
EXERCISE 11G STANDARD DEVIATION ii 86.5, 138.5 iii 83
e i Q1 = 69, Q2 = 76, Q3 = 88, IQR = 19
1 a 6, 1.4 b 6, 2.8 c 6, 4.2 ii 40.5, 116.5 iii 118
d 28, 2.6 e 90, 1.4 f 250, 5.6 f i Q1 = 38, Q2 = 49, Q3 = 57, IQR = 19
g 6, 2.5 h 5, 0 ii 9.5, 85.5 iii No outlier
2 a 3.72, 1.22 b 16.9, 1.11 5 b No girl will weigh 157 kg so this is probably an error in
c 1.79, 1.16 d 122.96, 1.37 measuring, or recording the correct weight.
3 a 66.85, 3.35 b 72.83, 12.89 c With outlier: i mean = 64.7 kg, median = 56 kg
c 31.67, 13.30 d 165.93, 5.57 ii IQR = 8 iii 28.3
4 a 4.5, 1.26 Without outlier: i mean = 56.3 kg, median = 56 kg
b i 9.5, 1.26 ii (4.5 + 10), 1.26 ii IQR = 8 iii 5.1
c i 22.5, 6.29 ii (4.5 × 10), (1.26 × 10) d mean, standard deviation
5 a 20, 4 b 85, 20 c 12, 4 e Ignore outlier because it is an obvious error. Mean = 56.3,
6 The scores are all the same. median = 56, IQR = 8 and population s.d. = 5.1
7 1.5
8 mean = 2, sample s.d. = 1.1
9 mean = 29.8, sample s.d. = 3.8 EXERCISE 11I GRAPHICAL DATA DISPLAYS
10 a population s.d. = 10.3, sample s.d. = 10.9 1 a A bD c E d B e C
b sample s.d. 2 A More matches result in low scores than high scores.
11 a i Range: machine 1 is 10, machine 2 is 10. B The two humps might represent the clustering of blood
ii Interquartile range: machine 1 is 0, machine 2 is 10. pressures for males and females.
iii Standard deviation: machine 1 is 3.5, machine 2 is 4.2. C There is no pattern of shoe sizes except that there are
b Around 60 fewer pairs of small and large sizes.
c Machine 1 as it has a lower standard deviation, with D More people arrive closer to the concert starting time
scores clustered around 60. than early.
12 a Carrie: i 6 ii 6 E The number of tomatoes/plant is evenly distributed about
Laura: i 6__91 ii 5 the mode.
b Carrie 1, Laura 5 3 A B
Number of people
Number of matches
c Carrie: i 5 ii 3.5 iii 1.76

Laura: i 12 ii 3 iii 3.45
d Laura won more holes and had a lower median.
e Carrie player fewer strokes and her mean was lower.
13 a Julie 557, Alison 575
b Julie: i 69.6 ii 72 Blood pressure
Team score
Alison: i 71.9 ii 72
Number of students
c 6 C D
Number of plants
d Julie: i 37 ii 8
Alison: i 16 ii 6.5
e Julie 10.7, Alison 4.8 f Alison
g Julie had higher marks than Alison in 6 of the 8 tests.
Alison had a higher mean and lower standard deviation. Number of tomatoes
Shoe size
14 a i 1.3 ii 31.2
b Outliers have a large effect on the standard deviation. E
Number of people
c i Range = 4, IQR = 2
at concert
ii Range = 85, IQR = 2

d Range not IQR
Time
Answers 563

4 a B bC c A dD 10 a
ANSWERS
5 a i, ii 14
12
Frequency
10
8
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 4
iii negatively skewed 2
b i, ii 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
5 6 7 8 9 b Negatively skewed
iii bell shaped or symmetrical c An easy test
c i, ii 11 a
18
16
14
1 2 3 4 5
Frequency
12
iii bimodal
10
d i, ii
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
1 2 3 4 5
b Positively skewed
iii positively skewed c A hard test
6 a i positively skewed ii 10s and 20s 12 a
b i symmetrical about mode ii 30s 20
c i negatively skewed ii 60 s and 70 s 18
d i symmetrical ii 100s and 110s 16
e i positively skewed ii 60s and 70s 14
Frequency
f i negatively skewed ii no clusters 12

7 The last 25% of scores are much more spread out than the 10
first 25% of scores. 8
8 a Positively skewed. The last 25% of scores are more 6
spread out than first 25% of scores. 4
b Symmetrical. Even spread of scores. 2
c Negatively skewed. The first 25% of scores are more 0
spread out than last 25% of scores. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d Symmetrical. Even spread of scores. Number of peas in pod
e Positively skewed. The last 25% of scores are more b Symmetrical
spread out than first 25% of scores. c The number is centred around 4 peas in a pod.
f Negatively skewed. The first 25% of scores are more 13 a Boat 1
spread out than last 25% of scores.
9 i, ii, iii 3
Shape Q1 Q2 Q3 IQR Outliers
Frequency
2
a Symmetrical 23 28 32 9 No
b Positively skewed 7 10 18 11 No 1
c Symmetrical 3 5 7 4 No
0
d Symmetrical 8 11 14 6 No 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
e Positively skewed 22 24 27 5 No Weight (kg)
f Negatively skewed 22 27 30 8 No
g Negatively skewed 65 72 79 14 No
h Positively skewed 21 30 43 22 No
i Negatively skewed 60 69 79 19 No
j Symmetrical 20 25 30 10 Yes

Boat 2 6 a 7.1 b 7 c 1.5
ANSWERS
7 a i $318 333 ii $285 000
4
b $550 000.
c Median, because it is not affected by the outlier of
3 $550 000.
Frequency
8 a Town A: i 25 ii 26.5
2 Town B: i 26 ii 26.5
b Town A: i 14 ii 8 iii 4.7
1 Town B: i 23 ii 12 iii 7.1
c Town A negatively skewed, cluster above median.
0 Town B symmetrical, no clustering.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 9 a Negatively skewed b No outliers
Weight (kg)
b Weights for boat 1 show a bimodal distribution and REVIEW SET 2
weights for boat 2 are symmetrically distributed
1 Mean = 86.65, mode = 87, median = 87, range = 3
around 70 kg.
2 a i Mean = 24, mode = 5, median = 5
c Boat 1, as there is an outlier, 30 kg, that represents the
ii Mean has been affected by the outlier 100. Mode and
weight of the cox.
median are appropriate measures.
b i Mean = 5.1, mode = 4, median = 5
CHAPTER 11 REVIEW EXPLORING AND DESCRIBING DATA ii Mode is not a central score. Mean and median are
appropriate measures.
REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS c i Mean = 2.5, mode = 1, median = 1
1 D 2 B 3 C 4 C 5 A 6 D ii Mode and median are not central. Mean is an
7 C 8 C 9 B 10 D 11 D 12 C appropriate measure.
13 B 14 B 15 A 16 A 17 B 18 B 3 a 68 b 90 c 57
19 B d 33 e 53 f 66
4 C 5 4.49, 0.14
REVIEW SET 1 6 a 26.3 b 26 c 9
d6 e 3.07
1 Mean = 7.7, mode = 6, median = 8, range = 4 7 a
2 a Class centre Cumulative frequencsy 9
3 12 8
7
8 20
6
Frequency
13 38 5
18 69 4
23 80 3
2
b 1
80
0
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
60 Number of snacks
50
40
b Slightly positively skewed with mode of 2 snacks
30
8 a Group X: i 4.6 ii 5
Group Y: i 5.2 ii 5
20
b Group X: i 5 ii 1.2
10
Group Y: i 6 ii 1.7
0
3 8 13 18 23 c
Class Group X
c i 16 ii 14 iii 18
3 a i 9, 11, 12 ii 3 Group Y
b i 9, 11, 12.5 ii 3.5
c i 9, 11.5, 12 ii 3
d i 9.5, 11.5, 13.5 ii 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Thickness of shoe sole (mm)
4 25 30 32 36 42
d Much the same for lower 50% but group Y students have
more shoes that last longer.
25 30 35 40 45
5 20.6, 2.7
Answers 565

6 a
ANSWERS REVIEW SET 3 Stem Leaf
3 6
1 a 50−59
b 4 3
Class Class centre Frequency
5 0889
30–39 34.5 5
6 011356
40–49 44.5 10
7 47
50–59 54.5 14
8 8
60–69 64.5 13
70–79 74.5 0 b Distribution is symmetrical.
80–89 84.5 8
REVIEW SET 4
c 57.9
1 Mean = 3.9, Mode = 5, Median = 4, Range = 4,
2 6 7.5 9.5 11 12 Standard deviation (σn) = 1.37
2 a Class B Stem Class A
62 0 8
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
8620 1 468
3 a
50 886444220 2 0244668
40 8664 3 0022468
30
4 0
20
10 b Class A: i 26.2 ii 26 iii 32 iv 8.3
0 Class B: i 22.4 ii 24 iii 36 iv 9.9
34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
Class
c Class A slightly negatively skewed
Class B almost symmetrical, slight negative skew
b i 47 or 48 ii 66 or 67 iii 19
d No outliers in class A. In class B, 2 is an outlier.
iv 57 v 83
e Class A had more high scores than class B and had the
4 a Adrian: i 7.6 ii 8
highest score.
iii 6 iv 1.5 v 1.5
3 Range = 5, IQR = 2.5
Zoltan: i 7.6 ii 8
iii 5 iv 2.5 v 1.6 4 a
b i
Adrian
Zoltan
1 2 3 4 5
Number of children
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Goals scored b Positively skewed
c There are more families with a smaller number of
ii The scores for Adrian are negatively skewed and
children.
clustered between 7 and 8.5. The scores for Zoltan
5 a i 25 ii 30 iii 32 iv 36 v 42
are almost symmetrical.
b Positively skewed
c Zoltan has more games with a higher number of goals
c No outliers
than Adrian. Zoltan’s lowest number of goals per game
was 5 whereas Adrian’s was 4.
5 a
18 1 a i 10 ii 11 iii 14
16 b 9.1
14 c i $34 500, $41 500, $51 500
12 ii
Frequency
10
8
6
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
4 (’000)
2 iii No outliers; all incomes sit within the interval $9000
0 and $77 000.
10 11 12 13 14
Score iv Approx. $14 022
d i 120 ii 70
b Distribution is bimodal.
c Yes, 14.

CHAPTER 12 LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS b
ANSWERS
Cost of night-time taxi hire
140
ARE YOU READY? 120
100
Cost ($)
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 A 5 B 6 C 80
7 C 8 A 9 B 60
40
EXERCISE 12A STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS 20
1 a Dependent variable is cost. b About $9.00 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Cost of oranges Distance (km)
25 c $53 d 22 km
20 6 a Time (h) 0 1 2 3
Cost ($)
15 Distance (km) 300 200 100 0

10
5
b Distance to Sydney
Distance (km)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 300
Weight (kg) 200
2 a Independent variable is time. 100
Mobile phone charges 0
1 2 3
4 Time (h)
Cost ($)
3 c 150 km d 100 km
2 7 US$40 is about A$67.
1 A$ and US$ Conversion
0 70
1 2 3 4 5 6 60
Time (min)
50
b $1.60 c 4.7 min 40
US$
3 a Rema’s income 30
20
200 10
160
Income ($)
0
120 20 40 60 80 100 120
80 A$
40 8 60 Euros is about $A85.
0
2 4 6 8 10 A$ and Euro Conversion
Time (h) 80
70
b $130 c 5h
60
4 a Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Euro
Cost ($) $3.00 $27.00 $51.00 $75.00 $99.00 40

b 30
Cost of taxi hire
20
100 10
80 0
Cost ($)
60
20 40 60 80 100 120
40
A$
20 9 a Cost of petrol
0 90
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
80
Distance (km)
Amount of fuel (L)
70
c $87 d 5 km 60
5 a Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Cost ($) $5.00 $37.00 $69.00 $101.00 $133.00 40
30
20
10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Cost ($)
Answers 567

b about 50 L c about $75 8 a Gradient = __31 , y-intercept = −1
ANSWERS 10 a Cost of petrol b Gradient = −4, y-intercept = 4
60 c Gradient = __25 , y-intercept = −5
Amount of fuel (L)

50
9 a 13 __31 b 2 c −6
40
2 14 7 6
30 d −___
250
e __
50
= __
25
f __
25
20
10 a 30 b 40 c 60 d 0.04 e 0 f 0
10
11 a about $11 300
0 b just over $58 000
20 40 60 80 11
Cost ($) c Gradient = __30
≈ 0.37; that is, 37 cents per dollar in this
tax bracket.
b about 20 L c about $45 d Gradient = __13
≈ 0.59; that is, 59 cents per dollar in this
11 a tax bracket
22
Taxi fares at day rate and special night rate 12 a $10 000
180
160 Special night rate b Just over $140 000
140 c Gradient = 0.15; that is, 15 cents per dollar in this tax
120
Cost ($)
100 bracket
80 Day rate d Gradient ≈ 0.21; that is, 21 cents per dollar in this tax
60
40 bracket
20 e Gradient ≈ 0.08; that is, 8 cents per dollar in this tax
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
bracket
Distance (km) f Approx. 23.5 cents in the dollar
b about 8 km c about $20

EXERCISE 12C THE EQUATION y = mx + c
EXERCISE 12B GRADIENT AND VERTICAL INTERCEPT 1 a y b y
3 3
1 a Line segment Horizontal run Vertical rise Slope 2 2
AB 6 0 0 1 1
1
__
CD 7 1 7
−2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 x
2
__
EF 7 2 7 −2
1
__
GH 6 3 2
5
__
c y
IJ 3 5 3 1
KL 1 7 7
−2 −1 1 2 x
MN 0 5 ∞
−2
b 0; ∞ or undefined; increase
−3
2 a __43 b ____
1000
150 3
= __
20
2 a b y
3 a 0 b __51 c __53 d __67 y
2
8
e __37 f __29 g ∞ or undefined 6
−4 −2 2 4 x
4 a Line segment run rise rise
_____
4
run 2 −4
BC 2 1 1
__ −6
2
−6 −4 −2 2 x −8
1
__
DE 2 1 2
AC 4 2 1
__ c y d y
2
1 4
1
__
BE 6 3 2 3
1
__ −2 −1 1 2 x 2
AE 8 4 2
−2 1
AF 9 4 __21 1
__
2 −3
1 2 3 x
b No matter which pair of points on a straight line are e f
y y
used, the gradient is the same. 2
4
5 a 0 b −__31 c −__21 d −__43 3 1
e −__23 f −7 g −∞ or ∞ or undefined 2
−2 −1 1 2 x
1
6 a OP, PQ, RS, TU b QR, ST, UV −2
c TU d ST e VW f PQ −2 −1 1 2 x −3
7 a 4 b −2 c −4 3
__
d 2 e −__3
4
f 6 −2 −4

g h 6 a y=x+5
ANSWERS
y y b y=x−3
1 3 c y = 5x d y = 2x − 2 or y = 2(x − 1)
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 x 7 a C is the daily cost in dollars, n is the number of ties sold
1
each day, 800 is the fixed cost per day in dollars
−2
−2 −1 1 2 x b n 0 50 100 150 200 250
−3
C 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
3 a Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 7
c
b Gradient = 4, y-intercept = −6 C KNOT ME Tie Company
c Gradient = 1, y-intercept = −1 1400
d Gradient = −1, y-intercept = 3 1200
e Gradient = −3, y-intercept = 2 C = 2n + 800
f Gradient = −2, y-intercept = −2 1000
800
g Gradient = __21 , y-intercept = −1
600
h Gradient = −__43 , y-intercept = 1
400
4 a Gradient = 5, y-intercept = −1
b Gradient = −2, y-intercept = 11 200
3
__ 0
c Gradient = 4 y-intercept = 0
,
50 100 150 200 250 n
d Gradient = −1, y-intercept = −2
d 70 ties
e Gradient = __21 , y-intercept = 3 8 a C = 1.4n + 1500
f Gradient = 1, y-intercept = −15 b n 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
g Gradient = −__57 , y-intercept = −1 C 1500 2200 2900 3600 4300 5000
1
__
h Gradient = 6 y-intercept = 5
, − __2 c C Chilly Frozen Yoghurt Shop
5 a y b y 6000
4 16 5000
3 12
4000
2 8 C = 1.4n + 1500
1 4 3000
2000
−1 −1 1 2 x −4 2 4 6 8 x
1000
−2 −8
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 n
c y d y d 1.4 e 1250 serves of yoghurt
2
3 9 a C = 1.8n + 750
2 1 b 1.8 is cost per cup c 750
1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 x d n 0 200 400 600 800 1000
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −2 C 750 1110 1470 1830 2190 2550
−2 −3
e C Pulp Free Fruit Juice Company
−4
3000
e y f y
2500
6 5 2000
4 C = 1.8n + 750
−10 −5 5 10 15 20 x
1500
2
1000
−10
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 x 500
−15
−4 −20 0
200 400 600 800 1000 n
g y h y f 450 cups of juice
2 1
1 0.5
−3 −2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−2 −1
−3
Answers 569

10 a 12 a
ANSWERS y y
y = 3x + 1
7.5 10
y = 3x + 2
y = 3x + 1
5 y = 3x 8
y = 3x − 1 y = 2x + 1
2.5 6
y=x+1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x 4
−2.5
2
−5
−7.5 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
−2
b All parallel −4
c Parallel to y = 3x + 2 and one unit further up, cutting
−6
the y-axis at 3
11 a y −8
y = 2x + 3
8
y = 2x + 1
b Not parallel but all have the same y-intercept of 1
6 c Passes through (0, 1) with gradient 4
y = 2x − 1
4 d y
15
2
10 y = 3x − 1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x 5
−2 y = 2x − 1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
−5
−6
−10
All parallel −15 y = −4x − 1
b y
7.5 Not parallel but all pass through (0, –1); that is, all have
y = −3x + 2 a y-intercept of –1
5
y = −3x e All pass through the y-axis at the same point.
y = −3x − 1
2.5 13 a y
y = −x + 1 y=x+1
4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
−2.5 3
−5 2
−7.5 1
All parallel −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
c y y=x+2 −1
6 −2
y=x
4 −3
2
b Not parallel but have the same y-intercept of 1
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 x
−2
−4
y=x−5
−6
All parallel
d Lines with the same gradient are parallel.

c b C
ANSWERS
y
16
4
14
y = −x y=x 12
3
10
2 8
6
1
4
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x 0
−1 1 2 3 4 5 D
c Yes; it is a straight line through the origin.
−2 d π ≈ 3.1
e i 7.9 cm ii 5 cm
−3
3 a i 4 ii y = 4x
b i 1 ii y = x
d Not parallel but have the same y-intercept of 0 c i 2.1 ii y = 2.1x
e 4 Graph B
y
5 a i not proportional
y = −2x + 1 8 y = 2x + 1 y
b i _x = 7, proportional ii y = 7x
6 y
_
c i x = 2, proportional ii y = 2x
y
4 _ –__1 ,
d i x = 3 proportional ii y = –__3x
2 6 a i 8.4 ii y = 8.4x iii 58.8 iv 6__

14
1
≈ 6.07
b i 6 ii a = 6b iii 126 iv 1__65 ≈ 1.83
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x 7 a i a = 90, b = 1__91 ii y = 18x
−2
1
__
b i a = 2 b = 48 , ii y = __21 x
−4
c i a = −4, b = 11.4, c = 51.3 ii y = __31 x
−6 9x
d i a = 3.2, b = −35.1, c = 6.9 ii y = __
2
or y = 4.5x
8 a P ∝ d, P = kd, 6 = k × 50, k = __
3 3
, P = __ d
f Not parallel but have the same y-intercept of 1 25 25
b 21.6 L
9 15 L 10 225 km
EXERCISE 12D DIRECT VARIATION RELATIONSHIPS
11 a P = __31 A b 21 L
1 a Number of
1 2 3 4 5 12 13.1 L
packets (N)
13 a 50 L b 5 cans
Price ($P) 1.50 3.00 4.50 6.00 7.50 14 a C = 2.15P b $36.55
15 19.2 hours
b P
8
16 a C = 1.5H b $10.05 c 20 m
7
17 a 0.34 ohms b 1500 cm
18 a P = 0.651D b $1305.68
6
19 a I = 12.5V b 125 amps c 7.6 volts
5
4
3 EXERCISE 12E LINEAR MODELLING
2 1 a $60 b 10 km
1 c Gradient = 2.5; cost per km after flagfall = $2.50
0 d Vertical intercept = 5; flag fall = $5
1 2 3 4 5 N 2 a $200 b 52 people
c 1.5 d P = 1.5N c 160
Gradient ≈ ___ = 40 __
__ , $ 40
≈ $5.70 per person (using the
28 7 7
e $13.50 f 18
points in parts a and b); $6 per person
2 a D 1 2 3 4 d Vertical intercept = 60; set-up cost = $60
C 3.1 6.3 9.4 12.6 3 a $420 b 2 __21 hours
c Gradient ≈ 85; cost/hour ≈ $85
d Vertical intercept ≈ $40; call-out charge = $40
Answers 571

4 a $2000 b $410 9 a
ANSWERS c Gradient is 0.06; it is the commission as a decimal (6%).
Christopher’s run
d Vertical intercept is 200; it is a retainer of $200. 100
Distance (m)
5 a i 300 mm ii 150 mm 80
b 3h c ≈ 1 __32 h or 1 __21 h 60
40
d Gradient is −30; height decreases 30 mm/h. 20
e Vertical intercept is 300; it is the initial height of the 0
candle. 5 10 15 20 25
6 a k = 0.03 Time (s)
b P 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 b 7.5 s c Gradient = 4, speed = 4 m/s
I 60 120 180 240 300 d If d is distance (in m) and t is time (in s) then d = 4t.
10 a Craig’s drive
c Interest earned
300 250
Distance (km)
250 200
200 150
I ($)
150 100
100 50
50 0
1 2 3 4 5
0 Time (h)
2 4 6 8 10
P ($’000) b 75 km c Gradient = 50 d km/h
d If d is distance (in km) and t is time (in h) then d = 50t.
d Gradient is 0.03; it is the rate of interest as a decimal.
7 a 80 11 a Conversion of A$ to Euro
b t 1 3 5 7 9
80
d 80 240 400 560 720 Euro
60
c Distance travelled 40
700 20
0
600 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
500 Australian $
d (km)
400
b A$65 c Gradient = 0.78
300
d It is the conversion rate.
200
e If e is the amount of euros and d is the amount of
100
Australian dollars then e = 0.78d.
0
2 4 6 8 10 f Yes
t (h) 12 a Yes, the line has the same gradient as it is straight.
d Gradient = m = 80; the speed of the train is 80 km/h b The runner would get tired and so their speed would
8 a 4.25 decrease. A longer race would have to be run at a slower
b speed to cover the distance.
h 4 8 12 16 20 13 a Yes, the line is straight; the speed has not changed.
V 17 34 51 68 85 b Not necessarily, as Craig may need petrol stops, there
may be traffic, he should also take a rest, etc.
c Volume of solid 14 a cost (in dollars) per kilometre
b Day rate: gradient ≈ 2.22, Night rate: gradient ≈ 2.73;
100
cost of a taxi trip at night is higher than during the day.
80
V (cm3)
c $5; fixed cost of $5 for each trip

60
d If C is the total cost in dollars to travel d km, then:
40
Day rate: C = 2.22d + 5; Night rate: C = 2.73d + 5
20
0
4 8 12 16 20 REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
h (cm) 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 D 5 A
d Gradient is 4.25; it is the cross-sectional area of 6 C 7 B 8 C 9 C 10 B
the solid. 11 A 12 C 13 B 14 B 15 C 16 A

REVIEW SET 1 b
ANSWERS
d
350
1 a Dependent variable is cost. 300 d = 70t
Dog shampoo 250
200
30
150
25
100
Cost ($)
20
50
15
0
10 1 2 3 4 5 t
5 c 245 km d ≈ 2 h 50 min
0 e Yes, as it is a straight-line graph passing through the
1 2 3 4 5 6
Capacity (L) origin.
b About $16
2 a Time (h) REVIEW SET 2
0 1 2 3 4
1 a Dependent variable is cost.
Distance (km) 400 300 200 100 0
Chocolate frogs
b Distance to Sydney
60
500 50
Distance (km)
Cost ($)
400 40
300 30
200 20
100 10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (h) Weight (kg)
c 250 km d 250 km b $45
3 Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 3 2 a Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4
4 y Distance (km) 0 60 120 180 240
6
5 b Distance to Sydney
4
280
3
240
Distance (km)
2
200
1
160
−2 −1 1 2 x 120
80
40
5 a Conversion of A$ to euro
0
1 2 3 4 5
80 Time (h)
60
Euro
c About 90 km d Just over 1 __21 h

40
20 3 y
4
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 3
Australian $ 2
b About A$73 c Gradient = 0.68 1
d Conversion rate of A$1 to euro
−1 1 2 x
e If e is the amount of euros and d is the amount of
Australian dollars then e = 0.68d.
f Yes 4 a Just under $260 b 42 people
6 y = 3x − 5 c Gradient = 6; this is the cost per person
7 a d $50; this is the set up cost of $50
t 1 2 3 4 5 5 a C is the daily cost in dollars, n is the number of hats
d 70 140 210 280 350 produced each day, 5 is the cost per item in dollars and
900 is the fixed cost in dollars
Answers 573

b 5 a
ANSWERS n 0 50 150 200 250 Conversion of A$ to Euro
C 900 1150 1650 1900 2150
100
c 80
C Hats Are Tops Company
Euro
2500 60
40
2000
C = 5n + 900 20
1500 0
1000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Australian $
500
b About A$57 to A$58
0
50 100 150 200 250 n c Gradient is 0.87; conversion rate for number of euros
you get for A$1.
d 120 hats d Yes
y
6 No, as _x does not produce a constant value 6 y = −3x + 2
7 a I is the income in dollars, n is the number of pairs of socks
REVIEW SET 3 produced, 16 is the cost (in dollars) per pair of socks
b n 0 50 150 200 250
1 a Dependent variable is cost.
Cashew nuts I 0 800 2400 3200 4000
100 c I Socks are us company

80 4500
Cost ($)
60 4000
40 3500
20
3000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 2500
Weight (kg) 2000 I = 16n
b About $57 c About 3.3 kg 1500
2 a Distance (km) 1000
0 10 20 30 40
500
Cost ($) 7.00 45.00 83.00 121.00 159.00
0
b 50 100 150 200 250 300 n
Cost of night-time taxi hire
160 d 115 pairs of socks
140 e Yes, as it is a straight line passing through the origin.
120
100 REVIEW SET 4
Cost ($)
80 1 a Independent variable is time.

60
Mobile phone charges
40
20 5
0 4
Cost ($)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Distance (km) 3
2
c About $65 d About 18 km
1
3 Gradient = 2 , y-intercept = 5
5
__ 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
4 y Time (min)
4 b about $2.10 c about 3.5 min
2 2 a Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40
−2 2 4 x Cost ($) 10.00 44.00 78.00 112.00 146.00

−4

b Cost of car hire
ANSWERS
f i C = 4.5n ii 4.5
140 iii Income vs cost
C
120
50
100
Cost ($) 80 C = 4.5n
40
60
40
30
20
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 20
Distance (km)
10
c About $130 d About 1.5 km
e No, as the straight line does not pass through the origin. 0
3 y 2 4 6 8 10 n
4
2 iv $36
2 4 x
−2
−4
CHAPTER 13 ENERGY AND MASS
4 a About $32 b About 84 km ARE YOU READY?

c About __52 ; the charge in $ per km 1 B 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 C 6 C
7 D 8 D 9 B 10 C 11 D 12 B
d $8; the flagfall is $8
5 a i $30 ii $75 iii $95
EXERCISE 13A UNITS OF MASS
b i 4 ii 15 iii 34
c $5 1 × 1000 × 1000 × 1000
d i 1.25 tonnes kilograms grams milligrams

(t) (kg) (g) (mg)
ii The cost for each extra card, having already bought
30 cards ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
6 a A = 7n + 400
b 2 a 3000 mg b 5000 mg c 7000 mg d 9000 mg
n 0 200 400 600 800 1000 e 2500 mg f 2200 mg g 1300 mg h 3400 mg
A 400 1800 3200 4600 6000 7400 i 400 mg j 300 mg k 150 mg l 220 mg
m 50 mg n 37 mg o 2 mg p 3 mg
c A 3 a 3g b 7g c 4g d 8g
Tight squeeze belt company
8000 e 2.5 g f 4.2 g g 7.5 g h 6.2 g
7000 i 0.4 g j 0.35 g k 0.27 g l 0.12 g
m 0.06 g n 0.038 g o 0.004 g p 0.0025 g
6000
4 a 2700 kg b 4500 mg c 23 920 g d 340 kg
5000 e 5600 g f 1758 kg g 23 490 kg h 800 mg
A = 7n + 400
4000 i 4050 g j 875 g k 2050 kg l 50 mg
3000 5 a 4t b 8.5 kg c 1.65 g d 0.75 kg
e 0.045 g f 1.48 kg g 0.4 t h 0.95 g
2000 i 0.09 kg j 0.009 g k 0.005 t l 0.2 kg
1000 6 a kg bg c g d kg
e t or kg f t or kg g mg hg
0
200 400 600 800 1000 n i mg
7 All masses need to be converted to the same unit before
d about 230 belts adding them; 3.756 kg
7 a a = 80, b = 0.5 b y = 16x 8 a i 420 g ii 840 g iii 3.36 kg
b the mass of the cartons
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION 9 16.95 kg 10 1122 kg
11 a Use the scale to find the mass of a larger number of
1 a i 16 strokes/min ii 4 m/s iii 4 min 10 s pages and then divide by the number of pages.
b i 4.5 m/s ii 2 m/s b 4.5 g
c i Upstream. When r = 0, s is negative: she is going 12 a 400 g b 50 g c 375 g d under
backwards. 13 a 150 mL b 200 mL c 120 mL d 25 mL
ii 1 m/s e 120 mL f 50 mL g 120 mL h 60 mL
d y = −4x + 11 i 40 mL
e i __25 or 2__21 ii –5
Answers 575

14 a 40 mL b 80 mL c 80 mL d 50 mL 2 a 5446 kJ/day b 8156 kJ/day c 2822 kJ/day
ANSWERS e 80 mL f 50 mL g 200 mL h 100 mL d 5987 kJ/day
i 100 mL 3 a 8655 kJ/day b 5921 kJ/day c 5561 kJ/day
15 a 3 tablets d 6635 kJ/day
4 a 780 kJ b 367 kJ
b i 1 tablet ii 1__21 tablets
5 Noah by 488 kJ
iii 2 tablets iv 1__41 tablets 6 a 4579 kJ/day b 5495 kJ/day
c 25 kg 7 a 8513 kJ/day b 18 729 kJ/day
16 1631 packets 8 a 5746 kJ/day b 10 630 kJ/day
9 a 8125 kJ/day b 13 406 kJ/day
EXERCISE 13B UNITS OF ENERGY 10 a 5978 kJ/day b 8668 kJ/day
11 a 7877 kJ/day b 3200 kJ
1 a 7200 J b 12080 J c 1209 J d 640 J e 54 J 12 a 7523 kJ/day b 2351 kJ
2 a 8.2 kJ b 2.503 kJ c 0.895 kJ d 0.088 kJ 13 a 7781 kJ/day b 3718 kJ
e 15.406 kJ 14 a 5558 kJ/day b 5211 kJ
3 a 7254 cal b 16 169 cal c 780 cal 15 a 5510 kJ/day b 1664 kJ
d 26 300 cal e 1008 cal 16 a 5754 kJ/day b 38 min
4 a 22.56 kcal b 7.604 kcal c 0.687 kcal 17 a 7781 kJ/day b 64 min
d 48.3 kcal e 0.098 kcal 18 a 5816 kJ/day b 46 min
5 a 1071 J b 24 435 J c 15 062 J 19 a 6183 kJ/day b 1 h 25 min
d 84 935 J e 1966 J 20 a 5756 kJ/day b 29 min
6 a 139 cal b 1655 cal c 3800 cal 21 a 16 232 kJ b 187% c Eat less and/or exercise more
d 155 cal e 60 229 cal d i 9070 kJ/day ii 5 h
7 a 126 kJ b 628 kJ c 1038 kJ
d 1276 kJ e 2720 kJ
8 a 239 Cal b 221 Cal c 296 Cal
EXERCISE 13E ENERGY CONSUMPTION
d 4780 Cal e 1814 Cal 1 a i 23/02/18 to 23/05/18 (inclusive) ii 90 days
9 a 167 kJ b 2887 kJ c 573 kJ b i 85.5 cents/day ii $76.95
d 4393 kJ e 10 544 kJ c i 1836.5 kWh ii 20.4 kWh
10 a 174 kcal b 643 kcal c 2271 kcal d i 51.71% ii 15.84%
d 1950 kcal e 3425 kcal e i 52.5 cents/kWh ii 39.74 cents/kWh
11 2079 Cal f i $581.63 ii $688.22 iii $7.65/day
12 a 3035 kcal b 10 042 kJ c 2199 Cal d 11 987 kJ g i Smaller ii Larger
13 a 50 Cal b 125 Cal c 50 kcal d 523 kJ h i 18 kWh ii 1620 kWh
i i August 2017 ii February 2017
EXERCISE 13C FOOD AND NUTRITION: ENERGY INTAKE iii August 2016
2 Energy used = 2.4 (kW) × 300 (number of hours)
1 474 kJ 2 601 kJ 3 763 kJ = 720 kWh
4 a 588.2 kJ Cost = 720 (kWh) × $0.3995 = $287.64
b i 588 200 J ii 140 583 cal iii 140.583 kcal 3 a $11.46 b $1.46
c i 1260.429 kJ ii 1 260 429 J iii 301 250 cal c $2.93 d $95.81
iv 301.25 kcal 4 a i 26.28 kWh ii $6.83
d i 2100.714 kj ii 2 100 714 J iii 502 083 cal b i 87.6 kWh ii $22.78
iv 502.083 kcal c i 43.8 kWh ii $11.39
5 a 1502 kJ b 901.2 kJ c 215.39 kcal d i 35.04 kWh ii $9.11
e Nutrient kJ/g kcal/g e i 17.52 kWh ii $4.56
5 a $488.21 b $289.94
Protein 17 4.06
6 a $17.84 b $36.87
Fat 38 9.08 7 a $51.41 b $137.09
Carbohydrates 17 4.06 8 a Brand A $165.44, Brand B $186.12, Brand C $227.48,
Brand D $275.42
Fibre 8 1.91 b i $20.68 ii $62.04 iii $109.98
f 358.7 kcal g 215 kcal 9 a $512.46 b $409.97
6 a 268.6 kJ b 1678.8 kJ c 401.2 kcal
7 a 2250.5 kJ b 598.6 kJ c 143.1 kcal REVIEW MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
d 537.6 kcal e 143 kcal 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 C 5 B 6 C
8 6305 kJ 9 13 373 kJ 7 D 8 B 9 D 10 D
EXERCISE 13D ENERGY EXPENDITURE REVIEW SET 1

1 a 2120 kJ b 751 kJ c 605 kJ 1 a 0.0024 kg b 5.63 kg c 4846 kg
d 6250 kJ e 1037 kJ f 688 kJ g 2147 kJ 2 a 80 mL b 40 mL c 20 mL
3 a 19 280 J b 2.634 kJ c 196 Cal

4 a 197 J b 4586 J c 8368 J 3 a $591.66 b $6999.60 c $1450.08
ANSWERS
5 658 kJ 4 a $5153.33 b 12.6%
6 a 668 kJ b 893 kJ c 3167 kJ 5 a i 10.8 km/L ii 0.092 km/L iii 9.23 L/100 km
7 a 8140 kJ b 5843 kJ b 535.7 km
8 a 5632 kJ/day b 1901 kJ 6 a Income: ($170 × 52) = $8840
9 $1.34 Expenses:
Board ($40 × 52) = $2080
REVIEW SET 2 Clothes ($100 × 12) = $1200
Entertainment ($65 × 26) = $1690
1 a 2.9 g b 7060 g c 0.94 t
Lessons ($85 × 26) = $2210
2 a 80 mL b 30 mL c 60 mL
Total expenses = $7180
3 a 1608 cal b 5.205 kcal c 10 Cal
Excess = $1660
4 a 82 cal b 679 cal c 7650 cal
b $1660 c Reduce expenses or increase income
5 6428 kJ
7 a Mean = 7.4, mode = 8, median = 8
6 a 5544 kJ/day b 6771 kJ/day
b i
7 a 7637 kJ/day b 12 601 kJ/day Class Frequency Class Cumulative
8 a 6128 kJ/day b 28 min centre frequency
9 $22.93 1–5 16 3 16
6–10 8 8 24
REVIEW SET 3 11–15 18 13 42
1 a 17 610 mg b 62.805 kg c 3604 kg 16–20 31 18 73
2 48 mL
21–25 9 23 82
3 a 23 050 J b 2.9 kJ c 99 Cal
4 a 519 J b 4519 J c 31 380 J ii 100
5 506 kJ
80
6 a 1701 kJ b 6185 kJ c 1274 kJ
7 a 6031 kJ/day b 5622 kJ/day 60
8 a 7445 kJ/day b 1680 kJ 40
9 a Energy used Rate Cost 20
(kWh) ($/kWh) ($)
0
Peak 583.6 0.5144 300.20
3 8 13 18 23
Flexi 892.8 0.2136 190.70 Score
Off-peak 291.7 0.139 40.55 iii Median ≈ 15, fourth decile ≈ 13

iv 10
Total 531.45
c i 10, 11, 12 ii 2
b $71.59 c $626.86 d No d Stem Leaf
10 a 29.2 kWh b $7.85 4 889
5 01466789
REVIEW SET 4
6 02455
1 a 0.78 g b 31 206 g c 0.2896 t 7 1348
2 32 mL
3 a 3140 cal b 0.98 kcal c 251 kJ e i Range = 30 ii 48, 56, 65
4 a 43 cal b 729 cal c 4930 cal iii 58.5 iv 12.5
5 11 450 kJ f 6 7.5 9.5 12
6 a 5150 kJ/day b 3988 kJ/day
7 a 5384 kJ/day b 11 845 kJ/day
8 a 7109 kJ/day b 58 min 5 10 15
9 $3661.57 g i Mean = 16.3, σn = 2.9
ii Mean = 56.5, σn = 14.5
REVIEW PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION h Mean = 3__97 , mode = 3 and 5, median = 3,
1 a i 168 kg ii 7 bags range = 4, σn ≈ 1.397
b 15 kJ c 629 kJ
8 a
d i 112% ii 6482 kJ/day iii 25 min 14
e i 792 kWh ii $66.53 12
10
Frequency
8
CHAPTERS 10–13 CUMULATIVE REVIEW 6
4
1 a $499 000 2
b i $0.00133474 ii Yes 0
c i $180 ii $388 iii $568 8 9 10 11 12 13
Number
d $1759.04 e $1940.56
2 a $508.50 b $4350 b Positively skewed
Answers 577

9 a Stem Leaf 13
ANSWERS x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1 6 y –11 –8 –5 –2 1 4 7
2 3
3 0 6 8 8 9 y y = 3x − 2
4 0 1 1 3 5 8
5 4 7 4
6 8
−3−2 −1 1 2 3 x
b Symmetrical −8
10 a 8 b9 c 7 d 2.5 e 2.05 −12
11 a 6900 s b 8100 s c 8200 s d Females e Males
12 a i Dependent variable is cost. 14 a C = total cost, $8 is the cost per tie, n is the number of
Mobile phone costs ties, $900 is the fixed cost
5 b n 0 50 100 150 200 250

4
Cost ($)
C 900 1300 1700 2100 2500 2900

3
2 c Polka dot tie company
1 3500
0 3000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (min) 2500
ii About $1.90 iii About 3 min 3__1 2000
C
b Gradient = −3, y-intercept = 6 1500
c y 1000
4 500
2
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
−2 −2 1 2 x n
y = −3−4x
−4 d About 130 ties
−6 15 a i 3400 kg ii 14.63 kg iii 4113 kg
b i 100 mL ii 50 mL iii 250 mL
d i $40 ii 100 km c i 1428 cal ii 6.605 kcal iii 287 Cal
iii Gradient is 0.4; cost per km d i 58.56 cal ii 439.77 cal iii 6500 cal
iv Intercept is $10; flag fall e 553.52 kJ
v No, as the y-intercept is not at the origin. 16 a i 5510 kJ/day ii 6967 kJ/day
e i __41 ii y = __4x iii 12 iv 32 b i 6327.6 kJ/day ii 5825.1 kJ/day
17 $4707.73

GLOSSARY
absolute error equals plus or minus commission payment based on the deciles nine numbers that separate the
half the precision percentage of the total price of the set of ordered scores into ten parts with
annual leave loading extra payment goods sold an equal number of scores in each part
added to the holiday pay of employees complement of E (E ˜ or E9) remaining dependent variable variable whose
taking their annual holidays group of outcomes in the sample space value depends upon that of another;
that do not belong to the event E usually represented on the vertical axis of
annulus the area between two circles
complementary events events are a graph; e.g. for the relationship
with the same centre but different radii
complementary if the sum of the number y − 2x + 1, the dependent variable is y
average speed calculated by dividing (as it depends on the value of x)
of outcomes in each event equals the
the distance travelled during a time
total number of possible outcomes in the depreciation the loss in the value of
interval by the length of the time interval;
sample space an asset due to its age and usage
e.g. average speed of a car that travels
120 km in 2 hours is 60 km/h compound interest interest that is direct variation relationship
added to the principal at regular time relationship between two quantities
axis the diameter about which Earth
intervals during an investment or loan or variables in which one of the
rotates with endpoints at the North Pole quantities can be expressed as a constant
period so future interest is calculated
and the South Pole multiplied by the other quantity
including that amount
basal metabolic rate (BMR) consecutive integers whole numbers directly proportional two quantities or
minimum amount of energy needed that follow one another in order, with variables are directly proportional when
to sustain basic bodily functions for a a difference of 1 between them (e.g. an increase (or a decrease) in one causes
24 hour period, measured in kJ/day 7 and 8; −4, −3 and −2) a proportional increase (or decrease) in
bell-shaped description of a constant of variation (or the other; e.g. y is directly proportional to
y
distribution graph of a set for which proportionality) constant value x if _x is a constant value
the shape is symmetrical y
(k) for _x when there is a direct variation discrete variable type of numerical
biased sample when the method relationship between y and x. The variable that is exact, usually resulting
of collecting data produces a sample equation connecting y and x can be from counting; e.g. number of pets in
that does not accurately reflect the written as y = kx where k is the constant a family
characteristics of the population of variation discretionary spending includes
bimodal description of a distribution continuous variable type of numerical expenses such as entertainment, clothes
graph for a data set with two modes variable within a range of values, usually and gifts that can be varied based
resulting from measuring; e.g. heights of on choice
blood alcohol content (BAC)
students dot plot a display of data where each
percentage concentration of alcohol in a
person’s blood; e.g. a BAC of 0.05 (%) Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) piece of data is represented by a dot
is 0.05 g of alcohol in every 100mL primary time standard for clocks and above a matching number or category on
time, replacing Greenwich Mean a horizontal scale
of blood
Time (GMT) double-time overtime rate where
bonus extra payment paid as an
cross-section the shape of the face employees are paid 2 times their normal
incentive to employees who work hard
formed when a solid is sliced by a plane hourly rate
box plot (box-and-whisker plot)
cumulative frequency sum of the energy consumption energy used
a diagram made up of a box and two
frequencies of all the scores up to and by an appliance, measured in
‘whiskers’ displaying five key values for
including a particular score kilowatt-hours (kWh)
a data set; these values are known as the
five-number summary cumulative frequency histogram energy out amount of energy the
column graph (histogram) with body uses to sustain basic functions and
braking distance distance a motor perform normal daily physical activities
data scores along the horizontal axis
vehicle travels between the time the
and cumulative frequency on the equally likely outcomes outcomes that
brakes are first applied and when the
vertical axis have an equal chance of occurring
vehicle comes to a complete stop
cumulative frequency polygon equation collection of two or
budget a financial plan in which
(ogive) line graph formed by joining more algebraic terms separated by
expenses need to be less than income
the upper right-hand corners of each mathematical operation symbols and
capacity amount of fluid that a column of the cumulative frequency containing an equals sign; e.g.
container can hold histogram 2x + 1 = 7 or 3x2 = 5x − 2
categorical variable a qualitative data pieces of collected information equator great circle that is a parallel
characteristic of data that can be divided daylight saving time (DST) the of latitude and whose centre is the centre
into groups (or categories) practice of setting clocks forward one of Earth
census involves colllecting information hour from standard time during the event one outcome or collection
about every member of the entire summer months (from October to April of outcomes from performing an
population in Australia) experiment
Glossary 579

expected frequency (expected lower limit of true measurement result ordinal variable type of categorical
GLOSSARY number) expected number of times of subtracting the absolute error from the variable for which the categories are
an event will occur, calculated by given measurement ordered on a scale or as a ranking; e.g.
multiplying the probability of the event mean the sum of all the scores divided rating system from 1–5
occurring by the number of trials by the number of scores, also known as outlier an extreme piece of data or a
experiment a trial (or trials) the average score that is much higher or much lower
performed to obtain data to predict the measure of central tendency (measure than the rest of the data in the data set
chances of an event occuring of location) a single number that overtime extra time worked by
five-number summary five key values indicates the location of the centre or employees in excess of their normal
for a data set; lowest score, highest score, most typical score in a set of scores; e.g. working hours
median, lower quartile and upper quartile the mean, the mode and the median parallels of latitude (circles of
fixed spending includes expenses like measure of dispersion a single latitude) circles formed when slices
rent or board that cannot be varied number that indicates the spread of perpendicular to Earth’s axis are taken
flat rate simple interest rate as a scores, also known as a a measure of pareto chart chart that combines
percentage spread; e.g. the range, the interquartile a column graph and a cumulative
range and the standard deviation frequency graph
formula relationship or rule between
two or more variables that contains an median the middle score after the per annum (p.a.) for each year (used
equals sign; e.g. v = u + at set of scores has been arranged in in financial contexts)
ascending order percentage relative frequency relative
frequency polygon line graph made
by joining the mid points of the tops of Medicare levy extra tax to fund the frequency expressed as a percentage
the columns of a frequency histogram, health care system, calculated as a percentiles 99 numbers that separate
with the first and last points joined to the percentage of taxable income the set of ordered scores in 100 parts
horizontal axis meridians of longitude semicircles with an equal number of scores in
frequency table table that displays that are part of great circles with each part
the number of times each category of endpoints at the North Pole and perimeter the distance around the
data occurs South Pole boundary of a closed figure
gradient (slope) steepness of a line mode the score that occurs the most Physical activity level (PAL) the total
(defined as m) that can be measured often in a set of scores energy needed for an activity compared
using any two points on the line or multimodal description of a to the BMR
interval distribution graph for a data set with piecewise graph graph made up of
great circle circle formed when a slice many modes several joined straight lines with different
is taken through the centre of Earth multistage event one outcome or gradients, not just one single straight line
collection of outcomes from performing piecework payment based on an
gross income total amount earned by
a multistage experiment amount per item produced
an employee
multistage experiment experiment population entire group about whom,
GST a tax of 10% that is added to the
made up of more than one simpler or from which, information is sought
price of goods and services
experiment
histogram column graph with no gaps population standard deviation
negatively skewed description of a standard deviation for a population,
between the columns that shows data
skewed graph which has a longer tail to denoted by sn
scores along the horizontal axis and
the left
frequency on the vertical axis positively skewed description of a
net a plane shape that can be folded to skewed graph which has a longer tail to
independent variable variable whose
form a solid the right
outcomes are not due to those of another
variable; usually represented on the net income reduced amount earned by power rating rate at which an
horizontal axis of a graph; e.g. for the an employee after subtracting deductions appliance uses electricity, measured in
linear relationship y = 2x + 1, the from gross income watts (W) or kilowatts (kW)
independent variable is x nominal variable type of categorical precision smallest unit on a
interquartile range measure of variable for which the categories are measurement instrument
dispersion found by calculating the named but not ordered; e.g. hair colour prime meridian (Greenwich
difference between the upper quartile and numerical variable a quantitative Meridian) reference line for longitude
lower quartile; this is, IQR = Q3 − Q1 characteristic of data that can be counted (0°) that passes through Greenwich in
leaf last digit of a piece of data; e.g. for or measured London, England
the data score 256, the leaf is 6 offset a short distance measured principal sum of money invested or
linear equation equation in which perpendicularly from a main survey line amount borrowed as a loan
the highest positive integer power of the operating costs variable running costs probability chance of an event
pronumeral is 1; e.g. 2x + 1 = 7 is a that depend on how a vehicle is driven; occurring, expressed as a number in
linear equation but 3x2 = 5x − 2 is not e.g. cost of fuel, tyres, servicing and the range 0 to 1 or as the equivalent
because its highest power of x is 2 repairs percentage

probability tree diagram tree diagram significant figures the number of digits surface area the sum of the
GLOSSARY
on which the probabilities of simpler in a number that indicate its accuracy areas of all the three faces of a
events are shown along its branches simple interest an amount calculated three-dimensional solid
pronumeral letter or symbol that takes on the full amount of a loan or systematic sample sample chosen in
the place of a number investment for the full term a methodical way where members of
quartiles three measures that divide skewed description of a distribution the population are put in order, the first
a set of scores (in ascending order) into graph of a data set for which the shape is number is chosen at random and then
four parts with an equal number of scores not symmetrical every nth number is chosen for the sample
in each part; the measures are the lower small circle circle formed when a slice tally marks lines or marks that help
quartile (Q1), middle quartile or median is taken that does not pass through the record data in a table with every fifth
(Q2), and upper quartile (Q3) centre of the Earth tally mark drawn through the preceding
random sample sample in which each four marks
solution the value of the pronumeral
member of the population has an equal that makes an equation a true statement; taxable income income for one
chance of being selected e.g. the solution of 2x + 1 = 7 is x = 3 financial year calculated by subtracting
range the difference between the highest allowable deductions from total income
solve to find the value of the
score and the lowest score in a data set pronumeral that makes the equation a term period of time for an investment
rate an amount of interest usually true statement or loan
expressed as a percentage time zone region of the world that
standard deviation a measure of
reaction-time distance distance observes the same time throughout
dispersion or spread whose value
travelled in the time it takes a driver to depends on all the scores; determined by time-and-a-half overtime rate where
react and move his or her foot to apply calculating an ‘average’ of the distance employees are paid 1__12 times their normal
the brakes of each score from the mean hourly rate
relative frequency the number of standard drink any drink that contains timetables information displayed
times a score occurs as a fraction of the 10 g of alcohol in tables about the times of
total number of scores scheduled events
standard time time adopted for a
relative frequency (experimental particular region within a time zone total income all income received by a
probability) an estimate of the person during one financial year
standing costs fixed costs; e.g.
probability of an event occurring, depreciation, loan interest, on-road total stopping distance total distance
determined by performing an experiment costs such as registration, insurance and travelled in the time it takes for a driver
a number of times and finding the event’s motoring organisation membership to react, apply the brakes and for the car
relative frequency to come to a stop
statistics the study of collecting,
royalty payment based on a percentage unimodal description of a distribution
organising, analysing and
of the continuing sales of a product that graph for a data set with one mode
interpreting data
someone has made or created upper limit of true measurement
stem digit or digits preceeding the last
salary a fixed regular payment, result of adding the absolute error
digit of a piece of data; e.g. for the data
typically paid monthly but often to the given measurement
score 256, the stem is 25
expressed as an annual sum, made by an variable (algebra) numerical quantity
employer to an employee stem-and-leaf plot A display of
data where each piece of data is split that can have varying or different value
salvage value (book value, scrap value, and can be represented by a pronumeral;
into two parts: the last digit becoming
written-down value) the value of an e.g. time or t
the leaf and the other digits becoming
asset after depreciation variable (statistics) a particular
the stem
sample involves collecting information characteristic that we are interested in
straight-line method of
about a small selection from a population when collecting data
depreciation a method for which an
sample space set of all possible item loses value by a constant amount volume the amount of space a solid
outcomes of an experiment each year occupies
sample standard deviation standard stratified random sample sample wage a fixed regular payment earned
deviation for a sample, denoted by sn−1 made up of random samples taken from for work or services, usually based on
scientific notation a value written as a subgroups (strata) of the population, an hourly rate and typically paid daily,
number from 1 up to, but not including, proportional to the relative size of each weekly or fortnightly
10 (with any number of decimal places) subgroup World Time Zones time zones around
multiplied by a power of 10 subject of the formula single the world that are expressed as positive
self-selected sample sample in which variable usually on the left-hand side or negative offsets from UTC
participants choose to take part by of a formula; e.g. v is the subject of the y-intercept point where a line crosses
responding to a request for volunteers formula v = u + at the y-axis of a number plane
Glossary 581

INDEX
A C cumulative frequency
histogram 266–71
absolute error 65–69 calibration error 60 cumulative frequency
accuracy of measurement 61–62 calories 486–89 polygon 266–71
alcohol, blood alcohol content capacity 192–95 see also ogive
(BAC) 100–03 converting to/from volume 192 cumulative reviews 114–15,
algebraic equations see linear cylinder 193–94 230–33, 352–53, 512–15
equations metric units 54 cylinders
algebraic expressions, substitution car loans 368–71 capacity 193–5
into 76–77, 80 carbohydrates 490–93 surface area 180–85
allowances 10–15 cars volume 186–91
annual income 7 average speed, distance and
annual leave loading 10, 15 time 96–99
approximations 61, 62–63 braking distance 96–99 D
area cost of purchase 362–67
data 118
composite figures 160–65 dealer delivery 363
classification of 118–21
estimating using Trapezoidal depreciation 370–71
daylight saving time (DST) 340
rule 170–73 financing the purchase 368–71
dealer delivery (cars) 363
of a field involving triangles and fuel consumption 372–75
deciles 414–17
trapeziums 169 insurance 363
from an ogive 414
formulas 154 reaction-time difference 96,
decimal values, units of mass
irregular shapes 166–73 98–99
482–85
limits of true 68 registration 362–65
deductions 28–31
metric units 54 running costs 376–79
dependent variable 448–51
quadrilateral 166–67 stamp duty 362, 364–67
depreciation 218–21
simple shapes 154–69 total stopping distance 96, 99
straight-line method 218–21,
Australian time zones 340–41 trade-in 363
370–71
average speed 96–97 categorical variables 119–21
dietary fibre 490–91
axis 322 census 122–25
direct variation relationships
Central Standard Time (CST) 340
462–67
B changing the subject of the
formula 93–95
finding the equation of 465–67
graphing 463–64
back-to-back stem-and-leaf circle
modelling 472–73
plot 246–51 area 154, 158, 159 directly proportional 462
bar graphs 252–57 circumference 150–53 discrete variable 119–21
basal metabolic rate (BMR) 495–97 circles of latitude 322 discretionary spending 380
using Harris–Benedict formula 497 Clark’s formula 104–07 distance, speed and time 96–97
using Schofield formula 496 classes (class intervals) 238–39 distribution (curves) 432–36
bell-shaped curve 433–34 classification of data 118–21 describing 433–39
bias in sampling 124 column graphs 252–57 describing the nature of a
biased sample 122, 124 commission 16–21
~ graph 434–35
bimodal distribution 432 complement of E (E or E′) 294 describing the shape from a box
bimodal scores 394 complementary events 294–97 plot 437–38
blood alcohol content (BAC) 100–03 composite figures, area 160–62 describing the shape from a dot
bonus 10–15 composite prisms plot 435
book value 218–21, 370 surface area 177–79 describing the shape from a
box plots (box-and-whisker volume 191 stem-and-leaf plot 436
plots) 418–21 compound interest 222–25 dot plots 246–51
describing the shape of a distribution comprehensive insurance 363–67 describing shape of distribution
from 434 compulsory third-party (CTP) from 435
drawing 419–20 insurance 362–67 double-time 10
drawing from five-number consecutive integers 84 drivers, blood alcohol content
summary 419 constant of proportionality 463 100–03
drawing from stem-and-leaf plot 420 constant of variation 463
range, median and interquartile range continuous variable 119
from 418 Coordinated Universal Time E
braking distance 96–99 (UTC) 334 Earth’s surface
breathalyser 100 cross-section 186 latitude and longitude 322–25
budget 380 cube, surface area 174–76 position on 326–29
budgeting 380–83 cumulative frequency 240–45 Eastern Standard Time (EST) 340

electrical appliances frequency histograms 262–65
K
INDEX
cost of running 504–05 frequency polygons 262–65
power rating 502 Fried’s formula 105 kilocalories 488–89
electricity accounts 359, 503 fuel consumption (cars) 372–75 kilograms 482–84
energy, units of 486–89 kilojoules 486–89
energy consumption 502–05 G energy expenditure 494–501
kite, area 154, 157
energy expenditure 494–501 gas accounts 360–61
time needed to burn government allowances and
kilojoules 500–01 pensions 22–27 L
to maintain lifestyle 498–99 gradient (slope) 452–57 latitude 322–24, 326–29
to perform individual grams 482–84 and position coordinates 326–29
activities 499–500 graphical data displays 432–37 length, metric units 54–55
energy intake from foods 490–93 graphing, direct variation limit of reading 60
energy out 494–95 relationship 462–67 line graphs 258–61
equally likely outcomes 280, 283 graphs see also straight-line graphs
equations bar 252–57 linear equations 80–91
with fractions 86–87 column 252–57, 262 checking solutions to 89
linear 80–91, 458 cumulative frequency 266–69 containing negative
equator 322 line 258–61 pronumerals 82
errors in measurement 60–63 misleading 259–60, 261–62 involving fractions 86–87
absolute error 64–69 piecewise 366, 457 with pronumerals on both sides 88
maximum error 68–69 simple interest 210–17 resulting from substitution 83
event 280 sketching 459 worded descriptions 84–85
expected frequency (expected straight-line 458–73 writing the gradient and y-intercept
number) 306–13 great circle 322 from 459
experiment 280–85 greatest possible error (GPE) 64 linear graphs see straight-line graphs
experimental probability 286–89 green slip 362 linear modelling 468–73
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 334 direct variation 472–73
F Greenwich meridian 322 linear models, interpreting graphs
gross income 28 of 468–69
fats 490
grouped data 242–43 linear relationships, finding equations
five-number summary 418–21
mean 392–95, 423–24 that describe 460–61
drawing box plots from 419
median 401–02 loadings 10–15
fixed costs 376
standard deviation 422–27 see also annual leave loading
fixed spending 380
GST (Goods and Services Tax) loan calculations 368–71
flow rates (intravenous drip) 106
208–09 longitude 322–29
food, energy intake from 490–93
and position coordinates 326–29
formulas 7
area 154–59 H lower limit of true measurement
64–66
blood alcohol content Harris–Benedict formula 495–501
lower quartile 409
(BAC) 100–03 health insurance 28–31
changing the subject of the 93–95 histograms 262–64
complementary events 294 horizontal bar graphs 253–54 M
finding the value of a household bills 356–58, 502–05 mass
variable in 92–95 hypotenuse 149 converting units of mass 482–84
simple interest 210 metric units 54, 482–85
straight-line method of I mathematical formulas see formulas
depreciation 218 maximum error 67–69
income, earning an 4–9
subject of the 76 mean 392–97
income tax calculation 36–39
substitution into 76–79, 92 comparison with mode and
independent variable 448–49
volume 186 median 405–07
insurance (cars) 363
frequency curves see distribution (curves) from frequency distribution
interest rates 211–13
frequency distribution tables 236–39 table 392–93
International Date Line 338, 399
adding cumulative and relative from stem-and-leaf plot 396
interquartile range 408–13
frequency to 240–45 for grouped data 393–94, 423–24
from box plot 418–19
constructing from cumulative relative merits 404–07
from ogive 414–15
frequency histogram 268 measurement
interpreting 412
grouped data 264–65, 395–401, accuracy of 60–63
irregular shapes, perimeter and
412 area 166–73 errors in 64–69
identifying outliers from 428–31 prefixes for units of 58–61
mean from 392–93 units of 54–57
median from 400 J upper and lower limits of
mode from 395 joules 486–89 true 64–69
Index 583

measures of central outcomes and sample space 280–85 pronumeral 76
INDEX tendency 392, 404–07 outliers 405, 406, 428 protein 490–93
see also mean; median; mode identifying from a frequency purchasing a car 362–67
measures of dispersion (spread) 408 table 429–30 financing the purchase 368–71
measures of location 392 identifying from a set of scores 428 Pythagoras’ theorem 149–50
median 398–403 identifying from a stem-and-leaf
of an even number of
scores 399
plot 430–31
overtime 14–15
Q
of an odd number of quadrilateral
scores 398–99
comparison with mean and
P area 166–67
perimeter 167
mode 405–06 parallax error 60 quartiles 409–11
from box plot 418–19 parallelogram, area 154, 156 questions in questionnaires 118–19
from frequency distribution parallels of latitude 322–24
and position coordinates 326
table 400
from stem-and-leaf plot 403 Pareto chart 269–71 R
for grouped data 401–02 pensions 22, 24, 27 random number generator 129–31
relative merits 404–07 per annum (p.a.) 4 random sampling 126–27, 132–33
Medicare levy 32–35 percentage applications 204, 207 range 408–13
medication dosages 104–07 percentage change 207 from box plot 418–19
meridians of longitude 322–27 percentage error 66 rates (interest) 210, 211–13
and position coordinates 326–29 percentage increase or decrease 205–06 reaction-time distance 96, 98–99
metric units of measurement 54–57 percentage profit or loss 206–09 rectangle, area 154, 155
area 56 percentage relative frequency 240 rectangular prism, surface area
capacity 56 percentiles 414–17 175–76
energy 496–99 from an ogive 415 reducing-balance loan 368–69
length 54–55 perimeter 148–53 registration (cars) 363–65, 367
mass 55, 482–85 circle 150 relative frequency (data) 240–45
volume 57 of a field involving triangles and relative frequency (experimental
middle quartile 409 trapeziums 169 probability) 286–89
milligrams 482–84 irregular shapes 166–73 rhombus, area 154, 156
misleading graphs 255–57, 259–60 limits of true 67 right-angled triangle 149
mode 394–97 Pythagoras’ theorem to find 149–50 royalties 16, 21
comparison with mean and quadrilateral 166 running costs (cars) 382–85
median 404–07 sector 152
from frequency distribution
table 395–96
physical activity level
(PAL) 495, 497–500
S
from stem-and-leaf plot 396–97 piecewise graphs 457 salary 4–9
relative merits 404–07 piecework 16, 19–20 salvage value 218, 370
multimodal distribution 432 population 122–25 sample 122–25
multistage events 298–301 population standard deviation 424, biased 122, 124
probability 290–93 425, 427 random 126–31
multistage experiments 298 position on Earth’s surface 326–29 self-selected 125, 136
sample space for 298–99 positively skewed distribution 433 stratified random 132–33, 136–37
power rating (electrical systematic 134–35, 137
appliances) 502 sample size, effect of 134–35
N precision 64–66 sample space 280–85
prefixes for units of measurement 58–59 and equally likely outcomes 282
negatively skewed distribution 434
prime meridian 322, 324, 325 for multistage experiments 283–85
net 174
principal 210 sample standard deviation 424–25
net income 28–31
prisms sample types, suitability 136–37
nominal variable 119
surface area 174–78 sampling methods 136
normal distribution 433
volume 186–87, 191 Schofield formula 469, 498–99,
numerical variables 119
probability 286–89, 290 500–01
nutrients, energy intake from 490–95
complementary events 294–97 scientific notation 50–53
expected frequency 306–12 scrap value 218–21, 370
O experimental 286–89 sector
ogive 266–67 for multistage events 298–301 area 156, 158–59, 160–61
deciles from 414–15 relative frequency 286–89 perimeter 154
interquartile range from 408–13 and simulations 307–13 self-selected sampling 125, 136
percentiles from 414–15 theoretical 290–93 shorter side (right-angled triangle)
operating costs 376, 378 tree diagrams 302–05 149
ordinal variable 119–20 profit or loss 206 significant figures 48–49

simple interest 210–13 substitution
U
INDEX
formula 210 into algebraic expressions 76–77, 78
graphs 214–17 into mathematical formulas 77–79 unimodal distribution 432
simulations 307, 310 superannuation 29–30 units of energy 486–89
sketching graphs 459 surface area 174–79 units of mass 55, 482–85
skewed distribution 432, 435 cylinders 180–85 units of measurement
slope (gradient) 452–57 prisms 174–79 metric units 54–57
small circle 322 sphere 180–85 prefixes 58–61
speed, distance and time 96–97 systematic sampling upper limit of true
sphere 134–35, 136 measurement 64, 65–67
surface area 183–85 upper quartile 409–11
volume 190–91 utility bills 356–61, 503–05
stamp duty 362, 364–67 T
standard deviation 422–27 tally marks 236 V
grouped data 423–24 target population 122–25
variables 76, 119–21
standard drinks 100–03 tax payable 36–39
VAT (Value Added Tax) 208
standard times 335–39 tax rates 36
vertical column graphs 252–53
standing costs 376 tax table 36
vertical intercept (straight-line
statistics 118 taxable income 32–35
graph) 452–53
stem-and-leaf plots 246–51 term (loan) 210
volume 186–91
back-to-back 250–51, theoretical probability 290–93
converting to/from
254–55 third-party property damage vehicle
capacity 192–93
describing the shape of a distribution insurance 363
cylinder 189, 191
from 436 time
formulas 186
drawing a box plot from 420 calculations 330–33
metric units 54
identifying outliers from converting between 12-hour and
prism 186–88, 191
430–31 24-hour time 331
sphere 190–91
mean and mode from 396–97 converting units of 330–31
median from 403 distance and speed 96–97
with split stems 249 time zones W
straight-line graphs 448–51 Australian 340–41 wages 4, 6–7
equation y = mx + c 458–61 world 334–39 water bills 262–64, 356–58
gradient (slope) 452–57 time-and-a-half 10 Western Standard Time (WST) 340
sketching 459 timetables, interpreting 342–43 World Time Zones 334–39
y-intercept 456, 459 total income 32 written-down value 218, 370
straight-line method of total stopping distance 96, 99
depreciation 219–22, 370 trade-in 363
formula 219 trapezium, area 154, 157, 168 Y
stratified random Trapezoidal rule 170–73 y = mx + c 458–61
sampling 132–33, 136 travel calculations 96–99 y-intercept (straight-line
study loan repayment 35 tree diagrams 302–05 graph) 456, 459
subject of the formula 76 triangle, area 154, 155, 168 Young’s formula 104, 105
changing the 92, 93–95 triangular prism, surface area 176–78 Youth Allowance 22–27
Index 585

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
Cover: Getty Images/Alexander Kesselaar. Chapter 1: Alamy/ableimages, p. 16; Getty Images/Gillianne Tedder, p. 14; Getty
Images/Tom Grill, p. 18; Getty Images/istock/Jacob Wackerhusen, p. 6; imagefolk/Image Source, p. 42; Shutterstock, pp. 4,
5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 37, 38. Chapter 2: Alamy, 57 top; Brent Parker Jones, 60; Getty Images/
Dorling Kindersley, 56 bottom; Getty Images/istockphoto, 56 top; Getty Images /iStockphoto/craftvision, 67; Ian Trower/AWL
Images Ltd/imagefolk, 66; imagefolk/Mark Garlick, 53; Shutterstock, 49, 55, 57 bottom, 58, 59, 63, 69 bottom. Chapter 3:
iStockphoto, 106; iStockphoto/Imgorthand, 111; Shutterstock, 78, 84, 79 bottom, 79 top, 90 bottom, 90 top, 96, 102. Chapter 4:
Alamy/Rob Francis; 121; Shutterstock, 120, 123, 126, 128, 137, 141, 142, 143, 144. Chapter 5: Alamy/John Trax, 164 bottom;
Lindsay Edwards, 179 top left and right; istockphoto/GregC, 194 top; Shutterstock, 153, 159, 164 centre and top, 165, 169, 172,
173, 178, 179 centre and bottom, 185, 191, 192, 193, 194 bottom, 195. Chapter 6: All photographs Shutterstock. Chapter 7:
Alamy/Sindre Ellingsen, 236; iStockphoto/kristian sekulic, 274; iStockphoto/pamspix, 249; iStockphoto/nycshooter, p. 244
top; Shutterstock, 239, 244 bottom, 254, 257, 265. Chapter 8: Alamy/Blend Images, 307 top; iStockphoto/Carolyn Woodcock,
301 bottom right; iStockphoto/Lauri Patterson, 301 left; Shutterstock, 289 bottom, 289 centre, 289 top, 293 bottom, 301 top,
307 bottom. Chapter 9: istockphoto/nathanphoto, p. 338; all other photographs Shutterstock. Chapter 10: 123rf/Luca Bertolli,
p. 376; istockphoto/Henrick5000, p. 387; all other photographs Shutterstock. Chapter 11: Alamy/David Foster, p. 397; Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, p. 416; Shutterstock, pp. 413, 426, 431. Chapter 12:
Alamy/Martin Berry, p. 450; Alamy/PhotoAlto, p. 468; all other photographs Shutterstock. Chapter 13: Alamy/ScotStock,
p. 484 bottom; all other photographs Shutterstock.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book. The publisher will be pleased
to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.

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title: LEY_IM11_10516_CVR format: 280mm x 217mm spine: 23.6mm colours used: CMYK
OXFORD
INSIGHT
OXFORD INSIGHT MATHEMATICS STANDARD

MATHEMATICS
STANDARD
11 JOHN LEY
MICHAEL FULLER
11 ADDITIONAL RESOURCE
CONTRIBUTORS
FULLER
LEY
BARBARA MARINAKIS
ANDREW HOLLAND
ISBN 978-0-19-031051-6
9 780190 310516
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6mm colours used: CMYK

OXFORD INSIGHT MATHEMATICS STANDARD

LEY_IM11_10516_CVR_SI.indd 2-4 cyan magenta yellow black 19/10/2017 8:47 AM

Click here to access online extras

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Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

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Using Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 3 Formulas and equations 74

1 Earning and managing money 2 3A Substitution into expressions

4 Classifying data and sampling 116

00_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 3 19/10/2017 8:04 AM

MEASUREMENT STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

9 Working with time 320

7 Representing data 234 10 Budgeting and

iv Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

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12 Linear relationships 446

13 Units of energy and mass 480

Chapters 10–13 Cumulative review 512

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helpful resources are outlined

‘Working Mathematically’ syllabus

Student obook assess

Teacher obook assess

vi Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

00_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 6 25/10/2017 3:06 PM

Tip 4 – take care of yourself identify determine and state clearly

Study tips vii

00_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 7 19/10/2017 8:04 AM

01_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 2 19/10/2017 9:54 AM

ARE YOU READY?

Chapter 1 Earning and managing money 3

01_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 3 19/10/2017 9:54 AM

EXAMPLE 1A–1 Calculating salary payments

01_LEY_IM11_10516_TXT_SI.indd 4 19/10/2017 9:54 AM

the following to find how much she earns:

3 Express each of the following annual salaries as an amount:

EXAMPLE 1A–2 Calculating annual and monthly salary payments

6 Calculate the annual salary amount for each of these workers.

Name Weekly wage Annual salary

Chapter 1 Earning and managing money 5

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EXAMPLE 1A–3 Calculating wage payments

9 Clare works in a jewellery

10 Aaron works as an assistant in a

6 Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

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EXAMPLE 1A–4 Calculating annual income

Solve Think Apply

EXAMPLE 1A–5 Converting annual salaries to shorter time periods

Chapter 1 Earning and managing money 7

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taken for their meal breaks.

21 Complete the following wage table.

C. Johnson 4 2__12 7 2 1__12 $30.34

24 Isla is paid $1710 per fortnight.

8 Oxford Insight Mathematics Standard 11

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C. Johnson 4 212 7 2 112 $30.34