Studio

Shodwe

MEDICAL
PHYSICS
By U6 Physics:
Tia, Nathan, Eliana, Akosua, Awo, Kofi, Anmol,
Dhimahi, Aaron and Lisa
CONTENT
01 02
Ultrasound X-rays
Tia, Awo and Kofi
Akosua, Lisa and Nathan

03
PET Scanning
Anmol, Eliana, Aaron and
Dhimahi
01 ULTRA SOUND
Tia, Awo and Kofi
THE PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
What is a Transducer?
It is any device that converts energy from one form to
another

The Piezoelectric Effect:

The ability of particular materials to generate a potential
difference by transferring mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
THE PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL
Piezoelectric crystals are materials which produce a p.d. when they
are deformed.

This deformation can be by:

Compression
Stretching

If a p.d. is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, then it deforms, and if the

p.d. is reversed, then it expands

If this is an alternating p.d. then the crystal will vibrate at the same
frequency as the alternating voltage
THE PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL
A common piezoelectric crystal is a Quartz, which is made from a
lattice of silicon dioxide atoms

When this lattice is distorted, the structure becomes charged

creating an electric field and, and in turn, an electric current

If the current is applied to the crystal, a sound wave is produced

Due to conventional direction of electric current, current flows from

the positive to the negative regions of the crystal
APPLICATIONS OF THE
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
Piezoelectric transducers are used in:

Microphones
A piezoelectric microphone detects pressure variations in sound
waves. These can be converted to an electrical signal for
processing

Ultrasound
In a piezoelectric transducer, an alternating p.d. is applied to
produce ultrasound waves and sent into the patient’s body
The returning ultrasound waves induce a p.d. in the transducer
for analysis by a healthcare professional
ULTRA SOUND
An ultrasound is defined as: A high frequency sound above the range of human hearing
A piezoelectric crystal can act as both a receiver or transmitter of
ultrasound
When it is receiving ultrasound, it converts the sound waves into an
alternating p.d.
When it is transmitting ultrasound, it converts an alternating p.d. into
sound waves
USING ULTRASOUND IN MEDICAL IMAGING
In an ultrasound scanner, the transducer sends out a beam of sound
waves into the body
The sound waves are reflected back to the transducer by boundaries
between tissues in the path of the beam
For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and
bone
When these echoes hit the transducer, they generate electrical signals
that are sent to the ultrasound scanner
Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the scanner
calculates the distance from the transducer to the tissue boundary
These distances can be used to generate two-dimensional images of
tissues and organs
SPECIFIC ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
The acoustic impedance, Z, of a medium is defined as: The product of the
speed of the ultrasound in the medium and the density of the medium

Acoustic impedance can be calculated

using the equation: This equation tells us:
The higher the density of a
Z = ρc
tissue, the greater the acoustic
impedance
Where:
The faster the ultrasound
Z = acoustic impedance (kg m-2 s-1)
travels through the material,
ρ = the density of the material (kg m-3) the greater the acoustic
c = the speed of sound in the material impedance also
(m s-1)
Generation:

An alternating p.d. is applied across a piezo-electric crystal, causing it to change shape

The alternating p.d. causes the crystal to vibrate and produce ultrasound waves
The crystal vibrates at the frequency of the alternating p.d., so, the crystal must be cut to a
specific size in order to produce resonance
Detection:

When the ultrasound wave returns, the crystal vibrates which produces an alternating p.d.
across the crystal
This received signal can then be processed and used for medical diagnosis
THE INTENSITY REFLECTION
THE INTENSITY REFLECTION COEFFICIENT Α IS DEFINED AS:
THE RATIO OF THE INTENSITY OF THE REFLECTED WAVE RELATIVE TO THE INCIDENT
(TRANSMITTED) WAVE

THIS CAN BE CALCULATED USING THE FRACTION:

THIS EQUATION WILL BE PROVIDED

ON THE DATASHEET FOR YOUR EXAM
THIS RATIO SHOWS:
IF THERE IS A LARGE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE IMPEDANCE OF THE
TWO MATERIALS, THEN MOST OF
THE ENERGY WILL BE REFLECTED
IF THE IMPEDANCE IS THE SAME,
THEN THERE WILL BE NO REFLECTION
COUPLING MEDIUM
WHEN ULTRASOUND IS USED IN MEDICAL IMAGING, A COUPLER IS NEEDED BETWEEN THE
TRANSDUCER AND THE BODY

THE SOFT TISSUES OF THE BODY ARE MUCH DENSER THAN AIR

IF AIR IS PRESENT BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE BODY, THEN ALMOST ALL THE
ULTRASOUND ENERGY WILL BE REFLECTED.

THE COUPLING GEL IS PLACED BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE BODY, AS SKIN AND
THE COUPLING GEL HAVE A SIMILAR DENSITY, SO LITTLE ULTRASOUND IS REFLECTED

THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF IMPEDANCE MATCHING

ATTENUATION OF ULTRASOUND IN MATTER
ATTENUATION OF ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS:
THE REDUCTION OF ENERGY DUE TO THE ABSORPTION OF ULTRASOUND AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH A
MATERIAL

THE ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT OF THE ULTRASOUND IS EXPRESSED IN DECIBELS PER CENTIMETRE LOST
FOR EVERY INCREMENTAL INCREASE IN MEGAHERTZ FREQUENCY
GENERALLY, 0.5 DB/CM IS LOST FOR EVERY 1MHZ
THE INTENSITY I OF THE ULTRASOUND DECREASES WITH DISTANCE X, ACCORDING TO THE EQUATION:
02 X-RAYS
Akosua, Lisa and Nathan
Objectives

Production of Uses of X - Attenuation of X-rays

X-rays Rays in matter
Computer
Tomography (CT)
Scans
X-RAYS
X-rays are short wavelength, high-frequency part of the electromagnetic
spectrum and have wavelengths in the range 10−8 to 10−13 m.
X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons rapidly decelerate and
transfer their kinetic energy into photons of EM radiation
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-ray photons may be produced by bombarding metal targets with high-
speed electrons.
This is caused by the electrons passing through a very high potential
difference, causing them to accelerate and have high energy and speed.
But this in fact does not cause the emission of X-rays to occur; instead,
the collision of these electrons with a metal place, causing them to
decelerate at rapid speeds, causing the emission of the X-ray photons.
A large minority of energy produced by electrons is transferred into X-
rays, but a large majority is transferred into thermal energy.
WAVELENGTH AND INTENSITY VARIATION
The spectrum has two distinct components.
First, there is a continuous distribution of wavelengths with a sharp cut-
off at the shortest wavelength λ0.
Second, sharp peaks may be observed. These sharp peaks correspond to
the emission line spectrum of the target metal and are, therefore, a
characteristic of the target.
EQUATIONS FOR WAVE PROPERTY
CALCULATIONS
When an electron accelerates, its energy is equal to an electronvolt,
therefore :
Uses of x-rays
X-rays provide detailed images of soft tissue and
blood vessels.

When treating patients, the aims are to:

Reduce the exposure to radiation as much as
possible
Improve the contrast of the image
Reducing Exposure
to x-rays
X-rays are ionising radiation, hence damage cells and lead to the
growth of cancerous cells. To prevent this, we must reduce our
exposure towards it.

In order to do this, aluminum filters are used.

This absorbs the X-ray wavelengths because:

Many X-ray wavelengths are emitted, including the more

penetrating longer wavelengths that arae harmful to the body
Aluminum can absorb these longer wavelengths so they do not
reach the body to be absorbed
Image intensifiers can also be used to converts the transmitted x rays
into a brightened, visible light image.

Within an image intensifier, the input phosphor converts the x-ray

photons to light photons, which are then converted to photoelectrons
within the photocathode

01 X-rays hit phosphor screen to produce visible light

photons

02
Photoelectric effect occurs and electrons are released
from photocathode

03
Anode concentrates/ focuses and accelerated
electrons onto a screen
In fluoroscopy, image intensifiers prevents exposure to
dangerous wavelengths by converting the transmitted x rays
into a brightened, visible light image.

Image Intensifier
Fluoroscopy machine
Image Intensifier
in fluoroscopy machine
Increasing Contrast
& Sharpness
Contrast -The difference in degree of blackening between
structures
Sharpness -The degree of definition in the edges of structures

Contrast allows a clear difference between tissues to be seen

Sharpness allows a clear difference between the edges of structures to
be seen

High contrast vs low contrast Sharp vs Blurry

How to Increase Sharpness
and Contrast
Contrast Sharpness
Image contrast can be improved by: Image sharpness can be improved by:

Using the correct level of X-ray Using a narrower X-ray beam

hardness: hard X-rays for bones, Reducing X-ray scattering by using
soft X-rays for tissue a collimator or lead grid
Using a contrast media Smaller pixel size

Contrast media - chemically inert drugs which are

given intravascularly in very high amounts within a very
short time period to absorb X-rays for greater contrast
THE ATTENUATION OF X-RAYS IN
MATTER
When the collimated beam of X-rays passes through the patient’s
body, they are absorbed and scattered
The attenuation of X-rays can be calculated using the equation:
THE ATTENUATION OF X-RAYS IN
MATTER
Where:
I0 = the intensity of the incident beam (Wm^-2)
I = the intensity of the reflected beam (W m^-2)
μ = the linear absorption coefficient (m^-1)
x = distance travelled through the material (m)

The attenuation coefficient also depends on the energy

of the X-ray photons
The intensity of the X-ray decays exponentially
The thickness of the material that will reduce the X-ray
beam or a particular frequency to half its original value
is known as the half thickness
THE ATTENUATION OF X-RAYS IN
MATTER
Intensity-distance graph of X-rays for air and body
COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
SCAN
An X-ray tube rotates around the stationary patient.
A CT scanner takes X-ray images of the same slice, at many
different angles.
This process is repeated, then images of successive slices are
combined together.
A computer pieces the images together to build a 3D image.
This 3D image can be rotated and viewed from different angles.
COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
SCAN
COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN
COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
SCAN
03 PET SCANNING

Anmol, Eliana, Aaron and

Dhimahi
RADIOACTIVE TRACERS
A radioactive tracer is defined as:

A substance containing radioactive nuclei

that is introduced to the body and can be
absorbed by tissue in order to study the
structure and function of the organs in
the body.
RADIOACTIVE TRACERS
Radioactive isotopes, such as technetium-99m or
fluorine-18, are suitable for this purpose because:
They both bind to organic molecules, such as glucose or
water, which are readily available in the body
They both emit gamma (γ) radiation and decay into
stable isotopes
Technetium-99m has a short half-life of 6 hours (it is a
short-lived form of Technetium-99)
Fluorine-18 has an even shorter half-life of 110 minutes,
so the patient is exposed to radiation for a shorter time
USING TRACERS IN PET SCANNING
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is:

A type of nuclear medical procedure that images tissues and

organs by measuring the metabolic activity of the cells of body
tissues

A common tracer used in PET scanning is a glucose molecule with

radioactive fluorine attached called fluorodeoxyglucose

The fluorine nuclei undergoes β+ decay – emitting a positron (β+

particle)
HOW TRACERS HELP DOCTORS
The radioactive tracer is injected or swallowed into the patient and flows
around the body
Once the tissues and organs have absorbed the tracer, then they appear
on the screen as a bright area for a diagnosis
This allows doctors to determine the progress of a disease and how
effective any treatments have been

Tracers are used not only for the diagnosis of cancer but also for the
heart and detecting areas of decreased blood flow and brain injuries,
including Alzheimer's and dementia
Annihilation
When a positron is emitted from a tracer in the body, it travels less than a millimetre
before it collides with an electron

The positron and the electron will annihilate, and their mass becomes pure energy in
the form of two gamma rays which move apart in opposite directions

Annihilation doesn’t just happen with electrons and positrons, annihilation is

defined as:When a particle meets its equivalent antiparticle they are both destroyed
and their mass is converted into energy

As with all collisions, the mass, energy and momentum are conserved
PET Scanning: Positron Emission
and gamma-ray annihlation
In the PET scanning, the process begins with the emission of positrons from the decay of
a radiotracer introduced into the body. These positrons are positively charged
antiparticles. Intriguingly, upon encountering electrons within the surrounding tissue,
they undergo a phenomenon known as annihilation. This collision results in the creation
of a pair of gamma-ray photons, each traveling in opposite directions.
Mass, energy and momentum are conserved.
Energy Calculations in PET Scanning.
• In the annihilation process, both mass-energy and momentum are conserved
• The gamma-ray photons produced have an energy and frequency that is
determined solely by the mass-energy of the positron-electron pair
• The energy E of the photon is given by

The momentum p of
the photon given by:
Detecting Gamma-Rays
from PET scanning
The patient lays stationary in a tube surrounded by a ring of detectors. Images of
01 02 03
slices of the body can be taken to show the position of the radioactive tracers

The detector consists of two parts:

Crystal Scintillator – when the gamma-ray (γ-ray) photon is
incident on a crystal, an electron in the crystal is excited to a
higher energy state
As the excited electron travels through the crystal, it excites
more electrons
When the excited electrons move back down to their original
state, the lost energy is transmitted as visible light photons

Photomultiplier -The photons produced by the scintillator are

very faint, so they need to be amplified and converted to an
electrical signal by a photomultiplier tube
DETECTING GAMMA RAYS WITH A PET SCANNER
Creating an Image
from PET scanning
The γ rays travel in straight lines in opposite directions when formed
from a positron-electron annihilation
This happens in order to conserve momentum
Alfredo Torres

They hit the detectors in a line – known as the line of response

The tracers will emit lots of γ rays simultaneously, and the computers will
use this information to create an image
The more photons from a particular point, the more tracer that is present
in the tissue being studied, and this will appear as a bright point on the
image
An image of the tracer concentration in the tissue can be created by
processing the arrival times of the gamma-ray photons
THANK YOU