STS PPT Chapter 1 7 PDF

Nature and Relationship of

Science, Technology and

Society
Science
• The word “science” originally came
from the Latin word “Scientia” which
meant knowledge, a knowing,
expertness, or experience.
Definitions of
Science
Science: “the systematic study of structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation and experiments”
Science: “the careful study of the structure and
behavior of the physical world, especially by
watching, measuring, and doing experiments
and the development of theories to describe the
results of these activities”
Science: “sometimes means a special method of
finding things out. Sometimes it means the body
of knowledge arising from the things found out.”
Science is the “organization of our
knowledge in such a way that it commands
more of the hidden potential in nature.”
• The various definitions of science express its common major
characteristics as a knowledge-generating human activity in different
ways.
• According to the Cambridge definition, new knowledge is obtained
by “watching, measuring and doing experiments.”
• Likewise, Feynman considers science as “a special method of finding
things out” while the mathematician Jacob Bronowski emphasizes
the “organization of our knowledge” such that we are able to
“unearth the secrets of nature.”
• Basic research is a distinctive feature of science. Basic
research provides fundamental information about nature,
properties and behavior of matter and energy and it serves
as a precursor to innovation.
• It also involves well-thought-out experiments in biology,

chemistry, earth science and physics which explicitly extend
and enrich the existing body of knowledge of these fields.
Technology
• The word technology comes from two Greek words, techne and logos.
Techne means art, skill, craft, or the way, manner, or means by which a
thing is gained. Logos means word, the utterance by which inward
thought is expressed, a saying, or an expression.
• Combining the meaning of these two words,
we will come up with the definition of
technology as words or discourse about the
way things are gained.
Definitions of
Technology
Technology: “the application of scientific
knowledge for practical purposes.”
Technology: “the practical, especially
industrial, use of scientific discoveries”
Technology: “… the new things you can do
when you have found something out, or the
actual doing of things”
Technology: “… the aggregation of
capabilities, facilities, skills, knowledge, and
organization required to successfully create
a useful service or product.”
• The application or use of new knowledge is motivated by social
demands that are potentially addressed by the nature of the
product or process whether the demand is private or commercial in
nature or public and government-driven.
• As explained by physicist Lewis Branscomb ‘technology is the

aggregation of capabilities, facilities, skills, knowledge and
organization required to successfully create a useful service or
product.”
Society
• The term society emerged in the fifteenth century and is derived from
the French société. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the
Latin societas, "a friendly association with others," from socius meaning
"companion, associate, comrade or business partner."
Definitions of
Society
Society: “The aggregate of people living
together in amore or less ordered community.”
Society: “The community of people living in a
particular country or region and having shared
customs, laws, and organizations.”
Society: “people in general living together in an
organized way, making decisions about how to do
things, and sharing the work that needs to be done.”
• As stated from the above-mentioned definitions, the common
element of society is the reference to the existence of community
of individuals.
• However, that is further qualified in that this group of individuals
must be “living together in an organized way, making decisions
about how to do things and sharing the work that needs to be
done.
• Science and technology have improved the ability of
humanity to control nature, particularly the environment.
• Technological developments have given us amazing ways

of communicating quickly, allowing groups of individuals
to access information cheaply and in real time and
enabling timely interventions when needed.
• With all these benefits enjoyed by the society, there are also
challenges in the progress of science and technology, both simple
and complex, as societies react to new scientific and technological
developments and as the people influence for good or ill the milieu
in which science and technology must operate.
• A significance feature of Philippine society is the prevalence of

poverty. Harnessing science and technology in addressing poverty
alleviation and elimination is a priority in the development agenda
of all countries.
Economic Growth and
Development
Economic Growth
• Here are the selected definitions of growth:
• Growth: “the expansion of the output of an economy
usually expressed in terms of increase of national income.”
• Growth: “an increase in the ability of the economy or
business to produce goods and services” since national
income may fluctuate from one period to the next
depending on temporary factors.
• Growth: “a structural transformation of the economy, from
agriculture to manufacturing, from rural workforce to an
urban one.”
Economic Growth
• Economic growth involves “the expansion of
the output of an economy usually expressed in
terms of the increase in national income.”
• Growth is usually measured as a certain
percentage increase in the gross domestic
product (GDP), gross national income (GNI), or
in per capita output or income in a country.
Economic Growth
• Growth, as considered by economists, provides
resources to address the basic needs of the
society.
• Science and technology with the use of
research may generate facts, theories, and
options in support of decision-making but the
final word ultimately comes from the
leadership in both public and business spheres.
Economic Development
• Here are the few definitions of development:
1. Development: “An economic transformation of a country or
region that leads to the improvement of well-being and economic
capabilities of its residents.”
2. Development: “… the need and the means by which to provide
better lives for people in poor countries. It includes not only
economic growth but also human development, providing for
health, education and a clean environment.
3. Development: “the planned increase of a country’s industry and
wealth”
4. Development: “the combination of mental and social changes
among the population which decide to increase its real and global
products, cumulatively and in sustainable manner.”
• The role of science and technology is related to economic
development. However, its impact is not only confined with
economic development but also with national and human
well-being.
• We need to address the concerns about inequality and
sustainability. The new tools in science and technology can be
vital in search for solutions to mitigate inequality withing
society through an inclusive developmental agenda.
• Science and technology can assist in providing a roadmap to
promote sustainability by minimizing harm to the
environment.
• Programs has been launched to address
inequality and sustainability: the Millennium
Development Goals which started in 2000
and concluded in 2015 and the Sustainable
Development Goals which started in 2016 and
is intended to be completed in 2030. Likewise,
the Philippine Development Plan for 2017-
2022 embodies our commitment to the
sustainable Development Goals.
Understanding the Impact of Science
and Technology in the Growth and
Development of Society
This chapter explains the need to
recognize how scientific and technological
developments have influenced society in
“making decisions about how to do things
and sharing the work that needs to be
done.”
New knowledge that is discovered by
harnessing science and technology serves
the different sectors in the society that
are expected to create wealth to provide
resources to enhance growth and
development in order to promote
national well-being.
THANK YOU!
Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science and
Technology
At the end of the lesson the students should
be able to:
Learning 1. identify inventions and discoveries during

the ancient, middle, and modern ages that
led to further S&T development.
Objectives: 2. discuss the scientific and technological
developments in the Philippines.
People in ancient times
were able to discover
and invent things that
would impact the lives of
the modern people.
Sumerian
Civilization
 Sumerian civilization emerged
in the southernmost tip of
ancient Mesopotamia.
 They had an unusual flair for
technological invention.
 They invented wide range of
technology and perfected the
large-scale use of existing
ones.
Cuneiform
 First writing system that
utilizes word pictures and
triangular symbols
City of Uruk
 Considered as the first true
city in the world.
 The Sumerians used sun-
baked bricks – mud or clay
mixed with reeds – to build the
city.
The Great
Ziggurat of Ur
 Considered as the first true
city in the world.
 The Sumerians used sun-
baked bricks – mud or clay
mixed with reeds – to build the
city.
Wheel
 Sumerians constructed the
first wheels by inserting
rotating axles into solid discs
of wood.
Irrigation
and Dikes
 Sumerians created
dikes and irrigation
canals to bring water to
farmlands and at the
same time control the
flooding of the rivers.
Plow
 The plow was invented to dig
the ground where seed would
be planted.
 This tool helped them to mass
produce food without taking so
much effort and time.
Babylonian
Civilization
 Babylonian civilization
flourished near the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers.
Hanging Gardens
of Babylon
 The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
are considered one of the seven
wonders of the ancient world.
 They were fabled gardens built by
King Nebuchadnezzar II for his
wife, Queen Amytis.
 According to historians, this
structure was made up of layers
upon layers of gardens that
contained wide variety of plants,
trees, and vines.
Astronomy
 Babylonians introduced the use of
constellations to determine the weather,
climate, and seasons.
 They also studied the use of celestial

bodies such as the moon, the stars,
and the sun to predict future events.
 They also mapped the position of

astronomical bodies, which currently
known as horoscope, to foretell their
daily lives and those of their kings.
Egyptian
Civilization
 Egyptian civilization is located
in ancient North Africa.
 This civilization built many
engineering feats such as the
pyramids, temples, and tombs.
Paper or Papyrus
and Ink
 Paper made from papyrus
was the main writing
material in ancient Egypt.
 Papyrus (cyperus papyrus)
was a plant which once
grew in abundance, along
the Nile River in Egypt.
 They also invented ink by
combining soot with
different chemicals.
Hieroglyphics
 The hieroglyphics, also called
the holy writings, was one of
the writing systems used by
ancient Egyptians.
Cosmetics
 Egyptians wore kohl as a
cosmetic to darken their eyes
and to prevent and even cure
eye ailments.
 It was created by mixing
malachite with mineral galena.
Wig
 During the ancient Egyptian
times, wigs were worn for
health and wellness rather
than aesthetic purpose.
Water Clock
or Clepsydra
 The water clock or clepsydra
invented by Amenemhet, was
an ancient device for
measuring time by gradual
flow of water.
Greek
Civilization
 The Greek civilization has
contributed much to the world
especially in the fields of
science and technology.
 Its origins were in the land of
Greece and the islands of the
Aegean Sea.
Alarm Clock
 The ancient Greek’s alarm clock used water or
sometimes small stones or sand that dropped into
drums which sounded the alarm.
 Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm clock to
signal the start of his lecture.
Water Mill
 Watermills were used in
agricultural processes like
milling of grains which was a
necessary form of food
processing during that time.
Archimedes'
Screw
 Invented by Archimedes.
 The Archimedes' screw was
an efficient way to move water
up a hill.
Biology
 Aristotle introduced the idea of
classifying animals according
to their different
characteristics.
 He is often referred to as the
father of zoology.
Cartography
 Cartography is the study and
practice of making maps.
 Anaximander was one of the
first pioneer cartographers to
create a map of the world.
Roman
Civilization
 Roman civilization emerged
from the city of Rome in
modern day Italy.
Newspaper
 Romans introduced the first
newspapers known as
gazettes.
Bound Books
or Codex
 With the papyrus pages bound
together and covered by
animal skin, the ancient
Roman civilization was able to
produce the first books or
codex.
Roman
Architecture
 Roman government was able
to implement projects such as
large churches (cathedrals
and basilicas), aqueducts,
coliseums, and amphitheaters.
Roman
Numerals
 Romans devised their own
number system to address the
need for a standard counting
method that would meet their
increasing communication and
trade concerns.
Chinese
Civilization
 China is located on the far
east of Asia.
 The Chinese civilization is the
oldest civilization in Asia.
Silk
 The Chinese were the ones to
who developed the technology
to harvest the silk which is
naturally produced by
silkworms and process it to
produce paper and clothing.
Tea
Production
 Tea production was developed
when an unknown Chinese
inventor created a machine
that was able to shred tea
leaves into strips.
Great Wall
of China
 The Great Wall of China is
said to be the largest and most
extensive infrastructure that
the nation built.
Gunpowder
 The gunpowder was developed by Chinese

alchemists by mixing charcoal, sulfur, and
potassium nitrate.
 The start of the middle ages was marred by
Middle Ages massive invasions and migrations. Wars were
prevalent during this time.
Printing
Press
 Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press.
 He uses wooden machines that extracted juices
from fruits, attached to them a metal impression
of the letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal
into a piece of paper, which then made an exact
impression on paper.
Microscope
 Zacharias Janssen developed the first compound

microscope.
Telescope
 The invention of the telescope, an optical
instrument that helps in the observation of
remote objects, was a great help for navigators
during this time.
 The telescope was first patented in 1608 by
Hans Lippershey.
War  Cross bows, long bows, and chainmail
were invented during the Middle Ages.
Weapons
• The Modern Period covers human
Modern Ages history from the creation of a more
global network to present day.
Pasteurization
 Louis Pasteur, a French biologist,
microbiologist, and chemist, invented
pasteurization.
 It is the process of heating dairy products
such as milk to kill the harmful bacteria that
allow them to spoil faster.
Petroleum
Refinery
 Samuel M. Kier invented kerosene
by refining petroleum.
Telephone
 The first telephone was invented by Alexander
Graham Bell in 1876.
 He made the first call on March 10, 1876, to
his assistant, Thomas Watson.
Calculator
 The creation of modern calculators did not
only pave the way for easier arithmetic
calculations, but also resulted in the
development of more complex processing
machines like the computer.
Philippine Inventions
 Philippines also contributes to the global
advancement of science and technology.
Many of the discoveries and inventions
made by the Filipinos were built from
indigenous materials to adapt to the
harsh tropical environment.
Salamander
Amphibious Tricycle
 H2O Technologies headed by Dominic

N. Chung and Lamberto Armada,
together with Chief Designer Victor
“Atoy” Llave invented the Salamander,
an amphibious tricycle that can cross
flooded streets, rivers, and lakes.
SALt Lamp
 A young Filipina inventor named
Aisa Mejino invented a lighting
system that utilizes saltwater.
 She invented the Sustainable
Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp, an
environmental-friendly light source
that runs on saltwater.
Medical
Incubator
 Dr. Fe del Mundo, a Filipino pediatrician and the
first Asian woman admitted into Harvard
Medical School, invented a medical incubator
made from indigenous and cheap materials.
Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal
Trap System
 Department of Science and

Technology-Industrial Technology
Development Institute (DOST-ITDI)
introduced a trap system made of
natural ingredients that are lethal to
mosquitos but safe for humans and
environment, known as the
Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap
System (OL Trap).
Ejeepney
 This modern type of transportation

uses electricity instead of the more
expensive diesel.
THANK YOU!
DEFINITION OF
SCIENCE
Science as an idea. Science is a systematic
explanation and observation of natural and
physical world
 Science as an intellectual activity. Science
covers a systematic and practical study of the
natural and physical world which includes
observation and experimentation.
 Science is a body of knowledge. It deals with the
process of learning about the natural and physical
world. Thus is also called as School Science
 Science as personal and social activity. This means
that knowledge and activities of human beings help
them develop a better understanding of the world
and improve their way of living to survive.
SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION
 Scientific revolution was claimed to begin in
Europe during the early 16th century up to the
18th century.
 It is described as the period of enlightenment
when the development in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and
chemistry transformed the society and its views.
 It also explained how the development in the
said disciplines pave the way for the birth of
modern science.
 It was also described as the golden age for
people who are committed to scholarly life.
 Scientific revolution greatly influenced the
development of human beings, transformation
of society and formulation of scientific ideas.
Some Intellectuals and
their Revolutionary Ideas.
Nicolaus
Copernicus
 is one of the Renaissance men even in
the field of Science.
 His ideas are example of what we know
now as thought experiment.
 He was strongly influenced by the book
of Johannes Mueller called Epitome which
contains observations of the heavens
 His idea and model of the universe was
completed in 1510 but was published on
1543.
 His model of the universe illustrates that
everything in the universe revolves around a
single center which is the sun.
 He outlined two kinds of planetary motions
 However this model had a problem in the
position of the stars which cannot be placed in
a fixed position.
 Although this theory makes sense now, during
Copernicus’ time it was banned by the Catholic
Church and was ignored by Rome for the rest of
16th century
Charles
Darwin
 Charles Darwin became popular because of
his theory in evolution.
 He published his book The Origin of Species in
1589 where he presented the accumulated
evidences that supports his theory of evolution.
 Thus he became a notable person in the field
of Evolutionary Biology and Philosophy of
Science.
 Charles Darwin became popular
because of his theory in evolution.
 He published his book The Origin of
Species in 1589 where he presented the
accumulated evidences that supports his
theory of evolution.
 Thus he became a notable person in the
field of Evolutionary Biology and Philosophy
of Science.
 He contributed a lot in the framework for
doing scientific activities through
observation and experiment.
Sigmund
Freud
 Made a major contribution in the field
of Science through psychology.
 He was known to be a literary figure
and a very talented communicator.
 He proposed the method of
Psychoanalysis
 Psychoanalysis is an observational
method to gather reliable data to study
human’s inner life.
 It is a scientific way to study the
human mind and better understand
neurotic illnesses.
 Like Darwin, his way was unorthodox
because he focused his study on
human sexuality and evil nature of man.
 His work has been an immense
inspiration now to examine human mind
and behavior in a more scientifically
accepted way.
CRADLE OF
EARLY SCIENCE
 Mesoamerica includes the entire area of
Central America from the Southern Mexico
up to the border of South America.
 some of the civilizations in this part of the
world which made major contributions in
the development of Society through
scientific advances.
The Maya
Civilization.
 The Mayan were famous in their contributions
to Astronomy, Agriculture, and their Writing
System.
 Their advanced understanding in astronomy
were incorporated in their temples that is why
one pyramid at Chichen Itza Mexico was built in
the situation of the sun during the spring and fall
equinoxes.
 They also used their knowledge to create two
complicated calendar systems which they use
to plan their activities and observing religious
rituals.
 In agriculture, they developed hydraulic
system which supplies water to the community.
 They were also known in building looms and
creating rainbow glittery paints.
 Moreover, they were also believed to be
the first people who use rubber products.
 Mayan hieroglyphics which has been a
famous writing system also originated from
them.
The Inca
Civilization.
 The Incas were famous in Mesoamerica
because of their contribution in building
using stones.
 Some these are roads paved with stones
and stone buildings that stood earthquakes.
 They were also known for their irrigation
technique,
 their calendar with 12 months,
 the Inca textiles for cloth and
 their system of knotted ropes to keep
record that only experts can interpret which
is also known as the quipu.
The Aztec
Civilization
 The Aztec puts value in education thus they
implemented the mandatory education.
 They also developed chocolate in Mexico
which was used by the Mayan as a currency.
 In medicine, they used antispasmodic
medication which can prevent muscle spasms
and help relax muscles.
 In agriculture they used Chinampa as a
technology where the land used in farming is
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded
by canals.
 They also used calendar to plan their rituals
and planting season.
 They also developed canoe which they used
for travelling in water systems.
 In agriculture they used Chinampa as a
technology where the land used in farming is
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded
by canals.
 They also used calendar to plan their rituals
and planting season.
 They also developed canoe which they used
for travelling in water systems.
 Asia is the home of many ancient
civilizations as it is the biggest continent in
the world.
 Three of the countries in Asia stood out in
terms of their contribution in the field of
science, technology and other discipline
which leads to societal development.
India
 India was famous for manufacturing iron and
metallurgical works.
 They uses a system of traditional medicine
called Ayuverda which is still practiced as a
form of alternative medicine.
 They also perform surgical and medical
procedures which were described in an Indian
ancient text called Susruta Samhita.
 In astronomy, they were famous in their theory
on the configuration of the universe, spherical
self-supporting earth and the year of 360 days
with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
 In mathematics, Indian tried to standardize
the measurement of length to a high degree of
precision through a designed ruler called the
Mohenjodaro ruler.
 Number of trigonometric functions, tables and
techniques, and algorithms of algebra were also
introduced by Aryabhatiya who is both an
astronomer ad mathematician.
 The idea of gravity as a force of attraction, the use
of zero as both place holder and a decimal digit,
together with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system which
is universally used now was also suggested by an
Indian named Brahmagupta.
 Madhaya, another Indian was considered as
the founder of mathematical analysis.
China
 China is one of the ancient civilizations which
greatly influenced other countries especially in
Asia by its contribution in medicine, astronomy,
science, mathematics, arts, philosophy and
music.
 In terms of medicine, China was known for its
traditional procedures like acupuncture and the
use of medical properties of plant and animals.
 In technology, on the other hand, they were
known through their discovery and invention of
compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and
printing tools.
 Chinese also contributed a lot in astronomy
through their records on supernova, lunar and
solar eclipse, and comets.
 Though China contributed a lot in the
development of society through scientific
revolution their achievements did not readily led
them to modern science because of cultural
factors
Middle East
Countries
 Countries located in the Middle East were
dominantly inhabited by Muslims.
 The Golden Age of Islam started in the 7th and 8th
centuries and lasted until the 13th century.
 Unlike other scientists, Muslim scientists focus their
work on science experiments rather than on plain-
thought experiment which led to scientific method in
the Muslim world.
 Many Muslim scientists have become famous in
their field of study.
 Ibn al-Haytham is a Muslim Scientist was
considered as the Father of Optics.
 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi coined the
concept of algorithm from his name and algebra
from one of his publications called al-jabr.
 Jabir ibn Hayyan who was considered as the
“Father of Chemistry” by some scholars.
 Ibn Sina, a Muslim physician who pioneered
the science of experimental medicine and
clinical trials
 Muslims contributed a lot during the scientific
revolution however they started to decline as
the conquest of Mongols
Development
of Science
in Africa
 Africa is a continent rich in natural and
mineral resources.
 Their early civilizations contributed a lot in
knowledge production.
 The ancient Egypt greatly provided important
advances in the fields of astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine.
 In mathematics, they used their knowledge
on geometry to build rectilinear structures,
preserve layout and ownership of farmlands, the
post lintel architecture of Egypt.
 Egyptians were also famous because of
alchemy which is the forerunner of chemistry
 They also studied human anatomy, pharmacology,
diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for the treatment
of diseases.
 Africans were famous because of their use of three
types of calendar which are lunar, solar and stellar.
 The science and technology of metals were also
imported by North Africa and the Nile valley from the
Near East region
 In Mathematics, a Lebombo Bone from the
mountains between Swaziland and South Africa
were used for performing simple mathematical
calculations
Thank You!
Science,
Technology and
Nation Building
Learning Objectives
discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine
nation-building.
evaluate government policies pertaining to science and
technology in terms of their contributions to nation-building
identify actual science and technology policies of the
government and appraise their impacts on the development
of the Filipino nation.
Brief Historical
Background of Science
and Technology in the
Philippines
Pre-Colonial, Spanish and American Period
Pre-Colonial Period
Pre-colonial Period
Before the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the early
inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture and
traditions. They had their own belief system and indigenous
knowledge that keeps them organized and sustained their lives
and communities for many years.
Pre-colonial Period
The scientific knowledge of the Filipinos is noticeable in
the way they plant their crops, which provides them food,
and in taking care of animals that assists them in their
daily tasks and food production.
Science is observed in the way they interpret the
movement of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and
climates, and in organizing months and years.
They use their scientific knowledge in preparing soil for
agricultural purposes and for discovering medicinal uses of
plants.
Pre-colonial Period
Technology is used by people in building houses,
irrigations, and in developing tools that they can use in
everyday life.
They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and
fishing; for fighting their enemies during war or tribal
conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on
waterways.
They also developed technologies in creating musical
instrument.
Spanish Colonial
Period
Spanish Period
When the Spaniards colonized the country,
they brought with them their own culture and
practices.
Spanish Period
The Spanish introduced formal education and
founded scientific institutions.
Early years of Spanish rule, Parish schools were
established where religion, reading, writing, arithmetic
and music were taught.
Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine
colonial economy. Trade was given more focus by the
Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of
big profits.
Spanish Period
The Philippines, being one of the centers of
global trade in Southeast Asia during that time,
was considered to be one of the most developed
places in the region. Although the country is
blessed with these developments, the
superstitious beliefs of the people and the
catholic doctrines and practices during the
Spanish era halted the growth of Science and
Technology in the country.
American Period
American Period
Americans have more influence in the development
of Science and Technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniards.
American Period
They established the public education system,
improved the engineering works and the health
conditions of the people.
They established modern research university, the
University of the Philippines, and created more public
hospitals than the former colonial master.
American Period
The mineral sources of the country also explored and
exploited during the American times.
Transportation and Communication system were
improved, though not accessible throughout the
country.
American Period
country.
Government Policies on
Science and Technology
The Philippine government introduced and
implemented several programs, projects, and policies to
boost the area of Science and technology. The goal is to
prepare the whole country and its people to meet the
demands of a technology driven world and capacitate
the people to live in a world driven by science.
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) has
sought the expertise of the National Research
Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult various
sectors in the society to study how the Philippines
can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 goals.
The NCRP clustered these policies
into four, namely;
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education
International Policies and Governance
 Integrating ASEAN awareness in the basic education
without adding to the curriculum
 Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
 Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT
broadband
 Local food security
into four, namely;
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth
and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
 Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment
opportunities
 Outright grants for peer monitoring
 Review of R. A. 9184
 Harnessing Science and Technology as an independent
mover of development.
into four, namely;
3. Medical, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
 Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-
harmonized standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug
Administration
 Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of
pharmaceutical services and care
 Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence- based
research as a pool of information.
 Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
 Legislating a law supporting genome projects
into four, namely;
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture and Forestry
 Protecting and Conserving biodiversity by full implementation
of existing laws
 Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
 Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous
people conservation.
 Formulation of common food safety standards
There are also other existing programs
supported by the Philippine Government
through DOST.
Providing funds to basic research and patents related to
science and technology. The government funds basic and
applied researches. Funding these research and projects
are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from
different countries.
Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate
studies of the students in the fields of Science and
Technology
Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science
High School System for training young Filipinos in the
fields of science and technology.
Creating Science and Technology parks to encourage
academe and industry partnerships.
Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino Scientists
abroad to come home and work in the Philippines or
conduct research and projects in collaboration with
Philippine-based scientists.
Developing Science and Technology parks in
academic campuses to encourage academe and
industry partnerships.
The establishment of the National Science Complex
and National Engineering Complex within the
University of the Philippine Campus in Diliman.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science
and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified
several capacity-building programs such as:
Establishment of national centers of excellence
Manpower and institutional development
programs such as the Engineering and Science
Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD
graduates in science and Engineering
Establishment of regional centers to support
specific industries that will lead the country in
different research and development areas.
Establishment of science and technology business
centers to assist, advice, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures.
Strengthen the science education at an early
stage through the Philippine Science High School
System
• The Commission on Higher Education launched its
Philippine-California Research Institutes (PICARI) Project
to allow several higher education institutions in the
Philippines and some US-based laboratories, research
institutes, and universities to work on research and
projects related to science, agriculture, engineering,
health, and technology. This project is hoped to
strengthen the STEM competitiveness of the country.
There are many other areas and fields that the country
is looking forward to embark various research and
projects. The following are some of them:
1. The use of alternative and safe energy
2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and Global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development
Famous Filipino in
the Field of Science
Scientists greatly help in the economic
development of a country. In the
Philippines, we have a number of
renowned scientists and technologists
whose exemplary works and discoveries
have contributed to the progress of
different industries.
1. Fe del Mundo
Invention: Incubator
 The first Asian to have

entered the prestigious
Harvard University's School of
Medicine.
 She was an alumna of the
University of the Philippines
(UP) College of Medicine.
An incubator is an apparatus

used to maintain
environmental conditions
suitable for newborn baby.
It is used in pre-term births or

for some ill full-term babies.
Gregorio Y. Zara
Invention: Videophone  He is a renowned Filipino
engineer and physicist.
 He was the inventor of the
first videophone.A native of
Lipa, Batangas
 And enrolled at the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the
United States, and
graduated with a degree of
BS in Mechanical
Engineering in 1926.
Invention: Videophone
(1955)
The two-way television

telephone or videophone in
1955 patented as a "photo
phone signal separator
network."
Agapito Flores
Invention: Flourescent Lamp  He is the inventor of the
fluorescent lamp, which is the
most widely used source of
lighting in the world today. The
fluorescent lamp reportedly got its
name from Flores.. The fluorescent
 lamp, however, was not invented
in a particular year. It was the
product of 79 years of the
development of the lighting
method that began with the
invention of the electric light bulb
by Thomas Edison.
Daniel Dingel
Invention: Water-powered car  Daniel Dingelstarted working
on a water-powered car
and prototype in 1969. His
hydrogen reactor uses
electricity from a 12-volt car
battery to transform ordinary
tap water with salt into
deuterium oxide or heavy
water.
 Dingel’s car has never

been patented and
commercialized because
of what he suspects as an
anti- Dingel car conspiracy
by multinational oil
companies.
 Filipinos consider Eduardo San Juan as
Eduardo San Juan the inventor of the Lunar Rover, or more
Invention: Lunar Rover popularly known as the Moon Buggy.
 The Moon Buggy was the car used by
Neil Armstrong and other astronauts
when they first explored the moon in
1969.
 He worked for Lockheed Corporation
and conceptualized the design of the
Moon Buggy that the Apollo astronauts
used while in the moon. As a NASA
engineer, San Juan reportedly used his
Filipino ingenuity to build a vehicle that
would run outside the Earth's
atmosphere. He constructed his model
using homemade materials.
San Juan, however, was not listed as the
inventor of the Moon Buggy in American
scientific journals. It said the vehicle was
designed and constructed by a group of
space engineers. In Poland, the Moon
Buggy is attributed to a Polish inventor.
Diosdado Banatao Banatao is most known for
introducing the first single-chip
Invention: GUI (Graphical User graphical user interface
Interface) accelerator that made
computers work a lot faster
and for helping develop the
Ethernet controller chip that
made Internet possible.
In 1989, he pioneered the

local bus concept for
personal computers and in
the following year developed
the First Windows accelerator
chip. Intel is now using the
chips and technologies
developed by Banatao.
Angel Alcala
Angel Alcala is
behind the invention
of artificial coral
reefs used for
fisheries in Southeast
Asia.
Julian Banzon
 Julian Banzon researched
methods of producing
alternative fuels.
 He experimented with the
production of ethyl esters fuels
from sugarcane and coconut,
and invented a means of
extracting residual coconut and
invented a means of extracting
residual coconut oil by a
chemical process rather than a
physical process.
Marc Loinaz
Invention: One-chip video camera
 The inventor of the one-chip video
camera was Marc Loinaz, a Filipino
resident of New Jersey who works
withLucent Technologies. He was
featured in the July 1999 issue of
Discover Magazine.
 The 1-chip camera uses a single

computer chip to process the
colorsthe camera sees. Most videos
for a Web site used with a 1-chip
camera mainly because the video is
compressed in one- chip camera so
it transmits more quickly.
Roberto del Rosario  He developed a sing along system in
Invention: Karaoke (1975) 1975 and patented it in the 1980s
called his sing-along system "Minus-
One", now holds the patent for the
device now commonly known as
the "karaoke machine".
 Roberto del Rosario, a Filipino, is
claiming the right for the invention of
the Sing- Along-System (SAS) that
eventually led to the development
of Karaoke, a Japanese term for
"singing without accompaniment".
Narciso Mosuela The Superkalan is a stove that
Invention: Superkalan can be powered by any substance
that burns. Narciso Mosuela of the
Filipino province of La Union invented
it and received the Best Design award
from the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) in 1987. Among
the substances that can power the
Superkalan are
wood, paper, dried dung and leaves,
corncobs and coco shells. Mosuela
has also invented a functional rice
thresher.
Juan Salcedo Jr.
Developed “Enriched Rice,” a

rice variety fortified with vitamin
B1, which helps prevent beriberi. His
discovery helped reduce the cases
of beriberi in the Philippines and in
other countries.
Horticulturist Ramon Barba is known
Ramon Barba for inventing techniques to promote
crop flowering.
His work, which has helped develop
the local mango industry, is the only
invention in Southeast Asia that the
World Intellectual Property
Organization recognizes.
Barba’s other researches, meanwhile,
focus on tissue culture of bananas,
sugarcane, and other horticultural
crops to develop methodologies in
plant physiology and plant breeding.
Thank you!
Science,
Technology and
Nation Building
Learning Objectives
discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine
nation-building.
evaluate government policies pertaining to science and
technology in terms of their contributions to nation-building
identify actual science and technology policies of the
government and appraise their impacts on the development
of the Filipino nation.
Brief Historical
Background of Science
and Technology in the
Philippines
Pre-Colonial, Spanish and American Period
Pre-Colonial Period
Pre-colonial Period
Before the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the early
inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture and
traditions. They had their own belief system and indigenous
knowledge that keeps them organized and sustained their lives
and communities for many years.
Pre-colonial Period
The scientific knowledge of the Filipinos is noticeable in
the way they plant their crops, which provides them food,
and in taking care of animals that assists them in their
daily tasks and food production.
Science is observed in the way they interpret the
movement of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and
climates, and in organizing months and years.
They use their scientific knowledge in preparing soil for
agricultural purposes and for discovering medicinal uses of
plants.
Pre-colonial Period
Technology is used by people in building houses,
irrigations, and in developing tools that they can use in
everyday life.
They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and
fishing; for fighting their enemies during war or tribal
conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on
waterways.
They also developed technologies in creating musical
instrument.
Spanish Colonial
Period
Spanish Period
When the Spaniards colonized the country,
they brought with them their own culture and
practices.
Spanish Period
The Spanish introduced formal education and
founded scientific institutions.
Early years of Spanish rule, Parish schools were
established where religion, reading, writing, arithmetic
and music were taught.
Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine
colonial economy. Trade was given more focus by the
Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of
big profits.
Spanish Period
The Philippines, being one of the centers of
global trade in Southeast Asia during that time,
was considered to be one of the most developed
places in the region. Although the country is
blessed with these developments, the
superstitious beliefs of the people and the
catholic doctrines and practices during the
Spanish era halted the growth of Science and
Technology in the country.
American Period
American Period
Americans have more influence in the development
of Science and Technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniards.
American Period
They established the public education system,
improved the engineering works and the health
conditions of the people.
They established modern research university, the
University of the Philippines, and created more public
hospitals than the former colonial master.
American Period
country.
American Period
country.
Government Policies on
Science and Technology
The Philippine government introduced and
implemented several programs, projects, and policies to
boost the area of Science and technology. The goal is to
prepare the whole country and its people to meet the
demands of a technology driven world and capacitate
the people to live in a world driven by science.
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) has
sought the expertise of the National Research
Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult various
sectors in the society to study how the Philippines
can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 goals.
into four, namely;
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education
International Policies and Governance
 Integrating ASEAN awareness in the basic education
without adding to the curriculum
 Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
 Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT
broadband
 Local food security
into four, namely;
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth
and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
 Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment
opportunities
 Outright grants for peer monitoring
 Review of R. A. 9184
 Harnessing Science and Technology as an independent
mover of development.
into four, namely;
3. Medical, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
 Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-
harmonized standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug
Administration
 Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of
pharmaceutical services and care
 Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence- based
research as a pool of information.
 Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
 Legislating a law supporting genome projects
into four, namely;
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture and Forestry
 Protecting and Conserving biodiversity by full implementation
of existing laws
 Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
 Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous
people conservation.
 Formulation of common food safety standards
There are also other existing programs
supported by the Philippine Government
through DOST.
Providing funds to basic research and patents related to
science and technology. The government funds basic and
applied researches. Funding these research and projects
are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from
different countries.
Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate
studies of the students in the fields of Science and
Technology
Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science
High School System for training young Filipinos in the
fields of science and technology.
Creating Science and Technology parks to encourage
academe and industry partnerships.
Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino Scientists
abroad to come home and work in the Philippines or
conduct research and projects in collaboration with
Philippine-based scientists.
Developing Science and Technology parks in
academic campuses to encourage academe and
industry partnerships.
The establishment of the National Science Complex
and National Engineering Complex within the
University of the Philippine Campus in Diliman.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science
and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified
several capacity-building programs such as:
Establishment of national centers of excellence
Manpower and institutional development
programs such as the Engineering and Science
Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD
graduates in science and Engineering
Establishment of regional centers to support
specific industries that will lead the country in
different research and development areas.
Establishment of science and technology business
centers to assist, advice, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures.
Strengthen the science education at an early
stage through the Philippine Science High School
System
• The Commission on Higher Education launched its
Philippine-California Research Institutes (PICARI) Project
to allow several higher education institutions in the
Philippines and some US-based laboratories, research
institutes, and universities to work on research and
projects related to science, agriculture, engineering,
health, and technology. This project is hoped to
strengthen the STEM competitiveness of the country.
There are many other areas and fields that the country
is looking forward to embark various research and
projects. The following are some of them:
1. The use of alternative and safe energy
2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and Global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development
Famous Filipino in
the Field of Science
Scientists greatly help in the economic
development of a country. In the
Philippines, we have a number of
renowned scientists and technologists
whose exemplary works and discoveries
have contributed to the progress of
different industries.
1. Fe del Mundo
 The first Asian to have

entered the prestigious
Harvard University's School of
Medicine.
 She was an alumna of the
University of the Philippines
(UP) College of Medicine.
An incubator is an apparatus

used to maintain
environmental conditions
suitable for newborn baby.
It is used in pre-term births or

for some ill full-term babies.
Gregorio Y. Zara
Invention: Videophone  He is a renowned Filipino
engineer and physicist.
 He was the inventor of the
first videophone.A native of
Lipa, Batangas
 And enrolled at the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the
United States, and
graduated with a degree of
BS in Mechanical
Engineering in 1926.
Invention: Videophone
(1955)
The two-way television

telephone or videophone in
1955 patented as a "photo
phone signal separator
network."
Agapito Flores
Invention: Flourescent Lamp  He is the inventor of the
fluorescent lamp, which is the
most widely used source of
lighting in the world today. The
fluorescent lamp reportedly got its
name from Flores.. The fluorescent
 lamp, however, was not invented
in a particular year. It was the
product of 79 years of the
development of the lighting
method that began with the
invention of the electric light bulb
by Thomas Edison.
Daniel Dingel
Invention: Water-powered car  Daniel Dingelstarted working
on a water-powered car
and prototype in 1969. His
hydrogen reactor uses
electricity from a 12-volt car
battery to transform ordinary
tap water with salt into
deuterium oxide or heavy
water.
 Dingel’s car has never

been patented and
commercialized because
of what he suspects as an
anti- Dingel car conspiracy
by multinational oil
companies.
 Filipinos consider Eduardo San Juan as
Eduardo San Juan the inventor of the Lunar Rover, or more
Invention: Lunar Rover popularly known as the Moon Buggy.
 The Moon Buggy was the car used by
Neil Armstrong and other astronauts
when they first explored the moon in
1969.
 He worked for Lockheed Corporation
and conceptualized the design of the
Moon Buggy that the Apollo astronauts
used while in the moon. As a NASA
engineer, San Juan reportedly used his
Filipino ingenuity to build a vehicle that
would run outside the Earth's
atmosphere. He constructed his model
using homemade materials.
San Juan, however, was not listed as the
inventor of the Moon Buggy in American
scientific journals. It said the vehicle was
designed and constructed by a group of
space engineers. In Poland, the Moon
Buggy is attributed to a Polish inventor.
Diosdado Banatao Banatao is most known for
introducing the first single-chip
Invention: GUI (Graphical User graphical user interface
Interface) accelerator that made
computers work a lot faster
and for helping develop the
Ethernet controller chip that
made Internet possible.
In 1989, he pioneered the

local bus concept for
personal computers and in
the following year developed
the First Windows accelerator
chip. Intel is now using the
chips and technologies
developed by Banatao.
Angel Alcala
Angel Alcala is
behind the invention
of artificial coral
reefs used for
fisheries in Southeast
Asia.
Julian Banzon
 Julian Banzon researched
methods of producing
alternative fuels.
 He experimented with the
production of ethyl esters fuels
from sugarcane and coconut,
and invented a means of
extracting residual coconut and
invented a means of extracting
residual coconut oil by a
chemical process rather than a
physical process.
Marc Loinaz
Invention: One-chip video camera
 The inventor of the one-chip video
camera was Marc Loinaz, a Filipino
resident of New Jersey who works
withLucent Technologies. He was
featured in the July 1999 issue of
Discover Magazine.
 The 1-chip camera uses a single

computer chip to process the
colorsthe camera sees. Most videos
for a Web site used with a 1-chip
camera mainly because the video is
compressed in one- chip camera so
it transmits more quickly.
Roberto del Rosario  He developed a sing along system in
Invention: Karaoke (1975) 1975 and patented it in the 1980s
called his sing-along system "Minus-
One", now holds the patent for the
device now commonly known as
the "karaoke machine".
 Roberto del Rosario, a Filipino, is
claiming the right for the invention of
the Sing- Along-System (SAS) that
eventually led to the development
of Karaoke, a Japanese term for
"singing without accompaniment".
Narciso Mosuela The Superkalan is a stove that
Invention: Superkalan can be powered by any substance
that burns. Narciso Mosuela of the
Filipino province of La Union invented
it and received the Best Design award
from the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) in 1987. Among
the substances that can power the
Superkalan are
wood, paper, dried dung and leaves,
corncobs and coco shells. Mosuela
has also invented a functional rice
thresher.
Juan Salcedo Jr.
Developed “Enriched Rice,” a

rice variety fortified with vitamin
B1, which helps prevent beriberi. His
discovery helped reduce the cases
of beriberi in the Philippines and in
other countries.
Horticulturist Ramon Barba is known
Ramon Barba for inventing techniques to promote
crop flowering.
His work, which has helped develop
the local mango industry, is the only
invention in Southeast Asia that the
World Intellectual Property
Organization recognizes.
Barba’s other researches, meanwhile,
focus on tissue culture of bananas,
sugarcane, and other horticultural
crops to develop methodologies in
plant physiology and plant breeding.
Thank you!
Science,
Technology and
Nation Building
Learning Objectives
01 02 03
discuss the concept of identify the science discuss the contribution
science education schools established to of indigenous science to
promote science the development of
education in the science and technology
Philippines. in the Philippines.
 Concept of
Science
Education
Science
 Science
Education in the
Education in
Philippines
 Science
the
Schools in the
Philippines Philippines
Concept of Science
Education
Concept of Science education focuses
Science on teaching, learning, and
Education understanding science.
Teaching science involves
developing ways on how to
Concept of effectively teach science. This
Science means exploring pedagogical
theories and models in helping
Education teachers teach scientific concepts
and processes effectively.
Learning science, on the other
Concept of hand, includes both pedagogy and
Science the most interesting aspect, which
is helping students understand
Education and love science.
Understanding science implies
Concept of developing and applying science-
process skills and using science
Science literacy in understanding the
Education natural world and activities in
everyday life.
John
HE STRESSED THE
IMPORTANCE OF UTILIZING
ACCORDINGLY, NATURE
MUST INDEED FURNISH ITS
Dewey
THE NATURAL PHYSICAL STIMULI TO
ENVIRONMENT TO TEACH PROVIDE WEALTH OF
STUDENTS. MEANING THROUGH
SOCIAL ACTIVITIES AND
THINKING.
Science education is justified by
the vast amount of scientific
knowledge develop in this area that
prepare citizens in a scientifically
Concept of and technologically driven world.
Science  Science education provides skills
and knowledge that are necessary
Education for a person to live in what Knight
(1986) describes as the age of
Science to develop a citizenry that
will meet the goals of science in
the society (Tilghman, 2005).
Science Education in
the Philippines
 Basic Education
 Tertiary Education
Science education helps
students learn important
concepts and facts that are
Basic related to everyday life
including important skills such
Education as process skills, critical
thinking skills, and life skills
that are needed in coping up
with daily life activities.
Science education also develops
positive attitude such as: the
love for knowledge, passion for
innovative things, curiosity to
Basic study about nature, and
creativity.
Education Science education will develop
a strong foundation for
studying science and for
considering science-related
careers in the future.
Science education deals with
developing students’
understanding and
Tertiary appreciation of science ideas
Education and scientific works. This is
done through offering science
courses in the General Education
curriculum.
Science education focuses on the
preparation of science teachers,
scientists, engineers and other
Tertiary professionals in various science-
related fields such as engineering,
Education agriculture, medicine and health
sciences. The state provides
scholarships to encourage more
students to pursue science courses.
Science Schools in
the Philippines
Philippine Science High School
•This is the government program for gifted students in
the Philippines.
•It is a service institute of the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer free
scholarship basis for secondary course with special
emphasis on subjects pertaining to the sciences, with
the end-view of preparing its students for a science
career (R.A. No. 3661).
Special Science Elementary
School (SSES) Project
•This project is in pursuance to Deped Order No. 73 s. 2008,
and a Deped Order No. 51 s. 2010.
•This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified
elementary schools that participated or were identified as
science elementary schools in the country.
•It aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific
and technological knowledge, skills, and values.
• Its mission is to:
1. provide a learning environment to science-
inclined children through a special curriculum
the recognizes the multiple intelligences of the
learners.
2. promote the development of life-long learning
skills
3. foster the holistic development of the learners.
•The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1
with a longer time compared to other subjects: 70
minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes to Grade IV
to VI.
•The curriculum also utilizes different instructional
approaches that address the different learning styles
and needs of the learners.
Quezon City Regional
Science High School
•The school was established on September 17, 1967.
Originally, it was named Quezon City Science High
School. It was turned into a regional science high school
for the National Capital region in 1999.
•The focus of the curriculum is on science and
technology. The school still teaches the basic education
courses prescribed by the Department of Education for
secondary education. However, there are additional
subjects in sciences and technology that the students
should take.
Manila Science High School
•The school was established on October 1,1963 as the
Manila Science High School (MSHS). It is the first
science school in the Philippines.
•The organization and curriculum of the school puts
more emphasis on science and mathematics.
•MSHS aims to produce scientists with soul. In order to
do this, humanities courses and other electives are
included in their curriculum. Students are also
encouraged to participate in various extracurricular
activities.
Central Visayan Institute Foundation
•It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-
based innovation known as the Dynamic Learning
Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis of classical and
modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the
highest level of learning, creativity, and productivity.
•The school takes pride in its Research Center for
Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992, which
organizes small workshops to foster the informal but
intense exchange of ideas and perspective to
outstanding problems in physics and mathematics.
Indigenous Science and
Technology in the
Philippines
Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life
experiences of young children as they grow up.
Indigenous
They live and grow in a society where the members Science and
of the community prominently practice indigenous
knowledge. Technology in
the Philippines
Their parents and other older folks served as their
first teachers and their method of teaching are very
effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their
minds.
The lessons they learned are intimately
interwoven in their culture and the
environment.
Indigenous
These lessons and life stories of people on Science and
their daily life struggles. Technology in
the Philippines
Their views about their nature and their
reflections on their experiences in daily life are
evident in their stories, poems and songs.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught
and practiced by indigenous people are:
01 02 03
predicting weather using herbal medicine preserving foods
conditions and seasons
using knowledge in
observing animal’s
behavior and celestial
bodies
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught
and practiced by indigenous people are:
04 05 06 07
classifying plants preserving and using indigenous building local
and animals into selecting good technology in irrigation system
families and seedlings for daily lives
groups based on planting
cultural properties
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are
taught and practiced by indigenous people are:
08 09 10
classifying different producing wines keeping custom of
types of soil and juices from growing plants and
planting based on tropical fruits vegetables in yard
cultural properties
Indigenous science is important in the
development of science and technology in
the Philippines. Like ancient civilization,
indigenous science gave birth to the
development of science and technology
as a field and as a discipline.
Indigenous Indigenous science helped the people in
understanding the natural environment
Science and in coping with everyday life.
UNESCO’s Declaration on Science and the
Use of Scientific Knowledge (1999)
recognized indigenous science as a
historical and valuable contribution to
science and technology.
Climate change, Energy change and Conservation
Climate
change
and the
energy
crisis
Alleviating climate change
Robert Goodland and Simon Counsell
Abstract. Addressing climate change will require dramatic policy shifts in the fields of energy,
livestock production and forest management. The following paper summarises where we are
now and what we need to do, with an emphasis on how multilateral organisations like The
World Bank can help to address the challenges ahead.
today’s 8 billion tons down to about 2

F orty-six nations and 2.6 billion
people are now at risk of being over-
billion tons to balance the assimilation
capacity of the world’s carbon sinks
whelmed by armed conflict and war (such as oceans, forests, and other
related to climate change. A further biomass).
fifty-six countries face political desta-
bilisation, affecting another 1.2 billion The Energy Sector
individuals.1 Climate change is today’s
The energy industry calculates that sev-
biggest threat to international security
eral thousand billion
and will intensify North-South ten- Thus the fate of
tons of coal remain
sions.2 The world has to end growth in human civilisation
in the ground - 150
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within
years’ worth at probably hinges on
seven years (by 2015)
Climate change and reduce emissions current extraction
rates. It is therefore
the coal decisions of
is today’s by about 80 percent clear that most of six nations and on
biggest threat by 2050. At least two- the remaining coal preventing extensive
thirds of energy de-
to international mand over the next has to stay in the forest fires in
ground if we are to
security and will twenty-five years will avoid climate ca- three others.
intensify North- come from developing tastrophe. Three-
South tensions. countries. The world
must reduce annual
quarters of coal reserves are in five na-
tions: the United States, Russia, China,
carbon emissions from
12 16, October 2008

Climate change and the energy crisis
India, and Australia. Canada

should be added to the list
of critical nations because of
the scale of its Athabasca tar
sands and boreal peat depos-
its. Thus the fate of human
civilisation probably hinges
on the coal decisions of six
nations and on preventing
extensive forest fires in three
others (Brazil, Indonesia, and
Congo).
The polluters, the historic

emitters of GHG, must pay
developing countries to leave
coal and oil in the ground,
leave their forests intact,
Picture 1. (Courtesy Nigel Dudley, Equilibrium
and plant trees. In 2007 the World Research)
Bank proposed a new fund (the Forest
Carbon Partnership Facility, FCPF) that out. Pricing, codes, and policies are all
might in principle serve to do that. At needed to accelerate uptake of efficient
the time of writing, however, the de- technologies.
tails had still not been worked out, and
Over-reliance on Bank staff have so Energy efficiency
far refused to rule Over-reliance on efficiency and carbon
efficiency and out that industrial
trading is a monumental error. Neither
carbon trading is a logging in tropical reduces the causes of climate change
monumental error. forests will be eligible or the amount of GHG emitted. The
for FCPF funds. The term “carbon trading” conflates “cap-
International GHG Treaty should ban all give-away quotas-and trade” with “cap-
subsidies to fossil fuels immediately and auction-trade.” In both cases the cap is
insist on full-cost pricing for all energy to the good, but giving away the rights
production. The $250Bn in subsidies to historical polluters means blessing
currently allocated to fossil fuels and the existing theft of the commons and
nuclear energy should be switched to letting scarcity rents go to private cor-
renewable energy. porations rather than capturing them for
public revenue. Trading at the national
Lighting accounts for 20 percent of level, and maybe at a regulated inter-
global energy use. Over the past de- national level, may be useful. Carbon
cades voluntary switching from 5 per- emitters have to pay a higher price
cent efficient incandescent light bulbs more commensurate with their pollution,
to 15 percent efficient fluorescents has and trading opens up a source of funds
not worked; incandescents must be to transfer to the poor. A global carbon
banned outright. More efficient and with tax might do all this better.3 A policy of
much longer lives? than compact fluo- sustainability first, leading to efficiency
rescents, LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) second, should be the first design prin-
are already available. The even newer ciple for energy and climate policy.
Ceravision lamp has no electrodes, is
50 percent efficient, and does not wear
16, October 2008 13

The entire world Ecological tax reform is to ensure that all former coal industry
a big part of the solu- employees are retrained for sustainable
demand for tion: a stiff severance jobs or fully compensated. Boosting effi-
electricity could be tax on carbon levied at ciency by retrofitting existing coal power
met from the wellhead and mine plants should be accelerated, as should
254 x 254 km of mouth, accompanied phase-out of the dirtiest coal plants.
by equalizing tariffs on
Sahara desert. carbon-intensive im- Clean Coal
ports and rebating the revenues by abol- No reliance should be placed on “clean
ishing regressive taxes on low incomes. coal” because it does not yet exist. It
Such a policy would reduce carbon use, could become available after 2020, too
spur the development of less carbon- late for the climate crisis. In any event,
intensive technologies, and redistribute if clean coal is achieved, it will be about
income progressively. Higher input price 25 percent more expensive and nearly
(on fossil fuels or carbon content) in- impossible to monitor. Carbon capture
duces efficiency at all subsequent stages and sequestration (CCS) technology
of the production process, and limiting is being experimented with, but on
depletion ultimately limits pollution.4 30 January 2008, the US government
cancelled its first pilot CCS project
The transition to renewable energy (FutureGen in Matoon, Illinois) after
should be accelerated as urgently as five years of costly
possible. Although most (such as geo- delays. No replace- The era of cheap
thermal) is site-specific, the potential is ment plans have been oil is already over;
limitless. For example it has been cal- announced.
culated that wind energy in the Dakotas
exploration for new
could supply adequate electricity to the The intense focus of
deposits should be
whole USA. The entire world demand institutions such as discouraged.
for electricity could be met from 254 The World Bank on
x 254 km of Sahara desert. Desertic coal efficiency and clean coal prevents
nations should be developing countries from leap-frogging
No reliance should financially encour- past the dirty energy phase of devel-
be placed on “clean aged to export solar opment, a mistake industrial countries
coal” because it electricity and even-
tually hydrogen from
are paying for dearly. China looks set
to surpass the United States to become
does not yet exist. water. Offshore wind, the world’s largest energy consumer
wave, current, and after 2010. China opens more than two
tidal power could become the backbone new 600MW coal-fired power plants
of the UK’s electricity.5 a week;7 not one is capable of being
readily retrofitted with future carbon
Coal sequestration technology. Each new
There is increasing support for banning coal plant emits about 15,000 metric
all new coal-fired power plants that do tons of CO2 per day. Coal accounts for
not have provisions for CO2 capture and more than 80 percent of China’s carbon
sequestration. Since wind-generated emissions.
electricity is already economic relative to
coal with sequestration, there is no rea- Carbon sequestration
son to allow the building of new power There is scope for carbon sequestra-
plants that would emit large amounts of tion by reducing deforestation, planting
CO2 for decades.6 Care must be taken trees and managing land on a global
14 16, October 2008

scale. However, extreme caution is the nuclear industry from now on. All
needed to ensure that such plantation subsidies to the nuclear industry must
schemes do not undermine the rights cease and preferably be reallocated to
or livelihoods of poor people living in renewable forms of energy.
what are sometimes viewed as “de-
graded” forest environments, but which Hydroprojects
actually comprise occupied subsistence Reservoirs are the largest single source
farmland. In addition, micro-algae have of anthropogenic
been demonstrated to sequester more methane emissions, Hydrogen fuel
than 80 percent of daytime CO2 emis- contributing around cells to promote the
sions from power plants and can be a quarter of these
used to produce up to 10,000 gallons of “hydrogen economy”
emissions, or more
liquid fuel per acre per year.8 than 4 percent of may prove to be
global GHG emis- among the best
Oil sions. The recom- bets for temporary
It seems likely that the world cannot mendations of the
afford to burn its remaining oil. The era
subsidies.
World Commission
of cheap oil is already over; exploration on Dams9 should be followed. In par-
for new deposits should be discouraged. ticular, hydroelectric projects likely
Canadian tar sands should be left in to emit substantial amounts of GHG
place and re-vegetated. should be banned. Carbon emissions
from any dam should be subject to the
Natural Gas proposed global carbon tax.
Natural gas is ‘cleaner’ than coal: It
contains 70 percent less carbon per Hydrogen
unit of energy than coal. As the transi- Generating hydrogen from fully renew-
tion to renewables will be wrenching, able energy systems (such as solar
As the transition natural gas will have a and wind) by electrolyzing water (even
role as a bridging fuel. sea water) seems hopeful. This is one
to renewables will But gas leaks are inev- of the main technologies for research.
be wrenching, itable, it (methane) is Hydrogen fuel cells to promote the
natural gas will 21 times more climate “hydrogen economy” may prove to be
have a role as a forcing than CO2, and
liquefaction, transport
among the best bets for temporary
subsidies.
bridging fuel. and regasification emit
substantial quantities Caveat on Carbon Trading
of GHG, so the gains are limited and The International Carbon Procurement
temporary. Vehicles Investor’s Guide (2007)10
notes that more than 50 carbon funds
Nuclear Energy exist and nearly €6 billion of capital has
Nuclear energy is not a panacea. Full already been invested in them. They
environmental and social costing, in- offer investors a diverse menu of op-
cluding the risk of terrorism and ac- portunities for participating in the car-
cidents and the diversion of radioac- bon market. However, analysts argue
tive materials to weaponry, must be that conclude that the carbon trading
mandated. The industry must pay for approach to the problem of rapid cli-
permanent storage of nuclear wastes. mate change is fraught at present and
All waste storage and insurance against ineffective.11
accidents must be the responsibility of
16, October 2008 15

Box 1. Contraction and Convergence

Contraction and Convergence (C&C) is a global framework for reducing GHG emissions to a safe
level. C&C was designed by the Global Commons Institute for the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.12 Longtime industrialised
countries, which have produced the bulk of greenhouse gases, bear a much larger burden in
preventing climate change; therefore they will have to play a leadership role, both regarding
drastic emissions reduction and development of low- or no-carbon technologies to provide room
to poor developing countries for economic development within the boundaries of a global carbon
regime.
C&C is based on the science of limits and the principle of carbon justice, striving for convergence
to equal-per-capita emissions rights, assisted by a medium-term, multistage approach
accounting for differentiated national capacities. “Contraction” means global emissions are
reduced in total over time so the concentration of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere stabilises at
a level low enough and soon enough to prevent dangerous rates of climate change from taking
hold. “Convergence” means that subject to this global limit, initial entitlements to emit carbon
are distributed to all the countries or regions of the world with an agreed process of convergence
to equalise per capita emissions entitlements across the planet.
During contraction and convergence, entitlements are assumed to be tradable and hence must
be capped, with quotas initially distributed to the government, which then auctions them to users
who are allowed to re-sell them. C&C also could work using the carbon tax rather than cap and
auction-and-trade.
Caveat on Cap-and-Trade polluting projects. Projects should

Schemes be net reducers of carbon to have a
Cap-and-trade schemes do not reduce credit to sell. Burning methane from
GHG emissions; they merely allocate coal mines or waste dumps for energy
emissions costs, depending on where does little to wean the world from fos-
the cap is set. Clearly the cap could sil fuels, but do such activities result
and should be set well below current in reduction of GHG? The forestry
usage. Cap-and-trade history shows and carbon sink projects proposed for
that allowances are perversely hand- inclusion in the Clean Development
ed out to major carbon emitters, who Mechanism are a way for industria-
can use them or sell them at market lised countries, responsible for 75
rates. A growing consensus warns percent of greenhouse gas emissions,
that carbon trading, and in particular to obtain access to cheap ways of
the idea of offsetting carbon emis- buying emission rights without com-
sions, may be hurting, not helping, mitting themselves to reducing their
efforts to ensure a safe climate fu- emissions. At least they have to pay
ture. Cap-and-trade proponents ar- more to emit, and what they pay
gue that trading the right to emit CO2 goes to a country that has not used
allows firms and nations to decide its quota. GHG emission reductions
whether they should spend money must become the overriding priority
on cutting pollution or on buying the and are achieved by a low cap, not
right to pollute by paying someone by trading. Almost all such reductions
else to cut back. must come from the polluters, namely
the industrial nations.
Most of the carbon credits being sold
to industrialised countries come from
16 16, October 2008

Climate Geo-engineering consumption of nonrenewable en-

Schemes to increase the earth’s al- ergy seems perverse. The hope that
bedo to reflect more sunlight back iron fertilisation of oceans will boost
into space would need thorough en- C-sink capacity seems risky. None of
vironmental assessments well be- these ideas seems at all attractive to
forehand. For a life form that lives date and may postpone reductions in
on solar radiation to block more of it GHG emissions.
from the earth to permit more rapid
Box 2. Sector Solutions to Reduce Climate Risks

Transportation: Pedestrianism (including moving walkways) and non-motorised transport (such
as bicycles) must become the priority. Transportation will become almost entirely electricity-
driven. Mopeds and other electric and fuel-cell vehicles should become common and feasible
through urban planning. Mass transit (electric) systems should become the norm; modal shifts to
inter- and intra-city (electric) rail, and water transport should be encouraged. New highways are
problematic. Air transport is likely to decline until renewable low- or zero-carbon fuels (such as
solar hydrogen) become available.
Buildings: Changes include rehabilitation of existing building stock, insulation, solar windows
with high insulation (which reflect heat in the hot season and absorb heat in the cold season),
new lighting technology (compact fluorescents, LED bulbs), efficiency standards for water
heating, refrigeration and other appliances, rooftop and parking-lot solar systems.
Industry: The most energy-intensive industries should be phased down. Combined heat and
power systems will become commonplace. Industry must facilitate recyclability of its products.
Industry should progress toward closed-loop manufacturing in which there is no waste. Wastes
and waste disposal should be taxed to provide incentives for industry to recycle.
Urban and Municipal Authorities: Telecommuting should become the norm; working from
home would reduce congestion and transport costs. Urban design should prioritise pedestrianism
and facilitate bicycles. Other developments include solar-roofed parking lots, district heating
systems, combined heat and power, efficient street lighting, efficient water pumping, waterless
composting sanitation (with no new water-based sewage systems), recycling of water, collection
of rain, composting of all organics.
Agricultural: Innovations include efficient solar and wind irrigation pumps, solar and wind-
powered desalination, rainwater harvesting, water conservation, trickle irrigation, irrigation of
food crops only, with none for fodder or livestock. There may be a role for the lowest-impact
irrigation reservoirs.
Agrifuels produce more GHG than the fossil fuel they displace. If all costs are internalised,
agrifuels will become uneconomic.13 Diversion of crops to fuel reduces food availability, the
prices of which are therefore soaring worldwide. In addition, 9,000 liters of water are needed to
produce about one liter of agrifuel. There may be some benefit in the future from cellulosic and
algal fuels, but they are still experimental. Livestock contribute more to GHG emissions than any
other form of agriculture, and forests are often burned or destroyed to make room for ranches.
Livestock constitute the least efficient form of producing human food and consume more water
than any other product.
Livestock GHG emissions, of which deforesta-

The agriculture sector is generally tion and livestock are the main ele-
agreed to account for one-quarter of ments. One journal estimated that 23
16, October 2008 17

International Development Agency

(IDA) branches of the Bank Group
have not funded a single large-scale
livestock proj-
ect. However The agriculture
the International sector is generally
Finance Corporation agreed to account
(IFC) has stated for one-quarter of
that it need not
abide by the World GHG emissions, of
Bank’s livestock which deforestation
strategy, and since and livestock are the
Picture 2. (Courtesy Nigel Dudley,
the strategy ap- main elements.
Equilibrium Research) peared in 2001, IFC
has invested US$732M to promote
percent of global carbon emissions twenty-two livestock production proj-
derive merely from keeping livestock ects, dwarfing and undermining IBRD/
alive.14 The FAO15 provided a lower IDA’s comparatively modest financ-
but still startlingly high estimate of 18 ing to reduce deforestation and GHG
percent of GHGs attributable to the emissions. Almost all of IFC’s projects
raising, processing, and transportation involve precisely the type of livestock
of livestock and their products. A 2006 system that the World Bank’s live-
Sierra Club report16 estimated that stock strategy seeks to avoid: large
the proportion of GHGs attributable to integrated producers rather than
livestock may be 40 percent or higher. small mixed farmers.
However, the Food and Agricultural Better results for the food industry—
Organisation projects a doubling of including producers (especially family
livestock numbers in the next few de- farmers)— and consumers, nutrition,
cades. Reducing livestock consump- public health, and the environment,
tion should be a key aim of green- have clearly been seen when financial
house reduction policies.17 resources have been provided, both
to producers to provide and market
Commendably the World Bank pub- healthy products and to public health
lished a Livestock Strategy in 2001, groups to conduct public-awareness
stating that the Bank would “avoid campaigns.
funding large-
Agrifuels produce scale commercial,
Scarce agricultural development re-
more GHG than grain-fed feed- sources are more economically allo-
the fossil fuel they lot systems and cated to promoting increased acces-
displace. If all costs industrial milk,
pork, and poultry
sibility by the poor to healthful foods,
are internalised, production except because such foods provide lower
risks and impacts for the environment
agrifuels will to improve the and public health, are more efficient
become uneconomic. public good areas in resource use, and are more equita-
of environment ble to poor farmers. Since most meat
and food safety.” Since then the and dairy products are now available
International Bank for Reconciliation in soy-based versions, this alternative
and Development (IBRD) and
18 16, October 2008

would not require lowering nutritional the Bank established a US$250m

standards; on the contrary, it would Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
improve them.18 (FCPF), which aims to establish pilot
activities to enable tropical coun-
Forest Policy tries to prepare for the inclusion of
More than 35 million acres of tropi- “avoided deforestation” in a post-
cal forests are destroyed annually Kyoto agreement in 2012. At the time
(particularly in developing countries), of writing the FCPF had received the
releasing more backing of the G8 and sign-off from
Serious technical than 1.5 billion the board, although many important
challenges remain to metric tons of details of the initiative are still under
the inclusion of forest CO2, methane, development. The Bank’s BioCarbon
Fund finances projects that seques-
carbon issues in any and NOx into the ter or conserve greenhouse gases in
atmosphere ev-
binding agreement ery year. Climate forest, agro, and other ecosystems.
on climate, not least change is inten- BioCarbon Fund projects have to fulfill
because monitoring of sifying drought criteria to ensure that the fund meets
its own targets in the areas of climate
carbon balances and and the risk of and environment, poverty alleviation,
forest fires. In
flux from forests is some years, like project management and learning,
practically difficult the 1997-1998 and portfolio balance. Each BioCarbon
and poorly developed. El Niño year Fund project is expected to deliver
when fires re- between 400,000 and 800,000 tons
leased some 2 billion tons of carbon of CO2 equivalents (CO2e) over a pe-
from peat swamps alone in Indonesia, riod of ten to fifteen years. In return
emissions are more than twice that. a typical project will receive about
US$2-3 million in payments (US$3-4
The omission of avoided deforestation per ton CO2.20 It is still too soon to
from the Kyoto treaty resulted from judge the extent to which this can
concerns about the environmental ef- reduce atmospheric GHG.
fectiveness of the process, particular-
ly since it would be difficult to enforce However, the Bank’s own policies
agreements by developing nations. sometimes seem to be at odds. The
Some environmentalists fear nations US$80m Amazon Region Protected
might sign up to secure one area, Areas Project expands Brazil’s pro-
shifting deforestation elsewhere but tected areas system in the Amazon
bringing no net gain. Serious techni- region as a first phase alone. But
cal challenges remain to the inclusion this is undermined by IFC’s Bertin
of forest carbon issues in any binding cattle-ranching projects in the
agreement on climate, not least be- Amazon forest region. The issue of
cause monitoring of carbon balances the IFC undercutting other Bank pol-
and flux from forests is practically dif- icy calls for more explanation as they
ficult and poorly developed.19 are theoretically governed by the
same board. Similar IBRD projects
The World Bank reports that defores- finance forest conservation in Mexico
tation accounts for about 20 percent (US$45M), Costa Rica (US$32M),
of global carbon emissions, mainly and Peru (US$23M). Such initiatives
from fires set to clear land. In 2007 need to be monitored, revised, and
16, October 2008 19

cultivation in mangrove
forests. For IFC, de-
struction of tropical
rainforest in general
is insufficient reason
for an Environmental
Assessment (EA)
Category “A.” For exam-
ple, IFC’s US$80 million
finance of Indonesia’s
Wilmar Oil Palm Project
in 2006 is EA Category
“C.” IFC justifies this
by writing, “It is antici-
pated that this project
will have minimal or no
direct, adverse social or
Photo 3. (Courtesy Nigel Dudley, Equilibrium environmental impacts.” IFC omits
Research)
emissions of greenhouse gas, risks
ramped up. In 2007 the Bank’s for- to indigenous peoples, and loss of
mer chief economist and vice presi- biodiversity.23
dent, Lord Nicholas Stern, urged the
Bank to desist from financing de- Outright conversion or fragmenta-
Outright forestation as the
biggest and most
tion of natural forests for any pur-
pose, such as oil
conversion or immediate con- palm plantations,
The risks are that
fragmentation of tribution it could cattle ranching, incorporating forests
natural forests make to reducing soy, logging, and into the carbon
for any purpose, GHG emissions.
However, the Bank
mangrove shrimp market would
ponds should
such as oil palm has a long track cease immediately.
simply guarantee
plantations, cattle record of funding Conservation of their passing into the
ranching, soy, industrialisation of forests, prevention hands of big private
logging, and natural forest areas
in the tropics and,
of forest burning, interests.
remote-sensing
mangrove shrimp more recently, in detection of logging and fires, and
ponds should cease the former commu- enforcement of laws should be em-
immediately. nist countries.21 phasised. The In addition, the G8/
World Bank BioCarbon Fund should
More than 2.5 million acres of increase by orders of magnitude
Indonesian rainforests are cleared from today’s few million dollars to
for oil palm plantations, and 3.5 several billion dollars within a very
million acres of Amazonian rainfor- few years, especially in the Congo
est are cleared every year, primarily and Central Africa, Indonesia,
for enormous soy fields and cattle Malaysia, Papua New Guinea,
ranching.22 IFC finances oil palm, Cambodia, Laos, and the Amazon
soy, and cattle ranching in tropi- forest nations.
cal rainforest regions and shrimp
20 16, October 2008

The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility “Prevention first by reducing

should not directly or indirectly fund GHG emissions; adaptation
any activities connected to industrial second”
forestry in any natural or semi-natu-
ral forests. It also should not neces- 1. Forest Conservation: Switch
sarily focus on preparation of avoid- from current financing of industrial
ed-deforestation programs for entry logging and forest destruction to
into future forest carbon markets. support strengthening of tenure
Instead it should explore and sup- rights of forest-based communi-
port investigation of the most cost- ties, community-based forest
effective means of protecting forests, management, and more conserva-
particularly through changes to land- tion, reforestation, and affores-
tenure and resource-access regimes. tation for carbon sequestration.
It should support the development of This is the most cost-effective
Fund-based forest carbon-financing GHG measure, according to Lord
mechanisms instead of only trading Nicholas Stern.
mechanisms. The risks are first that
incorporating forests into the car-
2. Comply with World Bank Group
bon market would simply guarantee
(WBG) Livestock and Nutrition
Assist developing their passing into Rules: Instruct IFC to follow all
the hands of big
countries to plan private interests. WBG policies and strategies, espe-
cially: (a) the Livestock Strategy
for and implement Second, such funds (no more financing for industrial
a prompt and could trigger fur- livestock production), and (b) the
orderly transition ther displacement, Nutrition Strategy, which does not
conflict, and vio-
to renewable lence to Indigenous recommend meat consumption.
This would be the second most
energy and GHG Peoples. As forests cost-effective method, according
reduction. themselves increase to FAO.
in value, they might
perversely be declared off limits’ to
communities that live in them or de- 3. Renewable Energy: Switch from
pend on them for their livelihoods. current massive financing of fos-
sil fuels rapidly toward renewable
energy (solar, wind, wave, tidal,
Key Recommendations
micro-hydro) with conservation
The following recommendations and energy efficiency, and espe-
are offered to help alleviate climate cially decentralised systems for
risks. These roughly ranked recom- the poor. Eliminate all subsidies
mendations strongly support and for fossil fuels. Assist developing
are generally consistent with those countries to plan for and imple-
offered by seven major recent in- ment a prompt and orderly transi-
ternational studies.24 IEA concludes, tion to renewable energy and GHG
“Vigorous, immediate, and collective reduction.
policy action by all governments is
Z Get the Price Right: Promote
essential to move the world onto a
all nations’ adoption of clear
more sustainable energy path.”
price signals, such as a global
carbon tax to be used as each
16, October 2008 21

nation sees fit. The C-tax must island nation states such as the
be revenue neutral for the poor. Maldives and deltaic countries
Z Contraction and such as Bangladesh.
Convergence: Finance, advise Acknowledgments
on and otherwise encourage We offer sincere thanks for the contributions to this paper
contraction and convergence from Herman Daly, especially his 2008 paper on the monu-
mental blunder of pursuing efficiency in coal-powered elec-
to reduce GHG emissions. tricity generation before sustainability. Aubrey Meyer kindly
Persuade borrowing member helped us with ‘Contraction and Convergence’.
nations to adopt that principle. Robert Goodland is former chief ecologist at The World
Support a physical limit (hard Bank. Simon Counsell is director of The Rainforest Founda-
cap) that declines to zero before tion in London
the threshold 2˚C rise in tem-

perature occurs. Notes
1 Smith 2007.
Z International Agreements:
2 Campbell et al. 2007.
Vigorously support the process
3 Daly 2007a.
for the comprehensive post- 4 Daly 2007b.
Kyoto international agreement 5 Helweg-Larsen and Bull 2007.
under the auspices of UN FCCC. 6 Wheeler 2008.
Z Stringent Energy Standards: 7 Martinot and Junfeng 2007.
Accelerate improvement of end- 8 Makhijani 2007.
use standards commensurate 9 World Commission on Dams 2000.
with evolving science for ve- 10 International Carbon Procurement Vehicles Inves-
tor’s Guide 2007.
hicles, lighting, building codes, 11 Lohmann et al. 2006, Leach 2008.
electric motors, and appliances. 12 www.gci.org.uk/briefings/ICE.pdf
Z GHG Sources and Sinks: 13 Smolker et al. 2007, Searchinger 2008.
Monitor GHG emissions and 14 Calverd 2005.
carbon-sink capacities, including 15 FAO 2006.
oceanic (marine acidification). 16 Sierra Club 2006.
17 Goodland 1998.
Implement agreements on de-
18 Chopra et al. 2007.
forestation and livestock.
19 Counsell et al. 2007.
4. Prioritise Poverty Reduction: 20 Bosquet 2006.
Reinvigorate meeting the 21 Stern 2007.
Millennium Development Goals as 22 Bickel 2003, Caruso 2005, Chomitz et al. 2007,
the WBG’s top priority to reduce Dros 2004, Kaimowitz et al. 2004, Lilley 2004.
poverty and to assist the poor in 23 Greenpeace 2007.
24 Helweg-Larsen and Bull 2007, GLCA 2007,
becoming more resilient to with- InterAcademy Council 2007, Makhijani 2008,
stand climate impacts. Ramp up Practical Action 2007, Wheeler 2008.
direct funding for poverty reduc-
tion, job creation, nutrition, edu- References
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from indirect and inefficient trick- medical costs attributable to meat consumption.
Preventive Medicine 24: 646-655, 1995.
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Bickel, U. and J.M. Dros,The Impacts of soybean
Z Adaptation to climate cultivation on Brazilian ecosystems: Three case
studies, WWF Forest Conversion Initiative, WWF,
change: Assist developing Gland, Switzerland, 2003.
countries to adapt to climate Bosquet, B., The BioCarbon Fund: Using the global
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Washington DC., 2006.
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Calverd, A., A radical approach to Kyoto, Physics Greenpeace, How the oil palm industry is cooking the
World p.56. 2005. Security Implications of Global climate, Greenpeace International, Amsterdam,
Climate Change. 2007.
Campbell, K., J. Gulledge, J. McNeill, J. Podesta, Helweg-Larsen T. and J. Bull, Zero Carbon Britain.
P. Ogden, L. Fuerth, R.J. Woolsey, A. Lennon, Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth,
J. Smith, R. Weitz and D. Mix, The Age of Powys, Wales, 2007.
Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Kaimowitz, D., B. Mertens, S. Wunder and P. Pacheco,
Security Implications of Global Climate Change, Hamburger Connection Fuels Amazon Destruction,
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Washington DC., 2007.
Leach, P., Carbon sunk? The potential impacts of
Caruso, E., Roads of deforestation in Brazil: how soya avoided deforestation credits on emissions trading
and cattle are destroying the Amazon with the mechanisms, The Rainforest Foundation, London,
help of the IFC. In: Broken promises how World 2008.
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Global Witness, Sinks Watch, Forest Peoples 2004.
Programme, Environmental Defense, WRM, Down- Lohmann, L., N. Hällström, R. Österbergh and O.
to-Earth, 55 p. 2005. Nordberg, Carbon trading: a critical conversation
Chomitz, K.M., P. Buys, G. De Luca, T.S. Thomas on climate change, privatisation and power.
and S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, At Loggerheads? Development Dialogue, No. 48, Dag Hammarskjöld
Agricultural Expansion, Poverty Reduction, and Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden, 2006.
Environment in the Tropical Forests, World Bank, Makhijani, Arjun., Carbon-free and nuclear-free: A
Washington, D.C., 2007. roadmap for US energy policy. Rdr Books, Berkeley,
Chopra, M., S. Galbraith and I.Darnton-Hill, A global 2008.
response to a global problem: the epidemic Martinot, E. and L. Junfeng, Powering China’s
of over nutrition, Bulletin of the World Health development: the role of renewable energy,
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Cline, W.R., Global warming and agriculture: end of Practical Action, Energy to reduce poverty: the
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Economics, Washington, DC., 2007. Development Group, Rugby UK, 2007.
Counsell, S., C. Long and S. Wilson (Eds.), Searchinger T., R. Heimlich R.A. Houghton, F. Dong
Concessions to Poverty; The environmental, A. Elobeid, J. Fabiosa, S. Tokgoz, D. Hayes and T.
social and economic impacts of industrial logging Yu, Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases
concessions in Africa’s rainforests, Rainforest greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use
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Daly, H.E., Ecological economics and sustainable htm, 2006.
development, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2007a. Smolker, R., B. Tokar, A. Petermann and E.
Daly, H.E., Climate Policy: from “know how” to “do Hernandez, The real cost of agrofuels: Food, forest
now”. American Meteorological Society, Washington and the climate, Global Forest Coalition.org, 2007.
D.C., 2007b. Stern, N., The economics of climate change: The
Dros, J.M., Managing the soy boom: Two scenarios Stern review on the economics of climate change
of soy production expansion in South America, [for the UK Treasury], Norwich UK, 2007.
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fed meat (Ch. 6: 95-115) in D. Crocker, and T.
Linden (eds.), The Ethics of Consumption, Rowman
and Littlefield, Lanham MD, 1998.
16, October 2008 23

Nuclear power, global warming

and uranium supplies
David Fleming
Abstract. The world’s endowment of uranium ore is now so depleted that shortages of ura-
nium— and the lack of realistic alternatives— could lead to interruptions in supply from the
middle years of the decade 2010-2019, and will be expected to deepen thereafter. Every
stage in the nuclear process, except fission, produces carbon dioxide. As the richest ores are
used up, emissions will rise.
Greenhouse gases Carbon dioxide is not the only green-

Every stage in the life-cycle of nuclear house gas released by the nuclear
fission uses energy, and most of this industry. The conversion of one tonne of
energy is derived from fossil fuels. uranium into an enriched form requires
Nuclear power is therefore a substan- the addition of about half a tonne of flu-
tial source of greenhouse gases. The orine, producing uranium hexafluoride
delivery of electricity into the grid from gas (hex) to be used in the centrifuge
nuclear power produces, at present, process. At the end of the process, only
roughly one third as much carbon diox- the enriched fraction of the gas is actu-
ide as the delivery of the same quantity ally used in the reactor: the remainder,
of electricity from natural gas....1 depleted hex, is left as waste. Not all of
this gas can by any means be prevented
... or, rather, it would do so, if the full from escaping into
energy cost of producing electricity the atmosphere, The gas and other
from uranium were counted in— includ- and most of it will fossil fuels used in
ing the energy cost of all the waste- eventually do so un-
less it is packed into
the nuclear life-cycle
disposal commitments. Unfortunately
(in part because of the need to allow secure containers would produce less
high-level waste to cool off) that is not and finally buried in carbon dioxide per
the case. Nuclear waste-disposal is be- deep repositories.4
ing postponed until a later date. This Hex is a halogenat- kilowatt-hour if they
means that the carbon emissions asso- ed compound (HC), were used directly
ciated with nuclear energy look rather one of several that
are used at various
as fuels to generate
good at the moment: at about 60
grams per kWh they are approximately stages of the cy- electricity.
16 per cent of the emissions produced cle. HCs are potent
by gas-powered electricity generation.2 greenhouse gases. The global warming
The catch is that this figure roughly potential of freon-114, for instance, is
doubles when the energy-cost of nearly 10,000 times greater than that
waste-disposal is taken into account, of the same mass of carbon dioxide.5
and it grows relentlessly as the indus- There is no published data on releases
try is forced to turn to lower-grade of HCs from nuclear energy. A reliable
ores. What lies ahead is the prospect study of all releases of greenhouse gas-
of the remaining ores being of such es from the nuclear fuel cycle, and their
poor quality that the gas and other fos- effect on the atmosphere, were com-
sil fuels used in the nuclear life-cycle missioned and published without delay.
would produce less carbon dioxide per
kilowatt-hour if they were used directly Ore quality
as fuels to generate electricity.3 Both the quantity of greenhouse gases
24 16, October 2008

released by nuclear energy per kilowatt future prospects for production. It is

hour and the net energy return of the prepared by the OECD Nuclear Energy
nuclear industry are determined prima- Agency (NEA) in partnership with the
rily by the quality (grade) of uranium International Atomic Energy Agency
ore being used. The lower the grade of (IAEA), and the 2005 edition was pub-
ore, the more energy is needed to mine lished in June 2006.8 In its discussion
and mill it and to deal with the larger of the availability of
quantity of tailings. The limit, in theory, usable uranium ore, There is a widely-
is reached with an ore grade of about it suggests that there shared recognition
0.01 percent for soft rocks such as is 70 years’ supply at
sandstone, and 0.02 percent for hard the current price.9 It that there will be
rocks such as granite. If grades lower adds, however, that, a severe shortage
than those limits were to be used, when “prognosticated
more carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour and speculative”
of uranium
would be produced by the nuclear cycle resources are added around 2013.
than by the same amount of energy in, there is enough
produced from gas. The energy return to maintain current output for a further
on energy invested (EREI) would be 270 years.10 The figure of 70 years is
less than the energy return you would not dissimilar to that of independent
get if you generated the electricity di- analysts Storm van Leeuwen and Smith,
rectly in a gas turbine.6 who suggest 60 years.11 However, the
NEA/IAEA expects its prognosticated
But these are only “theoretical” limits, and speculative reserves to last 270
because in practice the turning-point years. Prognosticated and specula-
to a negative energy return may be tive reserves, if they exist, will be deep
substantially sooner. There are five below the surface, requiring very large
key reasons why ore which is theo- investments of time, capital and energy
retically rich enough to give a positive before they can be exploited. Those
EREI may in fact not be rich enough to speculative resources— which the NEA
justify exploitation: to yield a practical hopes will one day becomes usable
return on energy investment (PREI): reserves— will need to be remarkably
increasingly deep deposits; problems rich, relative to the vast deposits of very
with water; difficulties in raising invest- low-grade and useless ore of which we
ments for what may be a long pay- are already aware.
back; local geological conditions; and
the relatively small energy contribution Furthermore, both the NEA and the
from the ore Storm van Leeuwen and Smith esti-
mates contain assumptions which tend
Where, then, does the practical turning to exaggerate the time remaining be-
point lie, below which the ore quality fore depletion. First, both estimates are
is too poor to be useful? We know that “reserves-to-production ratios”, which
this varies with local conditions; but gives the misleading impression that
for a worldwide average above which production can continue at a constant
uranium ore can still provide a positive rate before coming to an abrupt stop.
PREI, a suggested guideline is no lower In fact, it is well understood that pro-
than 0.1 percent.7 duction of a resource in its latter years
takes its time to decline towards zero; it
Uranium supply is in the years closely following the peak
So— how much uranium ore with a that the trouble starts. Secondly, the
positive PREI do we have left? The growth in demand for uranium which
“Red Book” is the most authoritative the nuclear industry seems to expect
source on the quantity and quality of would, in any case, foreshorten the
the remaining uranium ore, and of whole sequence a likely cut-off point on
the assumption of increasing demand
16, October 2008 25

is probably closer to 35 years. Thirdly, supplies”, consisting of inventories of

both estimates are of the TREI limits, uranium fuel that have been built up in
not the much earlier turning-point to the past, together with recycled mine
negative PREI. These three factors bring tailings and some mixed-oxide fuel
forward the period during which deep (MOX), a mixture of recycled plutonium
deficits in uranium supply can be ex- and depleted uranium.15 The expec-
pected, to the decade 2011-2020. tation is that neither of these crucial
supplements have much longer to
Supply crunch last. Military uranium is being depleted
And, indeed, there is a widely-shared rapidly Russia is getting towards to the
recognition that there will be a severe end of her supply of obsolete nuclear
shortage of uranium around 2013. This warheads. There is no chance of the
is frankly acknowledged by the NEA contract being renewed beyond 2013.16
itself, and set in context by the First
Uranium Corporation.12 Secondary supplies are also in de-
cline. The inventories are approach-
At present, about 65,000 tonnes of ing exhaustion, and this has been one
natural uranium are consumed each of the drivers of the recent sharp rise
year in nuclear reactors worldwide.13 in the price of uranium.17 The amount
The number of reactors in existence in of uranium derived from tailings has
2013 will be the product of (1) retire- been falling, and it has been calculated
ments of old reactors and (2) start-ups that the scale of the task of increas-
of new ones. There is no basis for a re- ing production of uranium-235 now
liable estimate of what that net number would require arrays of continuously-
will be, so we will assume that there is operating gas centrifuge plants running
no change from the present. into the millions.18 The supply of MOX
fuel, derived from a reprocessing which
About 40,000 tonnes of this total de- is already at its practical limits, is not
mand of 65,000 tonnes are supplied expected to increase.
from uranium mines, which leave the
remaining 25,000 tonnes to be supplied 2013, the year in which the contract
from other sources.14 10,000 tonnes for military uranium expires, can be
comes from “military uranium”— that taken to be a crucial date for uranium
is, from the highly-enriched uranium prospects. Unless the production of
salvaged from nuclear weapons, chief- mined uranium can be increased by
ly from the arsenal which the Soviet some 22,000 tonnes per annum, there
Union built up during the Cold War, and will be a 35 per cent deficit in uranium
which is now being dismantled with supply. So, the question is whether the
the help of subsidies from the United production of mined uranium can rise
States. The remaining 15,000 tonnes
to compensate.
comes from a range of “secondary
Box 1. Dealing with waste
The nuclear industry also has a major problem with the disposal of its own waste products; itself
a massively energy intensive process. Unless it starts directing almost the whole of its net energy
output to clearing up its own waste in the very near future, the nuclear industry will never
produce the energy needed to do so. The planet will be left with leaking, burning and flooding
high level waste-dumps in perpetuity. It would be helpful if this task were done before rising sea
levels reach the coastal nuclear reactors and the waste dumps in their back gardens.
26 16, October 2008

Can uranium production and silver which the rock also contains.
increase to fill the gap? But that itself is a mixed blessing be-
Although several of the medium-sised cause it means Lovelock’s argument
producers have in recent years roughly that the copper is
contaminated with is persuasive. But
maintained their output, or slightly
increased it— notably Kazakhstan, small quantities of there are three
Namibia, Niger and Russia— the world’s uranium, which has grounds on which it
two largest producers— Canada and to be removed in a
smelter constructed
is open to criticism.
Australia— both show some evidence
of being in recent decline, with uranium in the Australian desert, adding even
production falling by (respectively), 15 greater energy-costs to the final energy
and 20 percent in 2005-2006.19 yield.21
In both cases, hopes for expanding pro- On this evidence is seems probable
duction have been pinned on major new that, far from expanding in order to sus-
projects— the new Cigar Lake mine in tain the flow of energy following the oil
Canada, and the expansion of Olympic peak, the nuclear industry could indeed
Dam in Australia. Cigar Lake is designed begin to falter during the decade 2010-
to produce nearly 7,000 tonnes per an- 2019, with some nuclear reactors being
num, and it was due to start in 2007. closed down for lack of fuel, and some
However, in October 2006, it flooded; of the reactors now in the planning
the probable way of containing the wa- stage and under construction remaining
ter in the sandstone above the workings unused indefinitely. In the light of this, a
is by refrigeration, which will require judgment has to be made as to whether
large inputs of energy even before work hopes of a revival of uranium supply
can begin. It is now uncertain whether, are a sufficiently realistic foundation
even after long past and future delays, on which to base expectations that the
Cigar Lake will ever be a substantial nuclear industry has a long term future
source of uranium.20 as a major energy provider
The contribution of Alternative uranium sources

Far from Olympic Dam is in Finally, we should consider James
expanding in some ways even Lovelock’s robust dismissal of the idea
more dubious. At that the growth of nuclear power is
order to sustain likely to be constrained by depletion of
the flow of energy present, it is an un-
its raw material. This is how he deals
derground mine well with it:
following the oil past its maturity,
peak, the nuclear and the manage- “Another flawed idea now circulating is
industry could ment, BHP Billiton, is that the world supply of uranium is so
considering whether small that its use for energy would last
indeed begin to to move to an adja- only a few years. It is true that if the
falter during the cent ore body with whole world chose to use uranium as
decade 2010-2019 an open pit mine on its sole fuel, supplies of easily-mined
a massive scale. The uranium would soon be exhausted.
problem is that the uranium ore is very But there is a superabundance of low-
grade uranium ore: most granite, for
low-grade— only 0.06 percent and less,
example, contains enough uranium to
with an average of 0.029 percent, so make its fuel capacity five times that of
that it would be uneconomic in money an equal mass of coal. India is already
terms if it were not for the copper, gold preparing to use its abundant supplies
16, October 2008 27

of thorium, an alternative fuel, in place reductions in travel and transport can

of uranium.”22 be expected to come about rapidly
and brutally as the oil market breaks
Lovelock urges that we have a readily- down.
available stock of fuel in the plutonium
that has been accumulated from the 3. Renewable energy: to design and
reactors that are shortly to be decom- build renewable energy systems to
missioned. And he might have added match the needs and resources of
that other candidates as sources of nu- the particular place and site.
clear fuel are seawater and phosphates. 4. Tradable Energy Quotas (TEQs): to
So, if we put the supposed alternatives define a secure energy budget for
to uranium ore in order, this is what we the whole economy, involving every
have: (1) granite; (2) fast-breeder reac- energy-user in the common purpose
tors using (a) plutonium and (b) thori-
of achieving deep reductions in en-
um; (3) seawater; and (4) phosphates.
ergy demand.23
Lovelock’s argument is persuasive. But
there are three grounds on which it is It cannot be expected that this strategy
open to criticism. will fill the energy gap completely, or
neatly, or in time, but nor is Lovelock
suggesting that nuclear energy could
1. The nuclear fuel cycle
do so. Even if there were neither a
Uranium depletion is not a “flawed uranium-supply problem to restrain
idea”; it is a reality that is just a little the use of nuclear energy, nor a waste-
way ahead. Uranium ore is in increas- problem, and even if it were the over-
ingly short supply. Sources from granite riding priority for governments around
or seawater are too inefficient to make the world, nuclear energy would still
practical sense. Phosphates might be fall far short of filling the gap. There
The nuclear possible but world
production is already
are good reasons to believe that Lean
Energy could do better. It would start
energy industry struggling to keep to get results immediately. Per unit of
is small, providing up with agricultural energy-services produced, it would be
requirements. Fast about ten times cheaper.
a mere 2.5 per cent breeder reactors
of the world’s final have failed to live up 3. The oil peak
energy demand. to their promise and
widely abandoned; it Lovelock does not give enough weight
is highly unlikely that to the significance of the oil peak. As
they can be developed quickly enough this weighs in, it will establish condi-
to address the immediate problems of tions in which there is no choice but to
global warming conserve energy, whether the urgency
of climate change is recognised or not.
2. Alternative energy strategies
Lovelock may underestimate the poten- Conclusion
tial of the fourfold strategy which can The priority for the nuclear industry now
be described as “Lean Energy”: should be to use the electricity generat-
1. Energy efficiency: to achieve the de- ed by nuclear power to clean up its own
pollution and to phase itself out before
cisive improvements in the efficiency
events force it to close down abruptly.
of energy-services made possible by Contrary to what you might think, given
the conservation and energy-saving the huge scale of its problems and its
technologies. supposed status as a fall-back position
2. The proximity principle: to develop which could solve our energy problems
the potential for local provision of the nuclear energy industry is small,
energy, goods and services. Deep providing a mere 2.5 per cent of the
28 16, October 2008

world’s final energy demand.24 Nuclear Busby, J., “An Even Bigger Hole”, http://
sandersresearch.com/index.php?option=com_conte
power is not a solution to the energy nt&task=view&id=1323&Itemid=103
famine brought on by the decline of oil (http://tinyurl.com/35pefj), 2007b.
and gas. Nor is it a means of reducing Collell, M. C., “The Nuclear Mirage and the World
emissions of greenhouse gases. It can- Energy Situation”, Real Instituto Elcano,
not provide energy solutions, however http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/925.asp,
2005.
much we may want it to do so.
Dzhakishev, M., “Uranium Production in Kazakhstan as
David Fleming (fl[email protected]) a Potential Source for Covering the World Uranium
is director of the Lean Economy Connection and a research- Shortage”, World Nuclear Association, at http://
er and writer on energy and the environment, based in www.world-nuclear.org/sym/2004/dzhakishev.htm,
London. He is a former chair of the Soil Association. 2004.
First Uranium Corporation, Annual Information Form
at http://www.firsturanium.com/downloads/2007_
Notes annual_information_form.pdf
1 Storm van Leeuwen and Smith 2006. (http://tinyurl.com/28xmy8 ), 2007.
2 Storm van Leeuwen 2006a. Fleming, D, Energy and the Common Purpose:
Descending the Energy Staircase with Tradable
3 Oxford Research Group 2006a and 2006b.
Energy Quotas (TEQs), third edition, London: The
4 Storm van Leeuwen 2006c. Lean Economy Connection, 2007.
5 Nuclear Fuel Energy Balance Calculator 2007. International Energy Agency, Key World Energy
6 SLS; Storm van Leeuwen 2006b. Statistics, http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/
7 Note that Rio Tinto (2005) announced a “cut-off free/2007/key_stats_2007.pdf
grade” of 0.08 per cent for its existing stocks of (http://tinyurl.com/2vqztn ), 2007.
ore at its Ranger mine in Namibia. Lovelock, J., The Revenge of Gaia, Penguin, London,
8 NEA/IAEA 2006. 2006.
9 Nuclear Energy Agency 2006; The World Nuclear NEA/IAEA, Nuclear Energy Association / International
Association 2007b. Agency, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and
Demand, (the “Red Book”), OECD, Paris, 2006.
10 Nuclear Energy Agency 2006.
Nuclear Fuel Energy Balance Calculator,at http://www.
11 Oxford Research Group 2006a. wise-uranium.org/nfce.html, 2007.
12 Nuclear Energy Agency 2006; First Uranium Cor- Oxford Research Group, Storm van Leeuwen, “Energy
poration 2007. Security and Uranium Reserves”, Factsheet 4,
13 World Nuclear Association 2007b. http://tinyurl.com/2ntqkt, 2006a.
14 World Nuclear Association 2007c. Oxford Research Group, Storm van Leeuwen,
15 Dzhakishev 2004. http://tinyurl.com/3atnrd, 2006b.
16 Bunn 2003. Rio Tinto, “Increase in Ranger Mine’s Reserves and
Resources”, (press release), http://www.riotinto.
17 Collell 2005; Zittel and Schindler 2006.
com/documents/Media/PR444g, 2005.
18 Busby 2007a.
Storm van Leeuwen, J.W. and P. Smith, Nuclear
19 World Nuclear Association 2007c. Power: The Energy Balance”, at
20 Zittel and Schindler 2006. http://www.stormsmith.nl/, 2006.
21 Australia Uranium Association 2007; BHP Billiton Storm van Leeuwen, J.W., “Greenhouse Gases from
2007; Busby 2007b. Nuclear”, Appendix B, in Evidence to the IPCC
Working Group III, Fourth Assessment Report Draft
22 Lovelock 2006.
for Expert Review, 2006b.
23 Fleming 2007; Womack and Jones 2003.
Womack, J. and D. Jones, Lean Thinking, second
24 IEA 2007; Boyle 2004. edition, Simon & Schuster, London, 2003.
World Nuclear Association, “World Nuclear Power
References Reactors and Uranium Requirements,
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/reactors.html,
Australia Uranium Association, “Australia’s Uranium
2007a.
Mines”, www.uic.com.au/emine.htm., 2007.
World Nuclear Association, “Uranium Production
BHP Billiton, Annual Report, 2007.
Figures (1998-2006),
Boyle, G., Renewable Energy, Oxford, 2004. www.world-nuclear.org./info/uprod.html, 2007b.
Bunn, M., “Reducing Excess Stockpiles”, Nuclear Zittel, W. and J. Schindler, Uranium Resources and
Threat Initiative (NTI), www.nti.org/e_research/ Nuclear Energy, Energy Watch Group, http://
cnwm/reducing/heudeal.asp, 2003. www.energyshortage.com/uran/docs2006/REO-
Busby, J., “A Little Makes a Lot?” Uranium_5-12-2006.pdf
http://www.sandersresearch.com/index. (http://tinyurl.com/2uggkd ), 2006.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1300&Ite
mid=105. (http://tinyurl.com/35gunk ), 2007a.
16, October 2008 29

The differences between biotic and mineral resources

and their implications for the
conservation-climate debate
Rolf Steppacher and Pascal van Griethuysen
Résumé. Toute tentative de relier les enjeux de la conservation à la question climatique
devrait partir d’une distinction préalable entre les ressources biotiques et les ressources
minérales sur la base de leurs caractéristiques écologiques et économiques. Les ressources
biotiques peuvent être utilisées de manière soutenable mais ne peuvent alimenter un
processus de croissance économique exponentielle. Les ressources minérales (et en
particulier les combustibles fossiles) permettent d’alimenter une croissance économique
exponentielle, mais seulement pendant une période historiquement limitée et au prix de
graves conséquences écologiques.
preconceptions of eco-
nomic theory, its cultural,
philosophical and method-
ological foundations. This
is the case with natural
resources: while conven-
tional economics tries to
approach natural resourc-
es through their monetary
counterpart,1 ecological
economics stresses the
need to make the biogeo-
chemical characteristics of
these resources explicit.
This allows distinguish-
ing between the ecological
and economic potential of
resources, beginning with
their differing capacity
to meet social objectives
such as economic growth
and ecological sustain-
ability. Given their radi-
Picture 1. Resource use in France
cally different ecological and economic
(Courtesy Nigel Dudley, Equilibrium Research)
characteristics, erroneous conclusions
Introduction tend to be drawn as the wide variety
When jointly addressing issues such of natural processes is simplified down
as natural resources, conservation or to an undifferentiated notion of natu-
climate change, economic questions ral resources. This article aims to help
are prevalent. The manner in which avoiding such erroneous approaches in
these questions are formulated, pre- the conservation-climate debate.
sented and organised, depends on the
30 16, October 2008

Distinguishing ecological flow can thus only be exploited for a

characteristics of different kinds relatively short period of human his-
of natural resources tory, leaving stocks depleted and the
environment degraded by its dissipat-
The main lesson of ecological eco-
ed energy-matter.7
nomics concerns the biogeochemical
nature of the economic process. It
reminds us of the fact that economic Distinguishing unequal
processes are subject to the laws of economic potentials of different
thermodynamics, particularly the law natural resources8
of entropy2. In accordance with this Natural resources can also be distin-
law, economic activities (production, guished according to their economic
consumption, distribution) require high potentials, starting with their capacity
quality energy-matter resources (low to respond to the imperative of eco-
entropy), that are qualitatively de- nomic growth. The growth potential of
graded in the economic transformation living or biotic resources is naturally
process. With production and serv- limited9 and therefore cannot fuel ex-
ices inevitably go together low quality ponential economic growth.10 However,
energy-matter waste and dissipated the limited capacity of biotic resources
energy-matter (high entropy).3 to supply economic growth11 is com-
pensated by the different quality of
Such a perspective allows economic being renewable. The lesson is: limited
analysis to consider the biogeochemi- growth yet possible sustainability.
cal preconditions and limitations of
economic activities such as the una- The case of non-renewable mineral
voidable degradation of natural re- resources is quite different. Since the
sources, the limited capacity of natural time of thermo-industrial revolution
resources for renewal, and the fact mineral resources are capable of induc-
that this limited capacity only relates ing a process of exponential growth:
to certain resources (so-called renew- the stocked energy-matter can be used
able resources). Proposing a classifi- to develop machines and motors that
cation that is valid both for economic allow an even quicker exploitation of
and ecological analysis, Georgescu- the stocks. The process is therefore
Roegen and modern ecological eco- circular and cumulative. However, as
nomics define four analytical catego- the process quickens, stocks get irre-
ries in order to take account of the versibly depleted at an increasing pace
potentials and limitations of natural while the natural assimilation capaci-
resources: funds, services, stocks and ties are altered by the ever increasing
flows4. Ecological funds, built up and of entropic degradation. Fuelled by a
maintained by solar radiation are able limited stock of mineral resources and
to renew themselves and provide both taking place in a limited natural envi-
ecological and economic services, as ronment, such exponential economic
long as the conditions necessary for growth is thus inexorably limited to a
their renewal are met.5 Stocks con- given historical period. The lesson is:
stitute limited reservoirs of organised exponential growth yet no sustainabil-
matter and mineralised energy result- ity. Table 1 illustrates the radically dif-
ing from biogeochemical processes on ferent potentials of biotic and mineral
a geological and not a historical time resources.
scale, but from which it is possible to
extract an energy-matter flow6. This
16, October 2008 31

Table 1. Biotic and mineral resources: radically different potentials
Potential
sustainable use exponential growth
biotic yes no
Resources
mineral no yes
To distinguish between services of erroneous perceptions, illusions, eco-

funds and flows of stocks makes us nomic myths and biased conclusions
aware also that different natural re- may occur
sources have specific temporal char- when the wide Given the limited
acteristics. Given that biotic resources variety of nat- growth potential of
depend on ecological reproductive ural processes living resources, only
cycles, the availability of their serv- are simplified
ices is subject to the natural calendar. down to the an exploitation of the
Therefore, they do not allow for the undifferenti- services of these resources
continuous use of economic production ated notion of at a rate beyond the
funds (land, labour and equipment) natural re-
i.e. exploit them to their full capaci- sources. This
capacity for renewal
ty.12 That is why economic activities in is the case, for of the funds providing
agrarian economies are diversified and instance, when them (fields, forests,
organised in accordance with the cycli- attempts are lakes, seas) is able to
cal rhythms of nature. On the other made to main-
hand, the flow of mineral resources tain the illu-
fuel an albeit
from stocks allows an industrial or- sion that it is short time exponential
Given their radically ganisation
of produc-
possible to fuel
an exponential
growth process.
different ecological and tion in line, growth process through the sustain-
economic characteristics, which makes able exploitation of biotic resources, or
erroneous perceptions, it possible to that the substitution of non-renewable
use econom- by renewable resources would be as
illusions, economic ic produc- feasible as the inverse case. In fact,
myths and biased tion funds given the limited growth potential of
conclusions may occur at their full living resources, only an exploitation
when the wide variety capacity.
13
of the services of these resources at a
This charac- rate beyond the capacity for renewal
of natural processes are teristic re- of the funds providing them (fields,
simplified down to the duces costs forests, lakes, seas) is able to fuel an
undifferentiated notion of and makes albeit short time exponential growth
natural resources. specialisa-
tion possi-
process.15
ble, which along with the continuity of Given the institutionalised growth
economic activity, is an essential ele- dependency of western civilisation16 it
ment of industrial production.14 is not surprising therefore that nearly
all technological progress over the
Given their radically different eco- last 150 years has been based on
logical and economic characteristics, the substitution from renewable to
32 16, October 2008

non-renewable resources, in indus- the fund to provide ecological serv-

try, agriculture and services alike. In ices, and may lead to the weaken-
such a context, an undifferentiated ing of the ecosystem’s resilience and
concept of natural resources is highly capacity for renewal.
problematical also due to the fact that 2. Disruption of the multifunctional
the per capita consumption of mineral serviceability of ecological funds may
resources is very unequally distrib- also be a indirect result of mineral
uted. It hides the economic privilege resources consumption, particularly
that goes with a high per capita con- the use of fossil fuels which affect
sumption of mineral resources as well ecological funds at both local and
as the particular difficulties that are global scale. Local waste rejection,
inherent in the use of biotic and other local pollution beyond the assimila-
renewable resources, particularly in tion capacity of specific local ecosys-
combination with high population tems and global CO2 emissions be-
growth. yond the assimilation capacity of the
Biosphere are often as dangerous as
Conservation of living resources local direct overexploitation. Climate
and exploitation of mineral change mainly due to excessive per
resources capita consumption of fossil fuels in
Bearing in mind the radical economic industrial societies may reduce bio-
and ecological differences between diversity as much or more than local
mineral and biotic natural resources as ecosystem destruction by societies
conditions to be considered in respect not privileged to the same availabil-
to any reasoned decision of resource ity of mineral resources.
utilisation, it is equally important to
insist on the close links that further Both direct overexploitation and in-
exist between the exploitation of min- direct disruption reinforce each other
eral resources (required for the growth in a circular and cumulative causation
of the global industrial structure) and path, and this causal interdepend-
any effort in favour of the conserva- ence is the main reason why conser-
tion of biotic resources. Given the two vation cannot only concern itself with
basic types of biotic and mineral natu- contexts characterised by local over-
ral resources, any realistic conservation exploitation of biotic resources, but
strategy of living resources (flora and needs to consider environmental deg-
fauna) needs to consider two comple- radation induced by the exploitation of
mentary phenomena: overexploitation mineral resources as well.
and disruption.
1. Overexploitation is a complex no- Making the ecological
tion due to the fact that an ecologi- sustainability imperative explicit
cal fund consists of a constellation of The distinction made by Georgescu-
biotic resources (e.g. a forest) pro- Roegen between stocks and flows,
viding multifunctional economic and funds and services, sheds light on the
ecological services. Overexploitation notions of conservation and sustain-
often means harvesting economic ability and their practical applications.
services (wood or minor forest prod- According to this analysis, the pres-
ucts) at a rate beyond their sustain- ervationist approach to conservation
able yield. Such economic overex- corresponds to applying to biotic re-
ploitation may reduce the capacity of sources the mineral resources ration-
ale, i.e. specified in terms of stocks
16, October 2008 33

resources nor its global ecological

consequences that both remain unre-
solved. Understanding the economic
and ecological differences between the
two categories of natural resources and
their reciprocal interaction is therefore
no more than a preliminary requisite
for any future conservation strategy.
The terminology developed by

Georgescu-Roegen allows us to address
these issues by making it possible
to formulate ecological sustainability
imperatives in a concise and coherent
manner. According to this approach,
Picture 2. Quarry in a forest reserve three imperatives must be guaranteed
in Senegal (Courtesy Nigel Dudley,
simultaneously in order to ensure that
Equilibrium Research)
the natural environment has the capac-
and flows, where only the non-use ity to sustain human activities:18
will allow the maintenance of existing 1. The preservation of the renewal
stocks. The contemporary approach to capacity of multifunctional ecological
conservation— which focuses on the funds (forests, lakes, oceans, atmos-
preservation of the regenerative ca- phere, the Biosphere). This is the
pacities of natural ecosystems and the essence of conservation.
sustainable use of living resources—17 2. A sustainable exploitation of eco-
corresponds to applying to biotic re- nomic services provided by the funds
sources an approach that is adapted to of biotic resources, meaning that
their specific characteristics, i.e. speci- they do not endanger the reproduc-
fied in terms of environmental funds tion of economic and ecological serv-
and multifunctional services. The new ices of the same funds. This is the
concept is thus a progress. At least sustainable use
the days are gone when scientists and defined in Caring
The goals of
politicians from industrial countries, for the Earth, an conservation and
19
living mainly from mineral resources understanding of
(and therefore more easily able to pro-
sustainable use
natural resource of biotic resources
tect their own biotic resources), di- use familiar to
rected people living mainly from biotic most traditional have little hope of
resources not to use their only avail- societies including being reached unless
able resources. the eighteenth complementary and
century forestry
However, the progress is only partial. science under the
priority actions are
“Modern” conservation projects are concept of sus- specifically aimed
often unable to provide enough em- tained yield. 20
at reducing the
ployment to compensate for the loss
of activities imposed by the project. In 3. A more or less consumption of
addition, biotic resources alone cannot sustainable mineral resources
provide the necessary economic serv- management
of ecological in countries with
ices to growing populations. Moreover,
such projects address neither the une- stocks (miner- high per capita
qual per capita consumption of mineral als, fossil energy consumption.
34 16, October 2008

sources), i.e. in such a manner that for the granting and reinforcing of
the flows extracted from the stocks resources rights to local populations.23
and rejected in degraded form to Apart from different institutional issues
the environment do not exceed the that cannot be addressed here,24 such
assimilation capacity of the global approaches should not overlook the
natural environment. This imperative essential fact that
can logically not be dissociated from a sustainable use come up with virtual
conservation. of biotic resources values and are
alone can be quite
The issue of climate change illustrates insufficient to cover
therefore purely
how interdependent these three im- basic needs of a fictive. They can
peratives are. Induced by industrial growing popula- neither be invested
development, human-induced climate tion, even at a low in the formation of
alterations are not due to the over- level of per capita
exploitation of the “climatic services” consumption.
productive capital
but rather to anthropic disturbances in nor be used as
biogeochemical cycles caused by inten- Development op- payment for import
sive exploitation of tions within the lim- or debt service.
Theoretical mineralised energy its of biotic resourc-
attempts to assign stocks.21 Social and es are often disappointing from even
quantifiable environmental reper- essential economic and social point
monetary values cussions induced by of views: Strategies of external aid
this perturbation, un- (material and/or financial), more com-
to biological and certain as they may mercial exploitation of biotic resources,
cultural diversity. be, endanger the valuing traditional knowledge, tourist
capacity for renewal exploitation of “traditional” ways of life
of many ecological funds and threaten or whatever else are in reality often far
the survival of many species. In such more limited in economic returns than
a context, the goals of conservation assumed. At the same time experience
and sustainable use of biotic resources shows that they may create problems
have little hope of being reached un- in terms of cultural identity, loss of au-
less complementary and priority ac- tonomy and of distribution of economic
tions are specifically aimed at reducing return. Theoretical attempts to assign
the consumption of mineral resources quantifiable monetary values to bio-
in countries with high per capita con- logical and cultural diversity (often in
sumption. This interaction is recog- an effort to convince political decision-
nised by the conservation community, makers of the value of protecting na-
who points out that “[a]ddressing the ture) come up with virtual values and
problem of climate change is central are therefore purely fictive. They can
to efforts to conserve the integrity and neither be invested in the formation of
diversity of nature and to ensure that productive capital nor be used as pay-
natural resources are used equitably ment for import or debt service.
and sustainably”.22
Following industrial countries’ devel-
How to satisfy the needs of opment path of focussing on mineral
poor populations through the resources is an alternative that allows,
sustainable use of biotic resources? for some time, an autonomous process
In an effort to conciliate ecological of economic growth and the satisfac-
sustainability and social equity, recent tion of the basic needs of poor popu-
approaches to conservation advocate lations. But such a path depends not
16, October 2008 35

only on the possibility to get access to 2 The first law of thermodynamics, the law of con-
servation of energy, establishes that the quantity
mineral resources for the most impov- of energy-matter in an isolated system (with no
erished; it also requires that they be exchange of energy-matter with its environment)
granted the right to emit into the envi- remains constant; the second law, the law of quali-
tative degradation of energy or entropy law, states
ronment the inevitable wastes gener- that the quality of energy-matter in all isolated
ated by a process of economic growth systems is irreparably degraded over time. Open
systems, such as economies, which exchange
based on mineral resources. The politi- energy and matter with their environment, depend
cal and institutional requirements and for the maintenance on a throughput of energy-
implications of this alternative on a glo- matter that degrades in the process and leaves the
environment qualitatively degraded (Georgescu-
bal scale are considerable. In order not Roegen, 1971).
to overstretch global ecological limits, 3 Georgescu-Roegen 1971.
any increase in consumption of mineral 4 Georgescu-Roegen 1966, 1971.
resources by poor populations would 5 Ecosystems such as forests and lakes but also the
have to be compensated by a drastic global ecosystem, which constitutes the Biosphere,
thus enter into the category of ecological funds.
reduction of this consumption by the
6 Fossil fuel reserves stored in the lithosphere are
wealthiest.25 The state of international the typical example of ecological stocks.
negotiations on energy and climate 7 See Georgescu-Roegen (1971:209ss) for a more
illustrates how far away we are from detailed analysis.
such a world development. 8 This section is based on Steppacher & Griethuysen
2002.
9 Beyond a certain development threshold, every
Differentiating clearly between ecologi- biotic resource stops growing, unless it has an
cal and economic qualities (potentials abnormal growth pattern (of a cancerous nature),
the outcome of which is most often fatal.
and limits) of stocks and flows of min-
10 Affecting some of the limiting factors (fertilising,
eral resources, and funds and multifunc- irrigation) is often possible, but biotic production
tional services of biotic resources is an remains subject to overall limits.
imperative in order to understand the 11 Such a growth potential reflects progress in know-
multiple double-binds and path de- how and techniques.
pendencies of our actual conservation 12 Georgescu-Roegen 1965.

13 Georgescu-Roegen 1965.
and sustainability crisis. Not to consider
14 For more details see Bieri, Moser & Steppacher
these differences does not only lead to 1999 and Steppacher & Griethuysen 2002.
erroneous perceptions or biased conclu- 15 This situation, which corresponds to the applica-
sions, it also means implicitly pursuing tion of the stock rationale to ecological funds, is
the economic interests of societies with characteristic of debtor economies trying to pay for
imports or debt service by exporting agricultural
the highest per capita consumption of resources. Advocating for a rigidly preservationist
mineral resources and actively ignoring approach to conservation (where no exploitation
of biotic resources is allowed), a perspective that
those of less privileged societies. has until recently been common among conserva-
tionists (Fisher et al., 2005), is another example
Rolf Steppacher ([email protected]) of an erroneous application of a stock rationale to
and Pascal van Griethuysen (Pascal.vangriethuysen@ ecological funds.
graduateinstitute.ch) are senior lecturers at the Gradu-
ate Institute of International and Development Studies in 16 See Bieri, Moser & Steppacher 1999, Steppacher &
Geneva, Switzerland. Griethuysen 2002 and Steppacher 2007.
17 IUCN/WWF/UNEP 1980, IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991.
18 Based on a different terminology and enumeration
Notes of facts, these imperatives correspond to the three
1 The development of methods to define monetary priority conditions identified in the World Conser-
counterparts to environmental goods and services vation Strategy: maintenance of essential ecologi-
is an essential element of environmental econom- cal processes, preservation of genetic diversity,
ics. The best known are the contingent valuation sustainable use of species and ecosystems (IUCN/
method, the hedonic price method and the travel WWF/UNEP, 1980).
cost method (Baumol & Oates, 1975; Turner et al.,
1994).
36 16, October 2008

19 Caring for the Earth defines sustainable use as Griethuysen P. van (2006), ` A Critical Evolutionary
“use of an organism, ecosystem or other renew- Economics Perspective Of Socially Responsible
able resource at a rate within its capacity for Conservation ´, in Oviedo G. and van Griethuysen
renewal.” (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991:211). P. eds. 2006, Poverty, Equity and Rights in
20 See Prodan 1977. conservation— Technical paper and case studies,
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, IUED, Geneva,
21 As already recognised in the first report of the Switzerland, 5-46.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 1990). IPCC-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(1990), Aspects scientifiques du changement
22 UICN 1999:11. climatique, Rapport rédigé pour le GIEC par
23 See particularly Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari & le Groupe de travail I, Groupe d’experts
Oviedo 2004, Borrini-Feyerabend, Pimbert, Farvar, intergouvernemental sur l’évolution du climat
Kothari & Renard 2004, Fisher et al. 2005. (Genève : OMM-PNUE, IPCC).
24 Some of those issues are dealt with in Griethuysen IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1980), World Conservation
2006. Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for
25 Bund & Misereor 1996. Sustainable Development (Gland, Switzerland:
UICN/PNUE/WWF).
IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991), Caring for the Earth. A
References Strategy for Sustainable Living (Gland, Switzerland:
Baumol W.J. and W.E. Oates (1975), The Theory IUCN/PNUE/WWF).
of Environmental Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge IUCN (1999), Report of the Eleventh Global
University Press). Biodiversity Forum: Exploring Synergy Between
Bieri Hans, Moser Peter & Steppacher Rolf the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(1999), Die Landwirtschaft als Chance einer and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Gland,
zukunftsfähigen Schweiz, SVIL-Schrift Nr. 135 Cambridge : UICN).
(Zürich: Schweizerische Vereinigung Industrie und Kapp K.W. (1976), ` The Open-System Character
Landwirtschaft). of the Economy and its Implications ´, in Dopfer
Borrini-Feyerabend G., A. Kothari and G. Oviedo (ed.) (1976), Economics in the Future (London;
(2004), Indigenous and Local Communities and Basingstoke: Macmillan), 90-105.
Local Areas : Towards Equity and Enhanced Oviedo G. & van Griethuysen P. eds. (2006), Poverty,
Conservation (Gland and Cambridge : IUCN). Equity and Rights in conservation— Technical paper
Borrini-Feyerabend G., M. Pimbert, M.T. Farvar, A. and case studies, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, IUED,
Kothari and Y. Renard (2004), Sharing Power— Geneva, Switzerland, 5-46.
Learning-by-Doing in Co-Management of Natural Prodan M.M. (1977), ` Sustained Yield as a Basic
Resources throughout the World (Teheran : IIED Principle to Economic Action ´, in Steppacher
and IUCN/CEESP/CMWG, Cenesta). R., Zogg-Walz B. & Hatzfeldt H. (eds.) (1977),
Bund & Misereor, Hrsg. (1996), Zukunftsfähiges Economics in Institutional Perspective (Lexington :
Deutschland, Ein Beitrag zu einer global D.C Heath and Company), 101-13.
nachhaltigen Entwicklung (Basel : Studie des Steppacher R., Zogg-Walz B. & H. Hatzfeld (eds.)
Wuppertal Instituts für Klima, Umwelt, Energie). (1977), Economics in Institutional Perspective
Fisher R.J, S. Maginnis, W.J. Jackson, E. Barrow and (Massachusetts : Lexington).
S. Jeanrenaud (2005), Poverty and Conservation : Steppacher R. & P. van Griethuysen (2002),
Lanscapes, People and Power (Gland & Cambridge : ` Propriété et ressources minérales : la
IUCN). combinaison spécifique de la croissance économique
Georgescu-Roegen N. (1965), Process in Farming occidentale ´, Proceedings, Interdisciplinary
Versus Process in Manufacturing: A Problem of Workshop on the Institutional Foundations of
Balanced Development, in Georgescu-Roegen World Trade, Institut Universitaire d’Etudes du
(1976), Energy and Economic Myths, 71-102. Développement, Genève, Juin, (Genève : IUED)
Georgescu-Roegen N. (1966), Analytical Economics : 1-12.
Issues and Problems (Cambridge, MA : Harvard Steppacher R. (2007), ` Property, Mineral Resources
University Press). and « Sustainable Development » ´, in O. Steiger
Georgescu-Roegen N. (1971), The Entropy Law and (ed.) (2007), Property Economics. Property Rights,
the Economic Process (Cambridge, MA; London : Creditor’s Money and the Foundations of the
Harvard University Press). Economy (Marburg : Metropolis) 323-354.
Georgescu-Roegen N. (1976), Energy and Economic Turner R.K., Pearce D., Bateman I. (1994),
Myths : Institutional and Analytical Economic Essays Environmental Economics - An Elementary
(New York : Pergamon). Introduction (New York et al. : Harvester
Wheatsheaf).
16, October 2008 37

Back to the energy crisis— the need for a coherent

policy towards energy systems
Nigel Dudley
Abstract. The modern environmental movement has been highly influenced by concerns
about energy supplies and the need for a coherent energy policy. However, consensus
amongst NGOs has recently disappeared and it is possible to find mainstream environmental
groups opposed to every realistic energy source. This creates strategic dangers and weakens
the environmental position in future debates about energy supply. The article argues for the
development of a strategy and an NGO agreement.
and energy conservation and,

until evidence emerged about
the seriousness of the green-
house effect, support for coal.1
While there were certainly
voices raised in opposition,2 the
mass of opinion within the NGO
sector, and within virtually all
environmental organisations,
was aligned and provided a
powerful lobby.
The immediate energy crisis did

not materialise, in part because
of the existence of far larger
stocks of oil than had previously
been recognised.3 However, the
problem of declining fossil fuel
Picture 1. The Severn Estuary between sources has been deferred rather than
England and Wales, UK (Courtesy Nigel Dudley, eliminated. Indeed to some extent the
Equilibrium Research) situation today is more serious, be-
cause knowledge about the greenhouse
Introduction effect has increased arguments against
Thirty-five years ago, a perceived fossil fuel use and a mixture of safety
“energy crisis” was one of the driving concerns and poor economic perform-
forces behind the modern environmen- ance has led to a significant downturn
tal movement. Friends of the Earth in the world’s nuclear industry. The
and Greenpeace were both established peak oil theory has gained widespread
in 1973, after a sudden oil price rise credence.4 However it has also gener-
and growing concern about the ex- ated some opposition5 and there are
pansion of nuclear power. For several few signs that governments are taking
years there were attempts to develop a likely energy shortage very seriously;
a coherent policy towards energy sup- recent falls in oil prices will continue to
ply, based around opposition to nuclear foster a sense of complacency.
power, promotion of renewable sources
38 16, October 2008

Unfortunately, just at the time when almost all renewable sources. Table 1
the need for a coherent NGO response provides a brief summary and some
to energy policy is probably greater examples. Any energy proposal is likely
than at any time for the last 30 years, to have environmental groups opposing
there has also been a virtual collapse it; and these are not just front groups
of the consensus once shared amongst set up by the traditional energy indus-
environmental groups about future en- tries (although these certainly exist)6
ergy scenarios. but mainstream and genuine environ-
mental organisations. This situation
Today it is possible to find mainstream seriously weakens any chance of en-
environmental organisations opposed vironmental NGOs making a coherent
to virtually all energy sources, including case for a particular energy strategy.
Table 1. Opposition to energy sources from NGOs: some examples
Energy source Opposition from environmental NGOs

Virtually all green organisations, many groups established purely to oppose
nuclear power. Conversely some well established conservation organisations
Nuclear power have now explicitly expressed guarded support for nuclear power either
because of concerns about the alternatives or because it is seen as a viable
option for reducing global warming7
Campaign against oil run by Greenpeace,8 also NGOs such as Oilwatch and
Oil
Rainforest Action Network.
Greenpeace is campaigning against expansion of gas drilling in the North Sea;
Gas
there are also local opposition campaigns in many other parts of the world.
Coal burning has been seriously criticised because of the greenhouse effect
Coal and acid rain by, for example, WWF, Friends of the Earth and the Swedish NGO
Secretariat on Acid Rain.9
Opposition is increasing. For example several long-established UK groups
oppose onshore wind farms, including the Campaign for the Protection of
Wind power
Rural Wales and the Ramblers Association and there is also local opposition to
offshore wind installation.10
Many NGOs oppose large HEP systems including the International Rivers
Network. Support for HEP by the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
Hydro-power
almost caused a permanent organisational split. Even small-scale hydropower
schemes are frequently opposed by nature conservation bodies.
Friends of the Earth11 is one of a number of organisations that oppose the
Tidal power construction of a tidal barrage in the UK’s Severn Estuary, which has the
world’s second highest tidal reach.
Several building conservation bodies in Europe oppose solar panels on the
Solar
roofs of houses for aesthetic reasons.
The World Rainforest Movement is one of many groups that campaign against
any large-scale tree plantations.12 Opposition to biofuels has increased
Biomass
dramatically in the last 5 years as land has been set aside from food growing
to produce liquid fuels.
At present there seems to be little suggesting that these alone will solve
opposition to solar cells being placed the energy shortfall or address the
in desert areas or to passive solar problems of global warming.
heating or to fuel cells. But no-one is
16, October 2008 39

Biomass for energy seen as a long-term

biomass from
The issue of biofuels has become cen- alternative to fossil
fuel production. It woody and other
tral to the debate and needs to be con-
sidered in slightly more detail. Wood is argued that bio- plants could provide
is already the major energy source mass energy would significant amounts
for almost half the world’s population, be roughly carbon-
neutral in terms
of energy for the
where it is usually burnt in open fires
and simple stoves. However, biomass of the release of richer countries as
from woody and other plants could greenhouse gases, well, especially
provide significant amounts of energy because carbon if it is converted
for the richer countries as well, espe- would be quickly
recaptured again in into gaseous or
cially if it is converted into gaseous
or liquid fuels, as outlined in Table 2 the next crop, and liquid fuels
overleaf. Direct conversion of biomass that tree planta-
to energy has for many years been tions would be renewable over the long
term.
Table 2. Biomass for energy
Method Notes
Efficiency depends on type of biomass used, water content and methods
of combustion. Energy efficiencies range from 18.6-20.9 MJ/kg dry weight
Combustion for wood chips to e.g. 9.5 MJ/kg for sugar cane bagasse. Open fires
are amongst the least efficient forms of combustion.
Heating biomass in the near-absence of oxygen. Used in the production

Pyrolysis of charcoal, which has the advantage of being light and clean, but is
wasteful of energy in conversion.
Heating biomass at a higher temperature than in pyrolysis, with

limited oxygen, creating a producer gas mixture. Can be followed by:
Gasification condensation to produce methanol; production of methane; further
conversion to ammonia, or for electricity generation.
Conversion of biomass to methane or ethane by reduction with

Hydrogasification hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure.
Breakdown of wet biomass (often manures) in the absence of oxygen by
Anaerobic
anaerobic bacteria, releasing methane gas as a by-product. Not usually
digestion
from wood.
Fermentation of biomass to alcohol in the absence of oxygen, achieved by
Fermentation use of yeasts. The most common end product is ethanol. Again not from
wood.
Reduction Reduction of aqueous biomass to produce a range of fuel oils.
However, there are serious implications Z The most efficient type of biomass
for land-use and forest management: production for energy is from short-
Z Very large land areas would be re- term rotations, so that large areas
quired to supply even a small pro- of forest or agricultural land could be
portion of the energy requirements turned over to intensive production
of an industrialised country; of this type;
40 16, October 2008

Z Exotic or genetically manipulated of biofuels have already been exhaus-

trees, chosen for maximum biomass tively assessed by activist groups.13
gain in a given period, would be-
come widespread; But what are the alternatives?
Z Such plantations would require sub- At the moment, the global environmen-
stantial inputs in terms of fertilisers, tal movement (if such a thing exists)
pesticides and herbicides to maintain is in serious danger of arguing against
such high levels of production. every form of energy and therefore,
by tacit implication, excluding itself
Such changes could from the debate.
At the moment, undermine many of The nuclear indus- There are very few
the global the gains made in try has been quite totally “clean”
environmental terms of forest man- successful in claim-
agement. We might ing itself as the supplies, so that
movement (if such see, for example, environmentally support for one over
a thing exists) governments argu- acceptable alterna- another will be a
is in serious ing that such en- tive to coal and oil
ergy plantations were
matter of careful
danger of arguing and the potential
agricultural crops saviour in terms judgement and some
against every rather than forests of climate change. trade-offs.
form of energy and thus exempt Large-scale bio-
and therefore, by from any controls or mass use would fit the aspirations of
guidelines that have the transnational companies that cur-
tacit implication, developed over for- rently control the world’s energy sup-
excluding itself est management. If ply and is already being presented as a
from the debate. future energy sup- clean and renewable resource.
plies were seen to be
in serious question, such arguments Opposition to everything is pointless and
would become compelling. The impacts self-defeating. As fuel prices increase,
the pressure to exploit alterna-
tives— such as coal shales, Arctic
oil reserves, nuclear technology
and large-scale biomass planta-
tions— will grow. The conservation
movement has regularly failed to
halt such developments and there
is little reason to think that the
situation will change. There is an
urgent need for research, debate
and policy development that could
lead to a consensus about future
energy supplies, at least in the
beginning amongst NGOs.
This will not be easy. There are

very few totally “clean” supplies,
so that support for one over an-
Picture 2. Eucalypt plantations in South other will be a matter of careful
Africa (Courtesy Marc Hockings) judgement and some trade-offs.
16, October 2008 41

The overall impacts of most will depend 10 Ramblers Association 2007.

to a large extent on how they are ap- 11 Friends of the Earth Cymru 2007.
plied, on what social and environmental 12 Carrere 1999.

13 Smolkar et al. 2008.
safeguards can and will be attached,
whether these will actually be applied
and on the aspirations of the majority. References
What might seem an impossible com- Beckmann, P., The Health Hazards of Not Going
Nuclear, The Golem Press, 1976.
promise to environmental and social Carrere, R., Plantations Campaign: Ten replies to ten
activist groups may not elicit the same lies, World Rainforest Movement, Montevideo, 1999.
response from other people. Sacrificing Clarke, D, The Battle for Barrels: Peal oil myths and
the Amazon rainforest for cheap fuel world oil futures, Profile Books, London.
would be a done deal for many of to- Commoner, B., The Poverty of Power; Knopf, New
York, 1976.
day’s drivers. The energy industry will Friends of the Earth Cymru, The Severn Barrage,
be able to draw on powerful and apoca- Friends of the Earth Cymru, Cardiff, Wales, 2007
lyptic images to make its case. If NGOs Greenpeace, Energy Without Oil: The technical and
economic feasibility of phasing out global oil use,
are going to oppose the worst excesses Greenpeace International, Amsterdam, 1993.
of the energy industry with any hope of Leach, G., A Low Energy Strategy for the UK,
success we will need to speak with one International Institute for Environment and
voice and be clear about the sacrifices Development, London, 1979.
Leggett, J., Half Gone: Oil. Gas, hot air and the global
as well as the potential gains. energy crisis, Portobello Books, London.
Lovins, A., Soft Energy Paths, Penguin Books,
IUCN could play an important facilitat- Middlesex, 1973.
ing role in this process. It will not be Lundberg, F., To Phase Out Coal, Swedish NGO
easy, because positions are in many Secretariat on Acid Rain, Goteborg, 2003.
Odell, P.R., Oil and World Power, Penguin Books,
cases already entrenched and time is Middlesex UK, 1970.
short. But the current state of chaos Olivier, D. et al, Energy Efficient Futures, Earth
will simply lead to lack of effective op- Resources Research, London, 1983.
position against any energy supply, Ramblers Association, Walk, Spring 2007, London,
however damaging this might be. 2007.
Rowell, A., Green Backlash: Global subversion of the
Nigel Dudley ([email protected]) is a member environmental movement, Routledge, London, 1996.
of WCPA and CEESP and works mainly on issues related to Smolker, R., B. Tokar, A. Petermann, E. Hernandes and
protected areas and forest conservation. At one time he J Thomas, The Real Cost of Agrofuels: Impacts on
lived and worked at the Centre for Alternative Technology food, forests, people and the climate, Global Forest
in Wales, researching the practical application of renewable Coalition, 2008.
energy systems.
Todd, R. and C. Alty [editors], An Alternative Energy
Strategy for the United Kingdom, Centre for
Notes Alternative Technology, Machynlleth, Wales, 1976.
1 Lovins 1973; Commoner 1976; Todd and Alty
1976; Leach 1979; Olivier et al. 1983.
2 Beckmann 1979.
3 Odell 1970.
4 Leggett 2005.
5 Clarke 2007.
6 Rowell 1996.
7 Ramblers Association 2007.
8 Greenpeace 1993, and many other documents.
9 Lundberg 2003 and many other documents.
42 16, October 2008

Energy— a great deal of hot air and little sense

Roger Crofts
Abstract. Countries need to make rational choices about future energy supply. Scotland is a
country that has recently gained greater autonomy from the UK and is in a stronger position
to decide its own energy policies. A recent study by the Royal Society of Edinburgh looked at
some of the myths and realities relating to energy policy and sought input from the public,
explicitly including school students, to build a picture of what the Scottish public was looking
for in terms of energy supply and where there was and was not a degree of consensus about
future steps. The following paper summarises the results.
society, to the economy and to the envi-

E nergy is one of the great debating
subjects of the decade. And it is likely
ronment. So what is the solution? There
is not a simple answer to this vitally
to remain so for some time. But are important question.
we really making progress in resolving
some of the critical issues, or are we It was for this reason that a number of
really just on an increasingly polarised experts on various aspects of energy,
course between different interests who along with economists and environ-
are implacably opposed to entering into mental specialists, formed a committee
dialogue? I fear so if the situation in under the aegis of the Royal Society of
the small country of Scotland is any- Edinburgh (Scotland’s national academy
thing to go by. Nuclear generation for of science, technology, humanities and
electricity is a ‘no no’ and renewables the arts) to inquire into energy issues
especially wind are the saviour ac- for Scotland. The reports from the study
cording to the so-called environmental and from a subsequent round of public
groups. Industrialists, economists and debates are available on the Society’s
industry experts talk about security of web site www.royalsoced.org.uk.1
supply and worry about price escala-
tion and the instability of governments I shall focus on three key aspects of
in major energy sup- energy: what a nation should achieve,
Three key aspects ply countries. And the what are the objective realities and the
of energy: what consumer is increas- unsupported myths, and how to stimu-
a nation should ingly concerned that late reasoned debate to provoke the
achieve, what the lights may go out,
that prices will rise and
necessary action.
are the objective they will not be able Energy strategy
realities and to afford well heated What most of the debates seem to ig-
the unsupported houses and the nor- nore is the need for an overall energy
mal range of consumer
myths, and how goods requiring energy policy with a clearly defined set of aims
and objectives and means of measuring
to stimulate to operate them. As a their achievement. This is not an arid
reasoned debate result, politicians have exercise as until all stakeholders have
a field day by trying to
to provoke the drive the agenda in a
a common view of why we need en-
necessary action. direction which suits ergy and the consequences of potential
shortage of supplies, of over consump-
them. All of this is tion, of price inelasticity, of the social,
most unsatisfactory and is damaging to economic and environmental effects
16, October 2008 43

of different ap- Z ‘Competitive’: means that the cost

Scotland should proaches, then little of energy will not result in Scotland
think in a global or no progress can being uncompetitive in world markets
context and be made. It is very and will also be competitive in the
obvious to those like use of technology and innovation.
act locally using myself who have Z ‘Socially equitable’: means that all
natural resources worked on energy, sectors of society should have access
at its disposal economic develop- to energy at a price which they can
ment and environ- afford, implying that some economi-
to provide social, ment that a range of cally and socially poorer sections of
economic and objectives needs to society will be aided to rise out of
environmental be satisfied through ‘fuel poverty’.
benefits. the types and rates
Z ‘Low carbon emissions’: mean that
of energy we con-
throughout their lifecycle, technolo-
sume as a society. Energy is needed to
gies should produce the lowest pos-
sustain existing economic activity and to
stimulate new activity. Energy is needed
sible levels of greenhouse gas emis-
for human survival and should have an sions, bearing in mind that there are
aim of reducing poverty (and specially no technologies or energy sources
fuel poverty) and seeking to attain that have no emissions during their
greater social harmony and the removal lifecycle.
of social disparities. And energy must
be obtained from sources and used in It is pointless having clear goals and
ways which will have the least damage aims without defining a clear set of ob-
to environmental systems and process- jectives. In the light of our comprehen-
es on land, in the air and at sea. These sive aim we determined the following
are not mutually exclusive and should four objectives:
not be traded one against the other. 1. To encourage energy efficiency to
benefit economic development;
In our Scottish study, we concluded that 2. To ensure that energy availability
“Scotland should think in a global con- contributes to improvements in social
text and act locally using natural re- benefits; The debate is about
sources at its disposal to provide social, 3. To minimise envi-
economic and environmental benefits”. the energy sources
ronmental effects
Following from this statement, guided globally and lo-
for future electricity
by the Brundtland commission’s endur- cally; and generation, whereas
ing statements of almost two decades
ago; we determined that the strategic
4. To capitalise on heating and
natural energy transport are by far
aim should be “a secure, competitive,
resources in eco-
socially equitable and low carbon emis-
nomically viable
the largest energy
sion supply of energy”. Our interpreta- consumers compared
and environmen-
tion of these elements was as follows:
tally sensitive with electricity
Z ‘Secure’: means having sufficiency of way.
supply from a diversity of fuel types production.
and geographical sources using a
Myths and realities
variety of technologies, encouraging
new technological development to The second step in formulating energy
marketability and having the appro- policy to achieve multiple benefits is to
priate government framework and assess the factual material about supply
instruments. and demand, consumption and the use
44 16, October 2008

of different energy sources and tech-

nologies as a basis for informing de-
bate on realities and challenging many
strongly held views and opinions which
frequently have no factual basis. This is
important for a number of reasons. In
Scotland, and in the UK as a whole, for
example most of the debate is about
the energy sources for future electric-
ity generation, whereas heating and
transport are by far the largest energy
consumers compared with electric-
ity production. Analysis of energy flow
statistics also reveals that a great deal Picture 1. Scotland already derives much
of energy is lost at varying stages: in of its electricity supply from hydro sources
production of especially at large gener- (Courtesy Nigel Dudley, Equilibrium
ating stations, and in energy loss from Research)
domestic premises. Hence energy sav-
ings and energy efficiency measures
There are also, at least in the part of
are widely regarded as the most crucial
the world where I live, many energy
first step in dealing with the imbalance myths. On the supply side those who
between supply and demand, and also are convinced that we have passed the
helping to deal with the high costs of point of ‘peak oil’ but ignore the as yet
energy by reducing consumption. Public undiscovered hydrocarbon reserves
attitudes towards energy consumption on the ocean shelves, ignore the new
and especially savings are increasingly technologies which result in a greater
important in post industrialised coun- proportion of the resource being ex-
tries. Only with very large increases in tracted and significantly ignore human
energy costs that are sustained over ingenuity in finding energy sources that
long periods of time is there likely to be previous generations had missed. Those
a reduction in use of energy especially who continue to claim that there is no
in domestic households. link between emissions to the atmos-
phere of greenhouse gases from the
Energy use is highly variable during the use of fossil fuels and climate change
day due to social habits and economic are ignoring virtually all of the scientific
activity, and also through the year due evidence. Indeed, those who claim that
to the obvious seasonality factors of the the conclusions of the scientists within
weather. These variations have to be the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
taken into account in developing reli- Change are gagged and neutered by
able and robust energy supply schemes governments seem to live in some cloud
and ensuring that there is an adequate cuckoo land of their own making. Others
stockpile of energy resources. consider that renewable resources are
infinite. This is true as we can reason-
It is also important to gather objective ably assume, for example, that solar
information on the source of energy energy resources and tidal energy re-
raw materials used, including the type sources will last until such time as the
of energy material, and its geographi- relationship between the earth and the
cal provenance, and on the technology other planets is fundamentally different.
used, including its reliability to trans- I know of no geological predictions that
form it into consumable energy. these relationships will change in even
16, October 2008 45

hundreds of millions of years. However, we had as yet not cracked the means
we cannot assume that exploitation of of long term storage of energy (except
these renewable resources is entirely though pumped storage schemes), and
environmentally benign. Tidal barrages that the means of gathering electricity
have a significant effect on terrestrial from a wide range of episodic sources
and near shore hydrology and biodi- and delivering supply to consumers at
versity. Wave devices for example will some distance from the generation point
affect society’s perception of the coastal is technologically possible in theory, but
environment, and potentially have an in practice is very difficult to achieve
effect on inshore fisheries. Onshore wind with the present grid transmission sys-
devises can have a very significant ef- tem. Also on electricity, there is a widely
fect on landscape and held view that wind generated electricity
In our present society’s perception of can replace nuclear generated electric-
situation, it is its attractiveness, as ity. This is nonsense. Nuclear generation
difficult to see well as on the diurnal
migration pattern of
provides base load electricity supply,
i.e. what we need every day of the year,
how supplies of certain bird species. whereas wind can only provide episodi-
electricity to meet Hydro-electric power cally the top up. In our present situa-
the variable daily significantly changes tion, it is difficult to see how supplies of
the hydrological and electricity to meet the variable daily and
and seasonal sedimentation sys- seasonal demands can be met without
demands can tem and can result use of large scale generating stations.
be met without in high risk to com- The problem then is to find the most
use of large munities downstream.
And all technologies,
environmentally benign technologies.
Although there are many on the draw-
scale generating whether relying on ing board, such as clean coal and carbon
stations. non-renewable or re- sequestration technologies, they are
newable energy re- still a long way off full scale commercial
sources consume energy in their con- operation.
struction and emplacement and in their
decommissioning. Finally in relation to energy myths, we
have to realise that consumer behaviour
In the UK, there has been an assump- is an important factor. Will consumers
tion that the market has the solution to change their behaviour and reduce their
satisfy society’s energy needs. There is energy consumption? There is no clear
patently not true as, for example, there evidence of this occurring and econo-
remains an imbalance between the mists consider that prices will have to be
profits of the privatised industry and the sustained at a very high level for a long
escalating costs which the consumer has time for them to have real impact on
to pay. consumption. In a curious way, opinion
surveys suggest that people are pre-
In our Scottish study, it also became pared to pay more for energy, but the
clear that there were a number of other level of complaint about rising prices
widely held beliefs on energy. For ex- seems to be contrary to this expecta-
ample, it is stated frequently that re- tion. The fact of the matter is that in
newable sources can meet the energy countries like the UK energy prices have
gap once the large scale coal, gas and been low for many years and the recent
nuclear powered generating stations price escalation was to be expected at
are closed. Yet this views fails to recog- some stage.
nise the variability of the supply sources
over which we have little control, that
46 16, October 2008

From the analysis of energy data there population centres to host evening public
are what I would call a number of en- discussion forums. In total over six loca-
ergy truths. Although many of these are tions we had 455 participants. In addi-
disputed by some commentators, there tion, we decided Given the vital
is a high degree of scientific consensus that the views of
about their veracity. So for the sake of the younger gen-
importance of energy
stimulating debate we must be sure that eration were es- to our societal well
we have the factual basis behind state- sential and would being and economic
ments. Those we have used in these likely give a differ-
circumstances in Scotland are as follows. ent perspective. We
progress and the
There is substantive evidence to link glo- engaged with 407 impact that its
bal climate change with the increase in students in the 15 exploitation and
the emission of greenhouse gases in the to 17 age range in use has on the
atmosphere arising from human activities 14 schools around
in recent centuries. Despite technological Scotland. environment, there
advancement, as identified above, fos- is a need to stimulate
sil fuel supplies in are decline. Estimates In order to stimu- debate on
of the time scale of the decline vary. The late debate we
best evidence we gathered in our Inquiry identified in open-
energy futures.
suggested that oil supplies can last for ing presentations a range of issues. We
at least another 30 to 40 years, gas 70 sought to steer the debates in to the
years and coal 250 years at present rates wider energy issues rather than focus on
of consumption. Nevertheless, as recent the specificities of the electricity debate
experience has shown, prices are vola- (nuclear versus renewables, onshore
tile and security of supply uncertain due wind versus offshore sources). But such
to a range of geopolitical factors which was the strength of opinion and knowl-
make predications difficult. And at the edge that, inevitably, these were the
same time in the UK and in many other most debated topics and the ones on
post industrial countries, consumption is which there was no consensus.
rising; and, in addition, in industrialising
countries the rise is at a very high rate. From all of these sessions we identified
At the same time, many post industrial- areas of general consensus and areas
ised countries, and most certainly the of continuing debate, identified issues
UK, have a poor record is energy savings which varied by location and specifically
and energy efficiency. recorded the perspectives of the younger
generation. The points of general con-
Stimulating debate sensus arising from the public sessions
Given the vital importance of energy to were as follows:
our societal well being and economic 1. Recognition of the link between emis-
progress and the impact that its exploi- sions from fossil fuels and global
tation and use has on the environment, climate change.
there is a need to stimulate debate on 2. Agreement that renewable sources of
energy futures. In Scotland, we deter- energy are a key contributor to ener-
mined at the end of the formal energy gy supply needs because of their low
inquiry that stimulating debate within greenhouse gas emissions, the abun-
civil society was a necessary next step.2 dance of the Scottish resource, and
This was unusual for the Royal Society the need to encourage technologies
of Edinburgh, especially as it tends to other than onshore wind, for example
hold most of its events in Edinburgh. tidal, wave, solar, biomass, and off-
We agreed to hold a series of debates shore wind.
around Scotland. We chose the main
16, October 2008 47

3. Recognition of the need for energy is prepared to pay more. Only con-
savings to preserve supplies and to sistently much higher prices might
reduce environmental effects, and es- change behaviour in favour of greater
pecially the need to reduce the waste savings and efficiency, but is this ethi-
of energy, coupled with more effective cally defensible?
instruments for encouraging energy 5. On alternative sources of supply, there
saving. was no consensus on the immediate
4. Recognition of the technological ex- solutions, such as renewables versus
pertise on energy based in Scotland new large generating plant for elec-
and the need for further support for tricity, and the unresolved arguments
technological development. about whether supply should be from
5. A call for new thinking on the way the source nearest to the consumer
energy is supplied to the consumers, or at the most advantageous point of
especially through distributed systems high energy resource. Also the debate
and micro approaches. on the balance between fossil fuels
and renewables is unresolved.
6. A call for new fuels provided they
are economic and environmentally 6. The greatest disagreements consist-
neutral. ently were on the technologies for
electricity generation. The polarities
7. Recognition of the need for action at
are:
political, industry and societal (includ-
ing personal levels) following proper Z nuclear has to be key part of short-
debate. er term solution given the improved
technology and costs, and the ex-
There was a lack of consensus on many cellent safety and delivery records
issues as follows: of existing civil nuclear reactors,
or there should never be any more
1. The key objectives of public policy:
nuclear powered electricity generat-
greenhouse gas emission reduction,
ing stations in Scotland because of
and/or security of supply. Balancing
the lack of action on storage of high
the benefits and costs to the envi-
level radioactive waste and con-
ronment was considered to be very
cerns about the military use of fuel;
difficult.
Z onshore wind has been given too
2. Ethics was a major issue, specifically
much prominence compared to
whether Scotland, as a small country
other renewable technologies;
with low emissions in total in global
terms, should do anything at all or Z there remains large resources of
whether it should be an exemplar to fossil fuels for decades (oil and
other countries. gas) and for centuries (coal and
uranium);
3. There was unresolved debate on
whether renewable sources bring Z there is no consensus on the need
real economic, social and environ- for and effect of transmission
mental benefits to Scotland. There lines on the environment and on
are many concerns that one solu- nearby communities and options
tion was being over promoted, often for under-grounding or for offshore
termed ‘the dash for wind’, and that routes; and
other solutions were being given less Z there are doubts about the practi-
prominence. cally of some new technologies,
4. Energy price trends are not clear and such as carbon sequestration in
it is debatable whether the consumer clean coal technology.
48 16, October 2008

1. Higher priority and more funding to

cleaner fossil fuel technologies and to
alternative renewable technologies.
2. Decisions on new base load electric-
ity supply, including decisions on fuel
types and final decisions on whether
nuclear or not.
3. More effective energy efficiency and
energy savings measures and gadgets
accessible to the public to stimulate
higher levels of performance. Better
designed and more affordable energy
savings in ‘white goods’. Break the
Picture 2. Scotland (Courtesy Nigel circularity of save costs on energy/
Dudley, Equilibrium Research) buy more energy consuming devises
through public education.
In the schools discussions, there was
4. More financial support from govern-
a much greater degree of optimism.
ment for bringing energy technolo-
There was always a clear view that ‘the
gies from the laboratory to full-scale
lights will not go out’ within a decade
operation.
because of human ingenuity and a mix-
ture of existing and new technologies
In order to test the local responses, we
being available. Furthermore, the polar-
organised a conference to conclude our
ities which existed in the public sessions
with regard to technologies for electric-
work and invited major figures in the
ity generation were much less evident international energy world to participate
in the school discussions. There was so that we could call for action with the
a strong view that a change in culture support of public and industry opinion
was needed to wean society off its de- behind us. The consensus at the confer-
pendency on fossil fuels. Alongside this, ence was that Scotland is no different
was an appreciation of the need for from other countries and we needed to
energy savings and greater information think in a global context as well as act
on what can be done to achieve these locally. Claims that there were choices
savings, and the need for alternative to be made between, for example,
fuels for transport and heating. Most central and decentralised systems of
students recognised the link between electricity supply, between specific tech-
global climate change and the use of nologies or a mix, between supply led
fossil fuels and therefore the need for approaches or demand management, or
precautionary action to mitigate cli- concentration on Scotland as a net en-
mate change. There was a perception ergy exporter or importer were not ac-
amongst the students that their views cepted. The general consensus emerg-
and opinions were not being sought ing was that a mix of solutions, rather
on energy issues and that meant they than selecting specific winners, was the
could not influence decisions. most sensible course of action. The mix
should comprise of old technologies
It was clear from all of the debates with improved carbon sequestration,
that action was needed and the fol- new technologies, energy efficiency and
lowing specific issues for action were energy savings.
identified:
16, October 2008 49

Debates could be never ending on po- Conclusion

larised issues. To prepare the ground Energy is a vital
for timely and effective decisions, it was matter for socie- ‘The Royal Society
necessary for more objective informa- ties throughout the of Edinburgh is to
tion to be provided, and for consensus world. It is also vital
building. The overwhelming priorities for
be congratulated
that environmental
action identified were: interests engage
on bringing some
Z improvement in the efficient use of with civil society sanity to the energy
energy, and and with the energy debate that is
Z reducing the use of fossil fuels in industry to indentify becoming unhinged
space and water heating and in the common ground,
transport. to determine the from reality’. I
areas of divergence hope that others,
There is a wide consensus on the need and the topics where and especially
to constrain the rate of growth of con- agreement is un-
likely and to consider
IUCN, will take up
sumption, and to reduce the use of fos-
sil fuels and so reduce the emission of what action should the challenge.
greenhouse gases. be taken.
We concluded that to improve the quality I hope that the model we used in
of debate and to ensure that the deci- Scotland is of some interest and might
sion-making process is better informed: be applied by independent bodies in
Z an objective methodology to assess other parts of the world. An editorial
the relative merits of energy technolo- in the international scientific journal
gies, including full lifetime costs was Nature3 stated that ‘The Royal Society
urgently required; and of Edinburgh is to be congratulated on
bringing some sanity to the energy de-
Z bodies independent of government bate that is becoming unhinged from re-
and sectoral interests should be ac- ality’. I hope that others, and especially
tive in stimulating the debate and the
IUCN, will take up the challenge.
identification of decisions needed and
the urgency of the situation. Roger Crofts ([email protected]) is World
Commission on Protected Areas Regional Vice-Chair for
Europe and a member of the Commission on Ecosystem
In the wider global and regional debates Management. He was Secretary of the Royal Society of
on energy, I consider that IUCN has Edinburgh Energy Inquiry 2006-2007.
a major role to play. It should use its
convening power to bring together the Notes
various interests, just as it did with the 1 Royal Society of Edinburgh, 2006, 2007.
mining industry. I recognise that there 2 Royal Society of Edinburgh 2007.
are those in IUCN who consider that 3 Anon 2006.
these discussions and engagements are
a step too far, but without them we will References
not achieve a greater understanding of Anon, ‘Urgent but balanced’, Nature, issue 7096, 22
the different perspectives. If we feel we June 2006, p. 907.
can stand on the sidelines and shout our Royal Society of Edinburgh. Inquiry into Energy Issues
views and opinions and be heard then for Scotland: Final Report. The Royal Society of
Edinburgh 2006 Inquiry into Energy Issues for
we loose our credibility and fail to use Scotland: Summary Report. 2006.
the convening power and knowledge Royal Society of Edinburgh Energy for Scotland: A Call
base that exists within the Union. for Action, 2007.
50 16, October 2008

Pollution from aircraft

Mark Barrett
Abstract. Aircraft presently release some 2 or 3 per cent of global emissions of carbon di-
oxide and, together with the effect of other pollutants, contribute a large fraction of global
warming that will increase rapidly because of demand growth, unless policies are changed.
Aircraft emit a mixture of other pollutants including nitrogen oxides, soot, carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons, and about half of these emissions is injected into the atmosphere at an
altitude of 8 to 12 km where they generally have more serious and enduring effects than at
ground level— even water has adverse impacts. Nitrogen oxides and water emission bring
about global warming and can also cause ozone depletion. Scientific uncertainty about the
impacts is great, and will persist. A number of control options are available but reducing
aviation demand growth is the only way so far known of creating a marked and immediate
reduction.
This article summarises a complex issue; more details may be found in reports such as those
by Barrett1 and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.2
Introduction Z Water emission may lead to increas-

The demand for air transport is con- es in high altitude clouds, and these
tinuing to grow rapidly, despite rising may contribute to global warming;
fuel costs, and the long term growth Z The emission of water and NO may
x
potential is potentially vast because of exacerbate stratospheric ozone loss;
the low current per capita demand in Z Other pollutants such as soot and
poor populous countries. Budget air- trace chemicals may also have ef-
lines have transformed the sector over fects either synergistically or
the last decade. Pollution emission will separately.
grow less rapidly than demand be-
cause of technological improvements, The global fuel burn of aircraft is only
but with unchanged policies pollution approximately known. The coefficients
from aircraft will double in two decades of emission per fuel burn for some pol-
or so. A series of new or augmented lutants (e.g. carbon dioxide and water)
policy measures is needed to moderate are known with accuracy and do not
this increase. vary significantly with engine type and
aircraft operation. The coefficients for
The environmental impact of others are not precisely known, and do
aircraft vary with type and operation; for ex-
In terms of atmospheric and climatic ample, the estimate of total NOx emit-
impacts, air transport has five main ted by civil aircraft may not be accurate
effects: to better than 50 per cent. Accordingly
there are uncertainties in total emis-
Z The emission of carbon dioxide (CO )
2 sions. Furthermore, the effects of pollut-
constitutes a small but fast growing
ants apart from carbon dioxide can vary
contribution to global warming;
according to when and where, in terms
Z The emission of nitrogen oxides of altitude, longitude and latitude, they
(NO ) leads to ozone increase near are released in the atmosphere.
x
the tropopause and this causes glo-
bal warming;
16, October 2008 51

Aircraft presently release in excess of at a high altitude the additions may be

2.5 per cent of the total global emis- significant.
sions of carbon dioxide as a result
of the burning of fossil fuels. This is There are considerable uncertainties
Aircraft presently equivalent to ap-
proximately 12 per
for pollutants other than carbon diox-
ide: first, in the amounts and spatial
release in excess cent of the total distribution of pollutants from aircraft;
of 2.5 per cent of emissions released and second, in the precise functioning
the total global by the transport of many atmospheric processes and
industry according the impact of pollutants. Many pollut-
emissions of to a report from the ants act synergisti-
carbon dioxide as a Intergovernmental cally. Their marginal Nitrogen oxide
result of Panel on Climate3 impact depends on from aircraft
the burning of Change (IPPC); the
proportion will have
the concentrations of
other pollutants, and
probably generates
fossil fuels. increased since. indeed of the pre- ozone where it is
existing level of the not wanted, at
Certain anthropogenic pollutants gen- pollutant being con- low altitudes; and
erate or destroy ozone in the atmos- sidered. It is therefore
phere. Unfortunately the nitrogen oxide not generally possible removes where it
from aircraft probably generates ozone to assign a particular is wanted, at high
where it is not wanted, at low alti- unique value for the altitudes.
tudes; and removes where it is wanted, impact of any pollut-
at high altitudes. At low altitudes (less ant. Such is the uncertainty in some of
than 15 km or so), extra ozone increas- the processes that, for example, some
es global warming. Its warming impact pollutants at certain altitudes are now
is thought to be greatest at about 12 thought to decrease global warming,
kilometres, the altitude at which large rather than increase it.
commercial jet aircraft typically cruise.
Ozone at much greater altitudes de- The UK Royal Commission on
creases global warming. Environmental Pollution4 highlighted the
risks of high altitude release of pollut-
Water vapour has two potential ef- ants: “The impact of aircraft emissions
fects. First, through augmenting the can be very different depending whether
formation of high altitude clouds, it can they are in the upper troposphere or the
act as a potent global warming agent. lower stratosphere. Both the abundance
Second, extra water vapour at high of trace gases and the dominant chemi-
latitudes may increase the formation cal composition and associated chemical
of polar stratospheric clouds that are reaction are very different in the two
implicated in ozone loss and the forma- regions. In particular water vapour con-
tion of the ozone hole. tent is relatively high in the troposphere
and low in the stratosphere whereas
Aircraft emit a number of other pollut- ozone levels are much higher in the
ants. This includes carbon monoxide, stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone ab-
sulphur dioxide, metals, soot and lu- sorbs radiation from the sun. This leads
bricating oils. Although many of these to a heating profile in the stratosphere
are emitted in minute quantities which that determines its character, and also
makes insignificant changes to pollu- protects life at the surface from the
tion concentrations near ground level, harmful effects of the UV radiation.”
52 16, October 2008

environmental impacts need to be

devised.
3. Mitigating policies have to be imple-
mented through appropriate legisla-
tive and institutional frameworks.
Control options can be put into three

categories: demand management;
operational change; and technologi-
cal change. Measures in each of these
three categories can be implemented
severally. Implementation methods
can be divided into intelligence and
information, incentive and disincen-
Picture 1. Airplane condensation trails tive, regulation and investment. Table
(contrails) over Brittany, France 1 outlines a matrix of basic options and
(© Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid means of implementation with exam-
Response Team, NASA/GSFC) ples of particular measures.
The Commission noted the rapid The complex interactions that occur
increase in air travel and concluded in the aviation industry make it gen-
that it had: “particular concerns erally difficult to discuss and assess
about the contribution that air- particular control options in isolation
craft emissions will make to cli- from others. Some examples of these
mate change if this growth goes interactions and potential dilemmas
unchecked. The total radiative forc- include:
ing due to aviation is probably some
Z Putting more taxes on fuel and air-
three times that due to the carbon
craft movements makes air travel
dioxide emissions alone.”
more expensive thereby suppress-
ing demand. But such taxes may
Controlling pollution increase load factors which would
from aircraft decrease capital and fuel costs per
Relating to the impact of air pollution passenger or tonne or freight, there-
from aircraft, there are two basic non by lowering total flight costs and
exclusive control options: stimulating demand.
Z The total emissions of pollutants can Z Managing air freight demand can
be limited; not be best accomplished without at
Z Emission may be reduced in sensi- the same time managing passenger
tive zones such that the impacts of demand. Presently two thirds of air
pollutants are diminished. freight is carried with passengers.
This is at a relatively low marginal
To reduce the environmental impact of economic and environmental cost
aircraft three categories of action are because of the design of aircraft
required: for mixed passenger and freight
1. Research and monitoring to establish transport.
the actual extent of emissions and Z Provided the same fraction of seats
their effects. is filled, large aircraft are more ef-
2. Policy options that mitigate ficient and so produce less emission
16, October 2008 53

per passenger kilometre than small- noise limits, even though the larger
er aircraft ones and so. However it the aircraft the fewer the aircraft
is difficult for large aircraft to meet movements.
Table 1. Some emission control options
Options Intelligence Incentive Regulation Investment

flight plan- fuel and bubble emis- global booking system
Operations
ning models emission taxes sion limits
advanced aircraft ticket transfer less seat spacing
higher load booking; inte- movement tax permit
factor grated flight
planning
ATC (air
shorter route
traffic control)
optimum zone emission
lower altitude
height limits
fuel and
slower cruise
emission taxes
less conges- better ATC aircraft better ATC
tion movement tax
Technology
information to emission taxes emission limits more efficient, low emission
engine
operators and per unit thrust engines
emission
consumers
information to emission taxes emission limits large aircraft optimised for
aircraft
operators and per seat.km passenger transport
emission
consumers
Demand advertising
management and labelling
advertising passenger better local environment and
and labelling movement or holiday facilities
passenger distance tax
telecommunications
alternative modes
economic freight tax alternative modes
information
freight
advertising localised production
and labelling
There is scope for extending techno- rapidly by about 20 per cent. However,
logical improvement to airframes and even if these two categories of meas-
engines, and this might include the ures are applied to a maximum, fuel use
introduction of slower more fuel efficient and pollution still double in three dec-
aircraft optimised for passenger trans- ades or so under current projections.
port. Operational changes, especially
increasing the load factor of aircraft, In consequence, if aviation is to stabi-
could reduce pollution substantially and lise or reduce its current emissions of
54 16, October 2008

greenhouse gases and other pollutants, Conclusions

demand management will be required. The current contribution of civil avia-
Most air freight is not inherently urgent tion to anthropogenic global warming
and much of it could be carried by less is almost certainly at least 3 per cent,
polluting surface modes. Business travel but may be much higher due to the
could be limited by the increased use emission of nitrogen oxides and wa-
of telecommu- ter. There are serious concerns about
Most air freight is nication. Leisure the specific impacts of aircraft at high
not inherently urgent travellers could altitude especially with respect to their
and much of it could be encouraged to effect on ozone, but the scientific un-
visit nearer loca- certainties remain very great. Global
be carried by less tions and use less
warming and the other environmental
polluting surface damaging modes impacts of aircraft will increase because
modes. Business where possible. of the growth in aviation demand.
travel could be limited Reducing the de-
mand growth rate About half of air transport is for leisure
by the increased use by over a half in causing some 50 per cent of total avia-
of telecommunication. these ways would, tion emissions. The prospect is for large
in conjunction long term increases in emissions from
with the technological and operational aircraft if current policies and strategies
measures, stabilise emissions over the are unchanged. With about 5 per cent of
next four decades or so, after which the world’s people, the USA accounts for
emissions would once again increase. some 40 per cent
of aircraft pollution About half of air
All of these measures would be dif- and is therefore a transport is for
ficult to implement, especially a high key country when
degree of demand management. They
leisure causing some
constructing control
will however all be required in order policies, and when
50 per cent of total
to stabilise emissions; to reduce emis- considering the aviation emissions.
sions significantly and permanently, consequences if the
heavier constraints on demand or radi- rest of the world made as many flights.
cal technological innovations will be Barrett shows how global warming from
necessary. In a situation of scientific aviation may constitute half of total
uncertainty, deciding on appropriate UK global warming by 2050, even with
policies and timing their implementa- some emission control measures.6
tion, is problematic.
Emission limits should be applied to
Both the IPCC and the UK Royal aircraft emissions of greenhouse gases
Commission recognised the need for generally. But there are problems sug-
demand management, and a study for gesting limits for particular gases singly
the UK government5 noted that: ‘even and in combination.
with deployment of the most promising
future technologies, if demand is un- Currently, global anthropogenic CO2
constrained by capacity then, in abso- emission is about 8 billion tonnes of
lute terms, the net effect of the avia- carbon and to avoid unsupportable
tion industry on the environment is set impacts, reductions of 60 per cent or
to increase.’ more over the coming decades are
required.7 With population growth,
this would mean an equitable emission
16, October 2008 55

allowance of about 0.3 tonnes of car- Z Aircraft emissions above critical alti-
bon per person per year, equivalent tudes should be subject to separate
to a person making one flight of a few international negotiations for their
thousand kilometres and doing noth- control and limitation in light of their
ing else that emits carbon. Since most special effects at altitude.
of aviation is for inessential leisure
and freight with alternative modes, it The more important policy issues and
should be expected that aviation will measures include:
have to reduce its emissions substan- Z It is most critical is that demand
tially to leave scope for essential serv- management measures are imple-
ices such as food production or heating mented. First, freight should be
dwellings. In general, however, reduc- transferred to low impact surface
ing carbon emissions from aircraft is transport modes having a lower
problematic as the technical options for impact. In the short term this should
deep cuts are limited and costly. mean the virtual elimination of
freight only air transport. Second,
The application of firm emission control measures to reduce both business
policies would be effective in reducing and leisure air travel such as tel-
emissions substantially below levels ecommunication and modal change
projected in business as usual condi- are required.
tions. If all the control measures sug-
Z The load factor of aircraft should be
gested by Barrett were implemented
sharply increased.
then aviation emissions would not
increase vastly over the current level Z The possibility of reducing fuel use
in the medium term.8 However, reduc- by lowering speeds should be inves-
ing demand growth is the single most tigated, as should the avoidance of
important element in such a strategy. cruising near the tropopause and in
the lower stratosphere.
The aviation industry will find it diffi- Z The development of aircraft and
cult to make global greenhouse emis- engine designs aimed at reducing
sion reductions and will have to make a emission should be promoted.
dramatic response to the challenge, or
establish that emissions from aircraft As far as possible, policies to limit the
do not have to be reduced pro rata as environmental impact of aircraft should
much as those from other sectors of be implemented by the aviation indus-
the global economy. try, both manufacturers and operators.
However, the national and international
Recommendations policy framework must be set by gov-
ernments and international negotia-
Z A method and convention for calcu- tion, and governments must take much
lating and allocating all aircraft emis- responsibility for policy measures such
sions to individual countries needs to as the management of demand and the
be developed. development and coordination of trans-
Z The prejudice should be for limits port modes. Governments will have to
to aircraft emissions to be allocated use a full range of regulatory, planning
pro rata to other limits of a similar and taxation options to ensure reduc-
kind (e.g. carbon emission). It may tions in fuel use and emissions.
be that special derogations might
be allotted to aviation in particular All social and economic sectors of
regions. wealthy societies face huge challenges
56 16, October 2008

to control greenhouse gas emissions. with low impact and at minimum cost.
For aviation, it is particularly difficult In the longer term, it could extend its
given the growth and technical nature expertise to address the management
of aircraft and aviation fuels. However, of demand; for example to integrate
governments and the aviation industry transport planning and systems into in-
need to act urgently in order to develop ternational manufacturing and services
low impact, sustainable, long distance production systems.
communication and transport systems.
If development is too slow, then the Notes
world will suffer worse global warming, 1 Barrett 1994.
and the industry itself will face a rapid 2 IPCC 1999.
and deep crisis because of pressure 3 IPCC 1999.
4 RCEP 2002.
from emission targets and other, es-
5 Arthur D Little Ltd 2000.
sential sectors.
6 Barrett 2007: 74-75.
7 IPCC 2007: 44.
The aviation industry needs to take a
8 Barrett 1994.
positive rather than a defensive pos-
ture. It can first push through techno-
References
logical and operational improvements
Arthur D Little Ltd, 2000, Study into the potential
as fast as possible. This will generally impact of changes in technology or the development
make the industry less vulnerable to of Air Transport in the UK, DETR Report on Contract
No. PPAD 9/91/14, 2000.
fluctuations in fuel prices and envi-
Barrett M, 1994, Pollution Control Strategies
ronmental taxes or charges, thereby for Aircraft, for WorldWide Fund for Nature
improving the stability of its cost base. International. Download: http://www.bartlett.ucl.
As far as the aircraft and aeroengine ac.uk/markbarrett/Transport/Air/Aviation94.zip
manufacturing industries go, the rec- Barrett, 2007, Low Emission Energy Scenarios for
the European Union, for Swedish Environmental
ommendations for the rapid intro- Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket), ISBN 91-
duction of cleaner and more efficient 620-5785-5
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Governments and the be good news 5785-5.htm
aviation industry because it means Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
1999, Aviation and the Global Atmosphere,
need to act urgently more sales. It will
mean more costs
Cambridge University Press. Download: http://www.
grida.no/Climate/ipcc/aviation/index.htm
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impact, sustainable, consumers, but 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report.
Download:
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be quite gradual Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP),
communication and and not neces- 2002, The Environmental Impacts of Civil Aircraft in
transport systems. sarily very large Flight. Download:
http://www.rcep.org.uk/aviation/av12-txt.pdf.
compared to the
total cost of a holiday or business trip.
Perhaps most important is for the avia-
tion industry to seek a stable, long
term future by diversifying into long
distance transport and communication
businesses. It can use its great ex-
pertise to help develop systems using
multiple modes— air, sea and rail—
that operate in an integrated fashion
16, October 2008 57

A proposed contribution to an oil and gas strategy

Sandra Kloff, Emmanuel Obot, Richard Steiner and Clive Wicks
Abstract. The oil and gas industry dominates global energy supply, but is working with finite
resources and also often carries high environmental and social costs. Key issues include the
move into critical marine areas and the question of oil and gas extraction inside or beside
protected areas. Numerous attempts have been made to address these problems, but they
continue to be hampered not least by a lack of regulations on critical aspects of explora-
tion and extraction. The paper finishes with a call for a revolution in energy supply, with a
major shift to renewable sources (including a shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renew-
able energy), reduction in wasteful practices such as gas flaring and elimination of deci-
sions being made about major projects in the absence of Strategic Environmental and Social
Assessments.
Background impacts on the economy, which can

Currently oil and gas extraction cre- have for example also result in adverse
ate most of the energy and re- social impacts such as corruption, (rent
sources needed to run our society. seekers) and civil disturbance.
Unfortunately, they also result in a
range of present and future environ- Unregulated and irresponsible actions
mental and social costs, both direct by the oil industry destroy habitats
and indirect, which need to be balanced and damage biodiversity. “Low-energy
against the benefits they bring. habitats” such
as mangroves, Oil and gas industry
The world is highly dependent on salt marshes impacts on people and
oil— it powers our transport, heats or and polar coastal the environment in three
cools our homes, creates industrial and wetlands can be
seriously dam- ways, through climate
domestic chemicals and provides the
feedstock for many of the materials we aged by quite change, through their
use and wear. Transport uses 60 per small amounts operations on land
cent of oil production, mostly to fuel of oil. Onshore,
drilling can harm
and at sea and finally
cars and trucks. Oil is a non-renewable
resource that we use at a rate of 70 ecology and through positive or
million barrels a day, at present and open up wil- negative impacts on
some estimates are that this will dou- derness areas. the economy.
ble by 2025. Other estimates, by some Offshore, drilling
of the Industry’s own geologists are can damage some of the world’s most
that by 2025 there will be severe short- important marine ecosystems.
ages of oil and gas as reservoirs are
depleted. Already oil wells in Texas and Oil spills at sea have damaged man-
the North Sea are drying up. grove forests, coral reefs and fisher-
ies, both through major accidents and
The oil and gas industry impacts on regular leakage from tankers, loading
people and the environment in three buoys, drilling rigs and production plat-
ways, through climate change, through forms. Transport of oil is also implicat-
their operations on land and at sea ed in ecological damage; for example,
and finally through positive or negative there were an estimated 16,000 spills
58 16, October 2008

during the construction of the Trans- Dr. Salim summarised the EIR in an ed-
Alaskan pipeline.1 Oil tanker accidents itorial “World Bank must reform on ex-
such as Exxon Valdez, Erica or Prestige tractive industries” that appeared on 16
are other well-known examples of June 2004 in the UK Financial Times.
ecological disasters that can have long- He said: Not only have the oil, gas and
term effects. mining industries not helped the poor-
est people in developing countries,
The extractive industries (oil, gas and they have often made them worse
mining) have often failed to make a off. Scores of recent academic studies
contribution to sustainable develop- and many of the bank’s own studies
ment or adequately protect the envi- confirmed our findings that countries
ronment. The industry is considered which rely primarily on extractive in-
by many civil society organisations to dustries tend to have higher levels of
have contributed to corruption, pollu- poverty, child morbidity and mortality,
tion, environmental and social prob- civil war, corruption and totalitarian-
lems. Civil disturbance— including ism than those with more diversified
wars— are occurring in resource-rich economies. Does this mean extractive
countries, notably in Africa including industries can never play a positive role
Nigeria, Angola, Sierra Leone and the in a nation’s economy? No, it simply
Democratic Republic of Congo. Terms means that the only evidence of such
like the “curse of oil” and “the paradox a positive role we could find took place
of plenty” are in common use. after a country’s democratic govern-
ance had developed to such a degree
The top ten oil and gas and the top 25 that the poorest could see some of the
mining companies together with the benefits. Before the fundamental build-
20-30 main hydrocarbon producing ing blocks of good governance— a free
nations reap huge financial rewards. press, a functioning judiciary, respect
However because of corruption and for human rights, free and fair elec-
mismanagement a proportion of the tions and so on— are put in place, the
resource-rich countries also bear many development of these industries only
of the environmental and social costs aggravates the situation for the poor-
and remain poor and under developed. est. (Extracts from editorial)
Neighbouring nations without hydro-
carbon resources also bear many of the Climate Change
costs and reap few of the rewards from The Inter-Governmental Panel on
the extractive industries. Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted,
the escalating threats that climate
Extractive Industries Review change poses for the environment and
In response to this, in 2000 the World human survival. Climate change must
Bank Group launched the Extractive be kept below the critical 2 per cent
Industries Review (EIR) to discuss increase on pre-industrial levels other-
its future role in these industries wise risk to people and ecosystems will
with concerned stakeholders. Dr Emil be very serious.
Salim, a distinguished scientist and
former Environmental Minister in the Z Human Impacts
Indonesian Government, was asked to At all levels of warming, a large group
chair the review and he presented his of poor, highly vulnerable developing
report in 2004.2 countries are expected to suffer in-
creasing additional food deficits, which
16, October 2008 59

is expected to lead to higher levels of Change (see box) illustrate the degree
food insecurity and hunger in these of concern recognised by the global
countries. Some quotations from the community.
UN Framework Convention on Climate
Box 1. Article 2: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Ultimate objective to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system... within a time frame sufficient to:
Z allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change
Z ensure that food production is not threatened
Z enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner
Food and Article 2

o
Impacts of a 1 C rise in temperature:
Z Around 10 million more people at risk over the century
Z Nearly all developed countries benefit
Z Many developing countries in the tropics are estimated to experience small but significant crop
yield growth declines
o o
1 C to 2 C rise:
Z warming triples number of people at risk of hunger in 2080s
Water and Article 2

o o
1.5 C to 2-2.5 C
Z Non-linear risk threshold of water shortages or water problems such as flooding
Z Numbers at risk rising from close to 600 million to between 2.4-3.1 billion
Z Mega-cities in India and China will be badly affected
o
2 C+
Z Very high levels of additional risk at all time periods, in the range 662 million to around 3
billion.
Z Eco-Systems and hit the poorest hardest and increase

Species Impacts the gap between the rich and the poor.
The impact on ecosystems and species
varies but many ecosystems, particu- BP and Shell took the lead by accept-
larly coral reefs and coastal wetlands ing that climate change is a problem
are already being affected and more and that biodiversity is fundamental to
ecosystems and species will be affected economic development and human wel-
as the temperature exceeds 1 per cent fare including spiritual, aesthetics, and
above pre industrial levels cultural values. Shell sees “biodiversity
as a real business issue: if not ad-
Industry Response to dressed properly it increases our risks
Climate Change and potentially jeopardises our license
Overall the industries’ energy scenarios to grow”. Shell has made a first com-
for the 21st Century are not sustain- mitment to stay out of “World Heritage
able and will contribute to an environ- Sites” but this is a long way from the
mental and social disaster, which will IUCN “Amman declaration” of 2000,
which recommended that governments
60 16, October 2008

The industries’ prevent mining and oil and natural gas. For a variety of
fossil fuel extrac- reasons, we expect demand for fossil
energy scenarios for
tion in all IUCN fuels to increase in absolute magnitude
the 21st Century are Category I-IV pro- by about 65 to 85 million oil equivalent
not sustainable and tected areas. barrels per day by 2020.
will contribute to an
Shell’s energy sce- Just how much is, 65 to 85 million bar-
environmental nario planning is rels per day? Well, it is in the range of
and social disaster, based on UN popu- eight times Saudi Arabia’s current oil
which will hit the lation forecasts that production. Obviously, this is no small
poorest hardest and the current 6 billion chore. Cooperation will be critical in
population will rise several areas.
increase the gap to between 8.5 and
between the rich 10 billion by 2050, There will be a need to ensure that en-
and the poor. with 80 per cent of ergy-producing companies have access
the population living to resources. Today we see a number
in urban environments. Shell estimate of access restrictions around the world.
that by 2050 the energy requirement
will be 100-200 Giga Joules (GJ) per These restrictions exist in energy-
capita. 100 GJ per capita would be just importing countries such as the United
over twice what it is now and at 200 GJ States, where limitations have been
per capita three times as much. Shell placed on exploring areas where en-
predicts that by 2050 traditional forms ergy resources may be found. But
of energy (oil, gas and coal) will provide they also exist elsewhere, in energy-
70 per cent of the requirement while re- exporting countries. The future need
newables will provide only 30 per cent. for petroleum energy will be such that
restrictions— in
This bleak scenario for climate change whatever form Shell predicts that
is shared by Exxon Mobil the world’s and wherever im- by 2050 traditional
largest oil and gas Company. Exxon posed— will jeop-
Mobil appears to go even further in ardise the provision
forms of energy (oil,
not fully accepting either the princi- of adequate energy gas and coal) will
ples of the Kyoto or the 2000 Amman supplies to world provide 70 per cent
Declaration. Exxon claims that oil consumers. of the requirement
producers’ struggle to keep up with
rampant global demand growth will With significant while renewables
only be won with access to oilfields now heavy oil, tar sands, will provide only
off-limits. Exxon Mobil’s chief executive and other “uncon- 30 per cent.
Lee Raymond said in a speech to the ventional” resourc-
OPEC International Seminar in Vienna es, new technology
on the 16th Sept 2004 that:3 will be critical to making the “uncon-
ventional” energy resources of today
First, the outlook sets before us an the “conventional” resources of tomor-
enormous task of finding and produc- row. Making development of these
ing the huge and increasing amounts unconventional resources economically
of energy needed by the people of the attractive will ensure adequate supplies
world. Inevitably, most of the energy of fossil fuels are available at affordable
that will be used for many decades will prices for the next 100 years.”
continue to be from fossil fuels: coal,
16, October 2008 61

This kind of It is believed that into remote, fragile ecosystems and

Raymond is refer- areas of unique biodiversity where
response is only ring particularly to governments often have limited capac-
delaying the end the Arctic Refuge in ity to protect the environment, other
of the oil era not Alaska. Research by economic activities or the people who
solving long-term WWF and others has live there.
shown that even if
energy needs. all the extractable oil Exploration in critical
was pumped from un- marine areas
der the Arctic Refuge it would only sup- Most of the increased
ply about nine months of US demand. oil and gas produc-
Most of the
It would damage one of the most criti- tion in West Africa increased oil and
cal ecosystems on earth, on which the and other parts of gas production in
“Gwitchen” people depend for survival. the world will be
This kind of response is only delaying West Africa and
from offshore wells
the end of the oil era not solving long- in sensitive marine
other parts of the
term energy needs. environments, which world will be from
are critical for hu- offshore wells in
In spite of this the US Senate ap- man economic sur-
proved, by a two vote majority, the
sensitive marine
vival. There are sev-
exploration of oil and gas in the Arctic eral reasons for these environments.
Refuge. Exploitation of Canadian oil developments:
shales has recently been stepped up, Z The social and environmental prob-
despite widespread concern about the lems that have occurred on land,
environmental consequences. e.g. in Nigeria-the Niger Delta
Z Oil reserves on land are starting to
The struggle to keep up with energy dry up, e.g. Texas and Gabon
demands, particularly from rapidly de-
veloping countries like India and China, Z The technical problems of operating
is driving more and more companies in deep water and rough seas have
been largely solved through work in
the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico etc
Z The lack of laws controlling off shore
operations in the marine environ-
ment and the ability to negotiate
individual agreements with govern-
ments, even though the main impact
of a spill will be on a neighbouring
country not the country in which the
spill occurs.
Z The ability to convert 25-30 year old
single hulled tankers which should
have gone to the scrap yards into
floating production platforms (so-
called FPSOs) for use in countries
Picture 1. The prospect of drought and that do not have strict laws. The USA
increasing food shortages are real threats will not permit them to be used and
in many developing countries (Courtesy the maritime certification agency
Sue Stolton, Equilibrium Research)
Bureau Veritas4 has produced a
62 16, October 2008

report advising against the conver- hand, others prohibit such activities in
sion of old single hulled tankers. protected areas absolutely. Even more
Z Some civil society organisations common is exploration and exploita-
claim that there is even a lack of tion near to protected areas, including
control over what is exported from within buffer zones. Whether near to or
offshore wells and therefore there is within officially protected areas, there
an opportunity for fraud/corruption. have been increasing pressures on the
companies that conduct these extrac-
Protected Areas and the oil tion activities to operate in a responsi-
industry: conflict and attempts ble manner, including keeping negative
impacts to an absolute minimum and
at reconciliation
avoid undertaking operations in some
Claims by the industry that they can specific areas and encouraging positive
work in fragile vulnerable environ- benefit wherever possible.
ments has not generally been born
out in reality, as shown in the World Industry and conservation groups
Bank Extractive review and many other have responded through a number
reports. of joint ventures to address environ-
mental issues. In 1993, IUCN and the
As with other extractive industries oil Oil Industry International Exploration
and gas companies pose many ac- and Production Forum (E&P Forum—
tual and potential threats to protected now the Association of Oil and Gas
areas. The wide-ranging methods of Producers) jointly published guidelines
extraction, on land and underwater, “to establish internationally acceptable
and the risks of pollution during trans- goals and guidance” for environmental
port, use and disposal of fossil fuels, protection for Oil and Gas Exploration
mean that a wide range of impacts is and Production in Arctic and Sub arc-
possible. These impacts can range from tic Onshore Regions.5 The guidelines
air, land and water pollution to habi- specifically recommended that selec-
tat loss and fragmentation, increased tion of the drill site should be guided
settlement and related impacts for by a number of pointers, including the
instance as a result of roads, pipelines “avoidance of protected and conserva-
or seismic lines being cut through pri- tion areas” and listed the “awareness
mary forest or disturbance from drilling and avoidance of protected areas” first
camps. in a list of general environmental pro-
tection measures that should guide
Many governments clearly regard activities.
Many governments protected areas as
suitable for oil and IUCN sought to tackle the issue of
clearly regard gas production, us- extractive industries impacts on pro-
protected areas as ing arguments about tected areas more generally through a
suitable for oil and the overall impor- recommendation (2.82) at the World
gas production, tance of energy
supplies and the
Conservation Congress in Amman,
Jordan in October 2000. The recom-
using arguments possibility that oil mendation calls “on all IUCN’s State
about the overall and gas extraction members to prohibit by law, all explora-
importance of can take place in tion and extraction of mineral resources
a relatively benign in protected areas corresponding to
energy supplies. way. On the other IUCN protected area management
16, October 2008 63

categories I-IV”. And recommended that protected areas, with five of these units
“in categories V and VI, exploration and operating within protected areas cat-
localised extraction would be accepted egorised as IUCN I-IV.6
only where the nature and extent of the
proposed activities of the mining project In order to further help countries work,
indicates the compatibility of the project effectively with the Extractive Industries
with objectives of the protected areas”. a number of organisations have produced
Although this recommendation was guidelines. WWF produced “To Dig or Not
aimed at Governments, it clearly has to Dig”7 (see box) with criteria for deter-
implications for many companies. For mining the acceptability of mineral ex-
instance, BP has 49 units operating in ploration, extraction and transport from
or adjacent to national or international ecological and social perspective.
Box 2. To Dig or Not To Dig
WWF suggests in “To Dig or Not To Dig” that mineral activity should not take place in the following
places:
Z Highly protected areas (IUCN categories I-IV, marine category I-V protected areas, UNESCO
World Heritage sites, core areas of UNESCO biosphere reserves, Natura 2000 sites and in
European Union countries);
Z Proposed protected areas within priority conservation areas selected through Eco-
regional planning exercises;
Z Areas containing the last remaining examples of particular ecosystems or species
even if these lie outside protected areas; and
Z Places where mineral activities threaten the wellbeing of communities, particularly
including local communities and indigenous people.
The term “mineral activity” is used to denote all levels of activity— prospecting, extraction,
processing, transport and decommissioning— which are related to either fossil fuels or minerals,
metals or building materials.
The Energy and Biodiversity Initiative Z The rationale for integrating biodi-
aims to develop and promote best prac- versity conservation into oil and gas
tices for integrating biodiversity conser- operations
vation into oil and gas development and Z Identification and implementation
transmission. The first meeting of the of on-the-ground best technical and
Initiative was held in January 2001 and a management practices
publication has now been produced8 un-
Z Metrics and performance indicators
der the auspices of nine organisations: BP
plc, Conservation International, Chevron for measuring the positive and nega-
Texaco, Fauna & Flora International, tive impact of oil and gas develop-
Smithsonian Institution, Shell ment on biodiversity
International, The Nature Conservancy Z Criteria for deciding whether to
(TNC), Statoil and IUCN. The Initiative is undertake activities in sensitive
a collaborative process to produce out- environments
puts with broad dissemination, and im-
portant stakeholder groups have and will The International Petroleum Industry
continue to be consulted throughout the Environmental Conservation
development of these outputs. The princi- Association/ International Association
pal issues addressed are: of Oil and Gas Producers (IPIECA) was
64 16, October 2008

founded in 1974 and provides the oil (PSA’s), Contracts Worse of all the
and gas industry’s main channel of of Work, etc, with
communication on environmental is- Government. industry are not
sues with the United Nations, particu- They have even following International
larly the United Nations Environment ordered equip- Standards for
Programme. IPIECA’s focus is on key ment and ap-
environmental issues such as oil spill proved construc-
developing projects,
preparedness and response, global tion contracts which require decisions
climate change and biodiversity; as before they have to be made on the
well as health and social responsibil- carried out a basis of prior and
ity issues. There are currently over 35 social study or
members, drawn from private and state environmental
informed consent.
owned companies as well as national, impact or had
regional and international associa- their Environmental and Social Impact
tions— the membership covers Africa, Assessments (ESIA) approved.
Latin America, Asia, Europe, Middle
East and North America. Worse of all the industry are not follow-
ing International Standards for devel-
In spite of all the efforts of these or- oping projects, which require decisions
ganisations the reality on the ground to be made on the basis of prior and
is that many areas of high biodiversity informed consent.
including protected areas have been
badly affected by the oil and gas indus- A classical example of this is the Baku-
tries. The experience of CEESP mem- Tiblisi-Cheyan pipeline. The decision
bers helping local NGOs working on oil on the route of the pipeline was made
and gas projects in 2000 before ESIA was even started.
The reality on the in many parts of HGA and construction agreements were
ground is that the world includ- signed in October 2000, the final route
many areas of ing West Africa and
the Former Soviet
was approved in January 2001 but
work began on the ESIA only in June
high biodiversity territories such of that year. Some NGOs such as WWF
including protected as Azerbaijan and Turkey were not even consulted until
areas have been Georgia has high- Dec 2001 after the first ESIA had been
light the problems. carried out.
badly affected by One of the funda-
the oil and mental issues is that Lessons learned
gas industries. oil and gas fields Lesson 1: Transparency
are being developed
All oil and gas companies should re-
in isolation from or in the absence of
spect the UN Convention on Corruption
National Energy Plans.
and the Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative and practise
Another problem is that contrary to
total transparency. Companies should
OECD, UNEP, UNDP and World Bank
inform governments of their standards
Transparency Guidelines, extrac-
prior to signing contracts and work with
tive industries are still signing se-
governments to meet the International
cretive agreements such as Inter
standards on Transparency.
Governmental Agreements (IGA’s),
Host Government Agreements (HGA’s),
Production Sharing Agreements
16, October 2008 65

Lesson 2: National Sustainability relevant government departments, civil

Both Rio and Johannesburg WCSD’s society and an independent agency
proposed that National Sustainability before giving them to the government
plans should be developed. These for approval. This must be completed
should include National Environmental before investment decisions are made.
and Energy plans including renew-
able energy. All oil and gas projects Lesson 5: International Standards
should be developed within a Oil and gas companies should follow
Strategic Environmental Assessment the highest international standards
as part of the framework of National both in construction methods and the
Sustainability/Energy Plans. These equipment they use. The use of old
plans should include the current and (25 plus years) single hulled converted
future energy needs for the country tankers as floating production plat-
and the substitution of finite resources forms will cause concern particularly
with renewables. when they are stationed in areas of
very high marine biodiversity.
Lesson 3: Strategic Environmental
Assessment (SEA) Lesson 6: Treaties
A good model of an SEA has been International treaties are needed to
prepared by the UK Department of control oil and gas operations when the
Trade and Industry (DTI with support impacts of their operations, including oil
from staff from WWF and many other spills or discharged process water, may
organisations). A key early step is an affect a number of countries.
SEA scoping exercise to obtain external
input to help define: Lack of international legislation
Z The issues and concerns that the for offshore oil and gas
SEA should address operations
Z Key information sources and per- Although some general principles ex-
ceived gaps in understanding of the ist in both Rio and United Nations
natural environment Convention on the
Z Key information sources and per- Law of the Sea There is a serious
ceived gaps in understanding of the (UNCLOS), as shown lack of detailed
effects of the activities that would below, there is a se- international
result from oil and gas licensing rious lack of detailed
international legisla-
legislation for
SEAs are vital for critical marine sys- tion for offshore oil offshore oil and gas
tems, on which millions of poor people and gas operations. operations.
depend for survival. These systems The onus is primarily
are going to be badly affected unless on states to develop legislation, even
industry is forced to meet the highest though the main impact of pollution
international standards. may be on neighbouring countries.
Lesson 4: Combined environmental This problem has been highlighted by

and social studies the Canadian Maritime Environmental
Oil and gas companies must complete Law Association (CMLA): The present
all environmental and social stud- plethora of national legal regimes and
ies including health impacts at the the individual contractual negotia-
same time and have them checked by tions between the major oil companies
66 16, October 2008

and nation states, often with little or the scale of the industrial revolution to
no bargaining power, has resulted in solve the world’s energy and climate
an assemblage of political and eco- change crisis. Key elements of such a
nomic environments which resembles “revolution” would be:
European medieval fiefdoms.9
Z By 2050 virtually all energy to come
from environmentally-sound renew-
Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration pro-
able, or decarbonised sources. This
vides: States have, in accordance with
will also reduce the need for the oil
the Charter of the United Nations and
and gas industry to move into ar-
the principles of international law, the
eas of high biodiversity and low civil
sovereign right to exploit their own re-
society and government capacity or
sources pursuant to their own environ-
areas, which are critical for human
mental and developmental policies, and
survival.
the responsibility to ensure that activi-
ties within their jurisdiction or control Z Governments and other key con-
do not cause damage to the environ- stituencies need to overcome the
ment of other States or of areas be- current unsustainable fossil-based
yond the limits of national jurisdiction. energy system and take clear and
decisive steps towards renewable
UNCLOS states in Article 208 that: energies and energy efficiency.
Coastal States shall adopt laws to Z Industry should pay the real cost of
control marine pollution from offshore their impacts on climate change and
units and seabed activities no less ef- other environmental damage; this
fective than in international rules and will also help to ensure that renew-
standards. States shall establish global able energy sources are competitive
and regional rules for this purpose. and new technologies are developed.
A strategy for energy Z All direct and indirect subsidies need

to be stopped, except those support-
In recognition of the severe problems ing fuel for the poorest people.
arising from the oil and gas industry,
and the finite nature of these resourc- Z The energy needs for future genera-
es, calls for an Energy Revolution on tions must not be wasted and gas
flaring should be stopped; when it
occurs it should be subject to finan-
cial penalties.
Z Countries should be helped to de-
velop National Sustainability Plans
including energy plans, which include
renewable energy strategies. They
should avoid exporting all their fos-
sil fuels before they have developed
renewable replacements.
Z All extractive industries and all gov-
ernments should be encouraged
to sign the Extractive Industries
Picture 2. West African marine Transparency Initiative, (EITI)
environments could be at risk from
and respect the UN Convention on
increased oil and gas production (Courtesy
Nigel Dudley, Equilibrium Research)
Corruption.
16, October 2008 67

Z Industries should stop signing secre- concerned and affected stakeholders;

tive Host Government Agreements, it is the heart and soul of ethics and
Production Agreements and sustainability.
Contracts of Work. No contracts
Sandra Kloff, Emmanuel Obot and Richard Steiner are
should be signed before Strategic all members of CEESP’s Working Group on Social and Envi-
Environmental Assessments (SEAs) ronmental Accountability of the Private Sector (SEAPRISE).
and Environmental and Social stud- Clive Wicks ([email protected]) is co-chair of
SEAPRISE, with a particular interest in fossil fuels and min-
ies (ESIAs) have been carried out. ing in Africa. He worked for many years with WWF UK.
Governments must give prior and
informed consent in accordance with Notes
OECD Guidelines. 1 Dudley and Stolton 2002.
Z All poor people should be supplied 2 World Bank, 2004.
with renewable low cost energy ef- 3 Raymond, 2004.
ficient systems suited to their needs. 4 Veritas, 2004.
5 IUCN and E&P Forum, 1993.
Z Sums at least the equivalent of the 6 Bishop et al. 2004.
current fossil fuel subsidies need to 7 Dudley and Stolton 2002.
be invested in research and subsidis- 8 EBI, 2004.
ing the development of renewables 9 Canadian Maritime Law Association, 1996.
and the improvements in energy
efficiency. References
Bishop, K, N Dudley, A Phillips and S Stolton,
Z The revenue from oil and gas should Speaking a Common Language, University of Cardiff
be used to help countries develop and IUCN, Cardiff and Gland, Switzerland, 2004.
and implement sustainable develop- Canadian Maritime Law Association, Discussion Paper
ment plans thereby protecting the on the Need for an International Legal Regime
for Offshore Units etc, Seabed Resources, 1996
environment and helping to eradi- Available on: http://www.wob.nf.ca/News/1998/
cate poverty. July98/offshore3.htm
Engaging citizens Dudley, N and S Stolton, To Dig or Not to Dig?, WWF
in a legitimate, One of the main
International, 2002.
EBI (Energy and Biodiversity Initiative), Integrating
empowered manner pillars of achiev- Biodiversity Conservation and Oil & Gas
is not just good ing environmental Development, Conservation International, 2004.
and social justice IUCN and E&P Forum, Oil and Gas Exploration in Arctic
for companies and in large-scale and Subarctic Onshore Regions: Guidelines for
Environmental Protection, IUCN, Gland Switzerland
concerned and projects is to have and Cambridge UK, 1993.
affected stakeholders; fully informed Raymond, L R, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer,
stakeholder par- Exxon Mobil Corporation
it is the heart and OPEC International Seminar - Vienna, Austria
ticipation and September 16, 2004
soul of ethics and citizen oversight http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/
sustainability. in projects that SpchsIntvws/Corp_NR_SpchIntrvw_LRR_160904.
asp
are implemented
Veritas, Press Release, June 18 2004.
by large industries. Engaging citizens
World Bank, Extractive Industries Review, Washington
in a legitimate, empowered manner DC, 2004.
is not just good for companies and
68 16, October 2008

DEFINITION OF
EUDAIMONI
Eudaimonia is a Greek word used to define
human flourishing.
Eu means “well”, and daimon or daemon
meaning “spirit”.
It’s a state of being happy, healthy, and
prosperous.
to discover once fulfillment within a given
society.
refers to being in the right action that
lead to one’s well-being
is an objective state that characterizes
the well-lived life as an individual’s ideal
emotional state.
It is thought of as the highest human
good that is good-in-itself.
THE HISTORY OF EUDAIMONIA
HUMAN FLOURISHING ACCORDING TO
ARISTOTLE
• Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)
numbers among the greatest
philosophers of all time.
• Aristotle’s works shaped
centuries of philosophy from
Late Antiquity through the
Renaissance
 The term eudimonia is explained by
Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics that
dates back to 4th century BC.
 Socrates believed that virtue is a sort
of knowledge (the knowledge of good
and evil) that is needed to achieve the
ultimate good all humans’ desire.
 On the other hand, Plato
observed that even bad
people are capable of feeling
guilty when they do something
wrong.
 Aristotle stated that eudaimonia is not an
instrumental good but rather, the ultimate
good for it is intrinsically good or good in its
own sake.
 He emphasized that friendship, a mutual
admiration between two persons, is a
contributing factor in attaining eudaimonia.
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN THE
CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE
OLD TESTAMENT
• The concept of human
flourishing in the Old
Testament is best described
by the word “shalom”
• means peace, harmony,
and completeness.
NEW TESTAMENT
flourishing is captured in the
Bible’s New Testament
through the beatitudes.
• they impart which qualities
and attitudes one must
have on earth to flourish in
the afterlife.
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN THE SOCIO-
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
THE GOOD LIFE
•characterized by happiness that
springs from doing well and living well
•marked with happiness and
excellence
HAPPINESS
• ultimate end of human action
• that which people pursue for its own
sake
• defines a good life
• comes from living a life of virtue
VIRTUE
• Constant practice of good
• Excellence of character that
empowers one to do good
• kinds: intellectual and moral
SELF-INTEREST THEORIES OF GOOD LIFE
• The presence of pleasure and absence of pain
Hedonistic theory • One's good is a matter of how he or she feels regarding the quality of his or her
experience.
Preference • A person's good is what one wants most for himself or herself.
• For example, some people prefer material wealth over prestige,fame or a good
theory reputation
• A persons's good includes at least some elements that are independent of

Objective list personal preferences.
• Consist of valuable experiences such as meaningful relationship, friendship,
theory accomplishments, etc.
ELEMENTS OF THE GOOD
Success and Character

Reason and
material Pleasure Relationship and
virtues
comfort Spirituality
LIFE
1. Success and material comfort.
•Dr. Ron Jenson’s book, Make a Life not just a living
(1995) discusses the common perceptions of
individuals about a successful life. He presented
the 5P’s: power, prestige, pleasure, position, and
prosperity, which are perceived to be the
components of a happy successful life.
LIFE
•Success and material possession are not
inherently bad; means to an end.
•Success is not the ultimate good because it is
still dependent on the validation of society.
LIFE
2. Pleasure
•Pleasure is not the ultimate good, but it is
good in moderation.
•Pleasure does not automatically translate to a
good life.
LIFE
2. Pleasure
•The desire for pleasure is the highest goal.
•This self-focused pleasure is not a long-term
happiness.
•A good life is a balance between value and
pleasure.
LIFE
3. Relationship
•Relationships are essential to a good life.
•Meaningful, pleasant relations with
mutual admiration are neceary in a good
life.
LIFE
3. Relationship
•Cultivating good relationships within different
aspects of one’s life (i.e., faith, family, etc.)
contributes to the quality of one’s life.
LIFE
4. Reason and virtues
•One of the elements of the ultimate good is
reason.
•Reason is the contemplation of unchangeable
truths.
LIFE
•It is the capacity to make decisions
•In order flourish as human beings, the
development of virtues of character includes
learning to act according to reason.
LIFE
5. Character and spirituality
•An individual’s character is the roof of his or her
inner strength.
•In the book of Ecclesiastes, King Solomon stated
that to fear God and His commandments are
fundamental duties of man.
LIFE
•These statements encompass spiritually and
character.
•King Solomon urges the cultivation of one’s
character and spirituality, which are essential
elements to a good life.
STEPS TOWARD THE GOOD LIFE
Secure Fulfilling Values and work and

Relationship Balance Health
income oneself spirituality leisure

Thank You!
DEFINITION OF
EUDAIMONI
Eudaimonia is a Greek word used to define
human flourishing.
Eu means “well”, and daimon or daemon
meaning “spirit”.
It’s a state of being happy, healthy, and
prosperous.
to discover once fulfillment within a given
society.
refers to being in the right action that
lead to one’s well-being
is an objective state that characterizes
the well-lived life as an individual’s ideal
emotional state.
It is thought of as the highest human
good that is good-in-itself.
THE HISTORY OF EUDAIMONIA
HUMAN FLOURISHING ACCORDING TO
ARISTOTLE
• Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)
numbers among the greatest
philosophers of all time.
• Aristotle’s works shaped
centuries of philosophy from
Late Antiquity through the
Renaissance
 The term eudimonia is explained by
Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics that
dates back to 4th century BC.
 Socrates believed that virtue is a sort
of knowledge (the knowledge of good
and evil) that is needed to achieve the
ultimate good all humans’ desire.
 On the other hand, Plato
observed that even bad
people are capable of feeling
guilty when they do something
wrong.
 Aristotle stated that eudaimonia is not an
instrumental good but rather, the ultimate
good for it is intrinsically good or good in its
own sake.
 He emphasized that friendship, a mutual
admiration between two persons, is a
contributing factor in attaining eudaimonia.
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN THE
CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE
OLD TESTAMENT
flourishing in the Old
Testament is best described
by the word “shalom”
• means peace, harmony,
and completeness.
NEW TESTAMENT
flourishing is captured in the
Bible’s New Testament
through the beatitudes.
• they impart which qualities
and attitudes one must
have on earth to flourish in
the afterlife.
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN THE SOCIO-
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
THE GOOD LIFE
•characterized by happiness that
springs from doing well and living well
•marked with happiness and
excellence
HAPPINESS
• ultimate end of human action
• that which people pursue for its own
sake
• defines a good life
• comes from living a life of virtue
VIRTUE
• Constant practice of good
• Excellence of character that
empowers one to do good
• kinds: intellectual and moral
SELF-INTEREST THEORIES OF GOOD LIFE
• The presence of pleasure and absence of pain
Hedonistic theory • One's good is a matter of how he or she feels regarding the quality of his or her
experience.
Preference • A person's good is what one wants most for himself or herself.
• For example, some people prefer material wealth over prestige,fame or a good
theory reputation
• A persons's good includes at least some elements that are independent of

Objective list personal preferences.
• Consist of valuable experiences such as meaningful relationship, friendship,
theory accomplishments, etc.
ELEMENTS OF THE GOOD
Success and Character

Reason and
material Pleasure Relationship and
virtues
comfort Spirituality
LIFE
•Dr. Ron Jenson’s book, Make a Life not just a living
(1995) discusses the common perceptions of
individuals about a successful life. He presented
the 5P’s: power, prestige, pleasure, position, and
prosperity, which are perceived to be the
components of a happy successful life.
LIFE
•Success and material possession are not
inherently bad; means to an end.
•Success is not the ultimate good because it is
still dependent on the validation of society.
LIFE
2. Pleasure
•Pleasure is not the ultimate good, but it is
good in moderation.
•Pleasure does not automatically translate to a
good life.
LIFE
2. Pleasure
•The desire for pleasure is the highest goal.
•This self-focused pleasure is not a long-term
happiness.
•A good life is a balance between value and
pleasure.
LIFE
3. Relationship
•Relationships are essential to a good life.
•Meaningful, pleasant relations with
mutual admiration are neceary in a good
life.
LIFE
3. Relationship
•Cultivating good relationships within different
aspects of one’s life (i.e., faith, family, etc.)
contributes to the quality of one’s life.
LIFE
•One of the elements of the ultimate good is
reason.
•Reason is the contemplation of unchangeable
truths.
LIFE
•It is the capacity to make decisions
•In order flourish as human beings, the
development of virtues of character includes
learning to act according to reason.
LIFE
•An individual’s character is the roof of his or her
inner strength.
•In the book of Ecclesiastes, King Solomon stated
that to fear God and His commandments are
fundamental duties of man.
LIFE
•These statements encompass spiritually and
character.
•King Solomon urges the cultivation of one’s
character and spirituality, which are essential
elements to a good life.


Thank You!

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Nature and Relationship of

Science, Technology and

• It also involves well-thought-out experiments in biology,

• As explained by physicist Lewis Branscomb ‘technology is the

• Technological developments have given us amazing ways

• A significance feature of Philippine society is the prevalence of

Learning 1. identify inventions and discoveries during

 They also studied the use of celestial

 They also mapped the position of

 The gunpowder was developed by Chinese

 Zacharias Janssen developed the first compound

 H2O Technologies headed by Dominic

 Department of Science and

 This modern type of transportation

 The first Asian to have

An incubator is an apparatus

It is used in pre-term births or

The two-way television

 Dingel’s car has never

In 1989, he pioneered the

 The 1-chip camera uses a single

Developed “Enriched Rice,” a

 The first Asian to have

An incubator is an apparatus

It is used in pre-term births or

The two-way television

 Dingel’s car has never

In 1989, he pioneered the

 The 1-chip camera uses a single

Developed “Enriched Rice,” a

today’s 8 billion tons down to about 2

12 16, October 2008

India, and Australia. Canada

The polluters, the historic

16, October 2008 13

14 16, October 2008

16, October 2008 15

Box 1. Contraction and Convergence

Caveat on Cap-and-Trade polluting projects. Projects should

16 16, October 2008

Climate Geo-engineering consumption of nonrenewable en-

Box 2. Sector Solutions to Reduce Climate Risks

Livestock GHG emissions, of which deforesta-

16, October 2008 17

International Development Agency

18 16, October 2008

would not require lowering nutritional the Bank established a US$250m

16, October 2008 19

20 16, October 2008

The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility “Prevention ﬁrst by reducing

16, October 2008 21

the threshold 2˚C rise in tem-

22 16, October 2008

16, October 2008 23

Nuclear power, global warming

Greenhouse gases Carbon dioxide is not the only green-

24 16, October 2008

released by nuclear energy per kilowatt future prospects for production. It is

16, October 2008 25