Anaphy Lec Final Reviewer

NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Module 1

Human Body Orientation, Terms and Organization
Anatomy
- is the study of the structures and shape of the body and its parts and their
relationship to one another.
Physiology
- is the study of how the body and its parts work and function. Understanding the
relationship of Anatomy and Physiology will help you understand how well the body
is designed for it to maintain its survival and adaptation.
Different approaches in studying Anatomy
a. Systematic Anatomy
- Is the study of the body by organ system.
b. Regional Anatomy
- Study of body by areas
c. Surface Anatomy
- The study of superficial structure to locate deeper structure and is mostly use by
surgeons
The Biological Organization of Humans

The body is organized in different structural complexities. The simplest level if the
ladder is the chemical level. At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine
to form molecules such as sugar, proteins, fats etc.
Atoms
- unite to form a larger structure to perform a specific function called cells.
Cells
- Are the basic unit or simplest structural unit of life.
Each cells in the body are different because they have different function.
Tissues
- These cells can again unite to form larger structures to perform specific function
called tissues.
Organ
- Different tissues again have different structure and shape because they have
different functions. Epithelial tissues are different from muscle tissues. Group of
tissues can again join into organs to perform a specific function.
Organ System
- It is the combination of different organs performing specific job and has one goal
which is to maintain homeostasis in the body.
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Organism
- Considered as the set of a whole. Complete
Different Organ Systems in our Body
The following are the body systems that we will talk about in deeper detail as we
go through this subject
1. Integumentary System – forms the external covering of the body. It protects
your body from mechanical, thermal, chemical injuries. It contains nerves that
helps you detect changes in the environment. It can also help you synthesize
vit D as you are exposed to sunlight
2. Skeletal System – Made of hard calcified bones that acts as a framework of
the body. It works with the muscular system to produce movement. It also
protects internal organs and site of blood formation
3. Muscular System – Made of muscles and functions for movement and
locomotion. It also helps the body in maintaining body heat
4. Nervous System – a fast acting control system and responds to internal and
external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
5. Endocrine System – made of glands that secrets hormones that regulate and
process different metabolic activities by the body
6. CardioVascular System – made of the heart and blood vessels that
transports blood to bring oxygen to different body parts.
7. Lymphatic System – picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it
to blood, it houses white blood cells and is involved in immunity
8. Respiratory system – keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide. It also helps the body maintain its normal acidity
9. Digestive system – breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the
blood for distribution of the body cells
10. Urinary system – it is made of complex filtering mechanism that eliminates
nitrogen containing wastes from the body. It regulates water and electrolyte in
the body
11. Reproductive system – it is a made of different organs that enables humans
to reproduce passing the genetic material of the parents to the offspring.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
- Is the balance state of the body, which result to the maintenance and balance of
functions of all organ systems.
- Existence and maintenance of a relative constant internal environment
- Set point is the ideal normal body temperature.
- Normal range is the fluctuation around set point. Contain lower level and higher
level
2 types of feedback mechanism

1. Negative Feedback
- Turns of the original stimulus. Kind of feedback that is good to the body.
2. Positive Feedback
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- Enhances and up- regulate the initial stimulus and is usually harmful to the body.
Characteristic of a living organisms
1. Organization: all parts of an organism interact to perform specific functions

2. Metabolism: the chemical and physical changes taking place in an organism
>Anabolism is the building up of energy
>Catabolism is the breaking down of energy
3. Responsiveness: adjustments that maintain their internal environment
4. Growth: increase in size of all or part of the organism
5. Development: changes an organism undergoes through time
6. Reproduction: formation of new cells or new organisms
Terminologies used in the study of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomical position
- where the body is erect with feet parallel with arms hanging at the sides with palms
facing forward.
Directional terms
- allow us to understand and describe the relationship of body parts with its other.
Supine- person lying face up

Prone- person lying face down
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Term Definition
Superior Toward the end or upper part of a structure or the body
Inferior Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure
Anterior (Ventral) Toward or at the front of the body
Posterior (Dorsal ) Toward or at the back side of the body
Medial Toward the Midline of the body
Lateral Away from the midline of the body
Proximal Close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment
Distal Farther from the origin of the body
Regional Terms
The abdomen can also be divided into different regions as follows.
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The body can still be divided into planes.
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Different body planes

Sagittal plane: divides the body into left and right parts
Transverse plane: divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Frontal (coronal) plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
9 regions
Epi- above
Below- below
1. Right hypochondriac region

2. Epigastric region
3. Left hypogastric region
4. Right Lumbar region
5. Umbilical region
6. Left Lumbar region
7. Right Iliac region
8. Hypogastric region
9. Left Iliac region
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Module 2
Cellular Organization and Function
The three sections of the cell

1. The Cell Membrane- The Cell membrane is the outermost covering of the cell. It
separates the Cell from its environment. Everything that enters and exits the cell
must pass through the cell membrane.
2. Cytoplasm- The cytoplasm contains a lot of organelles which functions
differently.
3. Nucleus- The Nucleus contains the genetic material of a cell in the form of DNA.
Functions of a Cell
1. Metabolize and release energy

• chemical reactions that occur within cells
• release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
• cells differ from each other because they synthesize different kinds of
molecules
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis
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The Cell Membrane

- The cell membrane plays a dynamic role in cellular activity. It encloses the cell and
it supports the cell contents. It protects the cell contents by selectively regulating
what goes into and out of the cell.
- The cell achieves this function by means of the Membrane Gates and Channels. It
also contains receptors in its surface that receives chemical signals coming from the
external environment.
- The internal side of the cell, bounded by the cell membrane, is called intracellular
(intra- within, cellular –cell) while the external side of the cell is called extracellular
(extra- outside, cellular- cell).
- The Cell Membrane is made of a double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins. These proteins are the marker molecules, attachment proteins, transport
proteins, enzymes, receptors and gates discussed earlier.
- The bilayer consist mainly of phospholipids and Cholesterl (20%). Phospholipids
have hydrophobic (hydro – water, phobia –fearing) tails and hydrophilic (hydro –
water, philia – loving) heads.
Diffusion
- Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane, most non-
lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through plasma membrane while
some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions pass through membrane
channels or other transport proteins.
- The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane via
diffusion is called osmosis.
a. Isotonic or isosmotic (iso – same, tone- tonicity or concentration) solutions
have the same concentration of particles as a reference solution. Most of the
fluids administered intravenous (intra-within, venous – viens) are isotonic or
isosmotic.
b. Hyperosmotic or hypertonic (hyper- high) solutions have a greater
concentration of solute particles than a reference solution.
c. Hyposmotic or hypotonic solutions have a lesser concentration of solute
particles than a reference solution. The blood responds differently to different
solutions. If the blood is bathed in a hypertonic solution, the solution will attract
the water molecules inside the blood thereby allowing the blood to shrink. If it
was placed in a hypotonic solution, the salt in the blood will attract the towards
the blood making it swell or hemolyze (hemo-blood, lyze – lysis or burst open
Mediated Transport
- is the process by which proteins mediate, or assist in, the movement of ions and
molecules across the plasma membrane. The transport system is specific, meaning
each transport protein moves only a specific type of molecule.
- Some molecules can only enter a cell when they bind to a carrier proteins. Carrier
proteins binds to molecules or ions and transports them. Examples of Carrier
proteins are uniport, symport and antiport.
a. Uniport (Facilitiated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule down its concentration

gradient.
b. Symport (Cotransport) moves two or more ions or molecules in the same direction.
c. Antiport (countertransport) moves two or more molecules in opposite directions.
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ATP - Powered pumps

- where ions and molecules are moved against their concentration gradients using the
energy from Adenosine TriPosphate (ATP).
- ATP are the energy used by most cells, and it came from the nutrients we take into
our body after being metabolized. A classic example of this is the sodium-potassium
pump (additional reading)
Vesicular Transport (Mass Transport)

- This is the transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma
membrane.
a. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into the cell by formation of a vesicle.

Phagocytosis (Phageeating, cyto – cell), commonly called “cell eating”, is the movement
of solid materials into the cell. The cell engulfs the material to be absorbed.
Pinocytosis (Pino-drink, cyto – cell) commonly known as “cell drinking”, is the uptake of
small droplets of liquids and materials in them.
Receptor – mediated endocytosis involves plasma membrane receptors attaching to
molecules that are taken into the cell. The secretion of materials from cells by vesicle
formation is called
b. Exocytosis (exo- exit, cyto – cell). This commonly happens when proteins are formed and
exits the cell to be distributed to the to the different tissues of the body.
Cytoplasm
- The cytoplasm is the area between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane
(membrane covering the nucleus) it consist of cytosol (cyto – cell, sol – liquid)
and organelles (organ – functioning structures, --elles – small). The cytosol is
fluid part where chemical reactions occur.
Cytoskeletons (cyto-cell, skeleton – support) and cytoplasmic inclusions.
Cytoskeletons support the cell and enables cell movements. These
movements can be achieved because of the Microtubules (micro-small,
tubules –rods) which provides support and aids in cell division.
Actin filaments support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the
cell while the intermediate filaments provide mechanical support to the cell.
Cytoplasmic inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the
cell or taken in by the cell. Usually these are raw materials or materials
produced of cellular metabolism.
Organelles
- are specialized subcellular structures with specific functions. They are either
membranous or nonmembranous.
Membranous organelles are Mitochondria, Peroxisoes, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic
Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus.
Non-membranous organelles are centrioles and ribosomes.
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Nucleus
- The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membrares with nuclear pores. This
membrane encloses the jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.
DNA
- is the hereditary material of the cell and controls the activities of the cell. It contains
the genetic linrary with blueprints of nearly all cellular components. It also dictates
the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized.
- Nucleoli is a dark staining spherical body within an nucleus. It consist of RNA and
proteins and produces the ribosomal RNA (rRNA). This is the site of ribosomal
subunit assembly.
- Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis. These organelles come as free ribosomes
where they are not attached to other organelles. They function as site of protein
synthesis inside the cell. Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes
called Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These ribosomes produces proteins that are
secreted from the cell and sent to other cells needing the proteins.
Endoplastic Reticulum (ER)

- These are series of membrane forming sacs and tubules that extend from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER
- is studded with ribosomes and is the major site of protein synthesis. The proteins
synthesized in the rough ER are usually transported out of the cell.
Smooth ER
- does not have ribosomes attached to it. It is usually involved in lipid and cholesterol
metabolism, breakdown of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifying drugs.
Golgi Apparatus
- This organelle is a series of closely packed membranous sacs that collects, package
and distributes proteins and lipids produced by the Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
- It packages the secretions into small, membrane- bound sacs that transports
material from the Golgi Apparatus to the exterior of the Cell.
Lysosomes
- These are membranous bags containing digestive enzymes. Its main function is to
digest bacteria, viruses and toxins.
- It also degrades non-functioning organelles.
- Lysosomes helps the body metabolism by breaking down glycogen to produce
glucose and releases thyroid hormones.
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- Lysosomes are also important in bone remodelling because it breaks down bones
to release Calcium ions.
Mitochondria
- This energy comes from the food a person eats. These foods comes in the form of
Carbohydrate, Protein and Fats. These food products are absorbed in the intestines
and transported by the blood to the cells. mitochondria is the major site of ATP
production via aerobic respiration.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) inside the Mitochondria.
Aerobic respiration is a type of metabolism that requires Oxygen.
Peroxisomes
- These are membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases and functions to
breakdown fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Free radicals
- are highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons like Oxigen Free radicals and
Hydroxil Radicals (OH).
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

- Centrioles are cylincdical organelles located in the centrosome. They are Pinwheel
array of nine triplets of microtubules (micro-small, tubules-tubes).
- Cytoplasm has a specialized zone called centrosome where the site of microtubule
is formed.
- Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in all directions from the centrosomes.
Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli.

- Flagella is a whiplike structure at the posterior end of a sperm. They function in
propulsion and locomotion of the sperm so that it could reach the egg for
fertilization (union of sperm and egg) to occur.
- Cilia is a broom like structure at that helps propel materials along the cell surface.
- Microvilli are finger like projection in the cell membrane and functions in
increasing the surface area of for absorption.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Transcription
- the cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make a particular protein, the
Messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA then travels from the nucleus to the
ribosomes where the information is translated into a protein.
Translation
- the mRNA enters the ribosomes and a Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the amino acid
necessary to synthesize the protein carried by the mRNA.
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Here is a step by step overview of protein synthesis.
1. DNA contains information necessary to produce produce proteins. During the Transcription,
one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the
DNA strand needed to make protein.
2. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome
3. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosomes by tRNAs
4. in the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the
number, kinds and arrangement of amino acid in the polypeptide chain
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Module 3

Tissues, Glands and Membranes
Tissues
- Tissues are collection of similar cells and the extracellular matrix surrounding
them.
- The study of tissues is called Histology.
Organogenesis (formation of organs)

Zygote (united sperm and egg) multiplies and forms the primary tissue types coming
from the embryonic germ layers.
Endoderm (Endo – inner, derm- skin)

- forms the lining of the digestive tracts and its derivatives.
Mesoderm (Meso – middle)

- forms the tissues such as muscles, bones and blood vessels.
Ectoderm (ecto- Outer)

- forms the outermost layer of the skin and the nervous system, Out of these germ
layers arise all the different tissue types.
4 MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- Covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body
- Composed of cells
- Covers body surfaces
- Distinct cell surfaces
- Cell and matrix connections
- Nonvascular
- Capable of regeneration
FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIA
1. Protecting underlying structures

2. Acting as barrier
3. Permitting the passage of substances
4. Secreting substances
5. Absorbing substances
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CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL IMAGE OF EPITHELIAL FUNCTION AND LOCATION

TISSUE TISSUE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
1. Simple Squamous - These are single
layers of flat, often,
hexagonal cells
that are
responsible for
diffusion, filtration,
some secretion,
and protection
against friction.
This type of
epithelial tissue
can be found on
Lining of Blood
vessels of the
heart, lymphatic
vessels, alveoli of
the lungs, portion
of the kidney
tubules, lining of
serous membrane
of body cavities.
2. Simple cuboidal - The simple cuboidal
epithelium epithelium is a single
layer of cube-shaped
cells that have
microbial or cilia in
some. The function of
this type is by choroid
movement ciliated
cells. They are
commonly found on
kidney tubules, glands
and their ducks,
choroid plexuses,
lining of terminal
bronchioles of the
lungs, and surfaces of
the ovaries.
3. Simple Columnar - The simple columnar
Epithelium epithelium is a single
layer of tall, narrow
cells. Their main job is
to assist in the
movement of particles
out of the bronchi of
the lungs by ciliated
cells, partially
responsible for the
movement of oocytes
through the uterine
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tubes by ciliated cells,

secretion by cells of
the glands, and the
intestines. They are
commonly found on
the glands and some
docs, coils of lungs,
auditory tubes, uterus,
uterine tubes,
stomach, intestine,
gallbladder, bile ducts,
and ventricles of the
brain.
4. Pseudostratified - These are single
Columnar layers of cells and
Epithelium some cells are tall and
thin and reach the
surface, and others do
not. They are
responsible for
synthesizing and
secreting mucus onto
the pre-service and
moving mucus that
contains foreign
particles over the
surface of the pre-
service and from
passages. They are
located on linings of
nasal cavity, nasal
sinuses, auditory
tubes, pharynx,
trachea, and the
bronchi of lungs.
5. Stratified - These are several
Squamous layers of cells that are
Epithelium cuboidal in the basal
layer and
progressively
flattened toward the
surface. Their main
function is to protect
against abrasion, form
a barrier against
infection, and reduce
loss of water from the
body. They are
located on the karate
nice outer layer of the
skin and the non-
keratinized areas such
as mouth, throat,
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larynx, and
esophagus.
6. Transitional - The transitional
Epithelium epithelium is
composed of stratified
cells that appear
cuboidal when the
organ or tube is not
stretched and is
squamous when the
organ or too busy
stretches by fluid.
They are responsible
IF STRETCHED
for the
accommodation and
plantation in the
volume of fluid in an
organ or a tube, and
protects against the
caustic effect of urine.
They are located on
IF NOT STRETCHED the lining of the urinary
bladder, ureters, and
superior urethra.
7. Stratified Cuboidal - This are multiple
layers of somewhat
cube-shaped cells.
- They are responsible
in the secretion,
absorption and
protection against
infections. They are
located sweat gland
ducts, ovarian
follicular cells, and
salivary gland ducts
Stratified Columnar - This are multiple

layers of cells with tall
thin cells resting on
layers of more
cuboidal cells. Cells
ciliated in the larynx.
They function as the
protection and
secretion. They are
located mammary
gland duct, larynx,
portion of male
urethra.
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2. CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Connective tissues are types of tissues that are responsible for supporting, protecting and
giving structure to other tissues and organs in the body. The unique component of this tissue
that makes it different from others is the abundant extracellular matrix. Connective tissue
usually comprises cells, fibers, and a gel- like substance. This tissue functions in enclosing
and separating other types of tissues, connecting tissue to one another, supporting and
moving parts of the body, storing compounds, cushioning and insulating, transporting and
protecting.
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Enclosing and separating
2. Connecting tissues to one another (Ex. Ligaments and Tendons)
3. Supporting and moving (Ex. Bones and cartilage)
4. Storing (Ex. Adipose tissue and Bones)
5. Cushioning and insulating (Ex. Adipose tissue)
6. Transporting (Ex. Blood)
7. Protecting (Ex. Blood and Bones)
Collagen fibers
- found in connective tissues makes the tissue flexible but resists stretching.
Reticular fibers
- form a fiber network
Elastic fibers
- enable the tissues to stretch and recoil.
TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES IN THE BODY

1. Loose Connective Tissue
- Other tissues and organs in the body are supported, protected, and given structure by
connective tissue. Connective tissue also stores fat, aids in the transportation of
nutrients and other substances between tissues and organs, and aids in the healing of
damaged tissue.
3 major subdivisions of Loose connective tissue

A. Areolar Connective Tissue
- Areolar tissues are made up of a
thin network of fibers with gaps
between them where fibroblasts,
macrophages, and lymphocytes
reside. The following are the
functions of areolar: loose packing,
support, and sustenance for the
structure it is connected to
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B. Adipose Tissue
- The loose connective tissue is made up
of adipocytes. Only around 80% of it is
made up of fat. Its major job, even
though it cushions and insulates the
body, is to store energy in the form of
lipids, thermal insulators, and organ
damage prevention.
C. Reticular Tissue
- Within the lymph nodes, spleen, and
bone marrow, reticular tissue is a
fine network of reticular fibers that
are irregularly organized. Its job is to
give lymphatic and hematopoietic
tissues a superstructure.
2. Dense Connective Tissue

- A high number of protein fibers in dense connective tissue are responsible for generating
thick bundles that fill virtually all the extracellular space. They oversee bringing various bodily
components together.
2 Major subcategories of Dense Connective Tissue
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A. Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue

- Collagen fibers make up most of the
extracellular matrix. Muscles are
attached to bones through these
structures. Ligaments, for example,
use thick collagenous connective
tissue to link bones to one another.
They also create several enclosures
around organs including the liver and
kidneys.
B. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

- The collagen fiber has a lot of elastic
fibers. As a result, the tissue can expand
and rebound. Elastic connective tissue is
present on elastic ligaments between the
vertebrae, along the dorsal side of the
neck, and in the vocal cords, as well as
in the elastic connective tissue of blood
vessel walls. Dense regular elastic
connective tissue's principal purpose is
to stretch and rebound like a rubber band
with strength in the direction of fiber
orientation.
3. Supporting Connective Tissue

- Bone and cartilage make up the supporting connective tissue of the body. The cartilage and
bone, both of which have subdivisions, are the two main divisions of supporting connective
tissue.
Two main division of Supporting Connective Tissue
a. Cartilage
- The cartilage is made up of chondrocytes, or cartilage cells, which are arranged in
lacunae and surrounded by a vast matrix. Although cartilage offers support, it returns
to its normal shape when bent or gently squeezed.
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Hyaline Cartilage is the most common kind of cartilage

and serves a variety of purposes. It is a covering that
protects the ends of bones where they meet to form
joints. Hyaline cartilage provides smooth, robust surfaces
in joints, allowing them to tolerate repeated
compression. It also makes up the respiratory tract's
cartilage ring, nasal cartilages, and costal cartilages.
Fibrocartilage- The matrix of fibrocartilage contains more collagen

than that of hyaline cartilage, and bundles of collagen fibers may be
observed. Aside from being able to withstand compression, it can also
bear pulling or exhausting pressures.
Elastic Cartilage- In addition to collagen and proteoglycans, elastic

cartilage contains elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage can return to its
original shape after being bent. Elastic cartilage is stored in the
external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube.
b. Bone
- Living cells and a mineralized matrix make up bone, which is a hard connective
tissue. The minerals' metric and stiffness increase bone's ability to support and
protect other tissues and organs.
➔ Spongy bone resembles a sponge

because it has gaps between the
trabeculae, or bone plates. The density of
spongy bone is reduced, allowing the ends of long
bones to collapse because of forces given to the
bone.
➔ Compact bones are more solid, with almost
no space between many thin layers of
mineralized matrix. It provides protection and
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strength to bones. Compact bone tissue composed of units known as the osteons or Haversian
systems.
4. Fluid connective tissue

- A connective tissue with a liquid matrix is known as fluid
connective tissue. Fluid connective tissue connects the
various sections of the body and preserves bodily
continuity. It consists of blood and lymph.
➔ Blood is a connective fluid that contains

components and a fluid matrix. Its primary purpose is to
carry oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients,
waste materials, and other chemicals; it also serves to
defend the body from infection and regulates body temperature.
3. Muscle Tissues
- Muscle tissues are specialized to contract, or shorten, making movement possible.
The length of muscle cells is greater than the diameter. Sometimes called muscle fibers
because they often resemble tiny threads.
- Unlike the other tissues, muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to
shorten or contract depending on the movement that our body produces. They are located in
walls of hollow visceral organs but are limited to the heart. The construction of muscle results
due to the contractile protein located within the muscle cells. They are called muscle fibers
sometimes because of the tiny threads they contain. They function in movement, support,
protection, heat generation and blood circulation.
TYPES OF IMAGE OF MUSCULAR FUNCTION AND LOCATION

MUSCULAR TISSUE
TISSUE
1. SKELETAL - The skeletal muscle cells or

fiber appearing is treated,
cells are large, long, and
cylindrical, with many nuclei.
They Assist in the movement
of the body and under
voluntary control. They are
attached to bones or other
connective tissue.
2. CARDIAC - The cardiac muscle is a kind

of cell that is cylindrical and is
treated and has a single
nucleus, they are branch and
connected to one another by
intercalated discs which
contain gap junctions. they
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are responsible for the

popping of blood, and are
under involuntary control.
They can be found in the
heart
3. SMOOTH - The smooth muscle cells are

top at each end, are not
stated, and have a single
nucleus. They function in
regulating the size of organs,
force fluid through tubes,
control the amount of light
entering the eye, and produce
goosebumps in the skin. They
can be found in hollow
organs, such as the stomach
and intestine. As well as the
skin and the eyes
4. Nervous Tissue
- The nervous tissue is mostly found on the brain, spinal cord, and also in the brain. The
main function of this type of tissue lies in the coordination and control of many body
activities. They are known as the communication tissue since they are responsible for
communicating with one another by the means of electrical signals known as action
potentials. This tissue consists of the neurons and support cells. It stimulates muscle
contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions,
memory, and reasoning. They function in transmitting information, through action
potentials, store information, and integrate and evaluate data. They are also responsible
for supporting, protecting, and forming specialized shifts around axons. Nervous tissues
are primarily found in the brain, spinal cord, in the ganglia.
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Mucous Membranes
- Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside of the body
(digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts). They contain glands and
secrete mucus.
Serous Membranes
- Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do not open to the outside of the body (pleural,
pericardial, and peritoneal cavities). They do not contain mucous glands but do secrete
serous fluid.
Synovial Membranes
- Synovial membranes line joint cavities and secrete a lubricating fluid.
1. Inflammation isolates and destroys harmful agents.

2. Inflammation produces redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance
of function.
Chronic Inflammation
- Chronic inflammation results when the agent causing injury is not removed or something
else interferes with the healing process.
Tissue repair
- is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells by regeneration or fibrosis. In regeneration, stem
cells, which can divide throughout life, and other dividing cells regenerate new cells of the same type
as those that were destroyed. In fibrosis, the destroyed cells are replaced by different cell types, which
causes scar formation. Tissue repair involves clot formation, inflammation, the formation of granulation
tissue, and the regeneration or fibrosis of tissues. In severe wounds, wound contracture can occur.
23
Chapter 23
Lecture Outline
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and

tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes and
animations.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 23
Respiratory System
23-2
23.1 Functions of the Respiratory System
• Ventilation: Movement of air into and out

of lungs
• External respiration: Gas exchange between
air in lungs and blood
• Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the blood
• Internal respiration: Gas exchange between
the blood and tissues
23-3
Respiratory System Functions
1. Regulation of blood pH: Altered by
changing blood carbon dioxide levels
2. Production of chemical mediators: ACE
3. Voice production: Movement of air past
vocal folds makes sound and speech
4. Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne
molecules are drawn into nasal cavity
5. Protection: Against microorganisms by
preventing entry and removing them from
respiratory surfaces.
23-4
23.2 Anatomy and Histology of the
Respiratory System
• Upper tract: nose,

pharynx and
External Nasal cavity
nose
Pharynx
Upper
respiratory
tract
associated structures
(throat)
Larynx
• Lower tract: larynx,
Trachea
trachea, bronchi, lungs
Lower
respiratory
and the tubing within
Bronchi tract
the lungs
Lungs
23-5
Nose and Nasal Cavities
• External nose Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Nasal cavity Cribriform plate

Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Paranasal
sinuses
– From nares to choanae

Superior concha Superior meatus
Middle meatus Nasal cavity
Middle concha Inferior meatus
Nasal cavity Choana
Inferior concha
– Vestibule: just inside nares

Vestibule Pharyngeal tonsil
Naris Opening of auditory tube
Hard palate Nasopharynx
Oral cavity Soft palate
– Hard palate: floor of nasal Tongue
Palatine tonsil
Uvula
Fauces Pharynx
cavity Lingual tonsil Oropharynx
– Nasal septum: partition

Hyoid bone Laryngopharynx
Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
dividing cavity. Anterior Larynx Vocal fold

Thyroid cartilage
cartilage; posterior vomer and Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Esophagus
perpendicular plate of ethmoid

– Choanae: bony ridges on
(a) Medial view
lateral walls with meatuses

between. Openings to
paranasal sinuses and to
nasolacrimal duct 23-6
Functions of Nasal Cavity
• Passageway for air
• Cleans the air
• Humidifies, warms air
• Smell
• Along with paranasal sinuses are
resonating chambers for speech
23-7
Pharynx
• Common opening for digestive and
respiratory systems
• Three regions
Frontal sinus Paranasal

Sphenoidal sinus sinuses
Cribriform plate
– Nasopharynx: pseudostratified Nasal cavity

Superior concha
Middle concha
Inferior concha
Superior meatus
Middle meatus
Inferior meatus
Choana
Nasal
cavity
columnar epithelium with Vestibule

Naris
Hard palate
Oral cavity
Pharyngeal tonsil
Opening of auditory tube
Nasopharynx
Soft palate
goblet cells. Mucous and debris Tongue
Palatine tonsil
Uvula
Fauces Pharynx
Oropharynx
is swallowed. Openings of
Lingual tonsil
Hyoid bone Laryngopharynx
Eustachian (auditory) tubes. Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
Vocal fold
Floor is soft palate, uvula is

Larynx
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage Esophagus
posterior extension of the soft Trachea
palate. (a) Medial view
–Oropharynx: shared with digestive system. Lined with moist

stratified squamous epithelium.
–Laryngopharynx: epiglottis to esophagus. Lined with moist
stratified squamous epithelium
23-8
Larynx
Larynx
Epiglottis Epiglottis
Thyrohyoid
membrane
Hyoid Hyoid
bone bone
Quadrangular
Thyrohyoid membrane Thyrohyoid
membrane membrane
Cuneiform
Superior
cartilage Fat
thyroid
notch Corniculate
Thyroid cartilage Thyroid
cartilage cartilage
Arytenoid
cartilage Vestibular
Cricoid
fold (false
Cricothyroid cartilage
vocal cord)
ligament
Cricoid Vocal fold

Tracheal cartilage (true vocal
cartilage cord)
Trachea
Cricothyroid
Membranous ligament
part of trachea
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view (c) Medial view of sagittal section 23-9
Larynx
• Unpaired cartilages
– Thyroid: largest, Adam’s apple
– Cricoid: most inferior, base of larynx
– Epiglottis: attached to thyroid and has a flap near base of
tongue. Elastic rather than hyaline cartilage
• Paired
– Arytenoids: attached to cricoid
– Corniculate: attached to arytenoids
– Cuneiform: contained in mucous membrane
• Ligaments extend from arytenoids to thyroid cartilage
– Vestibular folds or false vocal folds
– True vocal cords or vocal folds: sound production. Opening
between is glottis
23-10
Functions of Larynx
• Maintain an open passageway for air movement: thyroid
and cricoid cartilages
• Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material
from moving into larynx
• Vocal folds are primary source of sound production.
Greater the amplitude of vibration, louder the sound.
Frequency of vibration determines pitch. Arytenoid
cartilages and skeletal muscles determine length of vocal
folds and also abduct the folds when not speaking to pull
them out of the way making glottis larger.
• The pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium traps
debris, preventing their entry into the lower respiratory
tract.
23-11
Vocal Folds
Anterior Tongue
Epiglottis
Vestibular folds
(false vocal cords)
Glottis
Vocal folds
(true vocal cords)
Cuneiform
Larynx cartilage
Corniculate
cartilage
Trachea (b) View through a laryngoscope
(a) Superior view
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Vocal fold
Arytenoid
cartilage
(c) Vocal folds positioned (d) Vocal folds positioned (e) Changing the tension
for breathing for speaking of the vocal folds 23-12
b: © CNRI/Phototake.com
Trachea
• Membranous tube of dense regular connective tissue and smooth
muscle; supported by 15-20 hyaline cartilage C-shaped rings
open posteriorly. Posterior surface is elastic ligamentous
membrane and bundles of smooth muscle called the trachealis.
Contracts during coughing.
• Inner lining: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with
goblet cells. Mucus traps debris, cilia push it superiorly toward
larynx and pharynx.
Divides to form
– Left and right primary bronchi
– Carina: cartilage at bifurcation. Membrane of carina
especially sensitive to irritation and inhaled objects initiate
the cough reflex
23-13
Trachea
Esophagus Lumen
Trachea Esophagus
Transverse plane Trachealis

through trachea muscle
and esophagus
Lumen of trachea
Cartilage
Mucous
membrane
Anterior
LM 250x
(a)
Anterior
Mucus
layer
Movement
of mucus Cilia
to pharynx
Goblet
cell
Ciliated
Foreign
columnar
particle
epithelial
cell
Lamina
propria
(b) (c)
a: © John Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; c: © Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc./Getty Images
23-14
Tracheobronchial Tree
• Trachea to terminal bronchioles which Larynx
is ciliated for removal of debris. Trachea

Carina Air passageways
decrease in size
– Trachea divides into two primary

but increase
Visceral pleura in number.
Parietal pleura
bronchi. Pleural cavity
Main (primary) bronchus

Main (primary)
bronchus
– Primary bronchi divide into Lobar (secondary)

bronchus
Lobar (secondary)
bronchus
secondary bronchi (one/lobe) Segmental (tertiary)

bronchus
Segmental (tertiary)
bronchus
which then divide into tertiary Bronchiole
To terminal
Bronchiole
To terminal bronchiole
bronchi. bronchiole
(see figure
23.7)
(see figure 23.7)
– Bronchopulmonary segments: Diaphragm
Anterior view
defined by tertiary bronchi. (a)
–Tertiary bronchi further subdivide into smaller and smaller bronchi then into
bronchioles (less than 1 mm in diameter), then finally into terminal
bronchioles.
• Cartilage: holds tube system open; smooth muscle controls tube diameter.
• As tubes become smaller, amount of cartilage decreases, amount of smooth
muscle increases 23-15
Respiratory Zone:
Respiratory Bronchioles to Alveoli
• Respiratory zone: site for gas
exchange
– Respiratory bronchioles branch Smooth muscle
from terminal bronchioles. Bronchial vein, artery,

and nerve
Respiratory bronchioles have Branch of pulmonary artery
Deep lymphatic vessel
very few alveoli. Give rise to Terminal bronchiole
alveolar ducts which have more Respiratory bronchioles

Alveolus
alveoli. Alveolar ducts end as Alveolar ducts Superficial lymphatic vessel
alveolar sacs that have 2 or 3 Alveoli

Lymph nodes
Alveolar sac
alveoli at their terminus. Connective

tissue
Pulmonary capillaries
– No cilia, but debris removed by Visceral pleura

Branch of pulmonary vein
Pleural cavity
macrophages. Macrophages then Parietal pleura
Elastic fibers
move into nearby lymphatics or (a)
into terminal bronchioles.
23-16
The Respiratory Membrane
• Three types of cells in membrane.
– Type I pneumocytes. Thin squamous Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
epithelial cells, form 90% of surface of Type II pneumocyte
alveolus. Gas exchange. Macrophage

(surfactant-
secreting cell) Alveolar
epithelium
– Type II pneumocytes. Round to cube-

(wall)
Air space
within
alveolus Type I pneumocyte
Nucleus
shaped secretory cells. Produce surfactant. Mitochondrion

Pulmonary capillary
– Dust cells (phagocytes)

endothelium (wall)
Red blood cell
• Layers of the respiratory membrane

– Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
(a)
– Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous Alveolar fluid

(with surfactant)
epithelium Alveolus
Alveolar epithelium
Basement membrane of
– Basement membrane of the alveolar

alveolar epithelium Respiratory
Interstitial space membrane
Basement membrane of
epithelium capillary endothelium

Pulmonary capillary
endothelium
– Thin interstitial space Diffusion of O2

Diffusion of CO2
– Basement membrane of the capillary Red blood cell
endothelium (b)
Capillary
– Capillary endothelium composed of simple

squamous epithelium
• Tissue surrounding alveoli contains elastic
fibers that contribute to recoil. 23-17
Lungs
• Two lungs: Principal organs of respiration
– Base sits on diaphragm, apex at the top, hilus on medial
surface where bronchi and blood vessels enter the lung. All the
structures in hilus called root of the lung.
– Right lung: three lobes. Lobes separated by fissures
– Left lung: Two lobes, and an indentation called the cardiac
notch
• Divisions
– Lobes (supplied by secondary bronchi), bronchopulmonary
segments (supplied by tertiary bronchi and separated from one
another by connective tissue partitions), lobules (supplied by
bronchioles and separated by incomplete partitions).
23-18
Lungs
Superior lobe
Pulmonary arteries
Hilum Hilum
Primary bronchi
Horizontal fissure
Pulmonary Cardiac impression
veins
Middle lobe Cardiac notch
Inferior lobe Oblique fissure
Oblique fissure
Right lung Left lung

(a) Medial views
Apico-
Apical posterior
Broncho-
pulmonary Anterior Broncho-
segments of Posterior pulmonary
Superior segments of
superior lobe
Anterior lingular superior lobe
Inferior
lingular
Broncho-
pulmonary Medial
Superior
segments of Lateral
middle lobe
Superior
Lateral Broncho-
Posterior basal pulmonary
Broncho- basal segments of
pulmonary Posterior
Lateral inferior lobe
segments of basal
inferior lobe basal
Anterior Anterior
basal basal
23-19
Right lung, lateral view Left lung, lateral view
(b)
Muscles of Respiration
End of End of
expiration inspiration
Quiet breathing:
Labored breathing:
the external
Sternocleidomastoid additional muscles
intercostal
contract, causing
muscles contract,
additional expansion
Scalenes elevating the
of the thorax.
ribs and moving
Clavicle the sternum.
(cut)
Muscles
of
Pectoralis
inspiration
minor
Internal
External intercostals Muscles
intercostals
of Abdominal
expiration
Diaphragm Abdominal muscles
muscles relax.
Diaphragm The diaphragm contracts,

(a) (b) increasing the superior–inferior
relaxed
dimension of the thoracic cavity.
23-20
Thoracic Wall
• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, costal cartilages,
sternum and associated muscles
• Thoracic cavity: space enclosed by thoracic
wall and diaphragm
• Diaphragm separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity
23-21
Inspiration and Expiration
• Inspiration: diaphragm, external intercostals, pectoralis minor, scalenes
– Diaphragm: dome-shaped with base of dome attached to inner
circumference of inferior thoracic cage. Central tendon: top of
dome
• Quiet inspiration: accounts for 2/3 of increase in size of
thoracic volume. Inferior movement of central tendon and
flattening of dome. Abdominal muscles relax
– Other muscles: elevate ribs and costal cartilages allow lateral rib
movement
• Expiration: muscles that depress the ribs and sternum: abdominal
muscles and internal intercostals.
• Quiet expiration: relaxation of diaphragm and external
intercostals with contraction of abdominal muscles
• Labored breathing: all inspiratory muscles are active and contract
more forcefully. Expiration is rapid
23-22
Effect of Rib and Sternum
Vertebra
Lateral
Sternum
increase
in volume
Anterior
Sternum increase
in volume
(a) (b)
23-23
Pleura
• Pleural cavity surrounds

each lung and is formed by Vertebra
the pleural membranes. Esophagus

(in posterior
mediastinum)
Filled with pleural fluid. Right lung Left lung
• Visceral pleura: adherent

Parietal pleura
Right main
bronchus
Root of Pleural cavity
Right pulmonary
lung
to lung. Simple squamous at hilum

artery
Right pulmonary
vein
Visceral pleura
Fibrous pericardium
epithelium, serous. Pulmonary trunk Parietal pericardium
• Parietal pleura: adherent

Heart Pericardial cavity
Visceral pericardium
Anterior mediastinum
to internal thoracic wall. Sternum
Superior view
• Pleural fluid: acts as a lubricant and helps hold the two

membranes close together (adhesion).
• Mediastinum: central region, contains contents of thoracic cavity
except for lungs.
23-24
Blood and Lymphatic Supply
• Two sources of blood to lungs:
– Pulmonary artery brings deoxygenated blood to lungs from right side of
heart to be oxygenated in capillary beds that surround the alveoli.
Blood leaves via the pulmonary veins and returns to the left side of the
heart.
– Oxygenated blood travels to the tissues of the bronchi. Bronchial
arteries (branches of thoracic aorta) to capillaries. Part of this now
deoxygenated blood exits through the bronchial veins to the azygous;
part merges with blood of alveolar capillaries and returns to left side of
heart.
– Blood going to left side of heart via pulmonary veins carries primarily
oxygenated blood, but also some deoxygenated blood from the supply
of the walls of the conducting and respiratory zone.
• Two lymphatic supplies: superficial and deep lymphatic
vessels. Exit from hilus
– Superficial drain superficial lung tissue and visceral pleura
– Deep drain bronchi and associated C.T.
– No lymphatics drain alveoli
23-25
23.3 Ventilation
• Movement of air into and out of lungs
• Air moves from area of higher pressure to area of lower
pressure
• Boyle’s Law: P = k/V, where P = gas pressure, V =
volume, k = constant at a given temperature
• If barometric pressure is greater than alveolar pressure,
then air flows into the alveoli.
• If diaphragm contracts, then size of alveoli increases.
Remember P is inversely proportionate to V; so as V gets
larger (when diaphragm contracts), then P in alveoli gets
smaller.
23-26
Intra-alveolar Pressure Changes
PB =0 PB =0
End of expiration During inspiration

Thorax
Palv = PB PB > Palv
expands.
No air Air moves in.
movement.
Palv = 0
Palv = –1
(alveolar
volume
increases and
Diaphragm intra-alveolar
Diaphragm pressure
contracts. decreases)
Rib 9
Rib 9
1 At the end of expiration, intra-alveolar pressure 2 During inspiration, increased thoracic

(Palv) is equal to barometric air pressure volume results in increased alveolar
(PB) and there is no air movement. volume and decreased intra-alveolar
pressure. Barometric air pressure is
greater than intra-alveolar pressure, and
air moves into the lungs.
P =0 Palv = 0
End of inspiration During expiration

Palv = PB Palv> PB
No air Thorax Air moves out.
movement. recoils.
Palv = 0 Palv = 1
(alveolar
volume
decreases and
Diaphragm intra-alveolar
relaxes. pressure
increases)
Rib 9 Rib 9
3 At the end of inspiration, intra-alveolar pressure is 4 During expiration, decreased thoracic

equal to barometric air pressure and there is no volume results in decreased alveolar 23-27
air movement. volume and increased intra-alveolar pressure.
Intra-alveolar pressure is greater than barometric
air pressure, and air moves out of the lungs.
Changing Alveolar Volume
• Lung recoil causes alveoli to collapse resulting from

– Elastic recoil: elastic fibers in the alveolar walls
– Surface tension: film of fluid lines the alveoli. Where
water interfaces with air, polar water molecules have
great attraction for each other with a net pull in toward
other water molecules. Tends to make alveoli collapse.
• Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse
by reducing surface tension. Produced by type II
pneumocytes.
• Respiratory distress syndrome (hyaline
membrane disease). Common in infants with
gestation age of less than 7 months. Not enough
surfactant produced.
23-28
Pleural Pressure
• Negative pressure can cause alveoli to
expand
• Alveoli expand when pleural pressure
is low enough to overcome lung recoil
• Pneumothorax is an opening between
pleural cavity and air that causes a loss
of pleural pressure
23-29
Normal Breathing Cycle
Inspiration Expiration
Changes during –6 Changes during

inspiration expiration
Pleural pressure
1 Pleural pressure decreases 4. Pleural pressure increases
(cm H2O
1. 1 4
because thoracic volume 4 because thoracic volume
increases. –8 decreases.
– 10
2
2. As inspiration begins, 5 As expiration begins,
5.
Intra-alveolar pressure
intra-alveolar pressure +1 intra-alveolar pressure

5
decreases below barometric increases above barometric
air pressure (0 on the graph)
(cm H2O)
air pressure (0 on the graph)

because the decreased because the increased
0 pleural pressure causes
pleural pressure causes
alveolar volume to increase. 2 alveolar volume to decrease.
By the end of inspiration, By the end of expiration,
intra-alveolar and barometric intra-alveolar and barometric
air pressure are equal. –1 Air pressure are equal.
3
3. During inspiration, air +0.5 6 During expiration, air
6.
flows into the lungs flows out of the lungs
because intra-alveolar because intra-alveolar pressure
lung volume (L)
pressure is lower than is greater than barometric

Change in
barometric air pressure. 3 6 air pressure.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 23-30
Time (s)
Compliance
• Measure of the ease with which lungs and thorax
expand
– The greater the compliance, the easier it is for a change in
pressure to cause expansion
– A lower-than-normal compliance means the lungs and thorax
are harder to expand
• Conditions that decrease compliance
– Pulmonary fibrosis: deposition of inelastic fibers in lung
(emphysema)
– Pulmonary edema
– Respiratory distress syndrome
– Increased resistance to airflow caused by airway obstruction
(asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer)
– Deformities of the thoracic wall (kyphosis, scoliosis)
23-31
23.4 Measurement of Lung Function
• Spirometry: measures volumes of air that move into
and out of respiratory system. Uses a spirometer
• Tidal volume: amount of air inspired or expired with
each breath. At rest: 500 mL
• Inspiratory reserve volume: amount that can be
inspired forcefully after inspiration of the tidal volume
(3000 mL at rest)
• Expiratory reserve volume: amount that can be
forcefully expired after expiration of the tidal volume
(100 mL at rest)
• Residual volume: volume still remaining in
respiratory passages and lungs after most forceful
expiration (1200 mL) 23-32
Pulmonary Capacities
• The sum of two or more pulmonary volumes
• Inspiratory capacity: tidal volume plus
inspiratory reserve volume
• Functional residual capacity: expiratory reserve
volume plus residual volume
• Vital capacity: sum of inspiratory reserve
volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve
volume
• Total lung capacity: sum of inspiratory and
expiratory reserve volumes plus tidal volume and
residual volume.
23-33
Volume (mL)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0
Time
Maximum
expiration
Maximum
inspiration
Expiratory Tidal
Residual reserve volume Inspiratory reserve volume
volume volume (500 (3000 mL)
(1200 mL) (1100 mL) mL)
Volumes
Functional residual capacity

(2300 mL)
Inspiratory capacity
(3500 mL)
Vital capacity (4600 mL)

Capacities
Total lung capacity (5800 mL)

Spirometer, Lung Volumes, and Lung Capacities
23-34
Minute Ventilation and Alveolar Ventilation
• Minute ventilation: total air moved into and out of
respiratory system each minute; tidal volume X
respiratory rate
• Respiratory rate (respiratory frequency): number of
breaths taken per minute
• Anatomic dead space: formed by nasal cavity, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal
bronchioles
• Physiological dead space: anatomic dead space plus the
volume of any alveoli in which gas exchange is less than
normal.
• Alveolar ventilation (VA): volume of air available for
gas exchange/minute 23-35
23.5 Physical Principles of Gas Exchange
• Partial pressure
– The pressure exerted by each type of gas in a mixture
– Dalton’s law: total pressure is the sum of the individual
pressures of each gas.
– Water vapor pressure: pressure exerted by gaseous water in a
mixture of gases
– Air in the respiratory system contains humidity because of
mucus lining system
• Diffusion of gases through liquids
– Henry’s Law: Concentration of a gas in a liquid is
determined by its partial pressure and its solubility
coefficient
23-36
Physical Principles of Gas Exchange
• Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane
depends upon four factors
1. Membrane thickness. The thicker, the lower the
diffusion rate
2. Diffusion coefficient of gas (measure of how easily a
gas diffuses through a liquid or tissue). CO2 is 20
times more diffusible than O2, surface areas of
membrane, partial pressure of gases in alveoli and
blood
3. Surface area. Diseases like emphysema and lung
cancer reduce available surface area
4. Partial pressure differences. Gas moves from area
of higher partial pressure to area of lower partial
pressure. Normally, partial pressure of oxygen is
higher in alveoli than in blood. Opposite is usually
true for carbon dioxide
23-37
Relationship Between Alveolar Ventilation
and Pulmonary Capillary Perfusion
• Increased ventilation or increased pulmonary capillary blood
flow increases gas exchange
• Shunted blood: blood that is not completely oxygenated
• Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood returning from lungs.
Two sources:
– Blood returning from bronchi bronchioles
– Blood from capillaries around alveoli
• Regional distribution of blood flow determined primarily by
gravity, but can also be determined by alveolar PO2.
– Low PO2 causes arterioles to constrict so that blood is
shunted to a region of the lung where the alveoli are better
ventilated.
– In other tissues of the body, low PO2 causes arterioles to
dilate to deliver more blood to the tissues. 23-38
23.6 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Transport in the Blood
• Oxygen • Carbon dioxide
– Moves from alveoli into – Moves from tissues
blood. Blood is almost into tissue capillaries
completely saturated
– Moves from
with oxygen when it
leaves the capillary
pulmonary capillaries
into the alveoli
– PO2 in blood decreases
because of mixing with
deoxygenated blood
– Oxygen moves from
tissue capillaries into the
tissues
23-39
Gas Exchange
Inspired air Expired air
Po2 = 160 Po2 = 120
Po2 = 0.3 Po2 = 27
Alveolus Alveolus
Po2 = 104 Pco2 = 40 Po2 = 104 Pco2 = 40
1 Oxygen diffuses into the 1 2

arterial ends of pulmonary
capillaries, and CO2
Po2 = 40 Pco2 = 45 Po2 = 104 Pco2 = 40
diffuses into the alveoli
because of differences Pulmonary capillary
in partial pressures.
2 As a result of diffusion
at the venous ends of
pulmonary capillaries, the
Po2 in the blood is equal 3
to the Po2 in the alveoli, Po2 = 95 Blood in
and the Pco2 in the Pco2 = 40 pulmonary veins
blood is equal to the
Pco2 in the alveoli.
3 The Pco2 of blood in

the pulmonary veins
is less than in the Right Left
pulmonary capillaries
because of mixing with
deoxygenated blood from
veins draining the bronchi
and bronchioles.
Heart
4 Oxygen diffuses out of the

arterial ends of tissue Tissue capillary
capillaries, and CO2
diffuses out of the tissue Po2 = 40 Pco2 = 45 Pco2 = 95 Pco2 = 40
because of differences in
partial pressures.
5 Interstitial 4
5 As a result of diffusion at fluid
the venous ends of tissue Po2 = 40 Pco2 = 45 Po2 = 40 Pco2 = 45
capillaries, the Po2 in the
blood is equal to the Po2
in the tissue, and the Pco2
in the blood is equal to the Po2 = 20 Pco2 = 46
Pco2 in the tissue.
Go back to step 1.
Tissue cells 23-40
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
• Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin (98.5%) and is
dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
• Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: describes the
percentage of hemoglobin saturated with oxygen at
any given PO2
• Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve at rest shows
that hemoglobin is almost completely saturated when
PO2 is 80 mm Hg or above. At lower partial pressures,
the hemoglobin releases oxygen.
23-41
Dissociation Curve
99%
(a) Lungs. At a Po2 of 104 mm Hg in the 100

lungs, hemoglobin is 98% saturated with
oxygen. It is like nearly filling a glass. Oxygen released
to tissue
80 at rest: 23%
Oxygen released
% O2 saturation
60 to tissue during
23% exercise: 73%
75% 40
(b) Tissue at rest. At a Po2 of 40 mm Hg

20
in a tissue at rest, hemoglobin is 75%
saturated with oxygen and 23% of the
oxygen picked up in the lungs is
released to the tissue. It is like 0
partially emptying the glass. 20 40 60 80 100 105
Po2 (mm Hg)
Po2 in tissue Po2 in tissue Po2 in lungs

during exercise at rest
73%
25%
(c) Tissue during exercise. At a Po2 of

15 mm Hg in a tissue during exercise,
hemoglobin can be 25% saturated with
oxygen and 73% of the oxygen picked 23-42
up in the lungs is released to the
tissue. It is like emptying most of the
Bohr Effect
• Effect of pH on oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation curve: as pH of blood declines,
amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin at
any given PO2 also declines
• Occurs because decreased pH yields
increase in H+ that combines with
hemoglobin changing its shape and oxygen
cannot bind to hemoglobin
23-43
Effects of CO2 and Temperature
• Increase in PCO2 causes decrease in pH
• Carbonic anhydrase causes CO2 and water
to combine reversibly and form H2CO3
which ionizes to H+ and HCO3-
• Increase temperature: decreases tendency
for oxygen to remain bound to hemoglobin,
so as metabolism goes up, more oxygen is
released to the tissues.
23-44
Effect of BPG
• 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG): released
by RBCs as they break down glucose for
energy
• Binds to hemoglobin and increases release
of oxygen
23-45
Shifting the Curve
100 Increased 100

uptake of
oxygen in
lungs
80 80
%O2 saturation
%O2 saturation
60 Curve before 60 Curve shifts to left
shift as pH , CO2 , temperature
Curve shifts to right Curve before

40 40
as pH , CO2 , temperature shift
Increased
oxygen
release
to tissues 20 20
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 105 20 40 60 80 100 105
Po2 (mm Hg) Po2 (mm Hg)
Po2 in tissue PO2 in lungs
(a) In the tissues, the oxygen-hemglobin dissociation curve shifts to the right. (b) In the lungs, the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the left.
As pH decreases, Pco2 increases, or temperature increases, the curve As pH increases, Pco2 decreases, or temperature decreases, the curve
(red) shifts to the right (blue), resulting in an increased release of oxygen. (blue) shifts to the left ( red), resulting in an increased ability of
hemoglobin to pick up oxygen.
23-46
Fetal Hemoglobin
• Fetal hemoglobin picks up oxygen from maternal hemoglobin
for several reasons
• Concentration of fetal hemoglobin is 50% greater than
concentration of maternal hemoglobin.
• Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation of fetal hemoglobin is left of
maternal; i.e., fetal can bind oxygen better than maternal
• BPG has little effect on fetal hemoglobin. Does not cause it to
release oxygen
• Movement of carbon dioxide out of fetal blood causes the fetal
oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to shift to the left.
Simultaneously, movement of carbon dioxide into mother’s
blood causes maternal oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to
shift to the right: double Bohr effect
23-47
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions
(70%) in combination with blood proteins (23%:
primarily hemoglobin) and in solution with plasma
(7%)
• Hemoglobin that has released oxygen binds more
readily to carbon dioxide than hemoglobin that has
oxygen bound to it (Haldane effect)
• In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combines with
water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid which
dissociates to form bicarbonate ions and hydrogen
ions
23-48
Carbon Dioxide Transport
(a) Tissue capillaries: as CO2 enters red blood cells, reacts with water
to form bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. Chloride ions enter the
RBC and bicarbonate ions leave: chloride shift. Hydrogen ions
combine with hemoglobin. Lowering the concentration of
bicarbonate and hydrogen ions inside red blood cells promotes the
conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate ion.
(b) Pulmonary capillaries: CO2 leaves red blood cells, resulting in the
formation of additional CO2 from carbonic acid. The bicarbonate
ions are exchanged for chloride ions, and the hydrogen ions are
released from hemoglobin.
• Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowers blood pH. The respiratory
system regulates blood pH by regulating plasma carbon dioxide
levels
23-49
Carbon Dioxide Transport:
Internal Respiration
1 In the tissues, carbon dioxide (CO2) Capillary wall

diffuses into the plasma and into red
blood cells. Some of the carbon dioxide
remains in the plasma. Plasma
2 In red blood cells, carbon dioxide reacts 1

with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid CO2
CO2 CO2
(H2CO3) in a reaction catalyzed by the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA).
2 CA
3 Carbonic acid dissociates to form H2O
bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) and hydrogen
ions (H+). H2CO3
Red blood cell
4 In the chloride shift, as HCO3 diffuse 3
out of the red blood cells, electrical Tissue cells
neutrality is maintained by the diffusion
of chloride ions (Cl–) into them. HCO3– HCO3– + H+
4 6
5 Oxygen (O2) is released from hemoglobin Cl– Cl–
(Hb). Oxygen diffuses out of red blood cells H
and plasma into the tissue.
O2 O2 O2 Hb CO2 CO2
6 Hydrogen ions combine with 5 7
hemoglobin, which promotes the
release of oxygen from hemoglobin
(Bohr effect).
7 Carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin that has released oxygen
readily combines with carbon dioxide
(Haldane effect).
(a) Gas exchange in the tissues

23-50
Carbon Dioxide Transport:
External Respiration
Alveolus Capillary wall

1 In the lungs, carbon dioxide (CO2)
diffuses from red blood cells and
plasma into the alveoli.
Plasma
2 Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the

1
formation of CO2 and H2O from H2CO3.
CO2 CO2 CO2
3 Bicarbonate ions and H+ combine to

replace H2CO3.
2 CA
H2O
4 In the chloride shift, as HCO3– diffuse
into red blood cells, electrical neutrality
H2CO3
is maintained by the diffusion of
chloride ions (Cl–) out of them. Red blood cell
3
T
5 Oxygen diffuses into the plasma and
into red blood cells. Some of the oxygen HCO3– HCO3– + H+
remains in the plasma. Oxygen binds to 4
6
hemoglobin. Cl– Cl–
H
6 Hydrogen ions are released from
O2 Hb CO2
hemoglobin, which promotes the uptake O2 O2 CO2
of oxygen by hemoglobin (Bohr effect). 5 7
7 Carbon dioxide is released from

hemoglobin. Hemoglobin that is bound
to oxygen readily releases carbon
dioxide (Haldane effect).
(b) Gas exchange in the lungs
23-51
23.7 Regulation of Ventilation
Pons
• Medullary respiratory Pontine respiratory

group
center Dorsal
respiratory group Medullary
– Dorsal groups stimulate the Ventral

respiratory group
respiratory
center
diaphragm Medulla oblongata
– Ventral groups stimulate the

intercostal and abdominal
Medial view of brainstem
muscles Spinal cord
• Pontine (pneumotaxic)
Phrenic Intercostal
respiratory group nerve nerves
– Involved with switching

between inspiration and Internal intercostal muscles
(involved in expiration)
expiration External intercostal muscles

(involved in inspiration)
Diaphragm
(involved in inspiration)
23-52
Anterior view
Rhythmic Ventilation
1. Starting inspiration
– Medullary respiratory center neurons are continuously active
– Center receives stimulation from receptors and simulation from parts
of brain concerned with voluntary respiratory movements and emotion
– Combined input from all sources causes action potentials to stimulate
respiratory muscles
2. Increasing inspiration
– More and more neurons are activated
3. Stopping inspiration
– Neurons stimulating also responsible for stopping inspiration and
receive input from pontine group and stretch receptors in lungs.
Inhibitory neurons activated and relaxation of respiratory muscles
results in expiration.
23-53
Rhythmic Ventilation
• Apnea. Cessation of • Chemical control
breathing. Can be conscious – Carbon dioxide is major
decision, but eventually regulator, but indirectly through
PCO2 levels increase to point pH change
that respiratory center • Increase or decrease in pH can
stimulate chemo-sensitive area,
overrides causing a greater rate and depth
• Hyperventilation. Causes of respiration
decrease in blood PCO2 level. – Oxygen levels in blood affect
Peripheral vasodilation respiration when a 50% or greater
causes decrease in BP. decrease from normal levels
Fainting. Problem before exists
diving. • CO2.
• Cerebral and limbic system. – Hypercapnia: too much CO2
Respiration can be – Hypocapnia: lower than normal
voluntarily controlled and CO2
modified by emotions
23-54
Modifying Respiration
(a) Higher centers of

the brain (speech, +
emotions, voluntary –
control of breathing,
and action potentials
in motor pathways)
(b) Medullary (chemosensitive

area) chemoreceptors
pH, CO2
Carotid
body
(c) Carotid and
aortic body Aortic
chemoreceptors body
pH, CO2, O2
Input to respiratory
centers in the
medulla oblongata
and pons modifies
respiration.
(d) Hering-Breuer reflex

(stretch receptors
in lungs)
(e) Proprioceptors
in muscles
and joints
(f) Receptors for

Brainstem
touch, temperature,
and pain stimuli
23-55
Chemical Control of Ventilation
• Chemoreceptors: specialized neurons that respond
to changes in chemicals in solution
– Central chemoreceptors: chemosensitive area of the
medulla oblongata; connected to respiratory center
– Peripheral chemoreceptors: carotid and aortic
bodies. Connected to respiratory center by cranial
nerves IX and X
• Effect of pH: chemosensitive area of medulla
oblongata and carotid and aortic bodies respond to
blood pH changes
– Chemosensitive areas respond indirectly through
changes in carbon dioxide
– Carotid and aortic bodies respond directly to pH
changes 23-56
• Effect of carbon dioxide: small change in carbon
dioxide in blood triggers a large increase in rate
and depth of respiration
– Hypercapnia: greater-than-normal amount of carbon
dioxide
– Hypocapnia: lower-than-normal amount of carbon
dioxide
• Chemosensitive area in medulla oblongata is more
important for regulation of PCO2 and pH
• Carotid bodies respond rapidly to changes in
blood pH because of exercise
23-57
• Effect of oxygen: carotid and aortic body
chemoreceptors respond to decreased PO2
by increased stimulation of respiratory
center to keep it active despite decreasing
oxygen levels
• Hypoxia: decrease in oxygen levels below
normal values
23-58
Regulation of Blood pH and Gases
3 4
Actions Reactions
Medullary chemoreceptors detect an

increase in blood pH (often caused by a Decreased breathing increases blood
decrease in blood CO2), causing a CO2 .
decrease in breathing .
2 5 Blood pH decreases:
Blood pH increases:
Homeostasis Disturbed Homeostasis Restored
1 6
(normal range)
(normal range)
Blood pH
Blood pH
Star there
Blood pH decreases: Blood pH increases:

Homeostasis Disturbed Homeostasis Restored
Actions Reactions
Medullary chemoreceptors detect a

decrease in blood pH (often caused by Increased breathing decreases blood
an increase in blood CO2), causing an CO2.
increase in breathing .
23-59
Hering-Breuer Reflex
• Limits the degree of inspiration and
prevents overinflation of the lungs
– Infants
• Reflex plays a role in regulating basic rhythm of
breathing and preventing overinflation of lungs
– Adults
• Reflex important only when tidal volume large as in
exercise
23-60
Effect of Exercise on Ventilation
• Ventilation increases abruptly
– At onset of exercise
– Movement of limbs has strong influence
– Learned component
• Ventilation increases gradually
– After immediate increase, gradual increase occurs (4-6
minutes)
– Anaerobic threshold: highest level of exercise without
causing significant change in blood pH. If exceeded, lactic
acid produced by skeletal muscles
23-61
Other Modifications of Ventilation
• Activation of touch, thermal and pain

receptors affect respiratory center
• Sneeze reflex, cough reflex
• Increase in body temperature yields increase
in ventilation
23-62
23.8 Respiratory Adaptations to Exercise
• Athletic training
– Vital capacity increases slightly; residual volume
decreases slightly
– At maximal exercise, tidal volume and minute
ventilation increases
– Gas exchange between alveoli and blood increases at
maximal exercise
– Alveolar ventilation increases
– Increased cardiovascular efficiency leads to greater
blood flow through the lungs
23-63
23.9 Effects of Aging
• Vital capacity and maximum minute

ventilation decrease
• Residual volume and dead space increase
• Ability to remove mucus from respiratory
passageways decreases
• Gas exchange across respiratory membrane
is reduced
23-64

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NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Human Body Orientation, Terms and Organization

Different approaches in studying Anatomy

The Biological Organization of Humans

Different Organ Systems in our Body

2 types of feedback mechanism

Characteristic of a living organisms

1. Organization: all parts of an organism interact to perform specific functions

Terminologies used in the study of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Supine- person lying face up

The abdomen can also be divided into different regions as follows.

The body can still be divided into planes.

Different body planes

1. Right hypochondriac region

The three sections of the cell

1. Metabolize and release energy

The Cell Membrane

a. Uniport (Facilitiated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule down its concentration

ATP - Powered pumps

Vesicular Transport (Mass Transport)

a. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into the cell by formation of a vesicle.

Endoplastic Reticulum (ER)

Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) inside the Mitochondria.

Aerobic respiration is a type of metabolism that requires Oxygen.

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli.

Here is a step by step overview of protein synthesis.

NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Organogenesis (formation of organs)

Endoderm (Endo – inner, derm- skin)

Mesoderm (Meso – middle)

Ectoderm (ecto- Outer)

4 MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE

1. Protecting underlying structures

TYPES OF EPITHELIAL IMAGE OF EPITHELIAL FUNCTION AND LOCATION

tubes by ciliated cells,

Stratified Columnar - This are multiple

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES IN THE BODY

3 major subdivisions of Loose connective tissue

2. Dense Connective Tissue

2 Major subcategories of Dense Connective Tissue

A. Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue

B. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

3. Supporting Connective Tissue

Hyaline Cartilage is the most common kind of cartilage

Fibrocartilage- The matrix of fibrocartilage contains more collagen

Elastic Cartilage- In addition to collagen and proteoglycans, elastic

➔ Spongy bone resembles a sponge

4. Fluid connective tissue

➔ Blood is a connective fluid that contains

TYPES OF IMAGE OF MUSCULAR FUNCTION AND LOCATION

1. SKELETAL - The skeletal muscle cells or

2. CARDIAC - The cardiac muscle is a kind

are responsible for the

3. SMOOTH - The smooth muscle cells are

1. Inflammation isolates and destroys harmful agents.