MALAWI UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS AND APPLIED
SCIENCES
MINE AND ENVIRONMENT
WATER POLLUTION & CONTROL
MAYESO CYDRECK
[email protected]
0997770074 / 0886021095
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
INTRODUCTION
❑Mining is an everyday economic activity in an industrialized
society, but it entails undeniable negative impacts on the
environment.
❑A prerequisite of sustainable development must ensure
uncontaminated streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans.
❑Mining affects fresh water through heavy use of water in
processing ore, and through water pollution from discharged mine
effluent and seepage from tailings and waste rock impoundments.
❑Water has been called “mining’s most common casualty.”
❑There is growing awareness of the environmental legacy of mining
activities that have been undertaken with little concern for the
environment.
❑The price we have paid for our everyday use of minerals has
sometimes been very high.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
INTRODUCTION
❑Mining by its nature consumes, diverts, and can seriously pollute
water resources.
❑Impacted water quality is a major environmental concern
associated with historical and abandoned mines in the U.S. and
worldwide.
❑In modern mine planning and permitting, considerable analysis
and planning are often required by regulatory agencies during the
project design phase to minimize potential impacts on water
resources.
❑Prevention of water quality degradation is an important step in
ensuring environmental sustainability in mining areas.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
INTRODUCTION
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Color
❑Water is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid in its natural
state.
❑The color of the water is due to the presence of minute quantities
of metallic ions like Cu, Cr, and peat humus materials from
decaying vegetable matter.
❑Industrial waste also contributes to the color of water.
✓True color: real color of water.
✓Apparent color: color due to the reflection of the sky.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Color
❑The classical method for measurement of color consists of the
comparison of color with water prepared by dissolving the known
weight of dipotassium hexachloroplatinate or cobalt chloride.
❑The unit of color is one produced by 1mg platinum/liter in the form
of chloroplatinate ion.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Conductivity
❑This a measure of the ability of water to pass electrical current.
❑Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic
dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate
anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium,
calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive
charge).
❑Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the
geology of the area through which the water flows. Streams that run
through areas with granite bedrock tend to have lower
conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials
that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed
into the water.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Conductivity
❑Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depending
on their make-up.
❑Conductivity is measured in micromhos per centimeter
(µmhos/cm) or micro siemens per centimeter (µs/cm). Distilled
water has a conductivity in the range of 0.5 to 3 µmhos/cm.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Temperature
❑Measured directly after collecting the sample.
❑Important for measuring various properties such as alkalinity or
acidity of water.
❑The elevated temperature has adverse ecological effects on
water.
❑Thermometers should be properly calibrated.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Odor and Taste
❑Volatile compounds generate odor.
❑Odor is one of the quality factors influencing acceptability of
potable water.
❑No instrument has been developed for measuring of odor.
❑Measurement largely depends on upon contact of a stimulating
substance with appropriate human receptor cell.
❑The odor of water is measured in terms of TON (Threshold Odor
Number).
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Odor and Taste
❑TON (Threshold odor Number).
✓It indicates the number of times the dilution of water one should
carry out with odor free water in order not to get no perceptible
odor.
✓TON =4 indicates that that if we dilute with clean water in a ratio
of 1:4, no odor will persist.
✓The smaller is the value of TON, the better the quality of water,
TON=3 is the accepted average value.
✓The odor is measured at 40°C or at room temperature.
✓For good results, a panel of at least 5 and not more than 10
members is needed for smelling.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Odor and Taste
❑TON (Threshold odor Number).
𝒂+𝒃
❑Odor Number is TON =
𝒂
❑Where a = ml sample; b = ml of odor free water added to sample.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Turbidity
❑It is a measure of the light absorbing properties of the water
sample
❑Turbidity is caused by suspended matter.
❑Determination of turbidity is based on Jackson Candle
Turbidimeter but lower turbidity values is measured by
Nephelometer.
❑Turbidity is most acceptable for water used for human
consumption.
❑Process of coagulation and sedimentation removes turbidity.
✓Caused by clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic contents.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Turbidity
Jackson Candle Turbidimeter Nephelometer
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Turbidity
❑Turbidity is also an expression of the optical property of water
which causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than
transmitted.
❑It is very easy to measure turbidity of water by nephelometer in
terms of NTU units.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Hardness
❑The total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium and
magnesium concentration expressed both as the calcium
carbonate hardness in milligram per liter.
❑The calculated hardness is obtained from amount of calcium and
magnesium present while hardness is experimentally evaluated by
titration technique.
❑Hardness of water is caused due to the presence of sulphates and
chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Hardness
Hardness 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 , 𝒎𝒈/𝒍 Remarks
0 - 40 Soft.
40 - 100 Moderately hard.
100 - 300 Hard.
300 - 500 Very hard.
500 - 1000 Extremely hard.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF WATER.
Acidity.
❑Acidity of water is the quantitative
capacity to react with strong base at
known pH.
❑Measured using titration method.
❑The titration gives a measure of the
capacity of water to neutralize 𝑯+ and is
expressed in terms of equivalent amounts
of 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 .
❑Mineral acidity is present in many
industrial wastes.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF WATER.
❑Alkalinity of Water.
❑Salinity.
❑Magnesium.
❑Carbonates and Bicarbonates.
❑Sulphates.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
❑A non-specific analytic procedure is used to measure the organic
content of a water sample. Typical analyses performed on water
and wastewater samples include;
1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
3. Total Organic Carbon (TOC).
❑To highlight the difference in each of these parameters, a brief
discussion on theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) is presented first.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD).
❑The theoretical oxygen demand of an organic substance relates
to the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter to
carbon dioxide and water.
❑The ThOD can be calculated only if the formula of the organic
compound is known.
❑To calculate the ThOD of an organic compound containing
nitrogen, assume that the organic nitrogen is oxidized to nitrate
( 𝑵𝑶𝟑− ) and that the organic matter (carbon) is oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD).
Example 1.
❑Calculate the ThOD of a 300 mg/L solution of 𝑪𝟓 𝑯𝟕 𝑶𝟐 𝑵.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
❑The most widely used method for estimating the biodegradable
organic concentration of a water sample is to conduct a five-day
BOD test.
❑The numerical value obtained from the BOD test represents the
quantity of oxygen required by bacteria to oxidize and stabilize the
biodegradable organic material in the sample.
❑The end products of oxidation are carbon dioxide, water, and
nitrate, unless an inhibitor is added to prevent nitrification.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒕 = 𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒖 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒌𝒕
❑Where 𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒕 = BOD exerted at any time t (mg/L). 𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒖 = ultimate
BOD of the sample (mg/L). 𝒌 = BOD reaction rate constant 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔−𝟏
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Example 2.
Calculate the five-day and seven-day BOD for a sample of treated
wastewater assuming a BOD rate constant, k = 0.10 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔−𝟏 and an
ultimate BOD of 350 mg/L.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Lab procedure for BOD determination.
❑The analysis involves incubating a series of diluted wastewater
samples and blanks in the dark at a temperature of 20°C for five
days.
❑Typically, 300 ml glass bottles are used in BOD determinations.
❑The test is conducted in the dark to preclude the growth of algae
and the associated effects of oxygen production via
photosynthesis that would yield inaccurate results.
❑Approximately 4.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen (DO) should be
consumed during the five-day incubation period.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Lab procedure for BOD determination.
❑A minimum of 1.0 mg/L of DO should remain after the incubation
period.
❑The fraction of wastewater to be added to the BOD bottle is
calculated by dividing the anticipated BOD of the sample by 4.0
mg/L of DO consumed.
❑Dilution water used in BOD analyses consists of distilled water, to
which the following chemicals are added: 𝑲𝑯𝟐 𝑷𝑶𝟒 , 𝑲𝟐 𝑯𝑷𝑶𝟒 ,
𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑯𝑷𝑶𝟒 , 𝑵𝑯𝟒 𝑪𝒍, MgS 𝑶𝟒 , Ca 𝑪𝒍𝟐 , and Fe 𝑪𝒍𝟑 .
❑These chemicals provide the nutrients necessary for bacterial
growth during the BOD test.
S C H O O L O F E N G I N E E R I N G , D E P A R T. M E N T O F M I N I N G E N G I N E E R I N G .
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
❑A five-day BOD test is to be performed on a sample of lake water.
Estimate the volume of sample that should be used in the BOD test
if the anticipated BOD of the lake water is 35 mg/L.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
❑The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test measures the oxygen
equivalents of organic matter oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water under acid conditions.
❑The procedure involves refluxing (vaporizing and condensing) a
sample of water or wastewater containing organic matter with
sulfuric acid and excess standardized potassium dichromate.
❑During the reflux period, organic matter that is chemically
oxidized reduces a stoichiometric equivalent quantity of
dichromate.
❑The quantity of dichromate remaining in solution after refluxing is
measured by titration with ferrous ammonium sulfate.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
❑An advantage of the COD test over the traditional BOD test
is that it can be performed in three hours (two hours for refluxing
and one hour for cooling), compared with five days.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER EXAMINATION
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF WATER.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC).
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
❑Many of the most difficult and expensive environmental problems
mining companies face result from Acid Rock Drainage (ARD).
❑ Sulphide minerals such as pyrite and pyrrhotite are commonly
associated with many ore types, and it is the oxidation of these
minerals and subsequent leaching of their acidic oxidation
products including sulphuric acid, that lead to ARD.
❑Discharge of acid solutions from mine workings is usually known
as Acid Mine Drainage (AMD).
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Occurrence
i. Runoff from surface excavations for access roads, drains, and
site facilities.
ii. Drainage or seepage from underground excavations for mine
access, exploration, development, ventilation, and extraction.
iii. Runoff from open pit mines – exposures in pit walls, berms, and
the mine floor.
iv. Seepages of contaminated groundwater into surface or
underground mines.
v. Percolation through and drainage from rock masses fragmented
by block caving or subsidence.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Occurrence
i. Runoff from surface excavations for access roads, drains, and
site facilities.
ii. Drainage or seepage from underground excavations for mine
access, exploration, development, ventilation, and extraction.
iii. Runoff from open pit mines – exposures in pit walls, berms, and
the mine floor.
iv. Seepages of contaminated groundwater into surface or
underground mines.
v. Percolation through and drainage from rock masses fragmented
by block caving or subsidence.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Development:
Oxidation.
❑Pyrite, pyrrhotite, and some other sulfide minerals react with oxygen
in the presence of water, according to the following reaction (for
pyrite):
𝟏𝟓 𝟕
𝑭𝒆𝑺𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑭𝒆 𝑶𝑯 𝟑 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝟒 𝟐
❑Commonly, oxidation proceeds slowly for months or years with a
steady decline in pH until the pH declines below about 3.6, when there
is a sudden acceleration in the rate of oxidation.
❑The sulphuric acid formed is itself highly reactive and will react with
adjacent minerals, dissolving metals and forming a variety of sulphate
salts.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Development:
Leaching.
❑Oxidation of sulfide minerals in itself, does not necessarily pose a
problem.
❑It is only after the acidic oxidation products are flushed from their
source or dissolved in water (the process known as ‘leaching’) –
with the resulting leachate solution discharged to the environment
– that adverse effects may occur.
❑Most leaching occurs in response to rainfall, although the
appearance of ARD may occur sometime after the responsible
event. Leaching of acid and salts in an open pit occurs as rainfall
runoff flows over pit slopes.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Development:
Drainage.
❑The most common drainage pathways by which oxidation
products are transported to the receiving environments are:
i. Rainfall runoff into surface mines is handled similarly to
groundwater, with which it may be mixed.
ii. Seepage from waste rock dumps or ore stockpiles, which
commonly emerges from the toe at the base of the dump but
may also emerge from internal percolation barriers.
iii. Seepage from the base of tailings storages.
iv. Overflow from tailings storages or evaporation ponds.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Ecological Damage:
❑The extent to which ARD causes ecological damage depends on
numerous factors, including:
i. The quantity, degree of acidity, and concentrations of heavy metals
in ARD solutions.
ii. The degree to which the ARD can be confined close to the source.
iii. The assimilative capacity of the receiving environment, which
includes attributes such as the diluting, adsorbing, neutralizing, and
buffering capacities of receiving soil or waters.
iv. The sensitivity of key organisms in the receiving environment, which
may reflect exposure and adaptation of these organisms to acid
environments during their recent evolutionary history.
v. Interaction with other substances such as cyanide.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
ACID ROCK DRAINAGE (ARD).
Prevention & Treatment:
❑A variety of approaches have been used for the management of
ARD, including:
1. Toleration – no action.
2. Minimization or prevention.
3. Isolation.
4. In situ neutralization
5. Interception and treatment.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION & LEACHING
❑Heavy metal pollution is caused when such metals as arsenic,
cobalt, copper, cadmium, lead, silver and zinc contained in
excavated rock or exposed in an underground mine come in
contact with water.
❑Metals are leached out and carried downstream as water washes
over the rock surface. Although metals can become mobile in
neutral pH conditions, leaching is particularly accelerated in the
low pH conditions such as are created by Acid Mine Drainage
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION &
LEACHING
❑Weathering of the heaped
waste materials result in the
release of toxic chemicals into
the environment especially, into
aquatic bodies.
❑Such harmful metals released
from mine tailings include
mercury, arsenic, lead and
cadmium among others.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
PROCESSING CHEMICALS POLLUTION
❑This kind of pollution occurs when chemical agents (such as
cyanide or sulphuric acid used by mining companies to separate
the target mineral from the ore) spill, leak, or leach from the mine
site into nearby water bodies.
❑These chemicals can be highly toxic to humans and wildlife.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
TYPES OF WASTE POLLUTION FROM MINING
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION.
❑Mineral development disturbs soil and rock in the course of
constructing and maintaining roads, open pits, and waste
impoundments. In the absence of adequate prevention and control
strategies, erosion of the exposed earth may carry substantial
amounts of sediment into streams, rivers and lakes.
❑Excessive sediment can clog riverbeds and smother watershed
vegetation, wildlife habitat and aquatic organisms.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
WATER QUALITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING.
