Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 61, No. 2, 2005, pp.

375--388

Models of the Aging Self

Joel R. Sneed∗
New York University

Susan Krauss Whitbourne

University of Massachusetts Amherst

Older adults are faced with numerous physical, psychological, and social role
changes that challenge their sense of self and capacity to live happily. In addition,
they are inundated by our youth-oriented culture with negative ageist stereotypes.
Nevertheless, most older adults live happy, fulfilling lives. In this article, we review
theories of the aging individual that address this apparent paradox. These theories
can be largely divided into those that emphasize control and goal attainment,
and those that emphasize the self’s organizational capacity. Of the self-oriented
theories, we will highlight Whitbourne’s (1996) identity process perspective, which
is specific to the aging process and attempts to explain the self’s unique capacity
to remain stable yet change over time.

Erikson (1963) viewed happiness or well-being as a developmental accom-

plishment resulting from the positive resolution of psychosocial crises over the
lifespan. According to Erikson (1968), “. . . the vital personality weathers [internal
and external conflicts], re-emerging from each crisis with an increased sense of
inner unity, with an increase of good judgment, and an increase in the capacity ‘to
do well’” (p. 92). Ego integrity, achieved only by resolving the eighth and final
crisis stage in Erikson’s theory, is achieved when the older adult is able to look
back on life and be at peace with both successes and failure. In order to realize this
positive outcome, however, older adults must overcome not only the normative
physical, psychological, and social role changes that challenge their sense of vi-
tality and positive self-regard but also the plethora of negative, ageist stereotypes
that abound in our youth-oriented culture.

∗ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joel R. Sneed, Department of Psy-
chology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003 [e-mail: [email protected]].
This work was supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant T32 MH19890.
375

C 2005 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
376 Sneed and Whitbourne

Despite the existence of ageism and the normative age-related challenges that
older adults must face, the majority of older adults maintain a positive sense of
self, a phenomenon referred to as the “paradox of well-being” (Mroczek & Kolarz,
1998). Supporting this concept, Mroczek and Spiro (2003) studied the trajectories
of the personality traits of extraversion and neuroticism in over 1,600 men (mean
age = 63) from the Normative Aging Study over the course of later adulthood. They
found that although extraversion was fairly stable, neuroticism tended to decrease
over time, suggesting that people become less worried and anxious as they age.
This finding has most recently supported by a large, cross-sectional internet study,
which concluded that personality, like a fine wine, gets better with age (Srivastava,
John, Gosling, & Potter, 2003). In general, the majority of people report having
a positive evaluation of themselves and their lives, and this rosy view does not
become dimmed in old age (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999).
How is that that the majority of older adults are happy in the face of nega-
tive ageist stereotypes and normative age-related declines? A number of theories
have been proposed to explain this paradox. These theories can be largely divided
into two camps: The first camp emphasizes the older adult’s sense of control over
his or her environment while the second camp focuses on the self as the guid-
ing framework for understanding life’s experiences. In this article, we will review
both control and self-oriented theories, and highlight the potential utility of Whit-
bourne’s (1996) identity processing perspective as one way of understanding the
aging individual.

The Nature of Aging Stereotypes: Myth and Reality

Prior to examining ageism in theories of the aging self, it is worth examining

the specific stereotypes about aging which the individual is exposed to throughout
life. Negative attitudes toward aging take three forms (Kite & Johnson, 1988).
The first is that older adults are lonely, lacking close friends and family. The
second is that older adults have a higher rate of mood disorders than younger
adults. Both stereotypes conflict with the weight of evidence supporting the view
of older adults as high on both components of psychosocial resources (Cooley
et al., 1998). The third myth is that older adults are rigid and unable to cope with
the declines associated with aging. Again, data on the adequacy of coping resources
in later adulthood refute this myth (Diehl, Coyle, & Labouvie-Vief, 1996). The
fourth stereotype is that older adults become increasingly like each other with each
passing year. This stereotype portrays aging as unidimensional and unidirectional,
again, a view that conflicts with the evidence (Nelson & Dannefer, 1992).
A fifth stereotype is that older adults are sick and dependent, a stereotype
unfortunately reinforced by the use of the term “frail” elder promoted in the geron-
tological literature (Cooley et al., 1998; Whitbourne & Hulicka, 1990). The frail
Models of the Aging Self 377

elder stereotype has been shown to be internalized in younger college-age adults.

In one study, Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) primed undergraduate college stu-
dents with negative age-related stereotypes using a scrambled-sentence priming
procedure. Walking speed (the dependent variable) was measured as the time it
took to participants to walk from the room in which the experimental condition
took place to a room in which subjects were paid for their participation. As pre-
dicted, undergraduates primed with stereotypes about older adults walked more
slowly down the hall than did those in a neutral priming condition. The stereotype
that older adults are sick, frail, and dependent conflicts with the evidence on self-
assessed and objectively rated health in older adults (National Center for Health
Statistics, 2002).
The sixth type of negative stereotype is that older adults are cognitively and
psychologically impaired (Cooley et al., 1998; Whitbourne & Hulicka, 1990).
Counteracting this stereotype is the fact that although there are losses in attention
and working memory with increasing age in adulthood, it is only the minority
(7%) of older adults who develop extreme impairment in the form of Alzheimer’s
disease (Brookmeyer & Kawas, 1998).
Ageism is not only reflected in common myths held by the public at large,
but is reflected in psychological theories about later adulthood also. For example,
disengagement theory (Cumming & Henry, 1961), popular for decades, proposed
that the reduced size of social networks in old age was the result of a preparation
for death by both older adults and their social circles. As a result, the individual and
the individual’s social context tended to engage in a process of mutual withdrawal.
Many studies conducted soon after the time of disengagement theory refuted these
assertions. Most recently, researchers have found that as one perceives time as
limited, as is the case in older adulthood, one prefers interpersonal interactions
with close others in order to maximize positive affect (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, &
Charles, 1999).
Negative stereotypes exist not only in the population at large, but also within
the field of psychology. For example, undergraduate psychology textbooks often
portray aging in an unfavorable light. In a study of undergraduate psychology text-
books published over a forty-year period (1949–1989), Whitbourne and Hulicka
(1990) observed a consistent theme of negative stereotypes depicting older adults
as depressed and low in self-esteem as a result of suffering losses in their social
networks and psychological abilities. Throughout the years, geropsychologists
have provided recommendations to help their colleagues avoid the trap of commu-
nicating these negative stereotypes. For example, Schaie (1988, 1993) provided
recommendations for avoiding ageism in conducting and disseminating psycho-
logical research. The American Psychological Association has also gone on record
as refuting ageism and in supporting efforts to improve the quality of care given
to older adults (American Psychological Association, 2003).
378 Sneed and Whitbourne

Theories of Successful Aging

In contrast to the negative views of older adults as depressed, frail, and cog-
nitively impaired are theories that support the view of aging as involving positive
growth. These theories of “successful aging” (Rowe & Kahn, 1987, 1998) empha-
size personal control and the self’s organizing function.

Personal Control Theories

Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1995) life-span theory of control postulates that

the driving force in personality is the desire to gain control over or exert control on
one’s interchanges with the environment. However, loss of control in physical, cog-
nitive, and social domains looms large with increasing age. To optimize the ratio of
gains to losses, and therefore maintain subjective well-being and life satisfaction,
people attempt to adjust their goals accordingly. This model distinguishes between
two forms of control processes: primary and secondary. Primary control refers to
behaviors that are aimed at generating effects or behavior-event contingencies in
the external world. Secondary control refers to the shaping of cognitive, motiva-
tional, and emotional states concerning self-environment interactions (Schulz &
Heckhausen, 1999).
The primary-secondary control model makes specific predictions about the
life-span developmental trajectories of these two control processes. Primary con-
trol has an inverted u-shaped relationship to age. The possibility of exerting control
or behavioral-event contingencies on the environment is seen as increasing from
infancy through middle adulthood and decreasing in later adulthood. Secondary
control, in contrast, has a logarithmic relationship to age. The capacity to con-
trol and make changes to one’s internal milieu steadily increases from infancy to
middle adulthood. At this point, secondary control takes on greater and greater
importance with increasing age as age-related losses in primary control are com-
pensated (Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996).
Brandstädter and Greve’s (1994) model of the aging self is a second personal
control model that postulates age-related changes in control-related thoughts and
behaviors. According to this model, the ability to maintain a positive sense of self
in later adulthood is primarily the result of a shift from assimilative to accom-
modative coping strategies. Assimilative coping strategies are defined as efforts
to maintain the desired aspects of the self by minimizing or counteracting the con-
sequences of unavoidable losses, selecting information or creating environments
that reflect positively on the self, or avoiding situations that reflect negatively on
the self. Because of the age-related losses associated with the aging process, in-
dividuals are seen as shifting from the assimilative mode to the accommodative
mode with increasing age in adulthood. Accommodation is the ability to disen-
gage from blocked goals, adjust one’s aspirations and self-evaluative standards, use
Models of the Aging Self 379

self-enhancing comparisons, and selectively reduce or increase the attractiveness

of developmental goals. According to Brandstädter and Greve, successful aging
occurs when individuals engage in flexible goal pursuit and adjust their abilities
accordingly as they change with age.
Both control-oriented models emphasize goal achievement as the basis for
personality and personality change. They also agree in their basic assumption that
as people grow older, they are less able to effect desired changes and achieve de-
sired goals. By stressing the inevitable decline of primary control and the turning
inward of control related processes in order to maximize well-being, they (per-
haps unwittingly) reflect the prevailing stereotypes of older adults as unable to
effect change in their environments. Moreover, by stressing that instrumentality
primarily results from directly affecting the environment (primary control), these
models do not adequately address the universal need for instrumentality and agency
as expressed in human relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). For example,
Gilligan (1982) argued that instrumentality and agency, as traditionally conceived,
are particularly characteristic of men and that women tend to focus on attach-
ment, connectedness, and intimacy. Cross and Madson (1997) have postulated
that women’s self-concepts are characterized by interdependence (self-definition
based on one’s relationships and group membership) whereas men’s self-concepts
are characterized by independence (self-definition based on autonomy and sep-
arateness from others). It seems that there may be a different conception of the
way people primarily affect the environment that is overlooked by control theory
in its present version. This potential drawback of control and goal-oriented mod-
els is particularly important given that the majority of adults in the older-old and
oldest-old subgroups are women (Cooley et al., 1998).
Socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen et al., 1999), improves con-
siderably over the previous models in being the only one to propose universal
processes across age groups based not on age but on time perception. The basic
tenet of socioemotional selectivity theory is that the perception of time as limited
has important implication for social motivation. When people perceive time to be
limited, they tend to weigh the regulation of positive emotional states more heav-
ily than they do the acquisition of knowledge. In this situation, people become
more present-oriented and their goals take the form of securing emotionally rich
interactions with significant others. The size of social networks in the lives of
older adults is reduced, according to this theory, in order to maintain positive and
enriching emotional interactions. This theory accounts for the empirical fact that
older adults have smaller social networks as due to their preference to select social
interactions that maximize positive feelings and well-being.
Carstensen and her colleagues have accumulated and summarized an impres-
sive body of research in support of socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen
et al., 1999). In one study, potential partners were sorted along affective- and
knowledge-related dimensions and older adults were found to emphasize the
380 Sneed and Whitbourne

affective dimensions of potential partners more so than their younger counter-

parts. More importantly, however, they observed in this study that symptomatic
HIV-positive men showed this same tendency, which suggests that the effect is
based on the perception that time is finite rather than age per se. In another study,
it was found that older adults recalled a higher proportion of emotionally salient
material than did younger adults when attempting to recall a two-page excerpt
of a novel. This finding further supports the importance of emotionality in later
adulthood.
Socioemotional selectivity theory also predicts that when time is perceived as
expansive, people tend to be more acquisitive and seek out novelty. Supporting this
proposition, it has been well documented that younger people have relatively large
social networks with many acquaintances, whereas older adults have relatively
small social networks with few acquaintances. Based on this observation, the au-
thors reanalyzed longitudinal data and found that contact with novel acquaintances
decreased over time, whereas contacts with intimate friends would not change.
Findings regarding the impending takeover of Hong Kong by the People’s
Republic of China at the end of 1997 provided data from a naturalistic setting to
support the propositions of socioemotional selectivity theory. The situation was
one in which people of all ages were presented with a time constraint. According
to Fung, Carstensen, and Lutz (1999), one year prior to the handover, only older
adults showed a preference for intimate others. Two months prior to the handover,
however, both older and younger participants expressed this preference. Moreover,
one year after the handover, only the older adults in their sample once again stated
that they preferred to be with people whom they knew well.
Socioemotional selectivity theory supports the notion that, regardless of age,
social preferences hinge on time perception. When time is unlimited, people seek
out novelty. When time is perceived as limited, a situation more likely to occur in
later adulthood, intimate and affectively salient others are preferred. Of the three
theories of control, socioemotional selectivity theory stands out as the only one to
identify situational rather than dispositional factors as the cause of changes in the
goal-setting and behavior in older adults.

Self Theories

As we have just seen, control-oriented theories of aging emphasize shifts

in control strategies and goals due either to age or the perception of foreshort-
ened time. It is the inability to impact the environment directly or achieve one’s
goals that is at the heart of these models. By contrast, self-oriented theories propose
that the central issue is the ways in which people negotiate challenges to the self.
These theories emphasize the self’s ability to organize life’s experiences; they also
attempt to explain the stability and malleability of the self over time and across
situations.
Models of the Aging Self 381

Markus and Nurius (1986) developed a model of possible selves that links
cognition and motivation by intertwining cognitive self-representation with fu-
ture goal-directed behavior. Possible selves are components of an individual’s
self-concept; a system of cognitive-affective structures or schemas that structure
self-concept salient experiences (Markus, 1977). According to the possible selves
model, self-conceptions motivate future oriented behavior to the extent that people
wish to realize ideal selves and avoid dreaded selves. Positive self-regard emerges
to the extent that people feel that they have been successful at realizing their hoped
for selves. Negative affect will emerge to the extent they people feel that they are
unable to or did not realize their desired possible selves. Thus, possible selves
function as powerful incentives for purposeful future-oriented behavior.
The possible selves model defines the working self-concept or the “now” self
as that aspect of the self-concept that is currently active in memory. Borrowing
from memory research, the self-concept can be represented as nodes in a net of
connections in memory. Possible selves remain stable to the extent that attributes of
a particular self-concept representation stay the same each time it is activated. For
example, each time the “unemployed self” is activated, it is always unemployed.
Inherent in the notion of possible selves, however, is the potential for self-concept
change. That is, the self-concept by definition changes every time a new self-
concept representation becomes activated in working memory. For example, if
one were to become employed, the model the working self-concept activated in
working memory would now represent “employed self.”
Self-discrepancy theory, proposed by Higgins (1987), is similar to the possi-
ble selves model in that it postulates that discrepancies between the actual and the
ideal selves and between the actual and the ought selves cause agitated emotions
such as fear, threat, and restlessness. Discrepancies between the actual self and the
hoped-for self cause dejection, disappointment, dissatisfaction, and sadness. Pre-
sumably, discrepancies in the first case are caused by fears of negative outcomes
(punishment), and in the second case, by failure to obtain positive outcomes (dis-
appointment). Moreover, according to self-discrepancy theory, these discrepancies
form particular self-guides (i.e., self-directive standards for being) that people are
differentially motivated to meet.
Andersen and Chen (2002) have developed a theory of the relational self based
on the phenomenon of transference and the fundamental human motivation for be-
longing, connection, and attachment. According to the relational self theory, the
self is shaped by interactions with significant others represented as relational exem-
plars in long-term memory. Such self and significant other exemplars are activated
by cues in the immediate environment which trigger transference (e.g., responding
to novel others on the basis of previously stored cognitive-affective schemas about
the self-with-significant-other) and lead to interpretive biases. This model is idio-
graphic to the extent that it emphasizes the uniqueness of each significant-other
representation in long-term memory storage, but it also maintains that activation of
382 Sneed and Whitbourne

a particular self-with-significant-other representation is associated with activation

of generic social category exemplars.
The models focusing on the self as a motivational construct hold potential as
ways of understanding the active construal process of which the self is capable.
However, as models of aging, they are not specific to developmental processes.
An exception is Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves paradigm which may
provide a useful framework for understanding the effects of negative stereotypes
represented in memory as feared selves. For example, Snyder and Miene (1994)
utilized the idea of the feared aging self to study stereotyping of the elderly in un-
dergraduates. Specifically, stereotypes of aging individuals were hypothesized to
serve three functions. The first, cognitive economic, refers to a situation in which
stereotypes are viewed as resulting from information processing under limited
conditions which function to reduce cognitive load. According to the psychody-
namic perspective, stereotypes are viewed as a mechanism to protect the self from
undesirable truths. Finally, according to the sociocultural function, stereotypes are
viewed as an aid to identifying with one’s reference group. To test this model,
undergraduate students read stories about older adults under three conditions in
which either the cognitive, psychodynamic, or sociocultural functions of stereo-
types were emphasized. Stereotypes were reduced only in the psychodynamic
condition (for women only) whereas the other two conditions had no effect.
Combining elements of socioemotional selectivity theory with Andersen and
Chen’s (2002) relational self model may be instructive also. Socioemotional selec-
tivity theory makes specific predictions about the changes that older adults make
in their social networks to maximize positive affect when time is perceived as
limited. It would be instructive to understand how these changes affect the con-
stellation of self-with-significant-other relational exemplars in memory and how
these changes, in turn, affect transference in later adulthood as discussed in the
relational self model.

Identity Process Theory

In the next two sections, we review the basic postulates of identity process the-
ory and then move on to describe a series of empirical studies based on the model.
Identity process theory (Whitbourne, 1996) proposes that age-related changes in
adulthood are negotiated through the processes of identity assimilation, identity
accommodation, and identity balance. Individuals are postulated to use all three
processes, but at times may use one to the exclusion of the others.
Identity assimilation refers to the interpretation of identity-salient experiences
in terms of previously established cognitive and affective schemas about the self.
These self-schemas include the collection of knowledge about the self based on
previous experience and self-perceived competencies, values, and personality dis-
positions. Examples of these affectively loaded self-schemas might be physical
Models of the Aging Self 383

(able to run up a flight of stairs) and cognitive (able to remember people’s names).
Identity discrepant experiences, for example, would be experiences that challenge
an individual’s competence in specific areas such as mobility and memory. Ac-
cording to this theory, identity assimilation is a process that individuals use to
maintain a sense of self-consistency even in the face of discrepant experiences or
information about the self. To recognize unacceptable aspects of the self is painful
and produces negative affect. People who exclusively use assimilative processes
approach new experiences in a fixed and formulated way and seek out information
that is consistent with their current identity schemas.
Identity accommodation is the process of changing identity in response to new
experiences that are discrepant with existing self-schemas such as those referred
to above (changes in mobility or memory). Individuals who use identity accom-
modation to excess are readily influenced and easily shaped by new experiences
because their own identities are unstable and incoherent. The lack of internal con-
stancy, according to the theory, leads individuals who use identity accommodation
to be plagued by self-doubt and low self-esteem. Furthermore, the theory proposes
that people who use identity accommodation exclusively are highly responsive
to external influences; looking outside of themselves for inner guidance. In fact,
they may be most likely to evaluate themselves negatively when failing to gain the
approval of others. At that point, they may be vulnerable to experiencing highly
negative evaluations of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors because other peo-
ple’s negative evaluations mirror their own inner turmoil and confusion. To return
to the above example, identity accommodation would involve re-defining one’s
physical identity schema due to the inability to run up the stairs.
When identity discrepant experiences occur, they are proposed to be first pro-
cessed through identity assimilation. In the physical schema example, the cause of
the problem would more likely be seen as a function of temporary fatigue or uncom-
fortable shoes rather than a change due to the aging process. Only when identity
assimilation fails does the individual use identity accommodation. For example,
after numerous instances of memory failure, the individual begins to question the
previous schema of the self as having mental prowess. This basic tenet of identity
process theory, derived from Piaget’s (1975/1977) cognitive developmental the-
ory, refers to a time-dependent process in which identity assimilation is always
utilized prior to identity accommodation. Although not tested in the present study,
this proposition is fundamental to the theory because it stipulates that people seek
to verify preexisting beliefs about themselves prior to making changes in the self,
which is consistent with the self-consistency perspective in personality (Lecky,
1945). Block (1982) has referred to this as the adaptive imperative, “Assimilate if
you can, accommodate if you must!” (p. 286).
A dynamic equilibrium between identity accommodation and assimilation is
theorized to be the most adaptive approach to aging and is captured in identity
process theory by the concept of identity balance. According to identity process
384 Sneed and Whitbourne

theory, people who use identity balance change in response to identity-salient

discrepancies, but they are not so unstructured that every new experience causes
them to question fundamental assumptions about their self-definition. People who
use identity balance, according to the theory, tend make favorable changes to their
self-concepts, which enables them to reflect and evaluate themselves realistically.
As a result, it is a process associated with high self-esteem and a lack of significant
psychopathology. When individuals are in a state of balance, they are able to
make changes when their identity is challenged, but at the same time, maintain
a consistent sense of self. Returning to the memory example, the individual may
acknowledge that memory failures occur once in a while but will not become
despondent or convinced that dementia is just around the corner.

Empirical Studies

The first quantitative study investigating the hypothesis that identity balance
is the most favorable approach to aging used a scale of identity processes adapted
to evaluate how individuals reacted to specific age-related changes (Whitbourne
& Collins, 1998). Respondents ranging in age from 40 to 95 years old selected
the area of functioning most important to them and then completed scales mea-
suring identity assimilation, identity accommodation and identity balance with
regard to that change. For example, respondents might state that “loss of muscle
strength” was the most important age-related change that they had experienced.
They were then asked to rate the extent to which they used identity assimila-
tion (minimizing the importance of the change), accommodation (feeling over-
whelmed by the change), or balance (regarding the change as an impetus for
psychological growth). Scores on these scales were then correlated with a global
measure of self-esteem and examined for subgroups of respondents according to the
area of change they regarded as most important. Contrary to the original expectation
of the investigators, identity assimilation rather than balance was positively related
to self-esteem within three of the four areas of functioning assessed by the identity
scale. In particular, identity assimilation was positively related to self-esteem for
those middle-aged individuals who ranked changes in appearance and cognition
as most important. For participants 65 years and older, those who ranked basic
functioning as most important had higher self-esteem if they used identity assimi-
lation. From this pattern of findings, it appeared that the route to high self-esteem
in middle and later adulthood was the use of identity assimilation, a phenomenon
referred to the “identity assimilation effect.” Contrary to what might be expected,
older adults who were less, rather than more, self-reflective seemed to be better
adjusted in terms of self-esteem.
In subsequent studies, we sought to examine in more depth the identity as-
similation effect using a more general measure of identity processing, although
research on the specific age-change identity scales is continuing. In the first
of these studies (Sneed & Whitbourne, 2001), age, identity assimilation,
Models of the Aging Self 385

accommodation, and balance were regressed on self-esteem using the a more

general measure of identity processes relating to the overall tendency to approach
change with identity assimilation, identity accommodation, and identity balance.
Contrary to the findings from the previous study using the age-specific version of
the Identity and Experiences Scale, we found that both identity assimilation and
identity balance were positively correlated with self-esteem, and that the relation-
ship between identity balance and self-esteem was stronger than the relationship
between self-esteem and identity assimilation. As before, identity accommodation
was found to be negatively correlated with self-esteem. Consistent with the identity
assimilation effect hypothesis, we found that identity assimilation was positively
related to age but the relationship between identity assimilation and self-esteem
did not depend on age. We concluded from this study that the identity assimilation
effect is domain specific. That is, older adults use assimilative strategies to prevent
themselves from recognizing and incorporating age-related physical and cognitive
changes into their identity. They use identity balance in a more general sense to
maintain high self-esteem.
More recently, Sneed and Whitbourne (2003) examined in a sample of older
adults ranging in age from 40 to 85 the relationship between the identity processes
and three dimensions of self-consciousness: public self-consciousness (the ten-
dency to evaluate the self in terms of group or public standards), internal state
awareness (psychologically healthy awareness of thoughts and feelings), and self-
reflection (neurotic, ruminative, and maladaptive brooding over one’s thoughts
and feelings). Each of the identity processes was regressed on the three self-
consciousness variables and age. As expected, identity assimilation was positively
associated with age and negatively related to self-reflection. However, identity
assimilation was also related to lack of internal self-awareness. Identity accom-
modation was negatively related to age and internal state awareness, and positively
related to self-reflection and public self-consciousness. Identity balance was as-
sociated with internal state awareness, suggesting that people who are able to
use identity assimilation and identity accommodation in a flexible manner are
more likely to be able to gain and achieve insight into their own developmental
processes.
The apparent benefits of identity assimilation converge with a growing body
of literature documenting the usefulness of minimization and self-enhancement in
later adulthood (Levy, Slade, Kunkel, & Kasl, 2002). Focusing on one’s strengths
and de-emphasizing one’s weaknesses appears to have adaptive value, even among
individuals for whom end-of-life reflections might seem to bring the benefit of
achieving a sense of wholeness and integration. By the same token, identity ac-
commodation is a less adaptive strategy and although when used alone, neither
identity assimilation nor identity accommodation are as adaptive as when they are
used together, identity assimilation clearly allows the older individual to maintain
a consistent and positive view of the self even in the face of age-related changes
in physical and cognitive functioning.
386 Sneed and Whitbourne

Conclusion

In addition to the normative age-related challenges that older adults must face
in terms of adapting to changes in their bodies, the array of negative stereotypes to
which they are exposed create challenges for their sense of self. Yet, the majority
of older adults experience high levels of satisfaction, and successful aging is the
norm rather than the exception. Theories that emphasize adaptation to loss and
the scaling down of cognitive and emotional resources in some ways fail to give
sufficient credit to the resilience of the average aging adult. By contrast, Erik-
son’s theory (Erikson, 1980, 1982; Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986) provides
a framework for understanding how older adults can adapt to age-related changes
without becoming depressed or despondent. Although Erikson emphasized the
crisis element of this last psychosocial stage, based on the empirical work just
reviewed on identity process theory, it would appear that older adults are able to
maintain optimistic attitudes toward their lives without engaging in deep, reflec-
tive analysis of their lives and their accomplishments. We have suggested identity
assimilation as one such mechanism that older adults employ, but to be sure, it is
not the only route possible to positive mental health. Indeed, an empirical exam-
ination of the relationship between the different models discussed in this article
would clarify their differences and similarities in explaining adaptation in later
adulthood.
With the graying of the population, we can hope that psychologists will shift
their focus from loss and decline in later adulthood to a more balanced approach
in which gains and growth are emphasized. Rather than following behind the past
trends established by such ageist views as disengagement theory, psychologists
should be at the forefront of discovering the ways that older people not only
survive, but enjoy, the later years of life.

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JOEL SNEED received his PhD in Clinical Psychology at the University of Mas-
sachusetts Amherst where he focused on the self and related processes in older
adulthood and the stability and change of personality across the lifespan. He is
currently a Mental Health Statistics Fellow at New York University where he is
specializing in the analysis of longitudinal data and its application to the stability
and change of personality and psychopathology across the lifespan.

SUSAN KRAUSS WHITBOURNE is Professor of Psychology at the University of

Massachusetts Amherst. Her interests are in understanding age-related changes in
physical functioning and their impact on the self as well as in applying Eriksonian
theory to understanding personality development in adulthood and old age. She is
the author of numerous journal articles, books, chapters, and reviews, including
Adult Development and Aging: Biopsychosocial Perspectives, 2nd Edition (Wiley,
2005).