University of Santo Tomas

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME LABORATORY 2
Machineries and Thermal
Engineering

LABORATORY MANUAL

Section:

MERCADO, J. G.
GRAJEDA, J. E. T.
MARAÑA, A. J. R.
ME LABORATORY

INTRODUCTION

Experimentation is one of the most important parts of engineering. Laboratory work enables the students
to verify and validate the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom. This also allow students to be
exposed in basic operations of various equipment, understand how materials, parts and components are
interrelated with each other and how they behave at different conditions. Only through experiments and
testing can the true behavior or performance of materials, components, and systems are revealed. Thus,
students are required to use their time inside the laboratory to work productively thru intelligent
discussions and creative research work.

ME LABORATORY COURSES

The Mechanical Engineering Laboratory course is divided into 4 courses:

Materials Engineering Laboratory

The course is all about the analysis of different materials and its mechanical properties which are
subjected to different forms of stresses in a destructive or non-destructive form

ME Laboratory 1 – Measurements and Fluid Mechanics

The course is all about the application of the theories and concepts of fluid mechanics as well as
the study of devices and instruments used to measure the parameters involved which are the
following but not limited to the pressure, temperature level, flow, speed, weight, area, volume,
viscosity, specific gravity, etc.

ME Laboratory 2 – Machineries and Thermal Engineering

The course is all about the application of the theories and concepts in thermal engineering as well
as the test and study of mechanical engineering equipment and machineries such as heat
exchangers, refrigeration systems, pumps, fans, blowers, and compressors

ME Laboratory 3 – Power and Industrial Plant Applications

The course is all about the application of theories and concepts as well as the evaluation and
performance analysis of mechanical equipment used in the processes of power generation and
industrial applications

LABORATORY POLICY (UST – Department of Mechanical Engineering) 1

ME LABORATORY

APPLICABLE STUDENT OUTCOMES

SO3 – An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences.

SO5 – An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership, create a
collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives.

SO6 – An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret data, and
use engineering judgement to draw conclusions.

COURSE INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

L1 Acquire relevant data and solve problems regarding different mechanical engineering experiments
L2 Analyze and interpret data, determine and evaluate the uncertainties, and draw conclusions
regarding the experiment
L3 Produce a laboratory report including the use of diagrams, charts, tables, sketches, and plots
L4 Function effectively on a team, take up responsibilities, and apply strategies to meet the desired
commitments and deadlines
L5 *Develop an experiment based on the problems encountered on a specific situation

*Only applicable for ME Laboratory 3

SAFETY

SAFETY is very important in any laboratory. Safety is everyone’s responsibility. Students must be able to
identify the hazards and must never work without first being familiar with the equipment. Students must
not work alone and must first receive permission from the laboratory supervisor or faculty-in-charge
before handling and operating the equipment. Always read the laboratory manual and be aware of the
different safety signages posted around the laboratory and equipment. Proper attire is necessary in
laboratory settings; some experiments will require you to use appropriate personal protective equipment
such as safety glasses and face mask.

LABORATORY POLICY (UST – Department of Mechanical Engineering) 2

ME LABORATORY

GENERAL LABORATORY GUIDELINES

1. Everyone is expected to be in their most appropriate behavior whenever inside the laboratory
premises.

2. Do not touch any equipment, chemicals, materials or engage in any experiments unless instructed
to do so.

3. All instructions, may it be written or verbal, must be strictly followed at all times. Any clarifications
should be addressed to corresponding lab instructor or laboratory supervisor.

4. Bringing of food and beverages inside the laboratory premises is strictly not allowed.

5. Be mindful of the location and operation of safety features in the laboratory. This includes but not
limited to the first aid kit, emergency exits, fire extinguishers, etc.

6. You are not allowed to work alone in the laboratory.

7. Do not leave your experiment unattended or disturb other lab groups unnecessarily.

8. Always wear appropriate clothing inside the lab. Loose and baggy clothes, dangling jewelry, and
the likes are not allowed when conducting experiments.

9. Always wash your hands every after experiment.

10. Report any accident or injury to the instructor-in-charge, laboratory personnel, or laboratory
supervisor immediately.

11. Laboratory properties are not allowed to be taken out of the premises unless authorized to do so.

12. The CLEAN AS YOU COME, CLEAN AS YOU GO rule shall always apply.

13. Any broken equipment or damage resulting from negligence shall be charged to the liable party.

LABORATORY POLICY (UST – Department of Mechanical Engineering) 3

ME LABORATORY

LABORATORY REQUIREMENTS

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory is subdivided as discussed above, with each course serving as the
foundation for the next. That is why a student should make sure that concepts are fully understood and
satisfied before proceeding to the next experiment.

To achieve success, the student should be able to read all the laboratory manuals before conducting the
experiment. Students should understand the objectives of the experiment, the theories involved, and
equipment to be used including detail testing procedures to be considered. Understanding the
instrumentation and measurements required as well as the proper tools and equipment to be used is also
part of your preparation. Students are required to have a printed collection of these manuals.

Data sheets in the laboratory manual should be studied prior to the laboratory experiment. Students are
encouraged to add or revise the given data sheet, if necessary, to further expand the scope of the
experiment.

After the experiment each group should be able to produce a Laboratory Report. A fully accomplished
laboratory report must have sensible data in table format and converted graphical format, if necessary,
with clear engineering calculations, sketch of experiment set-up, discussion and conclusion. These papers
should be handwritten in a short bond paper and submitted two days after the experiment date.

There are two categories that should be visible in the submitted post-laboratory report. These are the
Calculations, Presentation, and Discussion of data gathered, and the Conclusion. Criteria for the grading
of the laboratory report can be seen on the next page.

LABORATORY POLICY (UST – Department of Mechanical Engineering) 4

ME LABORATORY

CATEGORY CRITERIA 0 1 2 3
Tables and
relevant Most of the tables Tables and
There are no tables
illustrations are and relevant relevant
Tables and relevant illustrations and relevant
shown illustrations are illustrations are
illustrations shown
incompletely and shown shown completely
hard to understand
Some of the Calculations and Calculations and
There are no
calculations and computations are computations are
calculations and
Calculations and computations computations are correct and neatly correct, complete
Calculations, Presentation, computations
incorrect and presented with and neatly
shown
and Discussion of data disordered some missing parts presented
gathered The analysis and The data is The data is
The data is not
explanation of data analyzed and analyzed and
analyzed,
Analyze, explains and interpret data does not reflect explained properly explained properly
explained, and
with the gathered with some missing with proper
interpreted
data parts interpretation
The importance The importance
There is no The importance
presented is presented with
importance presented is not
Importance of the experiment somewhat relevant utmost relevance
presented in the that relevant with
with the with the
experiment the experiment
experiment experiment
The conclusion Conclusion drawn
There is no The conclusion
drawn is is coherent with
conclusion drawn drawn is not
Conclusion Drawing of Conclusion somewhat related the gathered data
from the related with the
with the gathered and results of the
experiment gathered data
data experiment

LABORATORY POLICY (UST – Department of Mechanical Engineering) 5

ME Lab

List of Experiments

Experiment 1 Flow through Orifice

Experiment 2 Coefficient of Discharge of Various

Flow Measurement Devices

Experiment 3 Psychrometry

Experiment 4 Losses in Bends and Fittings

Experiment 5 Heat Exchanger Efficiency

Experiment 6 Flashpoint and Fire point of

Lubricants

Experiment 7 Performance Study of a

Refrigeration System

Experiment 8 Impact of Jet Apparatus

ME Lab

Experiment Title: FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES

OBJECTIVES:

• To determine the hydraulic coefficients at different pressure heads

• To draw a relationship between the hydraulic coefficients

Introduction:

An orifice is defined as an opening with a closed perimeter located in the side or bottom of a
vessel, tank, or reservoir with the objective of discharging the fluid in the container. In the case of liquid,
the free surface of the liquid in the container must be above the top edge of the orifice. Orifices are used
for measuring the rate of flow of fluid.

Classification of Orifices:

The Phenomenon of Jet Contraction

The stream line, as they approach the orifice, converge and the convergence continues beyond
the plane of the orifice because of the inertia of the fluid. The stream line becomes parallel and the area
of cross-section of jet is the least at section CC called the “Vena Contracta”. This phenomenon is called jet
contraction.

The Vena Contracta is usually located at a

discharge of one half the orifice diameter from
the plane of the orifice.

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 1

ME Lab

Flow through an Orifice

Consider a tank fitted with a circular orifice in one of its sides as shown in the figure. Let h
be the head of the liquid above the center of the orifice. The liquid flowing through the orifice forms
a jet of liquid whose cross-section is less than that of orifice.

The Coefficient of Discharge, Cd is actual discharge divided by the ideal discharge. The actual
discharge is the discharge that occurs and which is affected by friction as the jet passes through the
orifice. The ideal discharge would be the discharge achieved without friction. The coefficient of
discharge is heavily related to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid flow and the cross sectional area
of the orifice. It is also related to the gravitational constant and the head pressure.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation, between the free surface and point at the center of jet
at Vena Contracta section,

0 + 0 + H = 0 + 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 + 0
𝟐𝒈𝒐

The jet velocity vi in the above equation is called the ideal or theoretical
velocity because, energy losses due to friction are neglected;

Where: Q = volumetric flow rate

A = cross sectional area of the orifice

g = gravitational constant

h = head

The Coefficient of Velocity, Cv is the ratio of the actual velocity divided by the ideal velocity.
The actual velocity is the velocity that is achieved and which is affected by friction as the jet passes

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 2

ME Lab
through the orifice. The ideal velocity would be the velocity achieved without friction. The
coefficient of Velocity is related by the x and y distances spanned by the water jet. It is also related
to the head pressure. Hence;

The Coefficient of Contraction, Cc is a ratio of the area of the jet divided by the area of the
orifice. The area of the jet is the cross-sectional area at the vena contracta which is affected by
friction as the jet passes through the orifice.

𝑄𝐴 2𝑦
𝐴𝐴 √
𝑥 𝑔
𝐶𝐶 = =
𝐴𝐼 𝐴𝐼

𝑄𝐴 2𝑦
𝐶𝐶 = √
𝐴𝐼 𝑥 𝑔

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 3

ME Lab
THE ORIFICE AND JET APPARATUS

The apparatus consist mainly of a cylindrical tank with a small orifice near the bottom of the
tank. There is an inlet hose through which the tank is filled and supplied with water and there is an
adjustable overflow pipe near the top of the tank through which the level of water in the tank can
be perfectly maintained. The tank is mounted on a frame along with a recording system that is used
to measure the jet of water produced from the orifice when in use. The recording system consists of
a clipboard and adjustable needles. The needles can be adjusted in height to correspond with the
arc of the water jet. Paper can be mounted against the clipboard and the position of the tops of the
needles can be recorded on the paper.

TEST PROCEDURES:

1. Set up the apparatus such that the orifice is facing the basin of the hydraulic bench. Connect
the hose from the inlet pipe to the water supply of the hydraulic bench. Make sure that the
exit hose from the adjustable overflow pipe is positioned so that it will drain into the basin.
Through visual inspection, level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. Measure the
diameter of the orifice plate.
2. Raise all of the needles to their highest position where they are “out of the way”. We will call
this starting position. Make sure that the orifice plate is in position on the cylindrical tank.
Place the adjustable overflow pipe such that it is relatively low. Turn on the water supply.
Once the water has reached the level were it is spilling into the overflow pipe, adjust the
flow so that it just barely trickles into the pipe. Record the water level or head (h). At this
time the water jet should be formed and protruding forcefully from the cylindrical tank.
3. Measure the flow rate Q of the water jet - take the measuring cup and collect water from the
jet for a set amount of time. Record the volume of water collected and the time for which it
was collected.
4. Adjust the height of each needle such that the tip of the needle is just above the water jet as
it passes underneath.
5. Once all of the needles are set, take note of the measurements of the needle. The vena
contracta of the water jet should serve as your datum – your first mark, the furthermost
mark to the left– i.e. your first mark will be a bit to the left (the x component will be the x
location of the vena contracta and the y component will be the same as the y component of
the first needle. (The vena contracta is the place where the water jet narrows from the
diameter of the orifice to the diameter of the rest of the jet. The position of the vena

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 4

ME Lab
contracta is usually very close to the orifice. You should devise some system of notation
such that you can distinguish each set of marks (from each trial) from all other sets of
marks. Once the marks are made, return the needles to starting position.
6. Repeat steps 2 – 5 for 5 more conditions of head (6 total). To increase the water simply
raise the position of the overflow pipe. You may also need to increase the rate of the input
water flow.
7. Produce a graph of the jet profile in every head

Reference:

[1] Page 216 to 222 of Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by D. Rama Durgaiah © 2002 New
Age International.

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 5

ME Lab

DATA SHEET

Head Q Jet Orifice

Trial (m) (𝑚3 /s) Area X max Y max Cd Cv Cc
(𝑚2 )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

6 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE 6

ME Lab
Experiment Title: COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES

OBJECTIVES:

• To determine the coefficient of discharge of fluid flow through various flow measuring
devices.

Introduction:

The measurement of flow of process fluids is an essential aspect of any process operation,
not only for plant control but also for fiscal monitoring purposes. A wide variety of flowmeter is
available and it is important to select correctly the flowmeter for a particular application.

Bernoulli’s equation of the total energy head concept is applied to various fluid flow
problems. It is applied in the following flow measuring devices:

1. Venturimeter
Venturimeter is one of most widely used flow measuring devices which are based on
Bernoulli’s equation. It consist of a short converging pipe, throat, diverging pipe and
a piezometer or manometer to measure the difference of the pressure of flowing
liquid between the pipe and throat section.

FLOW

2. Orifice meter
This is also a device for measuring discharge flowing through a pipe. It works in the
same principle as that of the venturimeter with the application Bernoulli’s and
continuity equations. It is a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp-edged hole
called ‘orifice’ which is concentric with the pipe. The diameter of the orifice varies
from 0.4 to 0.8 times of pipe diameter.

FLOW

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 1

ME Lab
3. Pitot tube
The pitot tube is another flow measuring device where Bernoulli’s and continuity
equations are used. The basic principle used in this device is that if the velocity of
flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, which is called the stagnation point, the
pressure there increases due to conversion of kinetic energy. By measuring this
pressure at this point, the velocity flow may be determined. It consists of a glass
tube open at both ends, bent at right angle, large enough in diameter to get rid of the
capillary effect.

FLOW

RELEVANT THEORIES:

ORIFICE METER

When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe, the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at or
immediately after the orifice is higher than velocity before the orifice. At the same time, static
pressure before the orifice is higher than at the orifice. The pressure difference is measured by
the manometer.

FLOW

Applying Bernoulli’s Equation from (1) to (2):

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 2

ME Lab

From continuity equation:

Substitute eq. (b) to eq. (a):

Hence, theoretical flow rate:

To obtain the coefficient of discharge at the orifice, Corifice:

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 3

ME Lab

VENTURIMETER

FLOW

Theoretical flow rate:

Coefficient of discharge at the venturi, Cventuri:

PITOT TUBE:

FLOW

Applying Bernoulli’s Equation from (1) to (2):

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 4

ME Lab

Hence, theoretical flow rate:

Coefficient of discharge at the venturi, Cpitot tube:

TEST PROCEDURES:

Equipment: Flow Measurement Test Set

Before the Test:

1. Check the storage tank if it is full with water.

2. Check if pressure lines from manometer to the flow measuring devices are connected.
3. Open the flow control valve.
4. Switch on the ELCB and CB to start the pump.
5. Adjust flow rate by the flow control valve to be high enough to purge out air bubbles from
the system.

Begin the Test:

1. Open the manifold valves to manometer for the device to be measured.

2. Observe water levels in manometer and adjust pressure in the manometer head.
3. Adjust the flow rate by the flow control valve until the rotameter reading is about 10 lpm.
4. Record all manometer readings.
5. Record rotameter reading, household water meter and calibrated tank reading.
6. Repeat the test at other flow rate.

References:

[1] Page 106 to 111 of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines by Madan Mohan Das © 2008 by
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 5

ME Lab

DATA SHEET
Experiment Title: FLOW MEASUREMENT

d1 = 29.0 mm d1 = 29.0 mm
d2 = 20.0 mm d2 = 17.0 mm d1 = 19.0 mm
Orifice Venturi Pitot Tube
Rotameter Calibrated
Reading, Tank % error Δh Co Δh Cv Δh Cp
lpm Reading

10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Average: Average: Average:

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES 6

ME Lab
Experiment Title: PSYCHROMETRY

OBJECTIVES:

• To determine the properties of air using a sling psychrometer and a digital hygrometer
• To compare the relative humidity in different places

Introduction:

Air conditioning is the process of seeking thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. Figure
shows the area in the psychrometric chart where the moist or humid air is at the “comfort zone”, this
is where people feel most comfortable.

Psychrometry

A science associated with the measurements of water vapor content of the air.

PSYCHROMETRY 1
ME Lab
Temperatures

(a) Dry-bulb temperature, td Dry bulb temperature is the actual temperature measured
using an ordinary thermometer.

(b) Wet-bulb temperature, tw Wet bulb temperature is the temperature measured using an
ordinary thermometer where the bulb is enclosed in a wick or cloth that is kept moistened.

(c) Dew point temperature, tdp Dew point temperature is the temperature where the water
vapor content of moist or humid air becomes saturated and any further cooling will cause
condensation.

Figure below, shows the dry-bulb, wet-bulb and the dew point temperature plotted in a T-s diagram.

THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

A psychrometric chart is a graph of the physical property of moist air at a constant pressure (usually
at sea level). Note that if the atmospheric pressure is significantly different from standard pressure,
the equation presented above must be used.

PSYCHROMETRY 2
ME Lab
TEST PROCEDURES:

1. Check the wick of the wet bulb of the sling psychrometer, make sure that it is wet.
2. Start swinging the sling psychrometer for 1-2min.
3. Record the wet bulb temperature first followed by the dry bulb temperature. Air properties
can be found from psychrometric chart (Provide for your own group).
4. Determine the relative humidity also by using the digital hygrometer (digital RH meter).
5. Tabulate results obtained from the instrument for various locations measured. From the
psychrometric chart, read all the relevant properties of air at the places where
measurements were taken and tabulate the results in the data sheet.

DATA SHEET:

RH RH Moisture Specific
DBT WBT DPT % Diff Enthalpy
Location Sling Digital Content Volume
℃ ℃ ℃ RH kJ/kg
Psychro Hygro kgv/kgair m3/kgair

PSYCHROMETRY 3
ME Lab

PSYCHROMETRY 4
ME Lab

Experiment Title: ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS

Objectives:

• To determine the loss factor K, for flow through a range of pipe fittings including bends,
contraction, and enlargement.

Introduction:

Minor losses of energy occur due to local resistances to flow resulting in change of velocity
either in magnitude or direction or both. This change in velocity generates large-scale turbulence due
to the formation of eddies, wherein a portion of energy possessed by the flowing fluid gets dissipated
and hence it is considered as a loss of energy. For example, sudden expansion and contraction of pipe
section, pipe fittings, obstruction in path of flow, entrance and exit losses, etc. These losses are termed
minor losses and are usually written in the form:

𝑣2
∆ℎ = 𝑘
2𝑔𝑜

Where: K = the loss coefficient and v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting

Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment.

For pipe fitting experiment, the head loss is calculated from two manometer readings, taken before
and after each fitting, and K is determined as:

2𝑔𝑜
𝑘 = ∆ℎ
𝑣2
To eliminate the effects of this area change on the measured head losses, this value should be
added to the head loss readings for the enlargement and the contraction. Note that will be negative for
enlargement and will be positive for contraction.

Pressure losses in sudden expansion or contraction

Due to sudden expansion or enlargement of the pipe section, the flow is decelerated
abruptly; resulting in the formation of eddies due to the separation of flow from the boundary and
thereby causing loss of energy, the system experiences additional change in static pressure. This
change can be calculated as:

(𝑣1 2 − 𝑣2 2 )
∆ℎ =
2𝑔𝑜

LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS 1

ME Lab
THE ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS APPARATUS

The accessory is designed to be positioned on the side channel of the hydraulic bench top channel.
The following fittings are connected in a series configuration to allow direct comparison:

• Area enlargement
• Area contraction
• Mitre Bend
• Short bend
• Long bend
• 45o Bend
• Elbow Bend

Flow rate through the circuit is controlled by a flow control valve. Pressure tappings in the circuit are
connected to an eight-bank manometer in the top manifold. An air bleed screw facilitates connection to
a hand pump. This enables the levels in the manometer bank to be adjusted to a convenient level to suit
the system static pressure.

LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS 2

ME Lab
TEST PROCEDURES:

This exercise measures losses across all pipe fittings except the gate valve, which should
be kept fully open. Adjust the flow from the bench control valve and, at a given flow rate, take height
readings from all manometer after the levels have steadied. In order to determine the volume flow
rate, you should carry out a timed volume collection using the volumetric tank. This is achieved by
measuring (with stop watch) time taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank. You
should collect fluid for at least one minute to minimize timing errors. Repeat this procedure to give
a total of at least five sets of measurement.

Pipe inside diameter = 21.0mm

Expanded Pipe diameter = 35.8mm

Reference:

[1] Page 17 to 19 of Experiments in Fluid Mechanics by Sarbjit Singh © 2009 by PHI Learning Private
Limited, New Delhi.

LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS 3

ME Lab

DATA SHEET

Manometer
h1 h2 Δh, m Volume, m3 Time, s Volume flow Velocity, m/s v2/2g K
rate, m3/s
Enlargement Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:
Contraction Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:
Mitre Bend Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:
Short Bend Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:
Long Bend Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:

LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS 4

ME Lab

45o Bend 2x Trial 1

Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:
Elbow Bend Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average:

Technical Data:

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required these values may be checked as part of
the experimental procedure and replaced with your own measurements.

Internal diameter of the pipe work: d = 0.0201 m

Internal diameter of pipe work at enlargement outlet and contraction inlet: d = 0.0358 m

LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS 5

ME Lab

Experiment Title: DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY

Objectives:
a. To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of different types of Heat Exchangers
b. To compare the heat exchanger efficiency of parallel and counter flow.

Introduction:
A heat exchanger is a device in which energy is transferred from one fluid to another across a solid.
Exchanger analysis and design therefore involve both convection and conduction. Radiative transfer
between the exchanger and the environment can usually be neglected unless the exchanger is uninsulated
and its external surfaces are very hot.
They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants,
petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, and natural gas processing.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchangers are commonly used in liquid to liquid heating and cooling applications. It
consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. A simple shell and tube heat exchanger is
shown in the figure. To ensure that the shell-side fluid will flow across the tubes and thus induce higher
heat transfer, baffles are placed in the shell as shown in the figure. With baffles the flow within the shell
is generally at right angles to the tubes.

Figure: One shell pass – two tube pass

Different arrangements for shell and tube heat exchangers are used in practice. One shell pass-one tube
pass is the heat exchanger installed in our experiment module.

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 1

ME Lab

Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger

A type of Heat Exchanger which consisting of two tubes with one inside the other (thus concentric). One
of the tubes carries the hot fluid while the other the cold liquid. Due to its simplicity in design it is easy
to maintain and clean making it an ideal heat exchanger for liquids that causes fouling.

Plate Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger which uses two metal plates to transfer heat between two fluids. The major advantage
that a plate heat exchanger has over other designs is that it can give a larger surface area for the heat
transfer process.

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 2

ME Lab

Flow Arrangements in Heat Exchanger

1. Parallel flow/ Co-current flow

It is one which two fluid streams enters at one end, flow through it in the same direction and
leaves at the other end.

2. Counter flow

It is the one in which two fluid streams flow in opposite directions.

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 3

ME Lab

3. Cross flow

It is the one in which one fluid moves through a heat exchanger at right angles to the flow path
of other fluid.

RELEVANT THEORIES:
Calculation of Heat Transfer:
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃𝑐 (𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛 )
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃ℎ (𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑄ℎ + 𝑄𝑐
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
2
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶𝑃ℎ (𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛 )
Note: Cpc and Cph is the Cp at 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 and 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 respectively.

Cp of water can be obtained using the table below

Substance State Cp [ kJ/kgK]
1 atm, 273K 4.217
1 atm, 280 K 4.198
1 atm, 300K 4.179
WATER 1 atm, 320K 4.180
1 atm, 340K 4.188
1 atm, 360K 4.203
1 atm, 373K 4.218

Overall heat transfer coefficient (Ui), based on inside surface of heat transfer area:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∆𝑇𝑚
Overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo), based on outside surface of heat transfer area:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑚

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 4

ME Lab

Hence, the mean overall heat transfer coefficient (Um) based on mean surface heat transfer area:
𝑼𝑶 + 𝑼𝒊 𝑊
𝑼= , −𝐾
𝟐 𝑚2

Area of the Heat Exchanger can be found in the table below

Heat Exchanger Area [m2]

Hot Water Pipe Inside Area Hot Water Pipe Outside Area

Concentric Tube 0.05877 0.06731

Shell and Tube 0.063558 0.075438

Plate 0.05328 0.06334

Logarithmic mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇:

(𝑻𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) − (𝑻𝑯𝒊𝒏 − 𝑻𝑪𝒊𝒏 )
∆𝑻𝒎 = = 𝑳𝑴𝑻𝑫
𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑪
𝒍𝒏 [ 𝑻 𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻 𝒐𝒖𝒕 ]
𝑯𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒊𝒏

Heat exchanger efficiency, 𝜖𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 :

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝜖𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 = ∗ 100%
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝝐𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(𝒎𝑪𝒑 ) (𝑻𝑯𝒊𝒏 − 𝑻𝑪𝒊𝒏 )
𝒎𝒊𝒏

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 5

ME Lab

The Multi Heat Exchanger Unit

The apparatus is used for studying three types of heat exchangers namely: Concentric, Shell and
tube and plate to plate heat exchanger, both on parallel and counter flow conditions.

The unit consist of three heat exchangers, a hot water tank with a transfer pump, instruments for
monitoring and control. Changing from parallel to counter flow or from one type of heat exchanger to
another is simply done by rearranging flexible hoses with quick release couplings. The unit requires an
external water supply.

Technical Data: A hot water pump

Stainless steel hot water tank with a level switch
3000-W heater
Temperature sensor
Flow meters for hot and cold
220V, 1Phase, 60 Hz power supply

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 6

ME Lab

Test Procedures:
1. Connect the cold water inlet (at the rear side of the apparatus) to the main water supply, you
may use the hydraulic bench.
2. Connect the cold water discharge outlet to the lab drainage via an appropriate hose.
3. Fill the cold water tank by opening the main water supply valve; when the tank is full, water
wull stop running due to a float mechanical switch inside the tank.
4. Fill the hot water tank (on the rear side) manually with water.

To run the experiment:

5. Open the main water supply valve (it must be kept open during the experiment)
6. Switch ON the ELCB & CB on the control box.
7. Switch ON the hot water pump.
8. Adjust the hot and cold water flow rate via valve to the desired value that can be read on the
rotameter.
9. Wait until the temperature of the cold and hot water becomes steady.
10. Note down the temperatures at desired points of the Heat exchanger.
11. Repeat experiment with different hot and cold water temperatures and flow rates.
- After completing the experiment make sure to turn off the pump and the main switch.
- Drain all water from the reservoir if the unit is not to be operated/used for long period of time.

Guide Questions:
1. Illustrate the difference thru plotting the temperature points in the heat exchanger over its length
between a counter flow and parallel flow in:
a. Shell and tube heat exchanger
b. Concentric tube heat exchanger
c. Plate to plate heat exchanger
2. What is the difference of each heat exchanger from the other?

References:
[01] Heat Transfer SI Units 8th Edition by K.A. Gavhane © 2008 by Nirali Prakashan.
[02] Heat and Mass Transfer 2nd Edition by PK Nag © 2007, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited.

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 7

ME Lab

DATA SHEET

SHELL AND TUBE

Hot Water Cold Water

Cold Water Hot Water Inlet Outlet ∆Th Inlet Outlet ∆Tc
Flowrate Flowrate
Parallel Flow

Counter Flow

CONCENTRIC TUBE

Parallel Flow

Counter Flow

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

Cross Flow

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 8

ME Lab

Shell and Tube

U= Qmax=

LMTD QACTUAL EFFICIENCY

PARALLEL FLOW
COUNTER FLOW

Show a graphical representation for the relationship of LMTD and flow configuration and another for efficiency and flow configuration

Concentric Tube
U= Qmax=

LMTD QACTUAL EFFICIENCY

PARALLEL FLOW
COUNTER FLOW

Show a graphical representation for the relationship of LMTD and flow configuration and another for efficiency and flow configuration

Plate Heat Exchanger

U= Qmax=

For Plate Heat Exchanger LMTD QACTUAL EFFICIENCY

CROSS FLOW

Show a graphical representation for the relationship of LMTD and flow configuration and another for efficiency and flow configuration

DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY 9

ME Lab
Experiment Title: FLASHPOINT AND FIRE POINT OF LUBRICANTS

OBJECTIVES:

• To determine the flashpoint and fire point of lubricating oils using the Cleveland open
cup method

Introduction:

The flash point and the fire point of petroleum liquid are basically measurement of flammability and
combustibility. The flash point is the minimum temperature at which the test specimen forms a
flammable mixture with air that will burn if ignited. As the name of the test implies, combustion at
this temperature is only of an instant’s duration. The fire point, however, runs somewhat higher. It is
the minimum temperature at which vapor is generated at a rate sufficient to sustain burning for a
minimum of 5sec. In either case, combustion is possible only when the ratio of fuel vapor to air lies
between certain limits.

Not only for the hazard of fire, but also as an indication of the volatility of the oil, the flash and fire
points are significant in cases where high-temperature operations are encountered. In the case of
used oils, the flash point is employed to indicate the extent of contamination by fuels or more volatile
oil. The flash point can also be used to assist in the identification of different types of base blends.

The Cleveland Open Cup Method

Testing for the flash and fire point using the Cleveland Open Cup method is in accordance with
ASTM D92. This Test method is applicable to all petroleum products with flash points above 79°C
(175°F) and below 400°C (752°F).

A liquid lubricant is placed in an open cup, as shown in the figure. The liquid lubricant and
container are slowly heated by a Bunsen burner below the cup. A small flame on the end of a wand
provides ignition source immediately above the liquid lubricant surface.

FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF LUBRUCANTS 1

ME Lab

Initially, when the wand is moved across the cup no flame or flash is produced. As the temperature
of the liquid increases, the vapor pressure increases. Eventually a temperature is reached where the
liquid produces enough vapor for the air/vapor mixture above the liquid level to become flammable.
This temperature is the flash point temperature. At this temperature, the liquid is generally not
capable of producing adequate vapor to support a continuous flame on its surface – a flash is typically
observed, and the flame goes out. As the temperature increased further, the fire point temperature is
reached where a continuous flame or combustion is supported.

Open cup method suffers from air drafts above the cup that reduce the vapor concentration. Several
other experimental methods are available to determine flash point temperatures that reduce draft
effect. These methods involve containers that are initially closed, with small shutter which opens to
expose the vapor to the ignition source. Because these methods reduce the draft, the flashpoint
temperature measured is generally lower than with open cup method.

FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF LUBRUCANTS 2

ME Lab
TEST PROCEDURES:

Equipment: Cleveland open cup apparatus, shield, thermometer having a maximum range of 400oC.

1. Fill the cup at any convenient temperature so that the top of meniscus is exactly at the filling
line. Remove any air bubbles or foam on top of the test specimen.
2. Light the test flame
3. Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is between 5-17 oC/ min.
When the sample temperature is approximately 56oC below the anticipated flash point
decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise is 5-6oC/ min.
4. Starting at least 28oC below the flash point apply test flame across the center of cup with a
smooth continuous motion. The time consumed in passing the test flame across the cup in
each case is 1 second.
5. Record, as the observed flash point, the temperature read on the thermometer when a flash
appears at any point on the surface of the liquid lubricant. Do not confuse the true flash with
the bluish halo that sometimes appear, this is not the flashpoint.
6. Continue heating the test specimen after achieving the flash point in a rate of temperature
increase of around 5-6oC/ min
7. When the specimen ignites and sustains burning for at least 5sec, that temperature is the fire
point.
8. Extinguish the flame and turn off the LPG source for safety purposes.
9. When the test specimen has cooled down to a safe handling temperature (less than 60oC)
remove the test cup and clean the apparatus
10. Proceed to the next sample and repeat the above processes
11. After the experiment, make sure that the apparatus is clean and return it to the lab assistant
together with the test samples for proper disposal

References:

[1] ASTM D92: Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester

FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF LUBRUCANTS 3

ME Lab
Experiment Title: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES:

• To be familiar with the basic components of Refrigeration System and to be able to plot
cycle in PH diagram.
• To investigate the effect of varying lengths of a capillary tube to the pressure difference and
the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the Refrigeration System.

Introduction:

Refrigeration is the science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of the surrounding
atmosphere. This means the removing of heat from a substance to be cooled. The equipment employed
to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating system and the system which is
kept at lower temperature is called the refrigerated system. Most of the commercial refrigeration is
produced by the evaporation of a liquid called refrigerant. Mechanical refrigeration depends upon the
evaporation of liquid refrigerant and its circuit includes the equipment naming evaporator,
compressor, condenser and expansion valve.

Functions of Parts of a Simple Vapour Compression System

1. Compressors
The job of a refrigeration compressor is to compress vapour and circulate refrigerant around
the sealed system. The compressor needs to compress the vapour that has boiled off from the
evaporator and to increase its pressure. This increased pressure helps force the vapour back into liquid
form via the condenser.

Hermetic Compressors are type of compressor that

is contained in a steel case, typically used in
household refrigerators, air conditioning units
and smaller industrial systems.

2. Condensers
The condenser component is the part of refrigerator that expels heat energy which has been picked up
by the evaporator. The condenser looks very similar to the evaporator with coiled pipes and
perpendicular fins. It is situated in the high pressure area of the refrigerated system.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 1

ME Lab
The compressor pumps vapour into the condenser at high pressure. As the surrounding medium (air)
is cooler than the hot vapour, heat energy is passed into the air from the condenser tubes. A fan is often
used to help dispel heat through convection.

3. Evaporators
The evaporator is the component that is used to absorb heat from the refrigerated space. It is usually
made up of a series of fans and coiled pipes to allow for maximum exposure to the air. The evaporator
is situated in the low pressure area of the system and is designed to let refrigeration boil off extracting
heat energy in the form of latent heat from its surroundings. Due to the Refrigerant changing from
liquid to gas, energy has to be absorbed to allow it to do this. After the refrigerant begins to exit the
evaporator most of the liquid should now be a cold vapour which is sucked towards the compressor.

4. Metering Devices
A metering device is used to lower the temperature of the refrigerant before it enters the evaporator.
It does this by dramatically reducing the refrigerant’s pressure. A typical temperature of the
refrigerant leaving a metering device is 40˚F. Therefore, when the refrigerant enters the evaporator, it
is at a lower temperature than the room air temperature. The cooler refrigerant then absorbs energy
from the room lowering the air temperature.

Commonly used expansion devices in refrigeration systems and their operating principle

A. Capillary Tube
The Capillary tube is one of the simplest types of metering
devices because it is nonadjustable. It relies on a fixed
restriction’s pressure drops, its temperature drops as well.
Capillary tubes are commonly used in refrigerators and other
devices that reside in a controlled air space. Inside a house, the
air temperature remains fairly constant year round due to its
heating and air conditioning system. Capillary tubes used

in refrigerators are sized to perform in that temperature range. However, when used in systems in
locations where large changes in temperature exist, such as an air conditioning system that may see
outside temperature range from below freezing to over 90˚F, the capillary tube is not as effective as
other types of metering devices.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 2

ME Lab
B. Automatic Expansion Valve
An automatic expansion valve (AEV or AXV) has the ability
to change the amount of refrigerant that passes through it
based on the downstream pressure in the system. When
downstream pressure drops, the valve opens more to
increase refrigerant flow to maintain a constant pressure.
This allows the valve to adjust the refrigerant flow based on
pressure, which is influenced by temperature. Therefore,
this metering device can handle larger temperature swings
than the capillary tube. A common application for an
automatic expansion valve is small window unit air
conditioning systems

C. Thermostatic Expansion Valve

A thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) also has the ability to
change the amount of refrigerant that passes through it.
However, it regulates the amount of refrigerant based on the
temperature of the refrigerant that exits on the evaporator.
This valve is very popular in air conditioning systems because
it adjusts the refrigerant flow based on the amount of internal
energy absorbed by the refrigerant. It is ideally suited for
system that experience large temperature swings as it can
maintain superheat in the stage after

In general, TXV are used as it is more efficient in handling the refrigerant so as not to damage the
compressor. On the other hand, AXV are simpler in construction and is much cheaper.

5. Refrigeration Accumulator

Refrigeration Accumulators are designed to protect against damage to the compressor. Its purpose is
to store any excess liquid refrigerant and oil that may have not boiled off in the evaporator. The
accumulator is situated between the evaporator and compressor in the suction line (pipe running
between the two components). Liquid cannot be compressed and therefore will eventually damage the
compressor, often known as “slugging”. This is when a compressor tries to compress liquid.
Also a large enough quantity of liquid can remove oil off of the bearings causing rapid wear and
breakdown.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 3

ME Lab
Accumulators collect small amounts of oil and refrigerant into the suction line so as not to cause
compressor damage. When the liquid refrigerant enters the accumulator it strikes a deflector plate
that causes anything liquefied to rest in the holding tank.

6. Refrigeration Receiver

A receiver is commonly used on a refrigeration system that uses a TXV valve as its metering device. Its
main purpose is to temporarily store excess refrigerant in its liquid state that is not required when
load conditions are low. The TXV also needs a supply of refrigerant in its liquid form at all times. The
receiver provides a constant supply of liquid to the TXV. Freon sometimes can back up into the
condenser in some systems if no receiver is installed, this component prevents this. The refrigerant
charge in a system with a receiver is actually excessive than what is required. This is to insure that at
all times and operating conditions, there is enough Freon to present constant liquid to the TXV.

7. Sight Glass
The Sight Glass component gives you a view inside the system to see how much liquid compared to gas
exists where the component is situated. Refrigeration systems sometimes have a sight glass at the
condenser outlet. The inlet of the sight glass is supplied by refrigerant from the liquid line and at this
point not much vapour should be evident. If bubbles or flash gas are seen it shows that maybe there is
a problem in the system due to the fact mainly liquid should be seen at this point. This is especially
necessary on a TXV metering system. So the site gas is a great tool to give an invaluable insight into the
inner workings of the system and troubleshooting.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 4

ME Lab
RELEVANT THEORIES:

To turn the basic vapour compression cycle into a practical refrigerator, the evaporator should
superheat the refrigerant after all the liquid has evaporated. It is not practical to control precisely at
the point where evaporation is just finished. Unless it is complete, some liquid will leave the
evaporator, which is useful cooling potential wasted. Moreover, compressors do not generally
appreciate liquid arriving with the vapour. It can cause damage. So control is provided in such a way
as to ensure that the vapour leaving the evaporator is superheated.

3 2

4 1

The figure above shows the refrigeration circuit and the corresponding P-H diagram. The process
starts with the discharge of the refrigerant in the evaporator. Point 1 is in in the vapour region, to the
right of the saturated vapour curve. Compression raises the pressure of the refrigerant, point 2. The
vapour is now hot, and is cooled before condensation starts.

It is not possible in practice to control exactly the completion of condensation. We want liquid to flow
through the line from the condenser to the control or expansion valve. If some vapour is present
here, it can cause excessive pressure drop and reduction in performance of the system. The pressure
drop should occur in the valve itself. Some degree of subcooling is necessary to ensure 100% liquid
flow. This subcooling can occur in the condenser, and further cooling of the liquid can take place
between the condenser and the valve. Point 3 is now in the liquid region, to the left of the saturated
liquid curve, the pressure is reduced in an expansion device.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 5

ME Lab

Superheat and Subcooling occupy quite small sections of the diagram, but they are very important for
the effective working of the system. When refrigerant flows from one process to the next it always
moves through the pipes as either a superheated vapour or a subcooled liquid. The amount of
superheat or subcool may be quite small.

Coefficient of Performance, COP

Coefficient of Performance or COP is defined as the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator
to the work done on the refrigerant. Since the heat extracted in the refrigerator is the refrigerating
effect, COP can be written as:

Pressure Losses

Because of the long connecting line between the evaporator and the compressor the condition
of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet could differ from that at the evaporator outlet. Between these
two points there could be a pressure drop and an increase in enthalpy. The pressure drop would arise
from the flow losses in the line. The enthalpy increase would be due to heat gain by the refrigerant on
its journey from the evaporator to the compressor.

In most systems both of these effects are very small. In the diagram they are much enlarged for clarity.
For practical purposes they only arise in systems where the evaporator or cooler is a long way away
from the compressor. In this event the accuracy of COP may be improved by measuring the

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 6

ME Lab
temperature at the evaporator outlet, and using this value to determine Enthalpy change at evaporator,
while at the same time using the compressor inlet temperature to determine Enthalpy change at
compressor. Note that for perfection, the pressure at the evaporator outlet should also be measured,
but this is not necessary in practice because the enthalpy effect of the pressure change in pressure is
normally very small in this situation.

THE REFRIGERATION TRAINING UNIT

The unit is specifically used as experiment test equipment to simulate the behavior of
refrigerants in a refrigeration cycle.

Several capillary tubes of different coil numbers are selected with uniform inner diameters and length.
These tubes can be utilized by controlling valves 4, 5, 6, and 7. The refrigerant receiver is controlled by
valves 2 and 3. The temperatures at each points of the system can be measured using the digital
thermometer probes included in the display. The potentiometer is provided to control the speed of the
fan both for the condenser and evaporator. The condenser and evaporator pressures are measured
using high- and low-pressure gauges, respectively.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 7

ME Lab
Several expansion devise are installed in the refrigeration training unit. The expansion device can be
chosen by controlling certain refrigerant valves. Temperatures at each point in the system can be
measured using the installed gages found in the training unit.

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURES:

For Automatic Expansion Valve Test:

1. Locate the power switch and make sure it is in the OFF position
2. Locate the MODE switch and make sure that it is set on Stand-By
3. Perform the following substeps to make sure the dual pressure controller is properly set.
A. Locate the cut-out scale and make sure that it is set to 5psi. If it is not, use a standard
screwdriver to turn its adjustment screw.
B. Locate the cut-in scale and make sure it is set to 45psi. Adjust in necessary
C. Locate the high pressure cut-out setting on the right side of the pressure controller is set to
200psi. Adjust if necessary
4. Reset the refrigerant valves to the following positions
V1 – closed
V2 – open
V3 – open
V4 – closed
V5 – open
V6 – closed
5. Turn the power switch ON. then perform the following steps to ensure the electronic temperature
controller is set properly
A. Press SET
B. Choose ˚F using the up and down button
C. press SET to enter set temperature mode and select 55˚F
D. press SET again to enter the temperature differential mode select 10˚F
E. press SET again then select C1 then press SET until it displays the temperature read by the
sensor to complete the procedure

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 8

ME Lab
6. Make sure the knob is fully open (counter-clockwise)
7. Turn the mode switch to the COOLING position
8. Allow the system to stabilize for 15-20 minutes until it reaches steady-state conditions. When the
system stabilizes, the ball in the flow meter will stop bouncing and no bubbles will be visible.
9. Take the temperature and pressure readings from the different points
10. Shut down the system by putting the mode switch to stand-by then turning it off.

For Thermostatic Expansion Valve Test

Follow the same procedures 1 – 3 from the previous test
For Step 4
V1 – closed
V2 – open
V3 – open
V4 – closed
V5 – closed
V6 – open

Follow Step 5 -10 of the previous step

For Capillary Tube Test

Follow the same procedures 1 – 3 from the previous test
For Step 4
V1 – open
V2 – closed
V3 – closed
V4 – open
V5 – closed
V6 – closed

Follow Step 5 -10 of the previous step

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 9

ME Lab

Experiment Title: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Expansion T1 T2 T3 T4 P1 P2 P4
h1 h2 h3=h4 Qa Wc COP
Device (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar)
AXV
TXV
Capillary
Tube

T1 = Suction Temperature

T2 = Discharge Temperature

T3 = Temperature Entering the Expansion Device

T4 = Temperature Entering Evaporator

P1 = Suction Pressure (absolute)

P2 = Discharge Pressure (absolute)

P4 = Evaporator Pressure (absolute)

Qa = (h1-h4), kj/kg

Wc = (h2-h1), kj/kg

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 10

ME Lab

GRAPH: Automatic Expansion Valve

Plot cycle diagram using RED pen and specify state points.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 11

ME Lab

GRAPH: Thermostatic Expansion Valve

Plot cycle diagram using RED pen and specify state points.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 12

ME Lab

GRAPH: Capillary Tube

Plot cycle diagram using RED pen and specify state points.

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 13

ME Lab

Experiment Title: IMPACT OF JET OF WATER

Objectives:
a. To observe the reaction force created by the impact of a jet of water onto various shape of
surfaces.
b. To experimentally determine the force produced by the impact of jet of water and compare it
to the theoretically obtained value.

Summary of Theory:

Water Jet
When a jet of flowing water strikes a solid surface, the water is deflected to flow along the surface.
The impact of the water to the surface will then produce an impulse force that will then move the target.
If there is no friction and the there are no losses due to shocks, then it is assumed that the magnitude of
the water velocity is unchanged, and the pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will be at right
angles everywhere.

Impact on Different Surfaces

By component: Velocity of Jet = Vi cos Ɵ

Getting the force using Newton’s 2nd Law
F =mass x acceleration
Then,
-Fx = mass x ∆v
-Fx = mass x (VicosƟ – Vi)
Fx = mass x Vi (1 – cosƟ) ; mass = 𝝆𝑸𝑽

IMPACT OF JET OF WATER 1

ME Lab

Impact on a Flat Surface:

For a flat 180o plane target Ɵ is 90o, therefore cos Ɵ = 0
𝑭
= 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟏
𝝆𝑸𝑽

Impact on a 120o Conical and 30o Flat Plate Target

Target exit angle Ɵ 120o, therefore cos Ɵ = 0.5
𝑭
= 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝝆𝑸𝑽

Impact on Hemisphere Target

Target exit angle Ɵ 180o, therefore cos Ɵ = -1
𝑭
= 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐
𝝆𝑸𝑽

Experiment Procedures:

IMPACT OF JET OF WATER 2

ME Lab

Gathering Data:
1. Open the weight platform by unscrewing the screw nut and screwing the wing nut.
2. Attach the 5mm nozzle onto the bottom of the vertical shaft and hemisphere target vane onto
top vertical shaft.
3. Close the weight platform by unscrewing wing nut and screwing the screw nut.
4. Press the spring until it touches the target then adjust the pointer so that it lines with the weight
platform
5. Release the spring and adjust the spring tensioner until the weight platform and the pointer is
20mm apart, record this value as h.
6. Move the pointer again so that it lines with the weight platform.
7. Position the weight on the carrier and switch on the pump.
8. Adjust the control pump until the weight platform is aligned with the pointer.
9. Record the flow rate together with the weight on the carrier.
10. Reduce the weight and obtain the corresponding flow rate for the different weight.
11. Close the pump.
12. Repeat steps 1- 10 with different targets.

Experimental force of the impact of jet can be computed is given by the equation above
Fexp= 𝝆𝑸𝑽 x (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)

Theoretical value is simply given as Ftheo = mg

References
[01] Applied Fluid Mechanics 5th Edition by Robert L. Mott, Prentice Hall
[02] Elementary Fluid Mechaincs 7th Edition by Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K. Vennard, John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
[03] Fluid Mechancs 4th Edition by Reynold C. Binder
[04] Fluid Mechanics with applications by Anthony Esposito, Prentice-Hall International Inc.

IMPACT OF JET OF WATER 3

ME Lab

DATA SHEET

Inward Hemisphere
Weight Volume Time Flow Rate Nozzle Theoretical Experimental Percent Error
(g) (L) (s) (m3/s) Velocity Force Force
(m/s)
300
250
200

Flat 180o
Weight Volume Time Flow Rate Nozzle Theoretical Experimental Percent Error
(g) (L) (s) (m3/s) Velocity Force Force
(m/s)
300
250
200

Cone 120o
Weight Volume Time Flow Rate Nozzle Theoretical Experimental Percent Error
(g) (L) (s) (m3/s) Velocity Force Force
(m/s)
300
250
200

Flat 30o
Weight Volume Time Flow Rate Nozzle Theoretical Experimental Percent Error
(g) (L) (s) (m3/s) Velocity Force Force
(m/s)
300
250
200

IMPACT OF JET OF WATER 4

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME LABORATORY – POST LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC

EXPERIMENT NUMBER & TITLE: ____________________________________________________

GROUP NO.: ________ SECTION: _________ DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________

GROUP 1. 2.
MEMBERS: 3. 4.
5.

EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVES:
• ________________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________________

CATEGORY CRITERIA Score

Tables and relevant illustrations are shown
Calculations,
Presentation, and Calculations and computations are shown
Discussion of data Analyze, explains and interpret data
gathered
Discuss the importance of the experiment performed
Conclusion Draw a conclusion based on the analyzed/interpreted data
TOTAL POINTS

1. 2.
PEER EVALUATION
GRADE 3. 4.

5.