RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 2 – RESEARCH PROCESS

AbdiAziz Darod
Department of Software Engineering
Abaarso Tech University – Somaliland
CHAPTER 2 – Research Process

2.1.1. Research Topic

A research topic is the subject to be researched, analyzed, and interpreted. It is a thematic statement of
what the research is all about. Typically, a researcher selects a research topic by identifying a wide area
of interest or concern (research area) and then narrows that area to a manageable set of research
questions. The researcher focuses the research and positions the central concept for the research at an
early stage through selection of a research topic. Maximum recommended length of a research topic is
twelve (12) words as cited by (Oso, 2016). However, different organizations and institutions may set their
own standards depending on their own circumstances, and sometimes on discipline. In education and in
social sciences, 18-24 words are the most widely recommended maximum length of a research topic
according to (Oso, 2016).

Activity 2.1.1. Think of and propose a research topic for your areas of interest in implementing a research
project as part of academic requirements. Hint, any proposed research topic is subject to be changed or
modified later stages for the actual dissertation task.

2.1.2. Elements of a Research Topic

Elements of a research topic are WHAT (variables under understudy in a manner of SUBJECT/IV +
OBJECT/DV) and WHERE (area + target population of a study).
2.1.3. Identifying a Research Topic
Step 1 – identify broad problems that are related to your areas of interest or professional objectives as
follows: Life expectancy, gender inequality, infant malnutrition, women’s involvement in Technology,
staff motivation, Kat, and income, COVID-19 effects, etc.
Step 2 – Seek out specific problems within those broad areas that could form foundation of
investigation.
Step 3 – Select the research topic through identifying research problem as follows:
Research Areas: Effects of COVID-19
Research Topic: Effects of COVID-19 on Student Performance of Abaarso Tech University

2.1.4. Sources of a Research Topic

- Personal experience: The research topic can be proposed by one’s experiences and observations
of relationships for which no satisfactory explanation exists. For example, Why Women are not
involved in Technology.
- Existing Theories: Theories are general principles whose applicability to specific problems or
situations are not known unless empirically tested through research. For example, it is believed
that students chew Kat have low academic performance. And hence, this might be a research
topic for this theoretical believe i.e. The effects of Kat on Academic Performance.
- Needs Assessment: Needs assessment may explore problems that may requires a research to
solve. For example, conducted Needs Assessment informs advancing the Software Engineering
Lab in Abaarso Tech University.

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- Literature review: Every research that has been administered and reported presents
recommendations for future topics, and research topics could result from research topics.

2.1.5. Writing a Research Topic

A research topic is written on the first page (generally referred to as the title page), the title page is
required for all APA style papers for both professional and student versions of the title page. The student
title page should have as follows:
I. Page Header: Is written right flush in title case. It contains the first two or three words of the title.
It is to write page header on all pages of a document, but it is not a requirement. The page number
appears just below the page header or five spaces to the right of it.
II. Running head Is an abbreviated title. It is typed left flush, upper case at the top of the title page,
in not more than 50 characters (including spaces and punctuations). It is a summary of the title.
Most of the times, it is the research area.
III. The title of the page: The title should summarize the main idea of the paper simply and, if
possible, in a way that is engaging for readers. For research papers, it should be a concise
statement of the main topic of the research and should identify the variables or theoretical issues
under investigation and the relationship between them.
Formatting:
• The paper title should be in title case, bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title
page (e.g., three or four lines down from the top margin of the page). In title case, major words are
capitalized. Nouns, verbs (including linking verbs), adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and all words of
• Four letters or more are considered major words. Short (i.e., three letters or fewer) conjunctions,
short prepositions, and all articles are considered minor words.
In title case, capitalize the following words in a title or heading:
- The first word, even a minor word such as "The"
- The first word of a subtitle, even if it is a minor word.
- The first word after a colon, em dash, or end punctuation in a heading, even if it is a minor/
- word Major words, including the second part of hyphenated major words (e.g., "Self-
Report," not "Self-report").
- Words of four letters or more (e.g., "With," "Between," "From").
• Lowercase only minor words that are three letters or fewer in a title or heading (except the first
word in a title or subtitle or the first word after a colon, em-dash, or end punctuation in a heading):
- Short conjunctions (e.g., "and' "as;' "but" "for," "if," "nor," “or” "so," "yet").
- Articles ("a," "an," "the").
- Short prepositions (e.g., "as," "at," "by," "for," "in," "of," "off," "on," "per," "to," "up," "via")

IV. By-Line: indicates the names of the author(s) and the institutional affiliation(s). It is typed in title
case, centered at the bottom of the page. For a dissertation, the purpose of the study should be
indicated.

NOTE
1. The name of the author(s) and the affiliated institution(s) are indicated without “by” or “from
the”.

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2. The order of the author(s) name(s) is first name, middle name(s) initial(s), and last name. This
reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity (e.g., James M. Sisto).
3. Titles (e.g., Mr. Dr. Prof. etc.) and qualifications (e.g., PhD, Med., MPhil., etc.) are omitted.

2.2. Research problem identification, characteristics, and sources

The key purpose of this unit is to formulate a research problem, however, any specific formulation you
opt for depends on:
- Your experience in Research Methodology
- Your knowledge of the subject area
- Your understanding of the issue to be examined.
- The extent to which the focus of your study is predetermined.

Broadly speaking, any question that you want answered and any assumption or assertion that you want
to challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for your study. However,
it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed into research problems and some
may prove to be extremely difficult to study. Potential research questions may occur to us on a regular
basis, but the process of formulating them in a meaningful way is not at all an easy task according to
(Meenaghan and Twoomey, 1985).

2.2.1. The Importance of Formulating a Research Problem

The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research process. It is
like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. In the absence of a destination, it is
impossible to identify the shortest – or indeed any – route. Similarly, in the absence of a clear research
problem, a clear and economical plan is impossible. To use another analogy, a research problem is like
the foundation of a building. The type and design of the building are dependent upon the foundation. If
the foundation is well designed and strong you can expect the building to be also. The research problem
serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to
follow according to Kerlinger.

A research problem may take several forms, from the very simple to the very complex. The way you
formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows: the type of study design that can be used;
the type of sampling strategy that can be employed; the research instrument that can be used or
developed; and the type of analysis that can be undertaken (Kumar, 2011).
For example, suppose your broad area of interest is depression. Further suppose you want to conduct a
research study regarding 1) The types of service available to patients with depression 2) The extent of use
of these services available to the patients 3) The extent of use in relation to the personal attributes of the
patients. The methodology used for the said research titles will be different.

2.2.2. Sources of Research Problem

Most research in humanities revolves around four Ps.
1. People
2. Problems
3. Programmes
4. Phenomena

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The emphasis on a particular ‘p’ may vary from study to study but generally, in practice, most research
studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps. For example, you may select a group of
individuals (a group of individuals – or a community as such – ‘people’), to examine the existence of certain
issues or problems relating to their lives, to ascertain their attitude towards an issue (‘problem’), to
establish the existence of a regularity (‘phenomenon’) or to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
(‘programme’). Moreover, your focus may be the study of an issue, an association, or a phenomenon per
se, for example,
- The relationship between unemployment and street crime,
- Smoking and cancer,
- Fertility and mortality
Which are (the above mentioned) done based on information collected from individuals, groups,
communities, or organizations. The emphasis in these studies is on exploring, discovering, or establishing
associations or causation. Similarly, you can study different aspects of a programme: its effectiveness, its
structure, the need for it, consumers’ satisfaction with it, and so on. To ascertain these, you collect
information from people.

Every research study has two aspects: the people provide you with the ‘study population’, whereas the
other three Ps furnish the ‘subject-areas’. Your study population – individuals, groups, and communities
– is the people from whom the information is collected. Your subject area is a problem, programme, or
phenomenon about which the information is collected.

2.2.3. Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there are several considerations to keep in mind which will help
to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you remain motivated. These considerations are:
1. Interest: Interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a research problem.
2. Magnitude: You should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be able to
visualize the work involved in completing the proposed study. Narrow the topic down to
something manageable, specific, and clear. It is extremely important to select a topic that you can
manage within the time and with the resources at your disposal.
3. Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in quantitative studies),
make sure you are clear about its indicators and their measurement. For example, if you plan to
measure the effectiveness of a health promotion programme, you must be clear as to what
determines effectiveness and how it will be measured. Do not use concepts in your research
problem that you are not sure how to measure. This does not mean you cannot develop a
measurement procedure as the study progresses.
4. Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study and may receive help from your
research supervisor and others but remember that you need to do most of the work yourself.
5. Relevance – Select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure that your study
adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or is useful in policy formulation.
This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data – If your topic entails collection of information from secondary sources (office
records, client records, census, or other already-published reports, etc.) make sure that this data
is available and, in the format, you want before finalizing your topic.

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7. Ethical issues – Another important consideration in formulating a research problem is the ethical
issues involved. While conducting a research study, the study population may be adversely
affected by some of the questions (directly or indirectly); deprived of an intervention; expected
to share sensitive and private information; or expected to be simply experimental ‘HIV testing’.
How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be overcome
should be thoroughly examined at the problem-formulation stage.

2.2.4. Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

The formulation of a research problem is the most crucial part of the research journey as the quality and
relevance of your research project entirely depends upon it. The process of formulating a research
problem consists of a number of steps as follows:
Step 1- Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. Ask yourself, ‘What is it that really interests
me as a professional? It is a good idea to think about the field in which you would like to work after
graduation. This will help you to find an interesting topic, and one which may be of use to you in the future.
For example, if you are a social work student, inclined to work around youth welfare, refugees or domestic
violence after graduation, you might take to research in one of these areas.
Step 2 - Dissect the broad area into subareas. At the onset, you will realize that all the broad areas
mentioned above – youth welfare, refugees, domestic violence, consumer behaviour and HIV/AIDS – have
many aspects.
Step 3 - Select what is of most interest to you. It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subareas.
Out of this list, select issues or subareas about which you are passionate. This is because your interest
should be the most important determinant for selection, even though there are other considerations
which have been discussed in the previous section, ‘Considerations in selecting a research problem’. One
way to decide what interests you most is to start with the process of elimination. Go through your list and
delete all those subareas in which you are not very interested. You will find that towards the end of this
process, it will become very difficult for you to delete anything further. You need to continue until you are
left with something that is manageable considering the time available to you, your level of expertise and
other resources needed to undertake the study. Once you are confident that you have selected an issue
you are passionate about and can manage, you are ready to go to the next step.
Step 4 - Raise research questions. At this step ask yourself, ‘What is it that I want to find out about in this
subarea?’ Make a list of whatever questions come to your mind relating to your chosen subarea and if
you think there are too many to be manageable, go through the process of elimination, as you did in Step
3.
Step 5 - Formulate objectives. Both your main objectives and your sub-objectives now need to be
formulated, which grow out of your research questions. The main difference between objectives and
research questions is the way in which they are written. Research questions are obviously that –
questions. Objectives transform these questions into behavioral aims by using action-oriented words such
as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to investigate’, ‘to establish’, and ‘to examine’. Some
researchers prefer to reverse the process; that is, they start from objectives and formulate research
questions from them. Some researchers are satisfied only with research questions, and do not formulate
objectives at all. If you prefer to have only research questions or only objectives, this is fine, but keep in
mind the requirements of your institution for research proposals.

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Step 6 - Assess your objectives. Now examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them
through your research endeavor. Consider them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human)
and technical expertise at your disposal.
Step 7 - Double-check. Go back and consider whether you are sufficiently interested in the study and have
adequate resources to undertake it. Ask yourself, ‘Am I really enthusiastic about this study?’ and ‘Do I
really have enough resources to undertake it?’ Answer these questions thoughtfully and realistically. If
your answer to one of them is ‘no’, reassess your objectives.

2.3. Formulation of research purposes, objectives, and questions

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a reader of
what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically. Objectives should be listed under two headings:

2.3.1. Main Objectives

The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.
2.3.2. Sub-objectives
The subobjectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main
framework of your study.
Subobjectives should be numerically listed. They should be worded clearly and unambiguously. Make
sure that each subobjective contains only one aspect of the study. Use action-oriented words or verbs
when writing your objectives. The objectives should start with words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find
out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to measure’, ‘to investigate’, ‘to examine’, ‘to establish’, and ‘to explore.’

Note 1:
The way the main objectives and subobjectives are worded determines how your research is classified
(e.g., descriptive, correlational, or experimental). In other words, the wording of your objectives
determines the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them. Hence, be careful about the
way you word your objectives. Irrespective of the type of research, the objectives should be expressed
in such a way that the wording clearly, completely, and specifically communicates to your readers your
intention. There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity, or incompleteness, either in the wording of
your objectives or in the ideas they communicate.
Identify main Identify the
Clear Complete Specific direction of the
variable to be
correlated. relationship.
Descriptive
Correlational study (experiment & non-experiment)

Hypothesis testing studies

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2.4. Research Background
One of the common problems encountered by most students in planning research is to write a research
background. This difficulty arises partly due to limitation of space (1½ - 2 pages - double spaced) against
the volume of information required to develop a proper research background. A research background is
not just a story about the problem or the topic; it is, as the name suggests, the background or more
precisely, the foundation of the study. It must introduce the status and the theoretical orientations of
the study and provide a rationale of the study through adducing evidence and conditions that exist to
create urgency on the problem and the need to study it to solve the problem or contribute to its
solution. A research background should portray the history and the character of the problem, and the
issues at hand, and expose the facts surrounding the problem that must be tackled through undertaking
the study. A background is to a study what a foundation is to a house: unless a good foundation has
been laid in the background, the whole study is likely to be misplaced (Oso, 2016).

2.4.1. Writing a Research Background

A well-written research background should have a historical, the theoretical, the conceptual and the
contextual perspectives.
[Link]. Historical Perspective
A historical perspective is a short and precise paragraph on the relationships between the variables
under investigation in a historical perspective. Issues that have been discovered or that are believed to
be true about the topic should be summarized in this section as an indication that the issues at hand
have developed through significant stages that bear on the present study. This section should start with
a global history and narrow down to local historical issues in study.

[Link]. Theoretical Perspective

The theoretical perspective is a description of the theory (or theories) on which the study is based. It
describes “any” discovered relationships between the variables under investigation and the theory (or
theories) to be used. In setting out to a study, a researcher must have a reason to suspect that the
variables under investigation are related; for if they are not related, then there is no reason to study
them. It is this relationship that the researcher attempts to justify using already established or self-
formulated theories. The researcher should briefly describe the theory (or theories) and justify how it
(or they) relates to the variables under investigation.

[Link] Conceptual Perspective

The conceptual perspective provides definitions of variables used in a study. There are three types of
definitions that a researcher should provide in this section. The first is the constitutive definition. A
constitutive definition informs the reader of the primary or usual meaning of the variable or variables in
the study. Sometimes referred to as literal definitions, constitutive definitions provide everyday meaning
of a term, and indicates how other authors have defined the term. Constitutive definitions should be
obtained from authoritative sources, which must be properly indicated. However, constitutive definitions
are not sufficient and are somewhat unclear as words used to explain a variable may themselves be
ambiguous and may require further definitions. Constitutive definitions also vary across authors. Since
constitutive definitions of the same terms may differ among authors, a researcher should provide a
working definition to avoid the researcher and readers assigning different meanings to same variable. A
working definition is the researchers own definition of the variable as used in the study. A working

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definition may be adapted, or it may be adopted from the constitutive definitions provided in the study.
If it is adopted, then the researcher assumes one of the constitutive definitions wholesome. But if it is
adapted, then the researcher borrows from the various constitutive definitions and comes up with his or
her own definition. This is the definition that readers will henceforth adopt in the study.
Since a variable may have more than one meaning in different contexts, it is important to clarify exactly
the meaning that a researcher attaches to the variable in the study. This is called an operational
definition. An operational definition provides the description of a variable Since a variable may have more
than one meaning in different contexts, it is important to clarify exactly the meaning that a researcher
attaches to the variable in the study. This is called an operational definition. An operational definition
provides the description of a variable.

[Link] Contextual Perspective

The contextual background describes the problems in each operation of the variable in the context of the
target population and points out the gaps that need to be filled by the study. The contextual background
is presented in several paragraphs. Each paragraph describes the problems associated with each
operation of the independent or the dependent variable, depending on how many objectives of the study
have been stated. For each operation, a researcher should:
- Provide a constitutive definition. Only one constitutive definition is required here, and it is also
taken as the working definition.
- Provide ideal status of the operation in terms of theories, principles, laws that govern the variable.
- Expose the gaps or shortcomings in the operation in the context of the population by highlighting
what may happen if the ideal situation, as described, is not attained.

2.5. Research Hypothesis

2.5.1. Introduction to hypothesis
A research hypothesis or hypothesis is a specific, testable claim or prediction about what you expect to
observe given a set of circumstances.
2.5.2. Directional and Non-directional
A research hypothesis must be stated in a testable form for its proper evaluation. This form should
indicate a relationship between the variables in clear, concise, and understandable language. Research
hypotheses are as being directional or nondirectional. The hypotheses which stipulate the direction of
the expected differences or relationships are termed as directional hypotheses. For example, "There is
positive relationship between the academic achievement and study habit of students" is a directional
hypothesis. This hypothesis stipulates that students with good study habits will have high academic
achievement. Similarly, the hypothesis: "Students with high test anxiety will score badly in examinations
as compared to students with low anxiety" is a directional research hypothesis because it stipulates the
direction of the difference between the groups.
A research hypothesis, which does not specify the direction of expected differences or relationships, is a
non-directional research hypothesis. For example, the hypothesis: "There is a difference in the academic
achievement of Software Engineering students enrolled in open and conventional universities" is a non-
directional research hypothesis. Although the hypothesis stipulates that there is a difference in the
academic achievement, the direction of the difference is not specified. A hypothesis can take either the
'declarative' form, the 'null form' or the 'question form. When the researcher makes a positive statement
about the outcome of the study, the hypothesis takes the declarative form. It is more or less a directional

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hypothesis. For example, the hypothesis: "The attitude of parents in the rural areas towards co-education
at the primary level is significantly negative in comparison to the attitude of parents of urban areas" is
stated in the declarative form. In the null form, the researcher makes a statement that no relationship
exists. The hypothesis: "There is no difference in the attitude of parents of rural and urban areas towards
co-education at the primary level", is an example of null hypothesis. Null hypothesis is used to test
statistically the research hypothesis, which has been stated in directional or non-directional form. Null
hypothesis is also called 'testing hypothesis' when a directional (declarative) or non-directional hypothesis
is tested statistically by converting it into null form. A null hypothesis challenges the assertion of a
declarative hypothesis. In the question form hypothesis, a question is asked as to what the outcome will
be, instead of stating what outcome is expected. For example, the hypothesis: "Will teaching students
through mastering learning approach decrease their test anxiety?' is a question form hypothesis.

2.5.3. Research Hypothesis and Null hypothesis

The research or scientific hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement that predicts the tentative
explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. A research hypothesis describes what
operations were conducted and tools were used to measure each variable. Thus, the focus of a hypothesis
depends on the type of target population, how the data are collected and what measures to be used. The
whole research process is built on a research hypothesis which illustrates a theory. It is a positive and
general kind of a statement, for example, 'There is a difference between the learning styles of boys’ and
girls. This hypothesis is also known as (𝐻1 ) or general hypothesis, empirical hypothesis, experimental or
theory or substantive or operation hypothesis. This hypothesis, however, cannot be tested, proved, or
disproved. It constitutes the prediction derived from a theory under test. It is also called an alternative
hypothesis, as the conclusions are drawn only after accepting or rejecting null hypothesis (𝐻1 ). Siege (1
956) states that if the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis (𝐻1 ) may be accepted.
Thus, the alternative hypothesis is a prediction derived from a theory under test.

Whereas the null hypothesis is a hypothesis of indicating 'no difference' or 'no relationship', it is a neutral
type of hypothesis. It denies the existence of any systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It
assumes that none or zero difference exists between two population means or treatments. Null
hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis, which is tested within the framework of the probability theory. The
alternative hypothesis is an operational statement of research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is the
prediction derived from the theory undertest. By rejecting or accepting null hypothesis, one arrives at the
conclusions about the research hypothesis.

Thus, the relationship between research hypothesis (𝐻1 ) and the null hypothesis (𝐻0 ) is that, if null
hypothesis (𝐻0 ) is rejected then research hypothesis (𝐻1 ) is accepted. But in the beginning stage, the
researcher makes an affirmative statement, as a prediction of solution that she/he proposes to test later.
At the stage of statistical analysis of data, the research hypothesis is converted into null hypothesis. All
statistical tests are the tests for null hypothesis. Rejecting or accepting null hypothesis asserts that
observed difference or relationship may result from chance errors due to sampling procedure.

2.5.4. Testing of Hypothesis

After the hypotheses are stated the researcher moves towards testing them. Hypotheses are subjected
to empirical as well as logical testing. The nature of a hypothesis may be simple or complex. A simple

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hypothesis is tested directly but a complex hypothesis cannot be tested directly. It may be tested in
terms of its deduced consequences. To test the hypothesis in terms of deduced consequences, it is
necessary to collect evidence by selecting or developing data collecting tools to analyses the data
collection, and then to interpret results in the light of hypothesis and its deduced consequences. The
necessary conditions for confirmation are:
(i) All factual evidence collected through tests or other means (tools) should I correspond with
the deduced consequences.
(ii) The data-collecting tools should consider all factors and conditions that are suggested by the
consequences.
(iii) The consequences are logically deduced from the hypothesis.

2.5.5. The characteristics of Good Hypothesis

It is essential that a hypothesis is carefully formulated. A good hypothesis has several basic
characteristics:
i) It must be testable. If a hypothesis is not testable, then it becomes difficult for a researcher
to either confirm or contradict the relationship among the variables or the deduced
consequences. For example, 'Education brings all round development' is difficult to test
because it is not easy to operationally isolate the other factors that might contribute towards
all round development. Since, a hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study it must relate
variables that are capable of being measured. The hypothesis stated as 'There is a positive
relationship between the learning style and academic achievement of 8th grade students’ can
be tested because the variables in the hypothesis are operationally defined and therefore can
be measured.
ii) It must state the expected relationship between the variables. For example, the hypothesis:
'There is a significant effect of frustration on the academic achievement of 10th grade
students’ states the expected relationship between frustration and achievement, which-can
be measured. However, the hypothesis: ' Students who participate in Internship program
activities show higher degree of moral growth than those who do not participate in Internship
program activities, is not a good hypothesis as the term 'moral growth' does not refer to a
variable that is measurable. It must suggest a tentative solution to the problem under study.
For example, 'Academic achievement varies according to the level of intelligence.' This
hypothesis suggests that intelligence influences the academic achievement.
iii) It must be clear and stated in a precise manner. A clear statement of hypothesis generally
involves concise technical language and definition of terms that are better defined than
those in common language. Vague terms or constructs are difficult to define operationally.
Use of general terms and words such as good, bad, poor, personality, social class etc. make a
hypothesis vague. The researcher should use 'personality' as measured by (16 personality
factors), 'Intelligence' as measured by Raven's Progressive Matrices (intelligence test) etc. in
the statement of a hypothesis.
iv) The hypothesis should be limited in scope. The hypothesis of global significance may not
yield the usual consequences. Sometimes an over-ambitious researcher formulates an
ambiguous hypothesis of global significance. It is partly because of his earnestness and
partly because it takes maturity of viewpoint to realize how little can be accomplished in a

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specified time. It is desirable to formulate hypotheses that are simple to test, and yet are
highly significant.
v) A hypothesis must be consistent with known facts. It must be consistent with a substantial
body of established facts. A good hypothesis is grounded in well-established theories and
laws.
vi) A hypothesis must explain what it intends to explain.
vii) The variables should be defined operationally so that the predicted relations among them
can be tested empirically. A good hypothesis can explain and testing significantly large
number of consequences.
viii) It must be based on some relevant theory or discovered truth. For example, the hypothesis,
'There is a significant relationship between the contingencies of reinforcement and
behaviour shaping', derives its source from the theory of Skinner. The relationship between
independent and dependent variables in this hypothesis is supported by the behavioristic
view of learning by Skinner.
ix) The hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. The researcher
should not select a problem which involves hypotheses that are not I amenable to testing
within a reasonable and specified time. The researcher must know the problems which
cannot be solved for a long time because of the lack of data, non-availability of tools and
techniques.
2.5.6. Significance and Importance of a Hypothesis
i) A hypothesis directs, monitors, and controls the research efforts. It provides tentative
explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and validated. Such explanations, if
held valid, lead to generalizations, which help significantly in understanding a problem, and
thereby extend the existing knowledge in the area to which they pertain and thus help in
theory building and facilitate extension of knowledge in an area.
ii) The hypothesis not only indicates what to look for in an investigation but how to select a
sample, choose a design of research, how to collect data and how to interpret the results to
draw valid conclusions.
iii) The hypothesis orients the researcher to be more sensitive to certain relevant aspects of
problem to focus on specific issues and pertinent facts. It helps the researcher to delimit his
study in scope so that it does not become broad and unwieldy.
iv) The hypothesis provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements
expressed in a logical order of relationships, which seek to describe or to explain conditions
or events that have not yet been confirmed by facts. Some relationships between elements
or variables in hypotheses are known facts and others transcend the known facts to give
reasonable explanations for known conditions. The hypothesis helps the researcher relate
logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions. (Ary, et. al 1972, pp.
73-74).
v) Hypothesis formulation and its testing add a scientific rigor to all type of research. A well
thought set of hypothesis places a clear and specific goal before the researcher and equips
him with understanding. It provides the basis for reporting the conclusions of the study based
on these conclusions. The researcher can make the research report interesting and
meaningful to the reader.

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2.6. Justification and significance
2.6.1. Activity 2
Discuss the justification and significance of research problem. Support with examples in your thoughts.

2.7. Evaluating the problem

2.7.1. Activity 3
Discuss the evaluation of research problem. Support with examples in your thoughts.

2.8. References

[Link]. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: PUBLISHING FOR ONE
WORLD.

Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology: a step by step guide for beginners. London: SAGE Publications
Ltd.

Mahmud, A. (2017-2018). What is Qualitative and quantitative research? ResearchGate, 2-4.

Oso, W. Y. (2016). Social Science Research: Principles and Practices. Nairobi: The Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation.

Sarantakos, S. r. (1998). Social Research. London: MACNULLANPRESSLTD.

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