កលវិទយល័យ បញញ ជតិ

PANHA CHIET UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ARTS, HUMANITIES, AND LANGUAGES
BACHELOR’S DEGREE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
Foundation of Education, Year II & III, Semester II
CHAPTER 2: THE TECHNICAL CORE: Learning and Teaching

Lectured by:
UT Kuntey
Academic Year: 2020-2021 ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
 FORMATS:
I. The definition of learning
II. A Behavioral Perspective on Learning
III. Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach
IV. Learning Objectives
V. Cognitive Perspective on Learning
VI. Knowledge and Learning
VII. Sensory Memory
VIII. Working Memory
IX. Long-Term Memory
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
X. Teaching Applications of the Cognitive Approach
XI. A Constructivist Approach to Learning
XII. How is Knowledge Constructed?
XIII. A Constructivist Approach to Learning
XIV. Problem-based Learning
XV. Cooperative Learning
XVI. Conclusion

ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education

 PREVIEW:
The technical core of all schools is teaching and
learning.
Learning occurs when experience produces a stable
change in someone’s knowledge or behavior.
There are three general learning perspectives—behavioral,
cognitive, and constructivist—each of which helps us
understand learning and teaching.

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The technical level or technical core is the system of
organizational activity where the actual “product” of the
organization is produced; in schools it is exemplified by
the teaching and learning in the classroom.
In the case of schools the technical function is the process
of teaching and learning, the heart and soul of all
educational organizations.

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I. The Definition of Learning:

What is Learning?
When we hear the word
“learning,” many of us
think of ourselves in
school studying for an
exam or learning how to
drive a car or learning a
new song or mastering a
new computer application.
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In a broad sense, learning happens when experience
(including practice) produces a stable change in
someone's knowledge or behavior .
Our definition of learning indicates that it involves a
change in the individual’s knowledge or behavior.
We emphasize three general theories of learning, each
with a different focus:
 Behavioral theories of learning stress observable
changes in behaviors, skills, and habits.
 Cognitive theories of learning underscore such
internal mental activities as thinking, remembering,
creating, and problem solving. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
 Constructivist theories of learning are interested
in how individuals make meaning of events and
activities; hence, learning is seen as the
construction of knowledge.
Thus, Learning is the process of acquiring new, or
modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
or preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by
humans, animals, and some machines; there is also
evidence for some kinds of learning in certain plants.

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II. A Behavioral Perspective on Learning:
The focus of this perspective is clearly on behavior.
Learning is defined as a change in behavior that brought
about by experience with virtually, no concern for the
mental or internal processes of thinking.
Behavior is simply what a person does in a given
situation. The following diagram shows the process:
CONSEQUENCE EFFECT

Behavior Reinforce Strengthened Behavior

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III. Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach:
Experienced and expert teachers make good use of
behavioral theory. They apply with care and skill of the
basic principles of reinforcement and punishment in
their teaching and classroom management.
Teachers and students discuss what would make the
classroom a better place to learn and identify behaviors
that interfere with learning.
Based on this discussion, class rules are developed and
the class is divided into two or more teams.
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IV. Learning Objectives:
There are many different approaches to writing
objectives; however, all assume that the first step is to
decide what changes should take place in the student—
what is the goal of teaching.
According to Mager (1975 & 1997), a good objective
has three parts:
 The objective describes the intended student
behavior—what must the student do?

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 The objective lists the conditions under which the
behavior will occur—how will this behavior be
recognized or tested?
 The objective gives the criteria for acceptable
performance on the behavior—how well has the
student done?
Today most school still require teachers to complete
lesson plans that include learning objectives. Good
learning objectives, where the objectives and steps are
clearly mapped, can be beneficial and enhance
learning.
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V. Cognitive Perspective on Learning:
The cognitive perspective traces its early roots to the
ancient Greek philosophers who discussed the
nature of knowledge, the value of reason, and the
contents of the mind (Hernshaw, 1987).
By the end of the Second World War, cognitive
research emerged as the computer revolution and
breakthroughs in understanding language developed.
For example, individuals plan their responses, use
systems to help them remember, and organize their
materials in meaningful and unique ways (Miller,
Galanter, and Pribram, 1960; Shuell, 1986).
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VI. Knowledge and Learning:
Current cognitive approaches suggest that one of the
most important elements in the learning process is what
the individual brings to the learning situation.
As a social system, the school is characterized by an
interdependence of parts, a clearly defined population,
differentiation from its environment, a complex network
of social relationships, and its own unique culture.
A good basis of knowledge can be more important than
good learning strategies in understanding and
remembering—but extensive knowledge plus good
strategy is even better. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
The cognitive perspective recognizes different kinds of
knowledge—general and domain-specific:
 General knowledge: it applies to a variety of
situations. For example, general knowledge about
how to read or use a computer is useful in many
situations.
 Domain-specific knowledge: it relates to a
particular task or subject. For example, knowing
there are nine innings in playing a game is specific to
the domain of baseball.
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 Declarative knowledge: is “knowledge that can be
declared, usually in words, through lectures, books,
writing, verbal exchange, sign language, mathematical
notation, and so on”. (Farnaham Diggory, 1994,
p. 468).
 Procedural knowledge: it is “knowing how” to do
something such as divide fractions or overhaul an air
conditioner—doing the task demonstrates procedural
knowledge.
 Self-regulatory knowledge: it is “knowing when
and why” to apply declarative and procedural
knowledge. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
VII. Sensory Memory:
Sensory memory is the initial processing that
transforms incoming stimuli into information so we can
make sense of them.
Other names for the sensory memory are sensory
buffer, iconic memory (for images), and echoic
memory (for sounds).
The meaning we give to the basic information we receive
through our senses is called perception. Meaning is
constructed from both objective reality and our existing
knowledge.
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A Recent Version of the Information
Processing System

Long-Term
Memory

Knowledge Knowledge
influences Save (Learn) influences
Retrieve

Attention

Sensory Working
Incoming Stimuli
Memory Memory
Perception

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Responses
For example, consider the symbol I. If asked what the
letter is, you would say “I”. If asked what the number is,
you would say “one”.
VIII. Working Memory:
Working memory is where this new information is held
briefly and combined with knowledge from long-term
memory.
Working memory is sometimes called short-term
memory, but as information models have shifted from
emphasizing storage to processing, the term “working
memory” has replaced “short-term memory.”
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IX. Long-Term Memory:

Working memory holds the

information that is temporarily
activated, such as a telephone
number you have been given to
dial.
BUT Long-term memory holds
the information that you have
learned, for example, telephone
numbers you already know.
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Recently, some psychologists have suggested that there
are not two separate memory stores—working and long-
term. In contrast, working memory is part of long-term
memory.
In other words, working memory acts on (processes)
currently activated information and is more about
processing than storage. The difference between
working memory and long-term memory may simply be
in how active or inactive a particular memory is.
(Anderson, 2010; Wilson, 2001).
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
X. Teaching Applications of the Cognitive Approach:
Just as experienced and expert teachers make good use
of behavioral theory, they also incorporate sound
cognitive approaches in their teaching.
The following are the guiding principles of
cognitive theory to teaching and learning:
 Remember that perception and attention are flexible,
but limited;
 Make sure that you have the student’s attention;
 Guide perception and attention by previous
knowledge;
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
 Help students focus on the most important
information;
 Help students make connections between new
information and what they already knew;
 Recognize that resources and data limitations restrain
learning;
 Help students organize information in meaningful
chunks;
 Provide students with opportunities to use both
verbal stories and visual images;
 Provide review and repetition of information;
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
 Present information in an organized and clear
fashion;
 Focus on meaning, not memorization;
 Make sure that students have the needed declarative
knowledge to understand new information; and
 Help students learn to manage their resources, know
their own cognitive skills, use them deliberately, and
monitor comprehension—that is, become self-
regulated. (Bruning, Schraw, and Ronning,
1999; Woolfolk, 2013)
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XI. A Constructivist Approach to Learning:
Constructivism is a broad term used by philosophers,
curriculum specialists, psychologists, and educators to
describe perspectives grounded in the research of
Piaget, Vygotsky, and the Gestalt psychologists as
well as the philosophy of John Dewey and the work in
anthropology of Jean Lave, to mention just a few
intellectual roots.

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Life + Love = Happy

Life – Love = Sad

2 Life = Happy + Sad

=>. Life = Happy +Sad / 2

= ½ Happy + ½ Sad

=>. Life = 50% Happy + 50% Sad

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All the theories in cognitive science include some kinds
of constructivism because these theories assume that
individuals construct their own cognitive structures as
they interpret their experiences in particular situations
(Palincsar, 1998).
 Types of Constructivism:
A). Psychological/Individual Constructivism:
Psychological constructivists are interested in
individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept, or
identity, so they are sometimes called individual
constructivists. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
They all focus on the inner psychological life of
people and how individuals build up their
cognitive or emotional structures and strategies
(Phillips, 1997; Windschitl, 2002).
B). Vygotsky's Social Constructivism:
Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, that
knowledge is socially constructed; that is,
knowledge is built upon what participants
contribute and construct together. Thus
development may proceed differently in different
cultural contexts.
Social interaction, cultural tools, and activity
shape individual development and learning.
Vygotsky emphasized that all higher-order
mental processes, such as reasoning and problem
solving are mediated by (accomplished through
and with the help of) psychological tools, such as
language, signs, and symbols.
C). Radical /Comprehensive Constructivism:
Radical constructivists maintain that knowledge
is not a mirror of the external world in spite of the
fact that experience affects thinking and thinking
influences knowledge. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
All of knowledge is socially constructed and more
important, and some people have more power
than others do in defining what constitutes such
knowledge.
XII. How is Knowledge Constructed?
One tension among different approaches to
constructivism is based on how knowledge is
constructed. Moshman (1982) describes three
explanations.
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1). The realities and truths of the external world direct
knowledge construction. Individuals reconstruct
outside reality by building accurate mental
representations that reflect “the way things really are.”
Information processing holds this view of knowledge
(Cobb and Bowers, 1999).
2). Internal processes such as Piaget's organization,
assimilation, and accommodation direct knowledge
construction. New knowledge is abstracted from old
knowledge. Knowledge is not a mirror of reality, but
rather an abstraction that grows and develops with
cognitive activity. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
Knowledge is not true or false; it just grows more
internally consistent and organized with development.
3). Both external and internal factors direct knowledge
construction. Knowledge grows through the
interactions of internal (cognitive) and external
(environmental and social) factors. Vygotsky’s
description of cognitive development through the
appropriation and use of cultural tools such as
language is consistent with this view (Bruning,
Schraw, and Ronning, 1999).
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XIII. A Constructivist Approach to Learning:
Expert teachers use good constructivist theories as well
as sound behavioral and cognitive theories.
The following are the activities that encourage
knowledge construction, taken from Mark
Windschitl (2002):
 Teachers elicit students’ ideas and experiences in
relation to key topics, and then fashion learning
situations that help students elaborate on or
restructure their current knowledge.
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 Students are given frequent opportunities to engage
in complex, meaningful, problem-based activities.
 Teachers provide students with a variety of
information resources as well as the tools
(technological and conceptual) necessary to mediate
learning.
 Students work collaboratively and are given support
to engage in task-oriented dialogue with one another.
 Teachers make their own thinking processes explicit
to learners and encourage students to do the same
through dialogue, writing, drawings, or other
representations. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
 Students are routinely asked to apply knowledge in
diverse and authentic contexts, to explain ideas,
interpret texts, predict phenomena, and construct
arguments based on evidence, rather than to focus
exclusively on the acquisition of predetermined “right
answers”.
 Teachers encourage students’ reflective and autonomous
thinking in conjunction with the conditions listed above.
 Teachers employ a variety of assessment strategies to
understand how students’ ideas are evolving and to give
feedback on the processes as well as the products of their
thinking. World of Education
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐
XIV. Problem-based Learning:
The basic goals of problem-based learning are:
 To help students develop knowledge that is useful and
flexible, not inert; inert knowledge is information that
is memorized but seldom applied;
 To enhance intrinsic motivation and skills in problem
solving; and
 To increase collaboration, evidence-based decision
making, and self-directed lifelong learning (Cognition
and Technology Group), Whitehead, 1929.
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XV. Cooperative Learning:
David and Roger Johnson (2009), two of the
founders of cooperative learning, define formal
cooperative learning as “students working together, for
one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared
learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and
assignments”.

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Johnson and Johnson (2009) list five elements that
define true cooperative learning groups:
 Promotion interaction;
 Positive interdependence ;
 Individual accountability;
 Collaborative skills; and
 Group processing.

ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education

XVI. Conclusion:
The teaching-learning function is the technical core of
the school.
There is no one way to teach and no one best
explanation of learning. The different theories of
learning offer better or worse explanations depending
on what is to be explained.
Three perspectives on learning – behavioral, cognitive,
and constructivist – are especially useful for teachers
and educational administrators.
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
Behavioral views of learning emphasizes the role of
external events – antecedents and consequences – in
changing observable behaviors.
Cognitive views of learning focus on the human mind’s
active attempts to make sense of the world. Knowledge
is a central force in cognitive perspectives.
The individual’s prior knowledge effects what he or she
will pay attention to, recognize, understand, remember,
and forget.
The use of inquiry learning is one important application
of constructivism.
ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education
The teachers pose a problem and students ask questions
to gather data, formulate hypotheses and test them as
the teacher monitors students’ thinking and guides the
process.
Finally, cooperative learning provides yet another
constructivist application in which students work
cooperatively in groups to solve complex real-life
problems.

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ពិភពៃនករអប់រ ំ ‐ World of Education