Lesson 2: Sources of Art Subject

This lesson presents common sources of art subjects. It aims to enrich students’
imagination on the possible sources of art subjects.

In Focus

Sources of Art Subject

Artists get inspiration from their environment, their experiences and experiences of
others, past and present events, and from works of other artists. The following are the common
sources of the artists’ art subjects:

Nature. Nature is a rich source of art subject. Animals, landscape, seascape, etc. are
derived from nature.

History. It provides great inspiration to artists. Portraits, busts, statues and monuments of
heroes and famous men and women, as well as paintings, sculptures, music, literature, plays and
movies on historical events are inspired by history.

Myths and legends. Greek and Roman gods and goddesses, and legendary characters
like Maria Makiling, tikbalang, Pegasus, and Graces are just few of the many subjects derived
from these.

Lives of Saints. Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, John the Baptist in the Wilderness, St. Jerome,
etc. are works derived from this source

Culture and tradition. There are artists who wish to preserve their culture and traditions
to serve as records for future generation. Artworks such Bayanihan, Mag-ina sa Tabi ng Duyan,
Pounding Rice, etc. are just some of the many subjects derived from culture and traditions.

The Bible. The Bible is also a rich source of art subjects. Biblical characters, scenes and
events remain favourite among artists since the Middle Ages.

Dreams. Artists sometimes get their inspiration from their dreams. Samuel Taylor
Coleridge’s poem Kubla Khan was said to have been based on his dream. Other examples
include Christopher Nolan’s Inception, John Lennon’s #9 Dream, and Salvador Dali’s
Persistence of Memory.

Another work of art. Works of art can also be a great source of inspiration for the
subject of another work of art. For instance, the song Monalisa was inspired by da Vinci’s
painting with the same title, while the movie The Girl with the Pearl Earring was inspired by
Vermeer’s painting of the same title.

UNIT II SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Subjects of Art

This lesson familiarizes students with the various subjects of the visual arts to help them
become informed observer or audience of the arts.

In Focus

The Subjects of Art

Subject of art refers to any person, object scene, or event described or represented in a
work of art.

Some arts have subject, others do not have. Arts that have subject are called
representational or objective art. Those that do not have subject are known as non-
representational or non-objective arts (examples: abstract painting, abstract sculpture, abstract
music, architecture).

Non-objective arts do not present descriptions, stories, or references to identifiable

objects or symbols. Rather, they appeal directly to the senses primarily because of the satisfying
organization of their sensuous and expressive elements.

Kinds of Subject (Visual Arts)

Landscapes. These are land formations with or without people or animals, like
mountain, volcano, field, valley, plateau, etc.

Seascapes. These are water formations with or without humans or animals, such as sea,
ocean, river, lake, stream, waterfalls, etc.

Cityscapes. These are scenes in the city such as tall buildings, traffic lights, malls, etc.

Still Life. These are inanimate objects arranged in an indoor setting like flower and fruits
arrangement, dishes on a dining table, pots and pans on a kitchen table, or musical instruments
and music sheets.

Animals. These include natural and mythological or legendary animals.

Portraits. These are realistic likeness of a person in painting, sculpture, drawing or print
(also busts), where emphasis on the face, hands, attire and accessories is shown.

Figures (historical or religious). The focus is the human body, nude or clothed, emphasis
is given on grace and proportion of the human form.

Everyday Life. These are representations of people going about their usual ways,
performing their usual tasks. These subjects are also called genre painting.

Historical events. These include memorable and significant events in history.

Mythological and legendary characters. Examples of these are gods and goddesses.

Scenes from the Bible and other religious books. Any scene derived from the Bible
such as the baptism of Christ, last supper, the crucifixion of Christ; or from any religious book.

Dreams and fantasies. These are scenes or events which are beyond natural; extra-
ordinary scenes or events which are hard to explain by plain rationality.

UNIT 1 THE OVERVIEW OF ART

Lesson 1: Assumptions of Arts
This lesson exposes the students with the different concepts, meanings and ideas about art
which help broaden their view and understanding of art.

In Focus

What is art?
Art comes from Aryan root word “AR” which means to join or to put together, from the
Latin term “ARS” means ‘artificially made or composed by man’, and from the Renaissance
words “arti” and “arte”, which means craft guild and craftsmanship, respectively.

Art is very important in our lives. It constitutes one of the oldest and most important
means of expression developed by man. People during the prehistoric times used painting,
drawing and sculpture to convey concepts and ideas, and share experiences.

It concerns itself with the communication of certain ideas and feelings by means of
sensuous medium – color, sound, bronze, marble, words, and film, which are fashioned into
symbolic language marked by beauty of design and coherence of form. It appeals to the mind,
arouses the emotion, kindles the imagination and enhances the senses.

Art can be found in all ages and all countries. Because art is a form of expression of man,
it is natural to find forms of art in different countries and different periods of time. This is
perhaps the reason of art historian in classifying art based on historical periods like prehistoric
art, classic art, renaissance art, etc., and based on geography such as African art, Chinese Art,
Egyptian art, etc.

Also, art does not grow old and die. It lives because it is liked and enjoyed.

Art also involves experience. Artists has to have an experience that he/she needs to put in
making an art. His/Her skill and ideas are part of this experience. On the other hand,
observer/interpreter needs a kind of experience and enters into a kind of experience to understand
and appreciate the art.

Art is a product of man’s need to express himself. Expressing oneself is a need of man,
and art-making is one way, and perhaps the best way of doing it. Artists paint or compose music
to express love, anger or frustration. Dancers dance to express happiness
or sadness. Authors write to show protest, support of the status quo, or even to express fear and
anxiety.

Art is interdisciplinary. Various disciplines are interwoven in art. A certain painting can
teach not only about colors, line, texture, etc. but also about history, culture, religion.

Art is universal but has no universal meaning.

According to Leo Tolstoy, a well-known Russian novelist, “Art is a means of union

among all men, a means of communication.”

Beneditto Croce, an Italian philosopher, thinks of art as “vision.” In doing an art work,
he believes that an artist creates a picture of phantasm.

St. Thomas Aquinas also believes that “art is the direct opposite of practical.” He said
that “the artist may be immoral, and yet his work may be good.”

On the other hand, Aristotle thinks that “art is the right reason for making things.” He
also believes that “art has no other end but itself, and that all arts are patterned on nature.

Furthermore, John Dewey, defines art as “experience…the refined and intensified forms
of experience are works of art.”

Art is an act, an idea or a product that changes an existing domain, or that transforms an
existing domain into a new one.

Lesson 2: Theories of Art

This lesson familiarizes students with the different theories of art which help clarify
varied assumptions of art and widen students perspectives of art.

In Focus

Theories of Art
People conceive art in many different ways. The following theories of art help explain
these various views on art.

Imitationism/Imitationalism (Mimetic Theory). This theory asserts that art is the

imitation of the appearance of reality.

According to Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, all artistic creation is a form of

imitation; a representation of nature.

Representationalism. It is a theory which stresses that art is a copy, an image, an

appearance or a reproduction of things, people, objects, nature and events. It sees art as
portraying the visible forms of nature. The particularity of individual objects, scenes or persons
may be emphasized, or the generic, the common, the essential.
Examples of these art are the figurative art, which can be realistic and detailed like the
trompe l’oile or the semi-abstract art which contains forms but the representations are still
noticeable.

There are three ways of representing nature based on this theory. These are:

Physical Alteration. It is the process of changing the physical appearance of nature, like
a natural marble that turn into a sculpture by carving and cutting.

Selective Modification. It is the process of enhancing the appearance of nature, like a

forest that becomes a garden by arranging and trimming the plants, or a woman beautifying
herself by putting cosmetics on her face.

Perceptual Interpretation. It is the process of copying nature according to the subjective

interpretation of the artist, but the resulting image is still recognizable.

Formalism. This theory views that art is the combination of perceptual elements. These
elements, like line, shapes, value, texture and colors, seen together by the spectator, make up the
form, and such form is the art.

Example of this is the non-figurative art which does not contain any representations. It
has to be seen only as formal patterns and designs, like the arabesque in Islamic art and the
works of the suprematists.

Expressionism. In this theory, art is viewed as the expression of the artist’s emotion.
Often, expressionist artists use very bold color or lines to actually exemplify the physical energy
they were feeling when they made the work.

Action Theory. It is a theory which asserts that art is the activity or work performed by
the artists in the process of producing the art.

Jackson Pollock, an American painter (1912-1956) put into practice the Action Theory of
Art. In the Philippines, the most famous action painter is Jose Joya (1931-1995).

Institutional Theory. This theory stresses that art is the integration of objects within the
artworld. It is also called the Theory of the Artworld.

Artworld is a social institution composed of people who have been recognized to have
influence and power over the production, exhibition, dissemination and consumption of art. It
includes:

 artists
 art critics
 art historians/educators
 art patrons/curators
 art museums/galleries
 schools/clubs
 art awards
 recognitions/popularity
 art journals
 TV/newspapers

Moreover, the artworld sets its criteria in recognizing an artist which include the
following:

o Has skill and talent

o Study in art school
o Has degree in fine arts
o Become a member of art organizations
o Win recognitions, prizes and awards
o Has artworks exhibited in museums, galleries
o Mentioned in books, media and art history
o Become well known
o Revolutionized art

Lesson 3: Kinds of Art

This lesson provides short and direct descriptions of the different kinds of art which help
the students make an informed and intelligent appreciation of art.

In Focus

Kinds of Arts

Arts can be classified into visual, performing or combined arts. Under these
classifications are other sub-classifications.

Visual Arts

Visual arts are the arts perceived with eyes. These may be classified into two groups:
graphic and plastic arts.

Graphic arts include artistic representation recorded on a flat or two-dimensional

surface such as painting, drawing, photography, etc.
Painting is the process of applying pigments to a surface. Painting mediums include oil,
watercolor, tempera, and others. Canvas, wood, paper, and plaster are some of the surfaces on
which paintings are executed. Drawing is the art of representing something by lines made on a
surface or the process of portraying an object, scene, or forms of decorative or symbolic meaning
through lines, shading, and textures in one or more colors. Mediums used include pencil, pen and
ink, crayon, brush, and charcoal.

Printing is a process for making multi-reproduction of graphic works. It involves the

preparation of a master image of the drawing or design on some durable material such as wood,
metal, or stone, from which printing is done. It may be classified by the nature of the surface
from which the printing is done.

Relief printing is the process whereby unwanted portions of design are cut away on
the master image. The printed image is formed by the remaining surfaces. Examples of this are
linoleum cuts, woodcuts, and wood engravings.
Intaglio printing is a method of printing from a plate on which incised lines, which carry
the ink, leave a raised impression.
Dry point involves drawing directly on a metal plate with a sharp needle and
scratches lines, or groove, into the metal. Ink is rubbed into the grooves and the unscratched
surface is wiped clean. In printing, the ink in the grooves is transferred to paper.

Etching is the art or process of producing drawings or designs on metal plates

covered with wax. The needle penetrates was into the surface of the plate. The plate is then
dipped in acid, which eats the lines into the metal. For printing, etched (bitten) lines are filled
with ink which is transferred to the paper.

Engraving is done on a metal plate with a cutting tool called a barin, which leaves
a V-shaped trough. Drawings or designs on the plate are entirely composed of lines and/or dots.
Surface printing includes all processes in which printing is done from a flat (plane)
surface.

Lithography is the art or process of printing from a flat stone or metal plate by a
method based on the repulsion between grease and water. The design is put on the surface. The
surface is then treated so that ink adheres only to areas where drawing has been done; ink is then
transferred to the paper in printing.
Silkscreen includes the process of stretching silk over a rectangular frame and
unwanted portions in the design are blocked out. Pigment is forced through the clear areas. For
multi-color prints, a separate screen is used for each color.
Photography is a chemical-mechanical process by which images are produced on
sensitized surfaces by action of light. Reproductions may be in black or white or in full colors of
the original.

Plastic Arts include all fields of the visual arts in which materials are organized into
three- dimensional forms. These include architecture, landscape architecture, city planning,
interior design, sculpture, crafts, industrial design, dress and costume design, and theater design.
Performing/Combined Arts

Performing arts are art forms in which artists use their body or voice to convey artistic
expression. It includes music, dance, opera, drama or play.

Music is the art of combining and regulating sounds of varying pitch to produce
compositions, expressing various ideas and emotions. Its primary function is to entertain. It bases
its appeal on the sensuous beauty of musical sounds. Musical compositions may be classified
into vocal music, instrumental music and music combined with other arts (opera, oratorio,
cantata, ballet, music for motion pictures),
Dance is another form of art that is common to man even during the earliest times. It is
the most direct of the arts for it makes use of the human body as its medium. It springs from
man’s love for expressive gestures, his release of tension through rhythmic movement. Types of
dance include ethnologic, social or ballroom, ballet, modern, musical comedy.

Drama is another of the important arts. Going to a play is a wonderful experience. The
play may be a comedy, tragedy, mystery, musical or melodrama. The spectators get involved in
these situations and thus gain greater insight into human motives and passions.
The play itself is a form of literature. Scenery and costumes provide the visual arts, and
music may serve as a background to set the mood or to serve as part of the plot. The opera is a
drama set to music. Thus, it is a form of the theater. In many musical shows, dancers are also
important performers. The theater therefore, combines several of the arts.

The motion picture is a popular addition to the various forms of the theater. Through it,
a great number of people are able to see dramatic performances every day.

Lesson 4: The Functions of Art

This lesson presents the three major functions of art as well as the specific functions
under each major functions, which help stimulate critical thinking of students on other possible
functions of art.
In Focus

Functions of Art

Function is the practical usefulness of arts. Function of art can be classified into
functional and non-functional.

Classifications of Art According to Functions

1. Functional – has direct/physical use/obvious purpose

Ex. Architecture, some sculpture, weaving, etc.
2. Non-Functional—no direct/physical use
Ex. Paintings, some Sculptures, Literature, Music, Theater, Cinema

However, broadly speaking, all arts have function, for man and for the

maker.

The Personal Function

 Art helps express one’s self.

 Art helps release tensions.

 Art soothes the heart

 Art makes us sensitive and responsive.
 Art educates our senses and sharpens our perceptions of colors, forms, texture, designs,
sounds, rhythms and harmonies in our environment.

 Art makes us aware of the beautiful things in life.

 Art makes our life exciting.
 Art makes us aware of other people’s feelings and thinking.
 Art helps us gain understanding of ourselves and others.
 Art helps us improve our lives.

The Social Function

A. Influence people’s behavior

 Art influences the way we feel, think or act – causes us to laugh, raise our voice,
to get angry, etc.
 Art helps change or improve human conditions.
 Art helps express humanitarian concerns, ideological or political ideas.
 Art can be means to show protest against man’s inhumanity.
 Art helps change manners.
 Art helps enlighten our spiritual beliefs.
 Art helps elevate our morality.

B. Seen or Used in public situation/Display and Celebration

 Art helps commemorate important passages in society.
 Art promotes social activities or rituals.
 Art is used to celebrate important phases of life.

C. Social Description
 Art describes aspects of existence at certain periods.
 Art reflects the feelings, struggles and achievements of people.
 Art provides information about situations in the past.
Physical Function

Art has physical function if it is designed to accomplish its function to make our lives
physically comfortable, or if it is formed exactly right for its particular use. This may mean that
the form of this art follows its function, or the function of this art determines its form.

It differs from an ordinary functional object because it pleases the eyes of the user
through the harmonious arrangement of its formal elements.
Lesson 2: Mediums of Art

Topic 1: Mediums of Painting

This lesson includes discussion of common coloring materials used in painting, the common
mediums used by sculptors, and the mediums of music that would help increase the knowledge
and familiarity of the students regarding mediums used by renowned painters and sculptors
around the world, and the different types of vocal and instrumental mediums used in creating
music.
In Focus

A. Mediums of Painting

Mediums of painting generally refer to the pigments or coloring matter used by painters
in creating their art work. The following are the most common mediums used in the history of
painting.

Encaustic. In the technique known as encaustic, the medium for the powdered color is
hot wax which is painted onto a wood surface with a brush. It is then smoothed with a metal
instrument resembling a spoon, and then blended and set over a flame to soften and set the colors
into the wood. This method produces durable colors and permits sculptural modeling of the paint
surface. Because of the wax medium, the colors are semi-translucent and look fresh and lively.
This technique is rare today, but it was practiced in late Roman times; for example, we have
burial portraits from Faiyum, Egypt, 2nd century, A.

Mosaic. The design is created by small pieces of colored glass, stone, or ceramic (called
Tesserae), embedded in wet mortar which has been spread over the surface to be decorated. Their
slightly irregular placement on a surface creates a very lively, reflective surface when viewed at a
distance. This was often used to decorate walls, floors, and ceilings.

Fresco. Also known as Buon Fresco or True Fresco, it entails painting on freshly spread,
moist plaster. First, layers of plaster are applied to the surface. While the final layer is still wet,
the artist applies the colors, which are earth pigments mixed with water. The colors penetrate the
wet plaster and combine chemically with it, producing a painted surface which does not peel
when exposed to moisture. As the paint must be painted on wet plaster, the amount of plaster
which may be put down at one time is limited to what can be painted at one sitting. Often lines
can be seen in frescos around an area which was one day's work. The painting must be done
rapidly and without mistakes. This technique was perfected in Renaissance Italy.

Examples: The Lamentation by Giotto, The Last Supper by Da Vinci, School of Athens by
Raphael, Sistine Chapel paintings by Michelangelo

Tempera. In this method, the pigment is mixed with egg yolk or both the yolk and white
of an egg. It is thinned with water and applied to a gesso ground (plaster mixed with a binding)
on a panel. It was also used on parchment or paper to illustrate or embellish books in the era
before the 15th century development of the printing press. This type of painting dries very
quickly and produces an opaque, matte surface. The colors tend to dry to a lighter value than
they appear when wet. The colors produced are bright and saturated. Modeling is achieved by
hatching. Egg tempera was used for panel painting until the 15th century. Examples of artists that
worked in egg tempera include Cimabue (14th C.); Duccio (14th C.); Andrew Wyeth (20th C.).
Islamic and Medieval miniature paintings in books and manuscripts are another important class
of egg tempera paintings; the celtic Book of Kells is a well-known early example, as is the Book
of Hours commissioned by the Duc du Berry in the 14th century.
Examples: Madonna and Child by Duccio, The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli

Oil. Prior to the 15th century oil paints were thick and hard to control, so they were
initially used only for utilitarian purposes. In the 15th century turpentine was discovered to be an
effective thinning agent. The Van Eyck brothers were credited with perfecting the technique of
oil painting, which they initially attempted to keep secret.

Powdered colors are mixed with a fine oil, usually linseed oil. A solvent, traditionally
turpentine, is also used to thin the colors as desired, so that the paint can be applied thickly and
opaquely, or thinly and transparently. The oil paint is applied to a prepared ground, usually a
stretched canvas with a coating of neutral pigment. The earliest technique of oil painting
involved building up layers of colors, moving from darker to lighter values. Fine brushes were
used, and a glossy, smooth finish was achieved. When applied in this way, the colors are
somewhat translucent, so that the darker layers of color below added depth and
luminosity to the surface, and permitted a remarkable degree of realism.

Other artists came to discover that because of its slow drying, oil paints could actually be
re-worked on the surface to blend colors, and when applied thickly, with a larger brush or palette
knife, could also add real surface texture to the image. This technique of applying oils lent itself
to more expressive, dramatic effects in which fine detail was less important than total effect.
Artists who worked in this way include Rembrandt, (17th C); Monet (19th C), Cezanne (19th
c., above), William de Kooning , (20th C).

Examples: Monalisa by da Vinci, Nude Descending a Staircase by Marcel Duchamp, Whistler’s

Mother by James Whistler, The Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali

Pastel. Pastels or pastel colors are the family of colors which have high value and low to
ntermediate saturation.

The name comes from pastels, art media characteristic of this color family. The colors of
this family are usually described as "soothing”, "soft", "near neutral", "milky", "washed out",
"desaturated", lacking strong chromatic content.

Pink, mauve and baby blue are typical pastel colors.

The 1980s saw a huge trend in the use of pastel colors in men's fashion. In particular, the
NBC television police series Miami Vice popularized what was already a growing trend even
further as its lead character Sonny Crocket (Don Johnson) all but exclusively wore pastel shirts
and suits, setting a fashion that stood popular even years after the show ended. The abundance of
pastel was also abundant in the shooting locations with Art Deco buildings around the Miami
area.

Examples: Woman Combing Her Hair by Edgar Degas, The Scream by Edvard Munch
Gouache. Gouache is a water based paint consisting of pigment and other materials
designed to be used in an opaque painting method. Gouache differs from watercolor in that the
particles are larger, the ratio of pigment to water is much higher, and an additional, inert, white
pigment such as chalk is also present. This makes gouache heavier and more opaque, with
greater reflective qualities. Like all watermedia, it is diluted with water.

Examples: Self-Portrait by Mary Cassatt

Water Color. Powdered pigments are mixed with gum-arabic or a similar substance that
will help them adhere to a surface. The artist then mixes them with water and applies them to a
ground, usually paper, with a soft brush. The final effect is that of translucent washes of color.
This method was the most important method of painting in China and Japan from an early date,
but did not become popular with European artists until after the 16th century. Chinese and
Japanese painting techniques have had a great deal of influence on modern watercolorists.

Examples: Albrecht Durer, 16th C; John Marin, 20th C.

Acrylic. A 20th century medium, acrylic paint has provided artists an alternative to a very
expensive oil paint, with quality which is almost the same as oil. It was first picked up by
prominent painters such as David Hockney, Helen Frankenthaler and Mark Rothko.

Topic 2: Mediums of Sculpture

Marble. It is the most beautiful stone medium; used by the Greek sculptors, by
Michelangelo in his Pieta, David, etc., by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in his Ecstasy of St. Theresa.

Granite. It is a hard, granular stone suited for bold effects, used for outdoor sculptures.

Limestone. It is used in sarcophagi sculptures

Jade. A semi-precious stone. For the Chinese, it is associated with merit, morality, grace
and dignity

Clay. It is used as a modelling material.

Terracotta or baked earth. It is used in pottery, tiles, statuary and architectural

decorations.

Ivory . It is creamy white, obtained from tusks of elephants.

Wood. It is easy to cut, carved and polished, used in making beautiful furniture, statues of
saints, etc.

Bronze. It is a common medium for casting, an alloy of copper, tin and zinc, used for
outdoor or public sculptures, used by Auguste Rodin, Henry Moore, etc.
Gold and silver. These are precious metals used in making jewelry, medals and coins.

Metal sheets/galvanized iron. These are used in making assemblages.

Glass. It is hard, brittle and transparent, can be blown or cut/carved.

Philippine Sculpture

Ifugao Seated Bulul Sarimanok

Topic 3: Mediums of Music: Human Voice

In Focus

Human Voice

Human voice is the oldest and still the most popular medium of music. It has six classes.
Three for female voice-soprano, mezzo-soprano and alto, and another three for male voice-
tenor, baritone and bass.

Soprano. Derived from the Italian word sopra, meaning “above,” it is the highest human
vocal range.

Generally, it refers to the female singing voice but it also applies to boys, also called boy
sopranos.

Soprano voice can be classified into: lyric soprano, where the tone used is lighter;
dramatic soprano, the tone is more powerful; coloratura soprano, which has a very high range,
extending higher from the second C above middle C.

Mezzo-Soprano. An Italian word meaning “half soprano” is a type of classical female

singing voice whose vocal range lies between the soprano and the contralto voice types. Its vocal
range usually extends from A below middle C to the A two octaves above. It is generally have a
heavier, darker tone than sopranos. The mezzo-soprano voice resonates in a higher range than
that of a contralto.

A coloratura mezzo-soprano has a warm lower register and an agile high register. The
roles they sing often demand not only the use of the lower register but also leaps into the upper
tessitura with highly ornamented, rapid passages. They have a range from approximately the G
below middle C (G3) to the B two octaves above middle C (B5).
Some coloratura mezzo-sopranos can sing up to high C (C6) or high D (D6), but this is
very rare.
The lyric mezzo-soprano has a range from approximately the G below middle C (G3) to
the A two octaves above middle C (A5). This voice has a very smooth,

sensitive and at times lachrymose quality. Lyric mezzo-sopranos do not have the vocal agility of
the coloratura mezzo-soprano or the size of the dramatic mezzo-soprano. The lyric mezzo-
soprano is ideal for most trouser roles.

A dramatic mezzo-soprano has a strong medium register, a warm high register and a
voice that is broader and more powerful than the lyric and coloratura mezzo-sopranos. This voice
has less vocal facility than the coloratura mezzo-soprano.

The range of the dramatic mezzo-soprano is from approximately the F below middle C to
the G two octaves above middle C.

The dramatic mezzo-soprano can sing over an orchestra and chorus with ease and was
often used in the 19th century opera, to portray older women, mothers, witches and evil
characters.

A contralto, or sometimes alto, is a type of classical female singing voice whose vocal
range is the lowest female voice type.

The contralto's vocal range falls between tenor and mezzo-soprano; typically between the
F below middle C to the second F above middle C , although at the extremes some voices can
reach the E below middle C or the second B♭ above middle C (B♭5).

A lyric contralto voice is lighter than a dramatic contralto but not capable of
the ornamentation and leaps of a coloratura contralto. This class of contralto, lighter in timbre
than the others, is the most common today and usually ranges from the E below middle C (E 3) to
the second G above middle C (G5).

The dramatic contralto is the deepest, darkest, and heaviest contralto voice, usually
having a heavier tone and more power than the others. Singers in this class are rare.

Tenor is the highest male vocal range. It is lower than the alto but higher than the bass.
This type of voice is usually used mainly to play the role of a hero in an opera. During the 13th
to 16th century, the tenor voice was used for plainsongs.

The word tenor came from the Latin word tenere meaning ‘to hold." This is because
during the time of polyphony, tenors "held" the melody. Its range is from the second B below
middle C to the G above.

Bass is the lowest male voice. It ranges from the second E below middle C to F# above.
The word bass is Italian for basso meaning "low." Its types are: basso profondo is a rich and
low voice; basso cantante, also known as the "singing bass," is lighter and more lyrical; basso
buffo, also known as "comic bass" is used primarily in opera buffa, meaning a humorous or
comical opera, and bass-baritone, a voice that ranges between the baritone and bass voice.
Topic 4: Mediums of Music: Musical Instrument

In Focus

Musical Instruments

Musical instruments are mechanisms that are able to generate musical vibrations and
launch into the air. These are the means by which the composer communicates to the listeners.
These are his mediums of expressions.

These are classified into string (bowed and plucked), wind (woodwind and brass wind),
percussion and keyboard instruments.

Bowed strings consist of the violin (smallest), viola, cello, and double bass.

Violin, the most numerous in the orchestra, is the most versatile and expressive among
the bowed string family. The soprano of the bowed string family, it has a wide range of tones
which can be sustained indefinitely.

Viola, slightly larger than a violin, has thicker strings and heavier bow. It is the alto
violin, and used more often for harmony. It has warm, rich tones.

Cello is larger than viola. It is held between knees, has thicker and heavier strings than
viola, and has shorter and heavier bow. Cello is the tenor-baritone of bowed string family. It has
a rich and romantic, deep and full tone.

Double bass is the largest member of bowed string family. It is less agile, has limited
range of expression, and is used as support supplying the bass tones for the string choir or
orchestra.

Woodwind Instruments

Woodwind instruments are used to be made of wood, which give them their names. But
today, they are made of wood, metal, plastic or some combination. They are narrow cylinders or
pipes, with holes, an opening at the bottom end and a mouthpiece at the top. They are played by
blowing air through the mouthpiece and opening and closing the holes with the finger. Pitch of
the notes are altered by shortening or lengthening the column of air the vibrating inside the
instruments.

Flute produces silvery, haunting or liquid sound. It is very agile and can play rapid,
brilliant scale passages. It produces mellow and ethereal sound in its lower register, while
thinner, brilliant sound in its upper register. It has a breathy quality.
Piccolo is a small flute, constructed like a flute. It produces shrill and piercing tones

especially in its upper range. It is an octave above the flute and the coloratura soprano of
the woodwind family.

Oboe has bell-shaped end. It is good in expressive solos, and has a reedy and penetrating
sound.

English horn is a large oboe, it has bulge in its bell, and has slightly lower range and soft,
mournful timbre.
Clarinet is the most versatile among woodwinds. It has a very wide range capable of great
expression. It takes the part of the violin in a band.

The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that typically plays
music written in the bass and tenor clefs, and occasionally the treble.

Contrabassoon is a bass bassoon and a larger version of the bassoon, and an octave
lower.
Brass instruments are wind instruments that is usually characterized by a long cylindrical
or conical metal tube commonly curved two or more times and ending in a flared bell, that
produces tones by the vibrations of the player’s lips against a usually cup-shaped mouthpiece, and
that usually has valves or a slide by which the player may produce all the tones within the
instrument’s range. It includes trumpet, trombone, tuba, and French horn.

Trumpet is often associated with martial songs and battle calls.

Trombone is a large trumpet which can be a tenor or a bass. Its tone is
rich and mellow. It gives out an effect of nobility and grandeur.
Cornet is larger than the trumpet with a shorter body and possesses
greater agility. The tone is rounder but less brilliant than the trumpet.

French horn, or simply horn, is shaped like a long metal tube with
one wide end, wound round in a circle.

Tuba is the bass of the brass choir. Its tone is like that of the bass
trombone but is fuller, richer, and more powerful.
Percussion Instruments

Percussion instruments are sounded by striking, rubbing, shaking, plucking, and

scraping. It may be grouped into percussion instruments with definite pitch and percussion
instruments with indefinite pitch. It may also be classified into idiophones (own substance
vibrates to produce sound such as bells, clappers, rattles) and membranophones (stretched
membrane vibrates such as drums).

The kettledrum is a hemispherical copper shell with a stretched calfskin held in place by a
metal ring. It is played with two padded sticks and produces a sound of mysterious rumble to a
thunderous roll.

The snare drum is the smallest drum in the orchestra.

The bass drum, like the double bass, is the biggest member of the percussion family and
therefore makes the lowest sounds. The bass drum is built like a very large snare drum, although
without the snare; it is also an untuned instrument. You play the bass drum by hitting either
drumhead with sticks that have large soft heads, often covered with sheepskin or felt. It can
produce a lot of different sounds from roaring thunder to the softest whispers.

The gong, also known as the tamtam, is a very large metal plate that hangs suspended
from a metal pipe. It looks similar to a cymbal and is also untuned, but is much larger and has a
raised center. To play it, you hit the center with a soft mallet. Depending on how hard you hit it,
you can make a deafening crash or the softest flicker of sound.

Maracas come from Mexico. They are rattles, often made from gourds (a kind of
squash), filled with dried seeds, beads or even tiny ball bearings that make them rattle. Maracas
can also be made of wood or plastic; the sound they make depends on what they're made of. To
play them, you hold them in your hands and shake.

Cymbals are the biggest noisemakers of the orchestra. They are two large metal discs,
usually made of spun bronze. Cymbals, which are untuned, come in a range of sizes, from quite
small to very large. The larger the cymbal, the lower the sound they make. Cymbals can be used
for drama and excitement, to accent the rhythm or create delicate sound effects. You can play the
cymbals either by hitting one cymbal against the other, or you can use sticks, mallets or brushes
to hit one or both cymbals.

A tambourine is a small drum with metal jingles set into the edges. Both the drumhead
and the jingles are untuned. To play it, you hold it in one hand and tap, shake or hit it, usually
against your other hand.

Castanets are fun wooden instruments that come from Spain and are used to punctuate
the music with a distinctive clickety-clack. These are made of two pieces of wood tied together.
To play them, you hold them with your fingers and click the two pieces of wood together. In the
orchestra, castanets are sometimes mounted on a piece of wood, and the percussionist plays them
by hitting them with his/her hands.

Glokenspiel consists of a series of horizontal tuned metal plates. The player strikes these
with mallets producing bright metallic sounds.

The xylophone is made of tuned blocks of wood which produces a dry,

crisp timbre when
struck.

Chimes are metal tubes of different lengths that are hung from a metal frame. When you
strike the tubes with a mallet, they sound like the ringing bells of a church. Each chime sounds a
different pitch.

The marimba is a percussion instrument consisting of a set of wooden bars struck with
yarn or rubber mallets to produce musical tones. Resonators or pipes suspended underneath the
bars amplify their sound.

Triangle is a small metal bar that's bent into the shape of a triangle and makes a ringing
sound when you hit it. There are many sizes of triangles and each one sounds a different pitch.
You play the triangle by holding it on a string and striking it with a metal beater. The size and
thickness of the beater can change the sound the triangle makes.

Keyboard Instruments

Keyboard instruments produce sounds by pressing a series of keys, push buttons, or

parallel levers. In most cases, the keys correspond to consecutive notes in the chromatic scale,
and they run from the bass at the left to the treble at the right. Examples of these include the
piano, organ, celesta, harpsichord, harmonium, accordion, and others.

Piano, short for Italian word pianoforte, is the most popular and widely used keyboard
instrument. It is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented in Italy by Bartolomeo
Cristofori around the year 1700. The strings are struck by hammers when they player presses the
key. It is usually used for home entertainment and concert.
Upright piano Grand piano

Organ has a physical property of a wind instrument. Its sound is made by air forced by
mechanical means through pipes. The term comes from a Greek word organon, meaning
instrument or tool.

Pipe organ

Celesta is like a miniature piano. It is sounded when the steel plates are struck by a small
hammer producing bell-like tones.

Harpsichord’s sound is produced by plucking their strings. The plucking mechanism,

called jack, rests on the key.

Clavichord is a stringed keyboard instrument, developed from the medieval monochord.

It is usually rectangular in shape, and its case and lid were usually highly decorated, painted, and
inlaid.