FIITJEE LTD

NARAYANGUDA
PHYSICS-II
IPE NOTES - 2023

CHAPTER 6
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Define mean free path of electron in a conductor.
Ans. The average distance travelled by an electron between successive collisions in a conductor is
called mean free path of electron in a conductor.

2. State Ohm’s law and write its mathematical form.

Ans. The electric current ( i ) flowing through a substance is directly proportional to the potential
difference ( V ) between its ends.
That is, V  i
Mathematically it is written as V  iR , where R is the constant of proportionality called the
resistance of the conductor. This depends on the substance and the temperature.

3. Define resistivity or specific resistance.

Ans. Resistivity or specific resistance (p) :
The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length l and constant cross-sectional area A
l
through the relation R   , where  , the constant of proportionality is called the resistivity of
A
the material of the conductor.
If length of a conductor l  1 unit, area of cross-section A  1 unit, then
A 1
R R R
l 1
Thus, resistivity can be defined as the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of
cross–section.

4. Define temperature coefficient of resistance.

Ans. Temperature coefficient of resistivity (a):
The temperature coefficient of resistivity α is defined as the fractional increase in resistivity
per unit increase in temperature.
1  d 
 at 0 ⁰C, where 0 is the resistivity at 0 ⁰C
0  dT 
Or The ratio of the change in resistivity per 1°C rise in temperature to the resistivity at 0°C is
called the temperature coefficient of resistivity
 T  0 

0 T
The unit of the temperature coefficient of resistivity is (⁰C)-1 or K-1.

5. Under what conditions is the current through the mixed grouping of cells maximum?
Ans. The current through the mixed grouping of cells is maximum, when
(i) Effective emf of all the cells is high and
(ii) the value of external resistance is equal to the total internal resistance of all the cells.
6. If a wire is stretched to double its original length without loss of mass, how will the
resistivity of the wire be influenced?
Ans. Resistivity of the wire remains unchanged as it does not change with change in dimension of
a material without change in its temperature.

7. Why is manganin used for making standard resistors?

Ans. Due to high resistivity and low temperature coefficient of resistance, manganin wire (Cu -
84%, Mn - 12%, Ni - 4%) is used in the preparation of standard resistances.

8. The sequence of bands marked on a carbon resistor are: Red, Red, Red, Silver. What is
its resistance and tolerance?
Ans. According to the resistor colour code, red represents 2. The
first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant
figures of the resistance in ohms. The third band indicates
the decimal multiplier The last band stands for tolerance:
Silver represents 10%.
Thus, the resistance of a carbon resistor marked with Red, Red, Red is
22 x 102  = 2.2k = 2200

9. Write the colour code of a carbon resistor of resistance 23 kilo ohms.

Ans. 23 kΩ = 23 x 103 Ω
According to the resistor colour code, red represents 2 and orange represents 3.
The multiplier 103 is represented by orange.
Thus, the colour code of the carbon resistor of 23 Kilo Ohms, is a sequence of red, orange,
orange colours.

10. If the voltage V applied across a conductor is increased to 2V, how will the drift
velocity of the electrons change?
Ans. The drift velocity,
eE eV
vd   
m mL
Since the electron charge e , electron mass m and the length of the conductor L are
constant,
v d1 V1 V
 
v d2 V2 2V
 v d2  2v d1
 Drift velocity will be doubled.

11. Two wires of equal length, of copper and manganin, have the same resistance. Which
wire is thicker?
Ans. The resistance of a wire is given as,
A Rl 1
R    r 2  r
l  
 copper  manganin
rcopper  rmanganin
Therefore, for the same resistance and equal lengths, copper wire thicker than
manganin wire.

12. Why are household appliances connected in parallel?

Ans. In parallel, the voltage (V) across each appliance is same. The current (I) through them
depends upon the power (P) of the appliance. The higher power appliance draws more
current and lower power appliance draws less current.
( P = VI or I  P)
13. The electron drift speed in metals is small (~m s-1) and the charge of the electron is
also very small (~10-19 C), but we can still obtain a large amount of current in a metal.
Why?
Ans. Current in a conductor is given as, i  Anevd , in which A is the area of cross-section of the
conductor, n is the number of free electrons per unit volume in the metal, e is the electron
charge and vd is the drift velocity.
The electron density, i.e., the number of electrons per unit volume is very high (~1028 electrons per
cm3) which cause the current in the conductors. Thus, in spite of having small drift velocity and
electron charge, we obtain large current in a conductor.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor R

(i) If the current in the circuit is 0.5 A, calculate the value of R
(ii) What is the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is closed?
Ans. Given:
Emf = 10 V
Internal Resistance, r  3 
Current i  0.5 A
Solution:
 
(i) i   R  r
r R i
10
R   3  17 
0.5
(ii) When the circuit is closed, VAB    ir  10   0.5  3   8.5 V

2. Draw a circuit diagram showing how a potentiometer may be used to find internal
resistance of a cell and establish a formula for it.
Ans. Working principle of potentiometer:
In a uniform wire AC, the potential difference between A and any point at a distance  l from
A is directly proportional to its length
  l    l , where the proportionality constant    is the potential drop per unit length, i.e.,
known as potential gradient. The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current
from the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by the internal
resistance of the source.
Measurement of internal resistance (r) with potentiometer:
(i) The circuit for determining of internal of a cell is shown
in figure.
(ii) The cell (  ) with internal resistance (r) is connected
across a resistance box (R.B) through a key K2.
(iii) With key K2 open, balance is obtained at length I1(AN1).
Then   l1 --- --- (1)
(iv) When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current ( i )
through the resistance box (R/B).
(v) If V is the terminal potential difference of the cell and balance point obtained at length I2
(AN2).
Then, V  l2 --- --- (2)
(vi) Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get
 l1
 --- --- (3)
V l2
(vii) But   i  r  R  and V  iR
Substituting these in equation (3), we get,
  r  R  l1
 
V R l2
r l
  1 1
R l2
l l 
 r  R  1 2  --- --- (4)
 l2 
Using equation (4), we can find the internal resistance of a cell.

3. Derive an expression for the effective resistance when three resistors are connected in
(i) series (ii) parallel.
Ans. (i) Effective resistance when resistors are connected in Series:

(a) Consider the arrangement shown in figure in which three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are
connected across an ideal cell of emf V. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential differences across R1,
R2 and R3. This arrangement is called a series combination in which the same current i flows
through the circuit.
(b) Applying Ohm’s Law to the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 of the three resistors we get
V1 =iR1, V2 =iR2 and V3 =iR3,
(c) From Kirchhoff’s Loop rule, the emf V across the ideal cell will be the sum of the potential
differences across each resistor.
Thus V = V1 +V2+V3 = iR1 + iR2 + iR3 = i(R1+R2+R3) --- --- (1)
(d) Consider a single resistance Rs connected to the same cell replacing the three resistors,
such that the same potential difference V is developed across the resistor carrying the same
current i through the circuit. Then, once again from Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule,
V = iRs --- --- (2)
(e) From equations (1) and (2) we have
V = iRs = i(R1+R2+R3) ⇒ Rs = (R1+R2+R3)
This can be extended to a series combination of any number n of resistors R1, R2 ....., Rn.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance for series combination Req,s is,
Req,s = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn

(ii) Effective resistance when three resistors are connected in Parallel:

Consider three resistors with resistance R1,
R2 and R3 connected such that the same
emf of the ideal cell is applied across each
of the resistors. Such an arrangement in
which the potential difference across each
of the resistors is the same is referred to as
a parallel combination.
Let the currents in the resistors be i1, i2 and i3 respectively, such that by Ohm’s Law the
potential difference across each resistor is
V = i1R1 = i2R2 = i3R3
V V V
Thus, the currents in each resistor will be i1  , i2  and i3 
R1 R2 R3
From Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule the total current through the cell, i  i1  i2  i3
V V V
i   --- --- (1)
R1 R 2 R3
Consider a single resistance Rp replacing the three resistors, such that the same potential
difference V across the resistor is applied and the current, i through the cell is the same as in
the parallel combination.
V
i --- --- (2)
Rp
From equations (1) and (2) we have
V V V V
i   
R1 R 2 R3 Rp
1 1 1 1
   
Rp R1 R2 R3
We can reason similarly for any number of resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance of n
resistors R1, R2 . . . ,Rn is
1 1 1 1
   ... 
Rp R1 R2 Rn

4. ‘m’ cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in parallel. What is the
total emf and internal resistance?
Under what conditions is the current drawn from mixed grouping of cells a maximum?
Ans. Cells in parallel:
1) When ‘m’ identical cells each of emf ‘V’ and internal resistance r
are connected to external resistor of resistance R as shown in
figure, then the cells are connected in parallel.
2) As the cells are connected in parallel, their equivalent internal
1 1 1 m
resistance rp is given    .......... up to m terms =
rp r r r
r
 rp 
m
r
3) As R and r are in series, so total resistance in the circuit = R +
m
4) In parallel combination of identical cells, the effective emf in the circuit is equal to the emf
due to a single cell, because in this combination, only the size of the electrodes increases but
not emf.
 m
5) Therefore, current in the resistance R is given by I  .
r mR  r
R
m
6) When the external resistance is negligible in comparison to the internal resistance (R<< r)
the current drawn from mixed grouping of cells is a maximum.

5. Define electric resistance and write its SI unit. How does the resistance of a conductor
vary if
(a) Conductor is stretched to 4 times of its (length)
(b) Temperature of a conductor is increased.
Ans. Electric resistance (R):
The resistance offered by a flow of electrons in a conductor is called electric resistance.
S.I unit of resistance is ohm ()
The resistance of a conductor
l l 2
R   R  l2
A V
(a) Let in the first case, R1 = R, I1 = I
Then, when the conductor is stretched to 4 times in length, I2 = 4 I1 = 4I, R2 = ?
2
R2 l23 R  4l 
Since R  l2 ,   2  
R1 l1 R  l 
 R2 = 16 R.
b) Variation of resistance with temperature is given by R1 = R0(1 + t)
If temperature increases, resistance also increases, if the temperature coefficient of
resistance is positive (example, copper) and decreases if the temperature coefficient is
negative (example, semiconductors).

6. When the resistance connected in series with a cell is halved, the current is equal to or
slightly less or slightly greater than double. Why?
Ans. The current in a circuit consisting of cell of emf  and internal resistance r connected to an
external resistance R is given as

i1  --- --- (1)
r R
If the resistance is halved, then the current would be
 2
i2   --- --- (2)
r  R 2 2r  R
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we have
i2 2  R  r 
n 
i1  R  2r 
2 1  x 
 2 1  x 1  2x 
1
n
1  2x 
This is decreasing function with a limiting value of 0.5 as x  
If x  0 . i.e., the internal resistance is zero (ideal cell), n  2  i2  2i1
The current is double the original current.
For x  1 n  2 1  x  n  2  i2  2i1
The current is slightly less than double the original current.
For all other values of x, 0.5  n  2  i1  i2  2i1
Thus, we conclude the current will never be greater than double when the series
resistance is halved.

7. Two cells of emfs 4.5 V and 6.0 V and internal resistance 6 Ω and 3 Ω respectively have
their negative terminals joined by a wire of 18 Ω and positive terminal by a wire of 12 Ω
resistance. A third resistance wire of 24 Ω connects middle points of these wires.
Using Kirchhoff’s laws, find the potential difference at the ends of this third wire.
Ans. The circuit is as shown in the figure.
Let the current through the 4.5-V cell be i1
and that through the 6.0-V cell be i2 in the
directions as indicated.
The resistance of the wire connecting the
negative terminals (18 Ω) will get equally
divided 9 Ω each on either side as the third
resistor is connected to the middle point.
Similarly, the resistance of the wire
connecting the positive terminals (12 Ω) will
get equally divided 6 Ω each on either side
as the third resistor is connected to its
middle point.
By Kirchhoff’s Junction rule for the junction E or F, the current in the 24 Ω resistor will be
(i1+i2) from right to left.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule to the loop ABFEA,
9i2  6   3  6  i2  24  i1  i2   0
 4i1  7i2  1  0 --- --- (1)
Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule to the loop EFCDE,
24 i1  i2    6  6  i1  4.5  9i1   0
 45i1  24i2  4.5  0
 30i1  16i2  3  0 --- --- (2)
Solving the equations (1) and (2) we get
i1 i2 c
4 7 1  0
30 16  3
 21  16  5
 i1    0.034 A
 64  210  146
 30  12  18
and i2    0.123 A
 64  210  146
The potential difference across the 24-Ω resistor,
VFE  24  i1  i2   24   0.034  0.123   24  0.158  3.78 V

8. Three resistors each of resistance 10 ohm are connected, in turn, to obtain (i) minimum
resistance (ii) maximum resistance.
Compute (a) The effective resistance in each case, (b) The ratio of minimum to
maximum resistance so obtained.
Ans. Given, Resistance of each resistor R = 10 , no. of resistors, n = 3
When three resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 R
        RP 
Rp R1 R2 R3 R R R R 3
When the three resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is given by
RS  R1  R 2  R3  R  R  R  3R
For any other series-cum-parallel combinations of the three resistors the effective resistance
will be between these two values.
RP  Reff  RS
R
  R eff  3R
3
10
  R eff  30
3
(a) Thus, to obtain minimum resistance the resistors are connected in parallel combination
10
with an effective resistance of Rmin  Ω.
3
And to obtain minimum resistance the resistors are connected in series combination with an
effective resistance of Rmax  30 Ω.
(b) The ratio of minimum to maximum resistance that can be obtained,
10
Rmin : Rmax  : 30  1: 9
3

9. State Kirchhoff’s laws for an electric network. Using these laws deduce the condition
for balance in a Wheatstone bridge.
Ans. Kirchhoff’s first law:
Kirchhoff’s 1st law applies to a junction and is also called ‘junction theorem’ or ‘junction rule’
It states that the sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing out of the junction.
i1 + i2 + i4 = i3 + i5 i1
Iin  Iout i2 i3
A junction in an electrical circuit is a point where three or more A
i4
components like resistances meet. i5
This law is a consequence of the law of conservation of charge.
Electric charge is never accumulated at any point in a circuit.
This law may also be stated as, “the algebraic sum of electric currents at a junction in a circuit
is zero.”
Here the convention is to take currents flowing into a junction as positive and currents flowing
out as negative. That is,
i1 + i2 – i3 + i4 – i5= 0

Kirchhoff’s Second Law

The 2nd law applies to a closed loop and is called ‘loop theorem’ or ‘loop rule’.
A loop is any closed conducting path in the circuit.
The loop rule states that the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
The following sign conventions are used while applying the loop rule.
(a) Because charges move from the high-potential end of a
resistor toward the low potential end, if a resistor is
traversed in the direction of the current, the potential
difference V across the resistor is  IR 
(b) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the
current, the potential difference V across the resistor is
 IR 
(c) If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction of the emf (from
– to +), the potential difference V is   
The emf of the battery increases the electric potential as
we move through it in this direction.
(d) If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction opposite the emf
(from + to – ), the potential difference V is   
In this case the emf of the battery reduces the electric
potential as we move through it.

Wheatstone Bridge:
(i) It is an electric circuit used to compare resistances or find the value of an unknown
resistance. It consists of four resistances, a battery and a galvanometer.
(ii) When no current flows through the galvanometer the bridge is said to be balanced.
(iii) In a Wheatstone bridge four resistances P, Q, R & S are joined to form the four sides of a
quadrilateral.
(iv) These four sides are referred to as arms of the bridge. Four
junctions are formed at A, B, C, D. i C i3
(v) A battery of emf  is connected between the two opposite
i1
junction A and B. B
A i2
(vi) A galvanometer g of resistance G ohms is connected i 4

between the other two opposite junctions C and D.

D
(vii) The galvanometer gets deflected whenever a current passes through it. It shows zero or
null deflection only when no current passes through it.

The distribution of the original current ‘i’ among the various branches of the circuit are as
shown in the figure.
Applying Kirchhoff’s First law, at Junction C, we get
i1 = ig + i3
and at junction D
i2 + ig = i4
Applying the Kirchhoff’s 2nd law, for loop ACDA, with currents in clock wise direction taken as
positive.
i1 P + ig G – i2R = 0
And for loop CBDC, again with currents clockwise direction taken as positive.
i3Q – i4S – igG = 0
For the bridge to be balanced, no current should pass through the galvanometer in any
direction,
i.e ig = 0
Now, bridge is balanced if
i1 = i3
i2 = i4
i1P – i2R = 0
or i1P = i2R
and i3 Q  i4 S  0 (or) i3 Q  i4 S
And we get P  R
Q S
This is balancing condition for Wheatstone bridge and is called the Wheatstone bridge
principle.

10. State the working principle of potentiometer. Explain with the help of circuit diagram
how the emf of two primary cells are compared by using the potentiometer.
Ans. Working principle of potentiometer:
In a uniform wire AC, the potential difference between A and any point at a distance  l from
A is directly proportional to its length
  l    l , where the proportionality constant    is the potential drop per unit length, i.e.,
known as potential gradient. The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current
from the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by the internal
resistance of the source.
To compare the emf of two cells with potentiometer:
Figure shows an application of the potentiometer to compare the emf of two cells of emf 1
and  2 .
(i) The points marked 1, 2, 3 form the terminals of a
two-way key.
(ii) Consider first a position of the key where 1 and 3
are connected so that the galvanometer is
connected to 1 .
(iii) The jockey is moved along the wire till at a point
N1, at a distance l1 from A, there is no deflection
in the galvanometer.
(iv) We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the closed loop AN1G31A and get
l1  0  1  0 …… (1)
(v) Similarly, if another emf 2 is balanced against l2 (AN1)
l2  0   2  0 …… (2)
(vi) From equations (1) and (2)
1 l1

 2 l2
This simple mechanism thus allows one to compare the emf’s of any two sources.
In practice one of the cells is chosen as a standard cell whose emf is known to a high degree
of accuracy. The emf of the other cell is then easily calculated from the above identity.

11. State the working principle of potentiometer. Explain with the help of circuit diagram
how the potentiometer is used to determine the internal resistance of the given primary
cell.
Ans. Working principle of potentiometer:
In a uniform wire AC, the potential difference between A and any point at a distance  l from
A is directly proportional to its length
  l    l , where the proportionality constant    is the potential drop per unit length, i.e.,
known as potential gradient. The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current
from the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by the internal
resistance of the source.
Measurement of internal resistance (r) with potentiometer:
(i) The circuit for determining of internal of a cell is shown
in figure.
(ii) The cell (  ) with internal resistance (r) is connected
across a resistance box (R.B) through a key K2.
(iii) With key K2 open, balance is obtained at length I1(AN1).
Then   l1 --- --- (1)
(iv) When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current ( i )
through the resistance box (R/B).
(v) If V is the terminal potential difference of the cell and balance point obtained at length I2
(AN2).
Then, V  l2 --- --- (2)
(vi) Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get
 l1
 --- --- (3)
V l2
(vii) But   i  r  R  and V  iR
Substituting these in equation (3), we get,
  r  R  l1
 
V R l2
r l
  1 1
R l2
l l 
 r  R  1 2  --- --- (4)
 l2 
Using equation (4), we can find the internal resistance of a cell.

12. Show the variation of current versus voltage graph for GaAs and mark the (i) Non-
linear region (ii) Negative resistance region.
Ans. Although Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of materials, there do exist
materials and devices used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V and I does not
hold.
Gallium arsenide (used in the manufacture of light-
emitting diode s (LEDs), which are found in optical
communications and control systems) exhibits such
behaviour.
The variation of current versus voltage for GaAs is
shown in figure.
Initially as the V-I curve is linear. But a point as the
voltage increases the curve becomes non-linear and reaches a point where the slope
of V-I graph becomes zero.
Further increase of voltage results in decrease in current, indicating the resistance is
negative.

13. A student has two wires of iron and copper of equal length and diameter. He first joins
two wires in series and passes an electric current through the combination which
increases gradually. After that he joins two wires in parallel and repeats the process of
passing current. Which wire will glow first in each case?
Ans. The glowing of a wire on passing current through it depends on its power, i.e., the energy
dissipated per unit time.
This is given as the product of the potential difference ( V ) across the conducting wire and the
current ( I ) passing through it.
That is, power, P  VI
Using Ohm’s Law,
V2
P  I2R  --- --- (1)
R
The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length l and cross-sectional area A through
the relation where ρ, called resistivity is a property of the material and depends on
temperature and pressure.
l
R   --- --- (2)
A
From equations (1) and (2),
l AV 2
P  I2 
A l
Therefore, for two conducting wires of the same length and diameter,
P   for a given current, and
1
P for a given potential difference

The resistivity of iron and copper are iron  10  108 Ω m and copper  1.7  10 8 Ω m.
When the iron wire and the copper wire are connected in series, the current is the
same in both the conductors.
Since iron  copper , the iron wire will glow first as P   in this case.
When the iron wire and the copper wire are connected in parallel, the potential
difference is the same in both the conductors.
1
Since copper  iron , the copper wire will glow first as P  in this case.


14. Three identical resistors are connected in parallel and total resistance of the circuit is
R/3. Find the value of each resistance.
Ans. Let the resistance of each resistor be r.
When three resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance is given by
1 1 1 1
  
Rp R1 R 2 R3
1 1 1 3
   
r r r r
r
 RP 
3
R
But we are given that RP 
3
r R
 RP  
3 3
Hence, the value of each resistance r = R.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Under what condition is the heat produced in an electric circuit
a) directly proportional
b) inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit?
Compute the ratio of the total quantity of heat produced in the two cases.
Ans. Expression of heat produced by electric current:
Consider a conductor AB of resistance R.
Let V = PD applied across the ends of AB.
I = current flowing through AB.
t = time for which the current is flowing.
Total charge flowing from A to B in time t is q = It.
Work done in carrying unit charge from A to B is the
potential difference between two points A-B = V.
Therefore, total work done in carrying a charge q from A to B is
W = Vq = VIt
This work done is called electric work done. If this electric work done appears as heat, then
amount of heat produced (H) is given by
H = W = VIt = I2 Rt J since by Ohm’s Law,  V  IR  --- --- (1)
This is the Joule's law of heating that states, when a current 'I ' passes through a conductor of
resistance 'R' for time 't' then the heat developed in the conductor is equal to the product of
the square of the current, the resistance and time, H=I2Rt joules.
Equation (1) can be written as,
V2t  V
H = W = VIt =  , since by Ohm’s Law,  I   --- --- (2)
R  R
a) The condition under which heat produced in an electric circuit is directly proportional to
resistance:
From equation (1) we conclude that when the current flowing in a circuit is constant, the
heat produced in the circuit (in given time), is directly proportional to the resistance
H  I2Rt  H  R
b) The condition under which heat produced in an electric circuit is indirectly proportional to
resistance:
From equation (2) we conclude that when the potential difference across a circuit is
constant, the heat produced in the circuit i(in a given time), is indirectly proportional to the
resistance
V2t 1
H H
R R

The ratio of the total quantity of heat produced (in the same time interval) in the two cases:
Let H1 be the heat produced in the first case for a constant current IC.
H1  IC2 Rt
Let H2 be the heat produced in the first case for a constant current VC.
V2t
H2  C , where c2 is the constant of proportionality.
R
Therefore, the ratio of the total quantity of heat produced (H1) when constant current flows in
the circuit to heat produced (H2) when the potential difference across the circuit is constant (in
the same time interval) is,
H1 I2 R  I2 
 C2   C2  R2
H2 VC  VC 
R
However, if IC and VC are maintained the same in all trials and only resistance R of the circuit
is varied then,
H1
 R2
H2

2. Two metallic wires A and B are connected in parallel. Wire A has length L and radius r.
Wire B has a length 2L and radius 2r. Compute the ratio of the total resistance of the
parallel combination and resistance of wire A.
Ans. Let us assume that the two wires are made of the same metal with the same coefficient of
resistivity 
L
The resistance of conducting wire is given as rA   , where L is the length of the
A
conductor and A is the area of cross-section of the conductor.
Considering circular cross-section of the wire, A=r 2
L
Thus, the resistance of wire A, R A   2
r
2L L R
And the resistance of wire B, RB     A
  2r  2r
2 2
2
The effective resistance when the wires are connected in parallel is,
1 1 1
 
Reff R A RB
RA
 RB 
2
1 1 2 3
  
Reff R A R A R A
RA
 R eff 
3
Thus, the ration of the total (effective) resistance to the resistance of wire A is,
Reff 1

RA 3
 Reff : R A  1: 3

3. In a house three bulbs of 100W each are lighted for 4 hours daily and six tube lights of
20W each are lighted for 5 hours daily and a refrigerator of 400W is worked for 10
hours daily for a month of 30 days. Calculate the electricity bill if the cost of one unit is
Rs. 4.00.
Ans. Calculation of electricity bill for one month:

Item Quantity Power Hours per Energy consumed per day

(n) (P in W) day (t)  nPt 
  kWh
 1000 
Bulbs 3 100 4  3  100  4 
   1.2
 1000 
Tube lights 6 20 5  6  20  5 
   0.6
 1000 
Refrigerator 1 400 10  1 400  10 
   4.0
 1000 
Total energy consumption per day 5.8
Total energy consumption for one month (30 days) = 5.8 x 30 =174 kWh = 174 units
(1 unit = 1 kWh)
Unit cost of electricity = ₹ 4.00
Therefore, the total monthly electricity bill = 174 x 4.00 = ₹ 696

4. Three resistors of 4 ohms, 6 ohms and 12 ohms are connected in parallel. The
combination of above resistors is connected in series to resistance of 2 ohms and then
to a battery of 6 volts. Draw a circuit diagram and calculate
(a) Current in main circuit
(b) Current flowing through each of the resistors in parallel
(d) p.d. and the power used by the 2-ohm resistor.
Ans. Circuit diagram:
Let the resistors R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω and R3 = 12 Ω be connected in parallel across the points
P and Q.
R4 = 2 Ω is conncted between A and P in series to the parallel combination of the first three
resistors.
The circuit is completed by connecting the battery ε = 6 V between the points C and D.
Let RP be the effective resistance of the parallel combination.
1 1 1 1
Then,   
RP R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 3  21 1
    
4 6 12 12 2
 RP  2 
(a) To find the current in the main circuit:
The equivalent circuit is as shown in figure.
Applying Loop Rule to the loop DCBAD,
6
6  2 I  2 I  0  I   1.5 A
4
Therefore, the current in the main circuit is
1.5 A
(b) To find the current through each of the resistors in parallel:
The potential difference across the points P and Q,
VPQ  IRP  1.5  2  3 V
This same potential difference is applied across each of the resistors in parallel. Hence, by
Ohm’s Law:
V 3
I1  PQ   0.75 A
R1 4
VPQ 3
I2    0.50 A
R2 6
VPQ 3
I3    0.25 A
R3 12
(c) To find p.d. and the power used by the 2-ohm resistor:
By Ohm’s Law, potential difference across 2-ohm resistor is,
VAP  IR 4  1.5  2  3 V
The power used by the 2-ohm resistor, P  VI  3  1.5  4.5 W

5. Two bulbs, one rated 100 W at 220 V and the other 60 W at 220 V are connected parallel
to a 220 V supply. What current is drawn from the supply line?
V2 V2 1 P
Ans. Power of a bulb is given as P  R   2
R P R V
If R1 and R2 are the resistance of the 100-W and 60-W bulbs respectively, then the effective
resistance of the parallel combination of the bulbs will be,
1 1 1 P P P P
   1  2  1 2 2 , since the voltage V for the two bulbs is the same
Reff R1 R2 V 2 V 2 V
The current drawn from the line,
V
Inet 
Reff
 P  P  P  P2
 V 1 2 2   1
 V  V
100  60 8
   0.73 A
220 11

6. Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in copper wire of cross-
sectional area 3.0 x 10-7 m2 carrying a current of 5 A. Assume that each coper atom
contributes roughly one conduction electron. The density of copper is 9 x 103 kg/m3
and its atomic mass is 63.5 u.
Ans. Given:
C.S.A. of the wire, A = 3.0 x 10-7 m2
Current, I = 5 A
Density of copper, ρ = 9 x 103 kg/m3 = 9 x 106 g/m3
Atomic Mass of copper, mCu = 63.5 u
Taking 1 u =1.66 x 10-27 kg, atomic mass of copper, mCu = (63.5 x 1.66 x 10-27) kg
By Avogadro Law, number of atoms in 63.5 g of copper = NA = 6.02 x 1023
The density of conduction electrons (n) in copper =

n
NA

  
9  106  6.02  1023 
 8.53  1028 m3
m 63.5
I
Drift velocity, v d 
neA
5

    
8.53  10  1.6  10 19  3.0  107
28

 1.2  10 3 m / s  1.2mm / s

7. Compare drift speed obtained above with

(i) Thermal speed of copper atoms at ordinary temperatures.
(ii) Speed of propagation of electric field along the conductor which causes the drift
motion.
Ans. (i) Comparison of drift speed with thermal speed:
At a temperature T, the thermal speed of a copper atom of mass M is obtained from
[<(1/2) Mv2 > = (3/2) kBT ]
kB T
and is thus typically of the order of , where kB is the Boltzmann constant.
M
For copper at ordinary temperature (assuming ordinary temperature of 27 ⁰C, i.e.,300 K) this is
about 2 × 102 m/s.
This figure indicates the random vibrational speeds of copper atoms in a conductor.
Therefore, the drift speed of electrons is much smaller, about 10-5 times the typical thermal speed
at ordinary temperatures.
(ii) Comparison of drift speed with speed of propagation of electric field along the conductor:
An electric field travelling along the conductor has a speed of an electromagnetic wave,
namely equal to 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
The drift speed is, in
comparison, extremely small; smaller by a factor of 10–11.

8. State Kirchhoff’s laws for an electric network.

Ans. Kirchhoff’s first law:
Kirchhoff’s 1st law applies to a junction and is also called ‘junction theorem’ or ‘junction rule’
It states that the sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing out of the junction.
i1 + i2 + i4 = i3 + i5 i1
Iin  Iout i2 i3
A junction in an electrical circuit is a point where three or more A
i4
components like resistances meet. i5
This law is a consequence of the law of conservation of charge.
Electric charge is never accumulated at any point in a circuit.
This law may also be stated as, “the algebraic sum of electric currents at a junction in a circuit
is zero.”
Here the convention is to take currents flowing into a junction as positive and currents flowing
out as negative. That is,
i1 + i2 – i3 + i4 – i5= 0

Kirchhoff’s Second Law

The 2nd law applies to a closed loop and is called ‘loop theorem’ or ‘loop rule’.
A loop is any closed conducting path in the circuit.
The loop rule states that the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
The following sign conventions are used while applying the loop rule.
(e) Because charges move from the high-potential end of a
resistor toward the low potential end, if a resistor is
traversed in the direction of the current, the potential
difference V across the resistor is  IR 
(f) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the
current, the potential difference V across the resistor is
 IR 
(g) If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction of the emf (from
– to +), the potential difference V is   
The emf of the battery increases the electric potential as
we move through it in this direction.
(h) If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction opposite the emf
(from + to – ), the potential difference V is   
In this case the emf of the battery reduces the electric
potential as we move through it.

Limitations exist on the numbers of times Kirchhoff’s rules can be usefully applied in analysing
a circuit.
(i) The junction rule can be used as often as needed, so long as each time an equation is
written a current is included in it that has not been used in a preceding junction-rule
equation.
(ii) In general, the number of times the junction rule can be used is one fewer than the
number of junction points in the circuit.
(iii) The loop rule can be applied as often as needed, as long as a new circuit element
(resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation.
(iv) In general, in order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number of independent
equations that are needed to be obtained from the two rules equals the number of
unknown currents.

PROBLEMS

1. A 10  thick wire is stretched so that its length becomes three times. Assuming that there is
no change in its density on stretching, calculate the resistance of the stretched wire.
Sol. Given: R1 = 10 Ω
The resistance of conductor is given in terms of its dimensions
L
as R  
A
If the cross-section is circular, then the area of cross-section in
terms of length and volume is
V
A
L
L2
R    R  L2 for a given conductor with density remaining constant.
V
Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of the wire before and stretching respectively.
Then,
2 2
R1  L1  10  L 
    
R2  L 2  R2  3L 
 R 2  90 
Therefore, the resistance of the stretched wire is 90 Ω
2. A wire of resistance 4R is bent in the form of a circle. What is the effective resistance
between the ends of the diameter?
Sol. Resistance of long wire = 4R
Let A and B be two points diametrically opposite points on circle formed by bending the long
wire.
These points divide the circle into two equal semicircles of equal resistances.
4R
Hence the resistance of half wire = R '   2R
2
Now these two wires are connected in parallel.
Hence the effective resistance between the ends of the diameter,
1 1 1 2 2 1
    
Reff R ' R' R' 2R R
 Reff  R

3. Find the resistivity of a conductor which carries a current of density of 2.5 x 106 A m–2
when an electric field of 15 V m–1 is applied across it.
I
Sol. Given current density = J  2.5  106 Am 2
A
Applied electric field E = 15 V m–1
Resistivity of conductor,
E 15
 
J 2.5 106
  = 6 x 10–6 m

4. What is the colour code for a resistor of resistance 350 mΩ with 5% tolerance?
Ans. Given resistance = 350 mΩ = 350 x 10-3 Ω = 35 x 10-2 Ω
According to the colour code for resistor,
For the first two significant digits, 3 is represented by orange and 5 is represented by green.
The multiplier 10-2 is represented by silver and the tolerance 5% by gold.
Hence the colour code for the resistor is Orange-Green-Silver-Gold

5. You are given 8- resistor. What length of wire of resistivity 120 m should be joined
in parallel with it to get a value of 6 ?
Sol. Given, Resistance of resistor R = 8 .
The effective resistance should be RP = 6 .
Then the resistance X of the wire to form a
parallel combination with the 8- resistor is
1 1 1
 
RP R X
1 1 1
  
6 8 X
68
X  24 
86
Resistivity of wire  = 120 m
Let L be the length of the wire to joined and A be the area of cross-section.
Then resistance X can be written in terms of its resistivity ρ as
L AX 24A
X L     0.2A  m
A  120
Area of cross-section of the wire is not given.
Thus, we conclude that the length of the wire = (0.2A) m, where A is the area of cross-
section.
However, if the resistor is considered as a cube of edge L, then A =L2 and
L L 
X  2 
A L L
 120
L    5m
A 24

6. Three resistors 3, 6 and 9 are connected to a battery. In which of them will the
power dissipation be maximum if:
a) They all are connected in parallel
b) They all are connected in series? Give reasons.
Sol. Given: R1 = 3 , R2 = 6  and R3 = 9 
Power in a resistor is given as
V2 2
P  VI  I R
R
a) When resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same across each of the
resistor.
1
Hence in this case P  i.e., power is inversely proportional to resistance and is maximum
R
in the resistor with the lowest resistance.
Therefore, power dissipation is maximum in the 3- resistor.
a) When resistors are connected in series, the current flowing the resistors is the same in
each of the resistor.
Hence in this case P  I2R  P  R i.e., power is directly proportional to resistance and is
maximum in the resistor with the highest resistance.
Therefore, power dissipation is maximum in series combination in the 9- resistor.

7. A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1  at 27.5°C and a resistance of 2.7  at 100°C.
Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver.
Sol. Given:
Resistance at 27.5 ⁰C, R27 = 2.1 
Resistance at 27.5 ⁰C, R100 = 2.1 L  5m
Over a limited range of temperatures, the variation of resistance with temperature is given by
R 
R2  R1 1    T2  T1     2  1    T2  T1  where α is the temperature co-efficient of
 R1 
resistivity and R1 and R2 are the resistance at the temperatures T1 and T2.
Therefore, the temperature co-efficient of resistivity of silver is,
 2.7 
  1   100  27 
 2.1 


 2.7 2.1  1  1.28  1  0.0039 ⁰C
-1
73 73

8. If the length of a wire conductor is doubled by stretching it while keeping the potential
difference constant, by what factor will the drift speed of the electrons change?
Sol. The drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is given by
eE
vd  , where vd is the drift speed e is the electronic charge,  is the average collision time
m
for electrons, E is the electric field and m is the mass of an electron.
V
But, electric field is related to the potential difference V across a length L as E 
L
eV 1
 vd   vd 
mL L
Therefore, drift velocity speed is inversely proportional to the length of the conductor.
Hence, when the length is doubled, the drift speed becomes half the original value, i.e., the
drift speed of electrons reduces by a factor 2.
OR

The current in a conductor is given by, I  neAv d , --- --- (1)

where n is the density of conduction electrons in the conductor, e is the electronic charge, A is
the area of cross-section and vd is the drift velocity.
V VA
Also, from Ohm’s Law, I   --- --- (2)
R L
From equations (1) and (2)
VA
 neAv d
L
V
 nev d
L
V
Lv d   constant
ne
 when the length is doubled, the drift speed becomes half the original value, i.e., the drift
speed of electrons reduces by a factor 2.

9. Two 120V light bulbs, one of 25W and another of 200W are connected in series. One
bulb burnt out almost instantaneously. Which one was burnt and why?
V2 2
Sol. Power dissipated in a resistor, P  VI  I R
R
For the same rated voltage, power is inversely proportional to the resistance and vice versa.
1
P
R
P25  P100  R25  R100
When two resistors are connected in series, the same current flows through them and power
dissipated is directly proportional to the resistance.
PR
R25  R100  P'25  P'100
where P ' is the power dissipated.
Thus, the power dissipated in the 25-W bulb is more and it fuses almost instantaneously.

10. A cylindrical metallic wire is stretched to increase its length by 5%. Calculate the
percentage change in resistance.
Sol. Given:
L
%Change in length,  5%
L
L2
Resistance of a wire, R  , where V is the volume of a conductor and ρ is the resistivity.
V
R L
 2  2  5  10%
R L

11. Two wires A and B of same length and same material, have their cross section areas in
the ratio 1 : 4. What would be the ratio of heat produced in these wires when the
voltage across each is constant?
Sol. Given:
LA = LB, A= B, VA = VB, AA : AB = 1 : 4
Rate of heat produced in a wire,
V 2 t V 2 At
H 
R L
Since V, ,  are same for both wires and B, H  A (area of cross-section)
For two wires A and B,
HA A A 1
 
HB AB 4
HA : HB  1: 4

12. Two bulbs whose resistances are in the ratio of 1: 2 are connected in parallel to a
source of constant voltage. What will be the ratio of power dissipation in these?
Sol. Given:
R1 : R2 = 1 : 2, In parallel combination.
Power in a resistor is given as
V2
P  VI 
R
When resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same across each of the resistor.
1
Hence in this case P  i.e., power is inversely proportional to resistance and is maximum
R
in the resistor with the lowest resistance.
Therefore, power dissipation in the two bulbs is in the ratio, P1 : P2  2 : 1

13. A potentiometer wire is 5 m long and a potential difference of 6 V is maintained

between its ends. Find the emf of a cell which balances against a length of 180 cm of
the potentiometer wire.
Ans. Given:
Potential difference across the potentiometer wire, 0  6 V
Length of the potentiometer wire, L  5m
Balancing length for the cell l  180 cm  1.8m
From the above, the potential gradient, i.e., potential drop per unit length,
 6
  0   1.2 V/m
L 5
Therefore, the emf of the cell,   l , where l is the balancing length.
  1.2  1.8  2.16 V

14. A battery of emf 2.5 V and internal resistance r is connected in series with a resistor of
45 ohm through an ammeter of resistance 1 ohm. The ammeter reads a current of 50
mA; Draw the circuit diagram and calculate the value of r.
Ans. Given:
Emf of the battery = 2.5 V
Internal resistance = r
External resistance, R = 45 Ω
Ammeter resistance, G = 1 Ω
Ammeter reading, I = 50 mA = 5 x 10-2 A
Circuit diagram for the circuit described:

From the circuit diagram, the current I in the circuit is the same as the galvanometer reading
Ig.
Applying the Loop Rule for the loop DCBAD,
  I r  R  G   0
2.5  0.05  r  45  1  0
2.5
r  46   50
0.05
r  50  46  4 

15. Amount of charge passing through the cross-section of a wire is q(t) = at2 +bt + c. Write
the dimensional formula for a, b and c. If the values of a, b, and c in SI unit are 6, 4, 2
respectively, find the value of current at t = 6 seconds.
Ans. Given:
q(t)  at 2  bt  c
a = 6 SI units, b = 4 SI units, c = 2 SI units
From dimensional homogeneity,
[q] = [at2] = [bt] = [c]
[q] = [AT]
[q] [AT]
[a]  2
 2  [AT 1 ]
[t ] [T ]
[q] [AT]
[b]    [A]
[t] [T]
[c]  [q]  [AT]
 a  6 A s1, b  4 A, c  2 A s
Then the charge as a function of time is,
q  t   6t 2  4t  2
Differentiating with respect to time, we get variation of current with time,
dq  t 
it   12t  4
dt
Therefore, at t =6 s,
i  t  6 s   12  6   4  72  4  76 A