CHAPTER 1

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

SCIENCE
• Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic
explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.

• Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical

study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves
systematic observation and experimentation.

• Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study,

or about a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the
natural and physical world. It is referred as the school of science.
• Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding
of the world, a way to improve and survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s
lives.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
• It refers to a period of significant transformation in the
way that people approached the understanding of
the natural world
• It took place during the 16th and 17th centuries that
started in Europe

• Characterized by a shift from traditional, authority-

based knowledge to empirical and evidence-based
scientific inquiry
• The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:

• Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate

with members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect
advances in all fields.
• Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods
for their work and so felt the need to devise new methods

• Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle

Eastern scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point
(either by disproving or building on the theorems).

• Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate

science as a field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’
work.
INTELLECTUALS AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
(1473–1543)
• Polish astronomer, renaissance polymath, and
mathematician known as the “Father of Modern
Astronomy”
• Credited for laying the groundwork for the Scientific
Revolution
• In 1543 demonstrated that the earth was not the center of the universe
(Geocentric Model)
• Heliocentric Model, a theory that places the sun at the center of the
Solar System
The Copernican Model’s stand
against the geocentric model
includes:
a) the rotation of the earth
accounts for the apparent
daily rotation of the stars,
and;
The Copernican Model’s
stand against the
geocentric model includes:
b) the apparent annual
cycle of the sun as
observed from earth is
due to the fact that earth
revolves around it.
Outlined two kinds of planetary
motion:
• The orbits of Venus and
Mercury lay inside the orbit
of the Earth, thus, closer to
the Sun

• The orbits of Mars, Saturn,

and Jupiter lay outside the
Earth’s orbit, thus, further
from the sun
• The heliocentric theory impacted the scientific revolution
because it was the beginning of the emergence of the
modern science. It allowed development of the
scientific method, experiments, evidences, and
future scientists' discoveries.
• The acceptance of the heliocentric model laid the
foundation for modern astronomy. It prompted a
reevaluation of humanity’s place in the universe and set
the stage for future advancements in our
understanding of celestial phenomena.
INTELLECTUALS AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

CHARLES DARWIN
(1809-1882)
• English naturalist, geologist and biologist
• The so-called “Father of Evolution”, because
of his contributions to evolutionary biology

• Theorized of evolution by means of natural

selection
• ‘The Origin of Species’ was published in
November 24, 1859 and is one of the most
important works in scientific literature
Sailed around the world from 1831–1836 aboard the HMS Beagle
• Galapagos Islands - He noticed the finches on the island were
similar to the finches from the mainland, but each showed certain
characteristics that helped them to gather food more easily in their
specific habitat.
• Darwin’s process of natural selection has four components.
• Darwin’s theory of evolution has had a profound impact on
modern biology and our understanding of life’s diversity. It
forms the foundation for contemporary evolutionary biology
and has influenced various scientific and practical aspects such
as in genetics and molecular biology, medicine, biodiversity
and conservation, paleontology, agriculture, biotechnology,
human evolution, ecology and education
INTELLECTUALS AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

SIGMUND FREUD
(1856–1939)

• Austrian neurologist

• Regarded as the “Father of Psychology”

• One of the most influential doctors of the 20th

century

• Famous for inventing and developing the

technique of psychoanalysis
• Psychoanalysis is a method of therapy in
which the patient talks about experiences,
early childhood, and dreams.

• The aim of this therapy is for patients to

gain a greater understanding of the
unconscious forces that may be at work in
their current attitudes, feelings, and
emotions.

• The discovery of psychoanalysis has contributed to a deeper

understanding of mental process, human development, and the treatment
of psychological disorders, making it a significant aspect of modern
psychological science.
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES
• Mesoamerica
• Asia
• Africa
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

MESOAMERICA
• Covers most of the present-day Central
America that includes northern Costa
Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, and
central to southern Mexico

• This area was populated by groups

such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Maya,
Toltec, and Aztec peoples
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

MESOAMERICA: MAYA
• Occupied much of the northwestern part
of Central America, from Chiapas and
Yucatán, now part of southern Mexico,
through Guatemala, Honduras, Belize,
and El Salvador and into Nicaragua
• Began around 15000 BCE and ended
around 900 BCE
• Considered one of the most
scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica
• The Mayans were the indigenous
people of Mexico and Central
America. The term Maya came
from the ancient Yucatan city of
Mayapan, the capital of the last
Mayan Kingdom.

• During its height, mathematics,

astronomy, architecture, and
visual arts flourished
• Mayan astronomers carefully
observed the movements of
celestial bodies, including the
Sun, Moon, planets, and stars.
They built observatories to track
the positions of these celestial
objects and develop accurate
calendars
• Mayan cities and ceremonial
centers were often designed
with precise alignments to
celestial events. Temples and
pyramids were constructed to
align with the solstices and
equinoxes, indicating a deep
connection between
architecture and astronomical
observations
• The phenomenon that El
Castillo is famous for occurs
twice each year, at the spring
and fall equinoxes. The
sunlight creates an optical
illusion forming a
descending serpent on the
side of the pyramid.
• This pyramid suggest that the
Maya used their advanced
astronomical knowledge to
integrate cosmological
concepts into architecture.
• Invented rubber from the latex from
trees

• The Maya discovered this procedure

by accident during a sacred rite in
which they blended the rubber tree
with the morning-glory plant.

• The discovery of rubber significantly impacted the Mayans. The

Mayans used rubber to create the balls used in the famous
Mesoamerican ball game, pok-ta-pok or pitz. Mayans also used
latex from rubber trees to waterproof fabrics and other materials.
Rubber was used to create sandals and other forms of footwear.
• They developed a written
language of hieroglyphs (Maya
hieroglyphics)

• The Mayans also created a form of

an early book that chronicled
everyday life, news, the exploits
of their gods, and many other
things.
• The decipherment of Maya
hieroglyphs has made significant
contributions to the field of
linguistics.
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

MESOAMERICA: AZTEC
• Located in Central Mexico

• 1350-1522

• The greatest empire of

Mesoamerica

• Developed sophisticated
technologies in areas such as
agriculture, engineering, and
medicine
• One of the Aztecs' most
remarkable technological
achievements was the building
of their island city, Tenochtitlan

• Tenochtitlán, ancient capital of

the Aztec empire. Located at the
site of modern Mexico City, it was
founded c. 1325 in the marshes of
Lake Texcoco.

• Tenochtitlan was a marvel of urban planning and engineering. Its

architectural and engineering achievements of Tenochtitlan are studied and
admired by modern urban planners and engineers for innovative solutions to
challenges posed by the city’s unique location
• Aztec agriculture featured intensive
cultivation of all available land, as well as
elaborate systems of irrigation and
reclamation of swampland through the use of
raised fields known as chinampas (“floating
gardens”)
• Rich soil from the bottom of a lake was piled
up to form ridges between rows of ditches or
canals
• Chinampas inspired urban agriculture. Urban farmers can utilize
small plots of land efficiently, contributing to local food production
and community resilience.
• The Aztecs had a structured system of
education that primarily served the nobility,
priests, and elite classes. Education was
highly valued, and it encompassed a
range of subjects, including religious
teachings, history, philosophy and practical
skills.
• The commoner education focused on
practical skills and military trainings.
Subject included agriculture,
craftsmanship, trade, and military tactics.
Aztec education was tailored to the social
roles individuals were expected to fulfill
within their society.
• The Aztec calendar system is a testament
to the civilization's intricate
understanding of time and cosmology.

• The Aztec calendar consisted of a ritual

cycle of 260 days and a 365-day civil
cycle.

• While it doesn’t have a direct impact on modern day practices like

time-keeping, it still holds importance in several aspects such as
cultural heritage, tourism and art, symbolism etc.
• The Aztec civilization had a sophisticated
understanding of medicine, combining empirical
knowledge with spiritual and supernatural beliefs.

• Aztec healers known as ticitl, utilized a wide array

of medicinal plants for treating various ailments.
They had extensive knowledge of plant properties
and their effects on the human body.
• The Aztecs practiced bloodletting as a therapeutic
measure. This involved making a small incisions on
the body to release blood, thought to balance the
body’s humors.
• The Aztecs recognized the importance of a balanced
diet and exercise for maintaining health. they valued
moderation in eating and participating in physical
activities like sports.
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

MESOAMERICA: INCA
• The largest empire to ever
exist in the Americas

• Lasted from 1438 to 1533

• Stretching from modern-day

southern Colombia to southern
Chile
• The Inca’s greatest technological skill was
engineering. The best example is their amazing
system of roads. The Incas built roads across
the length of and width of their empire. To create
routes through steep mountain ranges, they
carved staircases and gouged tunnels out of
rock. They also built suspension bridges over
rivers. Thick rope cables were anchored at
stone towers on either side of the river.

• Lessons from Inca engineering influenced the

modern day through several aspects such as:
importance of sustainability, community
collaboration, and adaptability in building
resilient and enduring infrastructure
• The Inca civilization demonstrated advanced
agricultural practices

• Inca farmers created extensive agricultural

terraces on steep mountain slopes. These
terraces served multiple purposes, including
preventing soil erosion, maximizing arable
land, and providing effective irrigation. This
terracing methods have inspired modern day to
maximize arable land on steep slopes.

• The Incas engaged in selective breeding to develop crop varieties with

desirable traits, such as resistance to specific environmental conditions or
pests. This practice contributed to the resilience of their agricultural systems.
This methods contributed to the modern understanding of crop genetics.
• Recorded for developing an effective
form of brain surgery

• Inca priests who were in charge of healing,

practiced a type of surgery called
trepanation. Usually the patient was an
injured warrior. Priests cut into the patient’s
skull to remove bone fragments that were
pressing against the brain. As drastic as this
sounds, many people survived the
operation.
• This practice may not have directly influenced modern day surgical
techniques, the information gained from such historical practices contributes
to a comprehensive view of the evaluation of medical knowledge and
practices over time
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

ASIA
• Host to many cultural,
economic, scientific, and
political activities of all ages

• India, China, and the Middle

East civilizations stood out in
their contributions to science,
technology and mathematics
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

ASIA: INDIA
• Ancient India made significant contributions to
the field of medicine.
• Ayurveda, an ancient system of medicine that
originated in India. It relies extensively on
herbal remedies, using various plant-based
formulations for healing.

• Surgery, Susruta Samhita is a foundational text on surgery. Ancient

surgeons were skilled in performing procedures like cataract surgery, plastic
surgery, and the extraction of bladder stones.
• The idea and the symbol for zero
was first created by Mathematician
Aryabhata. It was through his
efforts that mathematical operations
like addition and subtraction started
using the digit, zero. The concept of
zero and its integration in to the
place-value system also enabled
one to write numbers, no matter
how large, by using only ten
symbols.
• Water Management; sophisticated systems
of water harvesting, storage, and distribution
were developed, including stepwells like the
Chand Baori, Ancient engineers created
impressive hydraulic structures, showcasing
advanced knowledge of fluid dynamics.

• Contemporary water management initiatives

often draw inspiration from these ancient
structures. The concept of capturing and
storing rainwater has been revived in
regions facing water scarcity, promoting
sustainable water practices.
• Temple Architecture. The intricate design
and engineering of ancient Indian temples,
such as the temples in Khajuraho and
Ellora, demonstrate advanced architectural
principles

• Ancient Indian Temple Architecture has left

a profound impact on modern-day
architecture, influencing design principles,
engineering techniques and aesthetic
sensibilities.
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

ASIA: CHINA
• First nation to invent paper

• Inspired by the process of silk reeling, the people

in ancient China succeeded in first making a kind
of paper called "bo" out of silk.

• The invention of paper in ancient China laid the foundation for a wide range
of advancements that have profoundly shaped the modern world. From
educational institutions to the global dissemination of knowledge,
paper has been fundamental medium for human expression, communication
and progress
• Printing was also developed in China

• Evolved from ink rubbings made on

paper or cloth from texts on stone
tablets, used during the sixth century.
A type of printing called mechanical
woodblock printing on paper started
in China during the 7th century in the
Tang dynasty.

• The development of printing in China was crucial in shaping the modern

world by fostering the dissemination of knowledge, contributing to
cultural and economic development, and laying the groundwork for
advancements in communication and information sharing.
• Invention of gunpowder also goes to ancient
China

• Chinese monks discovered the technology in

the 9th century CE, during their quest for a
life-extending elixir.

• The invention of gunpowder by China was

transformative development that
influenced the course of history, warfare,
and global interactions. Its impact on
military technology, trade, and exploration has
had lasting consequences, contributing to the
shaping of the modern world
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

ASIA: MIDDLE EAST

• Babylonian Mathematics. Ancient Babylonians
in Mesopotamia made advancements in
mathematics, including the development of
sexagesimal (base-60) numerical system, which
influenced later cultures.

• This base-60 numerical system is reflected in the modern division of time into
minutes and seconds. The influence of this system extends to our
measurement of angles and geographic coordinates
• Astronomy. Babylonians were skilled
astronomers, creating intricate star catalogs
and using astrolabes for celestial observations.
These contributions laid the groundwork for later
developments in astronomy.

• The provided modern astronomical research or

navigation, they provided valuable insights into
the development of early observational
astronomy and scientific achievements of the
Babylonian civilization

• The Babylonians played a crucial role in the development of the zodiacal system.
It divided the sky into twelve equal segments. This division of the sky laid the
foundation for the zodiacal system as we know it today.
• Mesopotamian Medical Practices. In
ancient Mesopotamia, medical texts like the
“Diagnostic Handbook” detailed symptoms,
diagnoses, and treatments.

• The collective knowledge and practices documented in Mesopotamian medical

texts contribute to a broader understanding of the historical development of
medicine. The principles of observation, diagnosis, and record-keeping
found in these ancient texts resonate with aspects of modern medical
practice, providing a historical continuum in the evolution of medical
knowledge.
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCES

AFRICA
• Water Management:
Nile Irrigation System: The management of water
resources, particularly the construction of canals and
irrigation systems along the Nile River, was crucial for
agriculture. These early water management practices
influenced later civilizations in understanding the
importance of efficient water distribution

• This irrigation system has a profound impact on modern agriculture and water
management. The principles of efficient water distribution and agricultural
sustainability that were developed along the Nile continue to inspire and influence
the modern day.
• The ancient Egyptians invented
toothpaste, with one recipe containing
powdered ox hooves, ashes, burnt
eggshells, and pumice. Another,
probably better-tasting recipe, contained
rock salt, mint, dried iris flower, and
grains of pepper.

• The concept of dental hygiene initiated by the Egyptians has

had a lasting impact on oral care in the modern world.
• Pyramids and Temples.
The construction of monumental structures,
including the pyramids and temples,
showcased advanced engineering and
architectural skills. The techniques employed
in the construction of these structures, such as
the precise alignment of the pyramids with
cardinal directions, have intrigued and
inspired modern architects and engineers.

• The principles exhibited in the

construction of the pyramids and temples
continue to inspire and inform
contemporary practices. Modern day
engineers study these structures for insights
into structural integrity and stability
• Medical Knowledge
Ancient African societies, such as those in
Egypt, Nubia, and Axum, had advanced
medical knowledge. Egyptian medical texts,
like the Edwin Smith Papyrus, document
surgical techniques and medical practices.
The use of medicinal plants and various
surgical procedures influenced later medical
traditions.
• The medical knowledge of ancient Africa
has made significant contributions to the
development of modern medicine. They
laid foundations for understanding
health, disease, and treatments. They also
contributed to herbal medicine, surgery,
holistic health, and cultural awareness.
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