Immunity

By Anmol and Dhimahi

Table of
Content 01 Defence against diseases

02 Cells of the immune system

03 Active and passive immunity

Immunity is the protection
Defence against against disease provided by
the body’s internal defence
diseases or immune system.

External Defense System

Epithelia covers the airways to prevent
the entry of pathogens
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills
bacteria which may have been ingested
Blood clotting stops the loss of blood
and prevents pathogen entry through
the wounds
White Blood Cells
Recognise pathogens by the particular waste
they produce and the large molecules covering
their surfaces (cell surface antigens)
They only stimulate the production of antibodies
when they enter a foreign organism because then
they will be recognised as non-self antigens
Immune response: the
Phagocytes ingest/digest the pathogen
complex series of
(phagocytosis)
responses of the body to
the entry of a foreign Lymphocytes either produce antibodies or kill the
antigen; it involves the infected cells
activity of lymphocytes
and phagocytes Internal Defence System
Antigens and
Antibodies

Antigen Antibody Non-self Self

A substance A glycoprotein Any substance or Substances
that is foreign made by plasma cell that is produced by the
to the body and cells from B- recognised by the body that the
stimulates an lymphocytes. Has immune system as immune system
immune a complementary being foreign and does not
response shape to specific stimulates an recognise as
antigen immune response foreign
Phagocytes
Cells of the Produced and stored in the bone marrow
Removes dead cells and invasive microorganisms
Immune
System Neutrophil
They form 60% of the WBCs and travel throughout
the body. They are released in large numbers during
an infection and are short lived (form pus)

Macrophages
Larger then neutrophils and found in organs. They
mature from monocytes and are long lived as they
initiate immune response by cutting up
pathoggens to display antibodies for recognition
by lymphocytes
Monocytes, neutrophils and
macrophages
Phagocytosis
Stage 1: Attraction (chemotexis -
Stage 3: Endocytosis. Once the
movement towards a chemical stimulus).
neutrophil attaches itself to the
During a pathogenic invasion, some cells
pathogen, its cell surface
under attack release chemicals together
membrane will engulf it and trap it
with the pathogen's own chemicals and
within a phagocytic vacuole which
attract neutrophils (histamine)
have digestive enzymes secreted to
Stage 2: Recognition and attachment.
destroy the pathogen.
Antibodies covering the pathogens
stimulate neutrophils to attack. Dead neutrophils often collect
Receptor proteins on their surface allow at a site of infection to form pus
it to recognise and attach to antibody
molecules
Phagocytosis
Lymphocytes Smaller than
phagocytes
B-Lymphocytes Have a larger
Remain in the bone marrow until they nucleus filling the
mature the spread throughout the cell
body (especially lymph nodes and Produced before
spleen) birth (in the bone
T-Lymphocytes marrow)
Leave the bone marrow and mature
in the thymus gland (It is a gland that
lies in the chest just beneath the
sternum)
B-cells and T-cells
More on Lymphocytes
Only mature lymphocytes can carry out immune responses.
During maturation, each type of B-cells and T-cells are specialised to
respond to one antigen. This gives the immune system the ability to respond
to almost any type of pathogen invasion.
Once mature, the B-cells and T-cells circulate between the blood and the
lymph esuring their distribution throughout the body and easy contact with
pathogens. The interaction of B-cells and T-cells ensures an efffective
defence
B-Lymphocytes Immune response
As B-cells are maturing, genes coding of B-cells
for antibodies are altered to code Only one of these B-cells has an
for a variety of other different antibody receptor specific to the shape
anitbodies. of the antigen entering the body
Each small group of identical cells is The selected B-cell divides mitotically
called a clone (cloning selection). Some of the daughter
Each cell will divide to make the cells develop into either plasma or
same type of antibody memory cells.
Here, the antibody molecules remain Plasma cells secret antibodies that
in the cell surface membrane where combine specifically to the intruding
part of the antibody forms a antigen.
glycoprotein receptor. If the antigen enters the body again, memory
This receptor can combine only with cells specific to that antigen respond by
one specific type of antigen. When dividing to form plasma cells to secrete
the antigens enter our body, the antibodies. This response is much faster due
receptors of mature B-cells are able to many memory cells
to recognise it.
B-Lymphocyte action
Structure of antibodies
Disulfide bonds hold the chain
together
The two identical antigen binding
sites are formed by the light and
heavy polypeptide chains
The variable region is formed by the
antigen-binding sites, which differs
from antibody to antibody
The "hinge" region gives the
flexibility for the antibody molecule
to bind around the antigen
The amino acid sequence makes a
specific 3D shape which binds to
only one type of antigen
Functions of antibodies
Combines with viruses and bacterial toxins, preventing them from entering and
damaging cells
Attach to flagella of bacteria making them less active and easier for
phagocytes to engulf them
Antibodies with multiple antigen binding sites cause agglutination of bacteria
causing reduction in the chances of spreading throughout the body
Together with other molecules, antibodies punch holes into cell walls of
bacteria causing them to burst when they undergo osmosis
Coat bacteria, making it easier for phagocytes to ingest them. Phagocytes
have receptor proteins for the heavy polypeptide chains of antibodies
Antibodies combine with toxins, neutralising them and making them harmless;
these antibodies are called antitoxins
Antibody functions
The Hybridoma Method

The hybridoma method is a method used

to make monoclonal antibodies(artificially
produced antibodies produced from a
single B cell clone)

Monoclonal antibodies bind antigens,

in the same way naturally produced
antibodies do, this enables large
quantities of identical antibodies to be
produced
Steps to the hybridoma method

1. Injecting mice with an antigen that stimulates the production of antibody-

producing plasma cells
2. Isolated plasma cells from the mice are fused with immortal tumour cells,
which result in hybridoma cells. The fusion of plasma and tumour cells can
be assisted with the use of fusogens such as polyethylene glycol or an
electric current
3. These hybrid cells are grown in a selective growth medium and screened
for the production of the desired antibody
4. They are then cultured to produce large numbers of monoclonal antibodies
The hybridoma method visualized
Diagnotic uses Therapeutic uses
Treatment for the rabies virus, (which
Pregnancy tests
can be potentially fatal), by injecting
Diagnosing HIV
purified antibodies
Detecting the presence of
The prevention of transplanted organ
pathogens such as Streptococcus
rejection, achieved by intervening with
bacteria
the T cells involved in the rejection
Distinguishing between Herpes I
process
and Herpes II
Autoimmune therapies for allergic
Blood typing before transfusions
asthma and rheumatoid arthritis; here
and tissue typing before
monoclonal antibodies are able to
transplants
bind and deactivate factors involved
Detecting the presence of
in the inflammatory response
antibiotics in milk
Treatment for diseases caused by the
Detecting cancer cells
overproduction or inappropriate
production of B-cells
Active Immunity
Active immunity is naturally acquired through
exposure to microbes or artificially acquired
through vaccinations
The body produces memory cells, along with
plasma cells, in both types of active immunity
giving the person long-term immunity
In active immunity, during the primary response
to a pathogen or to a vaccination, the antibody
concentration in the blood takes one to two
weeks to increase. If the body is invaded by the
same pathogen again or by the pathogen that
the person was vaccinated against then, a
shorter time is taken since memory cells exist
Passive Immunity
Passive immunity is acquired without an immune
response. Antibodies are not produced by the
infected person
As the person’s immune system has not been
activated then there are no memory cells that can
produce antibodies in a secondary response. If a
person is reinfected they would need another
infusion of antibodies
Artificial passive immunity occurs when people are
given an injection / transfusion of the antibodies.
In the case of tetanus this is an antitoxin. The
antibodies were collected from people whose
immune system had been triggered by a
vaccination to produce tetanus antibodies
Vaccines are administered either by
injection or orally. When a person is given a
vaccine they have been given a vaccination

A vaccine is a suspension of Vaccinations produce long-term immunity as

antigens that are intentionally put they cause memory cells to be created. The
into the body to induce artificial immune system remembers the antigen when
active immunity. A specific immune reencountered and produces antibodies to
response where antibodies are it, in what is a faster, stronger secondary
released by plasma cells response

There are two main types of

vaccines:
Live attenuated How vaccinations work
Inactivated
Urgency Necessity Timing Support Impact
Live attenuated Inactivated
vaccines vaccines
Live attenuated vaccines contain whole Inactivated vaccines contain whole
pathogens that have been ‘weakened’. pathogens that have been killed or
These weakened pathogens multiply small parts of the pathogens
slowly allowing for the body to As inactivated vaccines do not
recognise the antigens and trigger the contain living pathogens they cannot
primary immune response cause disease, even for those with
These vaccines tend to produce a weak immune systems
stronger and longer-lasting immune Howeve, repeated doses and / or
response and are more unsuitable for booster doses are often required.
people with weak immune systems Some people may have allergic
reactions or local reactions to
An example of this type of vaccine is the inactivated vaccines
MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella) An example of a whole killed vaccine
is polio vaccine
There are many safe and effective vaccines that
do exist against many pathogens and these have
managed to push a number of childhood diseases
to the verge of extinction

Vaccines against such diseases as mumps, chicken

Vaccinations pox and whooping cough are administered to
to control children as part of an immunisation schedule and

disease they successfully confer immunity

Travellers may be advised to take particular

vaccines if travelling to areas where certain
diseases are endemic such as Yellow Fever in parts
of Africa
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