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lOMoARcPSD|16199068

CE 408
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD
ENGINEERING

Engr. Rodolfo L. Morales, Jr.

Dr. Cristina Amor M. Rosales

August 2020
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Course Rationale and Description

Highway and Railroad Engineering presents the methods and underlying principles for the
design and control of the elements of road and railroad infrastructure. The course will provide
familiarity with transportation system terminology, flow analysis, driver, vehicle and road
characteristics, and aspects of road geometrics, road construction, drainage, pavements and
maintenance.

Intended Learning Outcomes

• ILO 1- Define the basic concepts of highway and railroad transportation and present how
to apply them in civil engineering practice.
• ILO 2- Determine and compute the design principles associated with the geometry and
structure of highway and railway engineering systems.
• ILO 3- Develop basic traffic stream parameters and models, traffic flow models, and apply
the queuing theory.
• ILO 4- Explain the basic service requirements of the highway and detail the procedure to
conduct level of service analysis.

Criteria for Assessment

Intended Learning Outcomes

Assessment Tools Percentage, %
1 2 3 4
End of Module Assessment 20 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Midterm Exam 20 ✔
Final Exam 30 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Technical Study 30 ✔ ✔
Total 100 %
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Module 1 Introduction to Highway and Railroad Engineering

Introduction
Transportation has always been an important aspect of human civilization. In this module, the
student will learn the overview and development in transportation sectors including the different
modes of transportation, characteristics of road transport. This module will also explain the
transportation engineering profession and the scope of highway and railroad engineering, which is
the focus of this course.
Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. explain the timeline of development of transportation sector, development of transportation

infrastructure
2. present the evolution of transportation engineering profession, its various specialization
and the scope of highway and railroad engineering

This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be attained:

1. The development and significance of transportation

2. Different Modes of Transportation
3. Different Transportation Infrastructures
4. Transportation Engineering: evolution and its specialization
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Topic 1: The Development and Significance of Transportation

Transportation is a means in which people and goods are moved from one place to another.
It is considered as the circulatory system of a society. The increasing transportation demand for
systematized mobility of people, goods and services as part of rural development and urbanization
all over the country indicates the need to increase specialists for the transportation sector.

One of the advocates of transportation, Prof. Rodrigue, in his book on transportation

geography, highlighted how transportation shapes the development of the world. The economic
and social development of people evolve with how transportation is being shaped in its locale. To
quote:

The unique purpose of transportation is to overcome space, which is

shaped by a variety of human and physical constraints such as distance,
time, administrative divisions, and topography. Jointly, they confer
friction to any movement, commonly known as the friction of distance
(or friction of space). In an ideal world, transportation would come at
no effort in terms of cost and time and would have unlimited capacity
and spatial reach. Under such circumstances, geography would not
matter. In the real world, however, geography can be a significant
constraint to transport since it trades space for time and money and can
only be partially circumscribed. The extent to which this is done has a
cost that varies significantly according to factors such as the length of
the trip, the capacity of modes and infrastructures, and the nature of
what is being transported. Transport geography can be understood from
a series of eight core principles:

1. Transportation is the spatial linking of derived demand.

2. Distance is a relative concept involving space, time, and effort.
3. Space is at the same time the generator, support, and a constraint for mobility.
4. The relation between space and time can converge or diverge.
5. A location can be central, where it generates and attracts traffic, or an intermediate
element where traffic transits through.
6. To overcome geography, transportation must consume space.
7. Transportation seeks massification but is constrained by atomization.
8. Velocity is a modal, intermodal, and managerial effort.
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Topic 2: Different Modes of Transportation

The earliest form of transportation is by foot. Now, transportation may vary from land travel to
space travel. Listed below are some examples of different modes of transportation:
1. Land
a. By foot
b. Animal-pulled wagons
c. Bicycle
d. Cars
e. Buses
f. Trains
2. Water
a. Boats
b. Ships
c. Submarines
d. Hovercrafts (fig. 1.2.1)
3. Air
a. Airplanes
b. Helicopters
4. Others
a. Ski lifts (cable transport) (fig. 1.2.2)
b. Spacecrafts (space transport)

Fig. 1.1.a. Hovercraft Fig. 1.1.b. Ski lift

(image from industrytap.com) (image from cit)

With recent concerns of mobility specifically in urban areas, mode of transportation is

being reviewed and revisited by transport experts and travel enthusiasts. Figure below presents the
New Reverse Traffic Pyramid presented by Bicycle Network in Australia. This pyramid aims to
suggest an approach to city and urban planning that appropriately prioritizes active travel and aims
to decrease the congestion and pollution of a car-centric city.
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Figure 1.2. The Reverse Traffic Pyramid

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Topic 3: Different Transportation Infrastructures

The innovation of modes of transportation comes hand in hand with different transportation
infrastructures. The following are examples of common transportation infrastructures:

● Roads
- Highways
- Walkways
- Bicycle lanes
- Bridges
- Tunnels
● Railways
● Stations
● Ports
● Airports

In the Philippines, the road infrastructures are managed and monitored by the Department of Public
Works and Highways (DPWH). The DPWH is mandated to undertake (a) the planning of
infrastructure, such as national roads and bridges, flood control, water resources projects and other
public works, and (b) the design, construction, and maintenance of national roads and bridges, and
major flood control systems. The Department of Transportation (DOTr), on the other hand, focuses
on other modes of transportation such as railway (PNR, MRT, and LRT), airport, and ports (PPA).

Further readings:
Boquet Y. (2017) Transportation in the Philippines. In: The Philippine Archipelago. Springer
Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51926-5_15
DPWH Atlas (2019). Philippine National Road Network. Accessed through
https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/2019%20DPWH%20ATLAS/index.htm
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Topic 4: Transportation Engineering: Evolution and Its Specialization

Application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operations and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods. - Institute of Transportation Engineering (ITE)

Transport engineers plan, design and operate the large public and private infrastructure
systems that connect our physical world. - University of New South Wales (UNSW), Australia

Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the

design, operation, planning and management of transportation infrastructure, mobility service,
traffic, and travelers for various travel modes, in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally sustainable movement of people and
goods. - Columbia University, New York

Evolution
Mobility of people can be traced as early as the paleolithic age when people sought to travel
to different continents. Pathways created by animals are also considered as the start of
transportation networks. Evidence showed how humans followed animal tracks for walking which
eventually evolved into a clear path for humans to move from one location to another. With the
introduction of the wheel about 7,000 years ago, the larger, heavier loads that could be transported
showed the limitations of dirt paths that turned into muddy bogs when it rained. The earliest stone
paved roads have been traced to about 4,000 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent and Mesopotamia
(see figure).
The roadway construction, on the other hand, can be traced to Roman civilization wherein
roads are made of blocks of rocks embedded on soil and are used as carriageways. The Romans
developed techniques to build durable roads using multiple layers of materials atop deep beds of
crushed stone for water drainage. Some of those roads remain in use more than 2,000 years later,
and the fundamental techniques form the basis of today's roads.
Modern road-construction techniques can be traced to a process developed by Scottish
engineer John McAdam in the early 19th century. McAdam topped multi-layer roadbeds with a
soil and crushed stone aggregate that was then packed down with heavy rollers to lock it all
together. Contemporary asphalt roads capable of supporting the vehicles that emerged in the 20th
century built upon McAdams' methods by adding tar as a binder.
The actual process of road building has changed dramatically over the past century, going from
large gangs of workers with picks and shovels to enormous specialized machines. Rebuilding
existing roads starts with peeling up existing pavement, grinding it and dumping it straight into
trucks for reuse later as aggregate for new roads. After grading the surface, pavers come in and lay
down fresh, continuous sheets of asphalt followed directly by the rollers.
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Figure 4.1 Ancient Road in Greece

(Archaeological Site of Dion, Macedonia, Greece; taken June 2015)

In the pre-industrial revolution, transport technology was mainly limited to harnessing animal
labor for land transport and to wind for maritime transport. Initially, ships were propelled by
rowers, and sails were added around 2,500 BCE as a complementary form of propulsion. Most of
the technical innovations that modified the transportation sector took place in a short period of
industrial era, mainly between 1760 and 1800. It was during this industrial revolution that massive
modifications of transport systems occurred in two major phases: the first, centered along with the
development of canal systems and the second, centered along railways. This period marked the
development of the steam engine, an external combustion engine that converted thermal energy
into mechanical energy, providing an important territorial expansion for maritime and railway
transport systems.
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Figure 4.2 demonstrates the evolution of different transportation sectors from the 18th century.

Figure 4.1 Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century

(Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2020), The Geography of Transport Systems, Fifth Edition, New York: Routledge)

Subdisciplines in Transportation Engineering

Traffic Engineering is the subdiscipline of transportation engineering that addresses the planning,
design and operation of streets and highways, their networks, adjacent land uses and interaction
with other modes of transportation and their terminals (ITE)

Highway Engineering involved in the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance
of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods.

Railway Systems Engineering a field of engineering which deals with the design, construction,
and operation of all railway systems. This specialization is a multifaceted science as it involves
different engineering disciplines such as mechanical engineering, computer engineering, civil
engineering, electrical engineering, production engineering and industrial engineering.

Airport Engineering is the field responsible for engineering standards and research for design,
equipment, and airfield development at civil airports. It is also responsible for airport data, safety-
related airport airspace issues, and facilitating innovative methods of improving airport
infrastructure

Ports and Harbor Engineering handle the design, construction, and operation of ports, harbors,
canals, and other maritime facilities. Recently, this is also termed as navigation engineering, a
civil engineering specialty that involves the life-cycle planning, design, construction, operation,
and maintenance of safe, secure, reliable, efficient, and environmentally sustainable navigable
waterways (channels, structures, and support systems) used to move people and goods by
waterborne vessels.
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End of Module Assessment

Upload your answers to our google classroom.

1. What mode of transportation do you think is most applicable in the Philippines? In your
community? Explain. Limit your answers to 300 words.

Notes:
1. You may refer to further readings in topic 3.
2. Think technical. Avoid flowery words as we are now in our professional course.

Bibliography:
Jean-Paul Rodrigue (2020), The Geography of Transport Systems, 5th edition. New York:
Routledge, 456 pages. ISBN 978-0-367-36463-2
Boquet Y. (2017) Transportation in the Philippines. In: The Philippine Archipelago. Springer
Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51926-5_15
Mannering Fred, Washburn Scott,Kilaresky Walter. 2004. Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic
Analysis. Muze Inc.
Wright, Paul H. 2003. Highway Engineering.Wiley & Sons.
Garber, Nicholas and Hoel, Lester. 2001.Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing.
Fajardo, Max Jr. B., Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition, 5138. Merchandising Publisher,
Manila,1998.
Lay, Maxwell G (1992). Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that Used
Them. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2691-1

Websites:
https://www.asce.org/
https://www.ite.org/
https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a4447/the-road-ahead-road-evolution/
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/back0506.cfm
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Module 2 Highway and Railways Development: Planning and Design

Introduction

Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. Define and understand road classifications and their uses

2. Understand different planning considerations for each road classification

This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be attained:

1. Road classifications and hierarchy

2. Considerations for highway planning
3. Design criteria for highways and railways
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Topic 1: Road Classifications and Hierarchy

In general, highways are based upon two primary functions:

a. MOBILITY: Continuous, high-speed travel

b. ACCESSIBILITY: Ability to get to destination Direct access to adjoining property

Figure 2.1.1 Proportion of Service for classifying highways

In the Philippines, roads and highways are classified and named according to their functions. Based
on DPWH D.O. No. 133, s. 2018, Philippine roads are classified as follows:

1. National Roads (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary)

National roads are continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line system.
● Primary roads
○ connect major cities (at least around 100,000 population) and comprise the
national road system
● Secondary roads
○ connect cities to National Primary Roads, except in metropolitan areas.
○ connect major airports to National Primary Roads
○ connect tourist service centers to National Primary Roads or other National
Secondary Roads
○ connect cities not classified as major cities
○ connect provincial capitals within the same region
○ connect National Primary Roads to National Government Infrastructures
● Tertiary roads
○ other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function
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2. Bypass/Diversion Roads
These roads divert through traffic away from the city/municipality business centers.

3. Provincial Roads
Provincial roads connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads. They
also connect National Roads to major provincial infrastructures as well as to barangays
through rural areas.

4. Municipal and City Roads

Roads within a Poblacion that provide inter-barangay connections to major municipal and
city infrastructures without traversing Provincial Roads.

5. Barangay Roads
Other roads within the barangay and not covered in the above definitions

6. Expressways
These are highways with limited access, normally with interchanges. They may include
facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.

Other highway classifications by functions:

7. By-passes
These are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let through
traffic flow without interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve road
safety where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed system

8. Parkways
These are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of access,
usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development.
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Topic 2: Considerations for Highway Planning

Along with its highway classifications, roads have different planning considerations based on their
functions.

1. National Roads
● Limited frontage access
● Development set well back from the highway
● All access to premises provided via provincial roads
● Number of intersections are minimized
● Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for minor flows and other elements

2. Expressways
● No frontage access
● Development set well back from the highway
● Grade-separated intersections for extremely high flows and other intersecting
expressways
● Number of intersections are minimized
● Where necessary or for emergency purposes, parking/stopping to be provided clear
of the main carriageway

3. Provincial Roads
● Limited frontage access. In exceptional circumstances, large individual
developments may have direct access when a high level intersection is provided
● Development set back from the highway
● Most development to be given access via intersections with local distributor roads
● All intersections will normally be at-grade
● Turning traffic should be separated out from the through traffic
● Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote from the carriageway
● Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly defined and controlled
● Parking on the road should not be permitted
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay bys
● Regular stopping places should be identified and safe stopping places established

4. City/Municipal Roads
● The road is only for local traffic; through traffic is adequately accommodated on an
alternative more direct main road
● Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass through a residential area
● Vehicle speeds should be kept low so long straight roads should be avoided
● Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be made if possible
● Non-motorized traffic is of equal importance to motor traffic and separate should
be provided if possible
● Where non-motorized traffic needs to use a local distributor it should be separated
from motorized traffic
● The road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give emphasis to crossing
points depending upon traffic flows
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● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay-bys
● Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient to discourage
them

Table 2.2.1. Summary of Minimum Requirements of different of roads in the Philippines

Classification of Road Road Right of way Width of travelled way Allowable grade
(min, m) 2-lane (%, maximum)
(min, m)

National 20.00 6.70 6.0

Provincial 15.00 6.10 6.0

City 15.00 6.10 6.0

Municipal 15.00 6.10 6.0

Barangay 10.00 4.00 10.0

Tourism 2.10 6.10 6.0

Farm to Market Road 6.00 4.00 10.00

In addition to these considerations, the following design data are necessary in planning and design
of highways and railroads:

a. Field Survey Information

Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
distance, cross sections and other design elements of a highway. Hills, valleys, steep slopes, rivers
and lakes often imposed limitations upon location and design. In the case of flat-land areas,
topography in itself may exercise little if any control on location but it may cause difficulties in
some design elements such as drainage or grade separation.

b. Highway Location
Highway location is concerned with gathering of pertinent data for more effective highway
planning, design, construction and operation. It consists mainly of reconnaissance, topographic
surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical controls, centerline staking, centerline profile and
cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey, parcellary survey, and other surveys related to highway
engineering. The survey shall be under the direct supervision of a Locating Engineer.

i. Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the best possible horizontal and vertical alignments.
Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and other controls are identified. Bridge
crossings, expensive buildings and structures are also noted. Reconnaissance is substantiated by
the study of available maps, and stereoscopic examination of the site on foot, all of which aid in
the elimination of costly locations to limit the choice to one or two possible routes.

ii. Preliminary Survey

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In the preliminary survey the topography of the strip or strips flagged is obtained and from which
a topographic map will be prepared to be utilized as the basic framework for projection of the line
in the office.
The required preliminary borings shall include review of available topographic and geologic
information, plus aerial photographs, in addition to site examination.

iii. Utility Service Records

Depending on the location of a project, the utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers, (2)
water supply lines, (3) oil, gas and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and underground
power and communication lines including fiber optic cables, (5) cable television lines, (6) wireless
communication towers, (7) drainage and irrigation lines, and (8) special tunnels for building
connections.

Utility service providers should be consulted and records obtained for all services in a project area,
including exact locations and depths. Obtaining Utility service records benefits both highway
agencies and the impacted utilities in the following ways;
● Unnecessary utility relocations are avoided
● Unexpected conflicts with utilities are reduced
● Safety is enhanced

For the typical Roadway Section showing the location of service utilities, refer Figure 2.2.1 to
Figure 2.2.2.

iv. Office Projection

In the office, the proposed highway line is projected on the topographic map which is fitted as
close as possible into the terrain within the desired standards. Many lines should be tried so as to
obtain the most economical line without increasing the cost of surveys. This is a trial and error
process to obtain the best line, in consideration of constraints such as alignment, grades, sight
distances and compensation.

v. Final Location Survey

Final location survey is done to transfer the office projection of the best line to the actual site in
the field.
Whenever possible, video logs of a site with chainages are a useful tool to assist the process of
designing upgrading and rehabilitation schemes.
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Figure 2.2.1. Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Urbanized Areas showing Underground Service
Utilities
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Figure 2.2.1. Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Rural Areas showing Underground Service
Utilities
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Topic 3: Design Criteria for Highways and Railways

The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe roads for all road users, and not just those in motor
vehicles. The principle that ‘man is the reference standard’ implies that roads must be adapted to
the limitations of human capacity. This leads to what is called the ‘safe systems approach’ which
encourages:
● Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less reliance on traffic signs).
● Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds (the safe speed being the one that
guarantees the safety of the most vulnerable road user).
● Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed, traversable space beyond
the edge of the travelled way for recovery of errant vehicles).
● The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road Design Manual also discusses.
● Functionality – developing a hierarchy of mono-functional roads (e.g. truck,
distributor and access).
● Homogeneity – avoiding differences in speed, direction of travel, and mass of
vehicles (with segregation of incompatible road users).
● Predictability – ensuring that roads are easy to understand and there are not nasty
surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

The characteristics listed below are controls in optimizing or improving the design of the various
highway and street functional classes.

1. Human Factors and Driver Performance

The suitability of a design rests as much on how effectively drivers are able to use the highway
as on any other criteria. Considerations include;
● Driver tasks that include vehicle control (such as simultaneous multiple tasks and
reaction time), guidance (such as road following, lane placement, car following, passing
maneuvers and response to traffic control devices) and navigation.
● Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
● Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.
● Speed.

Properly designed highways that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a high level
of efficiency and with relatively few crashes.

The World Health Organization recorded 1.35 million people died due to road traffic crashes. More
than 90% of this recorded fatal road crashes occur in low-and middle-income countries. More so,
2019 statistics showed that the leading cause of death for children and young-adults aged 5 to 29
years is road traffic injuries (WHO). The organization tackles road safety through Decade of
Action for Road Safety 2011-2020.

In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906 incidents of road traffic crashes in
Metro Manila alone. On average there were 334 reported accidents per day with one resulting in
fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to damages to property (topgear.com). This leads to
the Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-2022, a program developed by the Department of
Transportation adopting a vision of zero road traffic death, with an interim target to reduce road
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death rate by at least 20% by 2022. The interventions are organized according to the Action Plan
of the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the following: (1) road safety
management, (2) safe roads and mobility; (3) safe vehicles; (4) safe road users; and (5) post-crash
care.

2. Vehicles
Four general classes of design vehicles are (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4)
recreational vehicles. In the design of any highway facility, the designer should consider the largest
design vehicle that is likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle
with special characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the design of such
critical features as radii at intersections and radii of turning roadways (refer to Table 2.3.1 and
Table 2.3.2). As a general rule;
● A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
● A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential streets and
park roads.
● A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector streets
and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
● A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are designated
bus routes and that have relatively few large trucks using them.

Table 2.3.1. Design Vehicle Dimension

Table 2.3.2. Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles

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3. Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes and traffic
characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from field studies (such as hourly and daily traffic
volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends) can indicate the need for improvement
and directly influence the selection of geometric design features, such as number of lanes, widths,
alignments and grades. Relevant studies include average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic,
directional distribution, composition of traffic, projection of future traffic demands, speed and
traffic flow relationships characterized by the volume flow rate in vehicles per hour, the average
speed in kilometers per hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per kilometer.

4. Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity, access control and management, pedestrians, bicycle
facilities, safety and environment.
Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to properly fit a planned highway to traffic demands.
Access control to manage interference with through traffic is achieved through the regulation of
public access rights to and from properties abutting the highway facilities, and can comprise full
control, partial control, access management or driveway/entrance regulations.
Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, curb cuts, ramps, bus
stops, loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due attention in both rural and urban
areas.
Existing streets and highways provide most of the network used by bicycle travel, making bicycle
traffic an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of decisions that need to be made by the
driver, it is in the interest of safety that roadways should be designed to reduce the need for driver
decisions and to reduce unexpected situations.
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5. Economic Factors
Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the benefits
resulting from it.

The following are the design controls of highway construction

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume

The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all data relating to traffic such
as traffic volume, character of traffic and axle loading. Financing, quality of foundations,
availability of materials, cost of right-of-way, and other factors have important bearing on the
design. However, traffic volume indicates the service for which the improvement is being made
and directly affects the geometric features of design such as width, alignment, grades, etc. It is no
more rational to design a highway without traffic information than it is to design a bridge without
the knowledge of weights and numbers of vehicles it is intended to support. Traffic information
serves to establish the ‘loads’ for geometric highway design.

A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can be readily changed to accommodate
the number of vehicles which is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life. This number is
called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the minimum life is commonly
assumed to be 10 to 15 years for a flexible pavement, and 20 years for a rigid pavement. Traffic
volumes are usually the annual average daily traffic (AADT), though at critical points on a road,
such as intersections, peak traffic figures are also taken into account. The number of vehicles using
a road in a given time determines the number of traffic lanes required and indicates whether there
is a need for auxiliary lanes for slow speed traffic and or whether speed change lanes are required
at intersections.
The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year chosen for design. It
should be predicated on current traffic (existing and attracted) plus all traffic increases (normal
traffic growth, generated traffic and development traffic) that would occur during the period
between the current and the future year chosen for design. A period of 20 years is widely used as
a basis for design, for which the usual traffic increase on a highway improvement is in the range
of 50 to 150%. Where the highway is to be an expressway, traffic increase is likely to be higher,
in the range of 80 to 200%.

On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On most highways
a DHV equal to the 30th highest hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30 HV’) is usually used for design.
On highways with unusual or highly seasonal fluctuation in traffic flow, it may be necessary to
use a design hourly volume other than the 30 HV.

The design traffic data should include the following elements:

● ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.
● ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
● DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified (DHV usually
equals 30 HV).
● K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to 12% for Urban.
● D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction of travel
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expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from about 50 to 80% of two-way

DHV, with an average of 67%.
● T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of DHV. As an
average on main rural highways, T is 7 to 9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where weekend
peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.

For important intersections, data should be obtained to show simultaneous traffic movement during
both the morning and evening peak hours.

2. Character of Traffic
All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, passenger vehicles, handcarts, cyclists
and pedestrians with safety and convenience. A thorough knowledge of the design vehicle’s
weight, dimensions, mobility and other characteristics is essential for good design.
The vehicle which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which represents
a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design of most highways
accommodating truck traffic, one of the design semitrailer combinations should be used – refer to
Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2. A design check should be made for the largest vehicle expected to
ensure that such a vehicle can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements are curbed.
This is done using a swept path analysis using either turning circle templates or software.
Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required width of lane could
be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths of traffic lanes required,
dividing islands, curbs and gutter, shoulders and/or walkways, ditches or gutters, drains and other
special features.

3. Design Speed
The design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of the highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features
of the highway govern. The choice of design is influenced principally by the character of terrain,
the extent of man-made features and economic considerations. Once selected, it sets the limits for
curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. In the design of a substantial length of
highway it is desirable, although it may not be feasible, to assume a constant design speed on
certain sections. Changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a change in design
speed on certain sections. If so, the introduction of a lower or higher design speed should not be
affected abruptly but over a sufficient distance to permit drivers to change speed gradually before
reaching the section of highway with the different design speed.
When available funds are limited, it is impractical to reduce design speed just to save construction
cost; rather the savings should be on other features.

4. Design Traffic (vehicles)

The operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be considered in analyzing a facility. The
major considerations are vehicle types and dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking, resistance
to motion, power requirements, acceleration performance, and deceleration performance. Motor
vehicles include passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses, recreational vehicles, and motorcycles. These
vehicles have unique weight, length, size, and operational characteristics. The forces that must be
lOMoARcPSD|16199068

overcome by motor vehicles if they are to move are rolling, air, grade, curve, and inertial
resistance. The weight/power ratios are useful for indicating the overall performance in
overcoming these forces.

5. Highway Capacity
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these influence the
capacity of a road; in others, they can affect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

● Number of lanes
● The type of facility and its development environment
● Lane widths
● Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
● Design speed
● Horizontal and vertical alignments
● Axle loads
● Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections

The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depends on the design speed and the
topography of the land on which it is constructed.

In general, the severity of the terrain reduces capacity and service flow rates. This is significant
for two-lane rural highways, where the severity of terrain not only can affect the operating
capabilities of individual vehicles in the traffic stream, but also can restrict opportunities for
passing slow-moving vehicles.

6. Classification of Highway
Certain characteristics distinguish multilane suburban and rural highways from expressways. For
example, vehicles may enter or leave multilane highways at intersections and driveways, and they
can encounter traffic signals.
Design standards for multilane highways tend to be lower than those for expressways, although a
multilane highway approaches expressway conditions as its access points and turning volumes
approach zero. Moreover, the visual setting and the developed frontage along multilane highways
have a greater impact on drivers than they do along expressways.
The multilane highway is similar to urban streets in many respects, although it lacks the regularity
of traffic signals and tends to have greater control on the number of access points per kilometer.
Also, its design standards are generally higher than those for urban streets. The speed limits on
multilane highways are often 10 to 20 kph higher than speed limits on urban streets. Pedestrian
activity, as well as parking, is minimal, unlike on urban streets.
Multilane highways differ substantially from two-lane highways, principally because a driver on
a multilane highway is able to pass slower-moving vehicles without using lanes designated for
oncoming traffic. Multilane highways also tend to be located near urban areas and often connect
urban areas; they usually have better design features than two-lane highways, including horizontal
and vertical curvature.
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7. Accident information
On all proposed projects, the accident history should be analyzed and potentially hazardous
features and locations identified to determine appropriate safety enhancement. A study of accidents
by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances, environmental conditions, and time periods
may suggest possible safety deficiencies.

Table 2.3.3 and Table 2.3.4 contain the minimum design standards for Philippine highways and
for tourism roads respectively.

Table 2.3.3. Minimum Design Standards for Highways except Tourism Roads

Table 2.3.4. Minimum Design Standards for Tourism Roads

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Module 3 Geometric Design for Highways and Railways

Introduction
Geometric design of highways and railways refers to their dimensional and spatial
characteristics. Highways and railways vary in shape, elevation, size, etc. depending on
their purpose and location. Geometry also defines the position of a highway with
reference to the objects around it.

Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:
1. Design and analyze a vertical curve
2. Design and analyze a horizontal curve
3. Consider the importance of balance between geometry and safety in designing
highway curves
This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be
attained:
1. Vertical alignment
2. Horizontal alignment
3. Super elevation
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Topic 1: Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment means the elevation of different points along a roadway.

Elevations are designed to provide an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort,
and proper drainage. The main concern in designing the vertical alignment of roads is by
establishing a transition of roadway elevations between to grades. This transition is
achieved by means of a vertical curve.
Vertical curves are classified into crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves.
Figure 3.1.1 shows the two curves.

Figure 3.1.1. Crest and sag vertical curves (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering, S. S. Washburn)

G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m; referred to also as the initial

tangent grade
G2 = final roadway grade in percent or m/m
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final)
L = length of curve in meters measured in a constant elevation horizontal
plane
PVC = point of the vertical curve (initial point of the curve)
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
*Note: in a symmetrical vertical curve, PVI is located at L/2
PVT = point of vertical tangent (final point of the curve)
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It is important to know that in connecting roadway grades, a parabolic curve is

found to be suitable because it provides a constant change of slope. The general form of
the parabolic equation is
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (Eq. 3.1.1)
where
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical curve (PVC),
in meters
x = distance from the beginning of the curve, in meters
c = elevation of PVC (since at PVC, x = 0)

In defining b, we will be taking the first derivative of y, that is

(Eq. 3.1.2)

At PVC, x = 0 so

(Eq. 3.1.3)

In defining a, the second derivative of y will now be taken, that is

(Eq. 3.1.4)

The second derivative of a parabolic function can also be defined as the rate of
change of slope of the tangent line, so it can be written in terms of G1, G2, and L, that is

(Eq. 3.1.5)
Combining Eq. 3.1.4 and Eq. 3.1.5

(Eq. 3.1.6)
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Example 3.1

A 200-m symmetrical vertical curve must be designed such that its initial and final grades
are -5% and +4.5% respectively. If PVC is located at STA 1 + 11.5 with an elevation of
50m, determine the stationing and elevation of PVI, PVT, and the lowest point of the
curve. 1 station = 20 meters.
Given:
G1 = 2%
G2 = -1.5%
PVC @ STA 0 + 120
Elev PVC = 50m
Required:
Elevation and location of PVI
Elevation and location of PVT
Elevation and location of the lowest point
Solution:
Location of PVT: STA 11 + 11.5
Location of PVI: STA 6 + 11.5 (symmetrical)

Recall eq. 3.1.1,

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Solving for a

Solving for b
𝑏 = 𝐺1 = −0.05
Substituting the values of a and b to the general formula
𝑦 = 0.0002375𝑥 2 − 0.05𝑥 + 50
@PVT, where x = 200, y = 49.50
Thus, the elevation of PVT is
Elev PVT = 49.50 m
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@PVI, where x = 100, y = 49.738

Thus, the elevation of PVI is
Elev PVI = 47.375 m

Since the grades are of different signs, the location of the lowest point is defined
by x where dy/dx = 0

𝑥 = 105.263

Lowest point is located at STA 6 + 16.763

@ x = 105.263, y = 47.3684
Elev Lowest Point = 47.368 m

Final Answers:
Location of PVT: STA 11 + 11.5, Elev PVT = 49.50 m
Location of PVI: STA 6 + 11.5, Elev PVI = 47.375 m
Lowest point is located at STA 6 + 16.763, Elev Lowest Point = 47.368 m
lOMoARcPSD|16199068

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

In designing a highway curve, it is important to consider not only its geometry but
also its safety. Stopping Sight Distance can be defined as the minimum distance a vehicle
can travel starting from the driver seeing an obstruction, reacting to it, hitting the brakes,
and the vehicle coming to a full stop. It is a factor of the driver’s reaction time, vehicle’s
speed, roadway grade, and road and tire friction. Eq. 3.1.7 shows the formula used to
calculate SSD

(Eq. 3.1.7)

where,
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
v = vehicle’s speed, in meters per second
t = driver’s reaction time, in seconds
f = coefficient of friction
G = roadway grade
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2

Take note that the first term corresponds to the reaction distance and the second term
corresponds to the braking distance.

Example 3.2
A vehicle is travelling at 35 kilometers per hour. Its driver is about to hit a 2-meter high
wall 30 meters away if he did not react accordingly. Assuming the coefficient of friction
between the road and tires is 0.35 and the driver steps on the brakes 2 seconds after
seeing the obstruction, will he hit the wall? The road is perfectly horizontal.
Given:
v = 35 kph = 9.72 m/s
t = 2 seconds
f = 0.35
G=0
Required:
If SSD > 30, will the vehicle hit the wall?
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Solution:
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝐺)
(9.72)2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = (9.72)(2) +
2(9.81)(0.35)
𝑆𝑆𝐷 =33.20
Since SSD = 33.20 m > 30 m, the driver will hit the wall.

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.2. SSD and crest vertical curve (Image taken from ascelibrary.com)

The equations used in designing a crest vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

(Eq. 3.1.8)
Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.9)
where,
Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in meters
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S = stopping sight distance, in meters

H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway surface, in meters
H2 = height of obstruction above roadway surface, in meters
A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example 3.3
Determine the length of the vertical curve with a stopping sight distance of 230
meters. Its initial and final grades are +1.75% and -2.05% respectively. The driver’s eye
level above the roadway surface is 150 centimeters and the height of obstruction is 100
centimeters.
Given:
S = 230 m
G1 = +1.75%
G2 = -2.05%
H1 = 150 cm = 1.5 m
H2 = 100 cm = 1.0 m
Required:
L
Solution:
Solve for A
𝐴 = |−2.05 − 1.75| = 3.80

Next, we assume that S < L

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿= 2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
(3.80)(2302 )
𝐿= 2
200(√1.5 + √1.0)
𝐿 =203.07
Since 230 > 203.07, our assumption was wrong. We now move on to the next equation
where S > L
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2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
𝐿𝑚 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
2
200(√1.5 + √1.0)
𝐿𝑚 = 2(230) −
3.80
𝐿𝑚 =199.5 m

The statement S > L holds true in this case, so the length of the vertical curve is
199.5m.

SSD and Sag Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.3. SSD and sag vertical curve (Image taken from thetruthaboutcars.com)

The equations used in designing a sag vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

(Eq. 3.1.10)
Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.11)

where, Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in meters

S = stopping sight distance, in meters
H = height of headlight above roadway, in meters
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α = inclined angle of headlight beam, in degrees

A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example 3.4
A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping sight distance of 310 m. Its initial and
final grades are -1.2% and +2.1% respectively. The average height of the headlights of
the vehicles that will pass through this road is 60 centimeters and α is set at 1°. Determine
the length of the curve.
Given:
SSD = 310 m
G1 = -3.2%
G2 = +2.1%
H = 60 cm = 0.6 m
α = 1°
Required:
L
Solution:
Solve for A
𝐴 = |2.1 − (−3.2)| = 5.3
Next, we assume that S < L
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚 =
200(𝐻 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)

(5.3)(310)2
𝐿𝑚 =
200(0.6 + 310𝑡𝑎𝑛(1°))

𝐿 = 423.66
The statement S < L holds true in this case, thus L = 423.66 m.
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Topic 2: Horizontal Alignment

In its simplest description, horizontal alignment of a roadway is all about road
corners/cornering. Horizontal curves provide a directional transition between two straight
sections of a roadway. The main concern in designing a horizontal curve is considering
the cornering capabilities of the vehicle.
In connecting two straight roads, the most common is using a simple circular curve.
Other options may be reverse curves, compound curves, and spiral curves. Reverse
curves are just two simple circular curves that turn in opposite directions. Compound
curves are circular curves in succession. Spiral curves have continuously changing
radius.

Simple Circular Horizontal Curve

Figure 3.2.1 Elements of a simple circular curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S. Washburn)

In designing a simple circular curve, the following factors are considered:

R = radius of the curve, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in
meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
T = tangent length, in meters
E = external distance, in meters
M = middle ordinate, in meters
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PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)

PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)
L = length of curve, in meters

Another consideration is the degree of curve, D, which is the central angle subtended by
one station (20m).

The following equations are used in designing a simple circular curve:

Length of Tangent, T

(Eq. 3.2.1)
External Distance, E

(Eq. 3.2.2)
Middle Ordinate, M

(Eq. 3.2.3)
Length of Curve, L

(Eq. 3.2.4)
Degree of curve, D w/ 1 station = 20 meters

(Eq. 3.2.5)

Example 3.5
A horizontal curve is to be designed with PI located at STA 23 + 00. The radius of the
curve is 500 meters and the length of its tangent is 100 m. Determine the location of PT,
external distance, middle ordinate, and degree of curve. 1 station = 20 meters
lOMoARcPSD|16199068

Given:
R = 500 meters
T = 100 meters
PI @ STA 23 + 00
Required:
Location of the PT, external distance, middle ordinate, degree of curve
Solution:
Use the formula for length of tangent to determine Δ
𝛥
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
𝛥
100 = 500𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
𝛥 = 22.62°
We can now solve for the length of the curve, L
𝜋𝑅𝛥
𝐿= 180

𝐿 = 197.40 𝑚
Location of PT is @ STA 32 + 17.40
Solving for external distance, E
𝛥
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑐 −𝑅
2
E = 9.90 m
Solving for middle ordinate, M
𝛥
𝑀 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
M = 9.71 m

Solving for the degree of the curve, D

20𝛥
𝐷=
𝐿
D = 0.90°
lOMoARcPSD|16199068

Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curves

Stopping sight distance is also considered in designing horizontal curves to provide
safety.

Figure 3.2.2 SSD and simple circular horizontal curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S.
Washburn)
where
R = radius measured to the centerline of the road, in meters
Rv = radius to the vehicle’s path, usually measured to the center of the
innermost lane, in meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
Δs = angle subtended by an arc equal in length to the SSD
L = length of curve, in meters
Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate SSD, in meters
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)

The equations used in computing the relationship of horizontal curves and SSD are:

(Eq. 3.2.6)
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rearranging the term,

(Eq. 3.2.7)

Using the equation of the middle ordinate (Eq. 3.2.3), we can come up with this formula
for Ms:

(Eq. 3.2.8)
Example 3.6
A 2-lane road curve has a radius of 450 meters. If the required stopping sight distance is
210 meters, what is the allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road?
Each lane has a width of 3 meters.
Given:
R = 450 m
SSD = 210 meters
lane width = 3 meters
Required:
Allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road
Solution:
First, solve for Rv
𝑅𝑣 = 450 − 1.5
Rv = 448.5 m
Solving for Ms

90(210)
𝑀𝑠 = 448.5 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ ])
𝜋(448.5)
Ms = 12.23 m
dallow = 12.23 - 1.5
dallow = 10.73 meters
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Topic 3: Superelevation

Banking Curve

Figure 3.2.1 Interaction of forces in a banking vehicle (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S.
Washburn)
where
Rv = radius of curvature of the vehicle’s path, in meters
α = angle of inclination, in degrees
e = vertical rise in meters per 100 m of horizontal distance, also called
superelevation, usually expressed in percentage
W = weight of the vehicle, in Newtons
Wn = weight of the vehicle normal to the road surface, in Newtons
Wp = weight of the vehicle parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Ff = side frictional force, in Newtons
Fc = centripetal force, in Newtons
Fcp = centripetal force parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Fcn = centripetal force normal to the road surface, in Newtons

Using the concepts of mechanics, one can come up with the following equation:

(Eq. 3.3.1)
where,
fs = coefficient of side friction
g = gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2
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Example 3.7
A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75 kilometers per hour. One of its
horizontal curves is designed to be simple circular having a radius of 195 meters. What
should be the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal so that the vehicles will not
overturn? The coefficient of side friction is set at 0.15.
Given:
v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
Rv = 1050 meters
fs = 0.15
Required:
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal
Solution:
Solve for the value of superelevation, e

20.832
195 =
9.81(0.15 + 𝑒)
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟖 or 7.68%

The relationship of superelevation and the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal,
θ, is shown by the figure below

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒/100
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 7.68/100
θ = 4.39°
lOMoARcPSD|16199068

End of Module Exercises

Answer the following exercises and submit them in our classroom.
1. To create a transition between two roadways, a simple circular curve will not be
enough. Designing a compound curve is now being considered. See figure below:

You are provided the following information:

R1 = 630 m
I1 = 50°
R2 = 410 m
I2 = 35°
If PI is located at STA 520 + 12, what is the location of the PC? location of the
PT?
Hints: Loc. PC = Loc PI - x - T1
Loc. PT = Loc PC + Lc1 + Lc2
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2. A reversed curve is shown below. PRC is located at STA 427 + 09. The radius of
the first curve is 750 meters and subtends an angle of 56°. The second curve has
a radius of 520 meters with a central angle of 37°. Determine the locations of PC
and PT.

3. You have been instructed to design a crest vertical curve that will connect a
highway segment with +3.2% grade to another segment with -1.1% grade. The
stopping sight distance of the highway is 345 meters if the elevation at the
beginning of the curve is 75 meters, what will the elevation be at L/2? What is the
elevation at the highest point of the curve?

Bibliography
Mannering Fred, Washburn Scott,Kilaresky Walter. 2004. Principles of Highway
Engineering & TrafficAnalysis. Muze Inc.