Unit 5: Skeletal System

Prepared by: Czerina Gadil, M.D., R.M.T

(Reference: Essential Anatomy and Physiology by Elaine Marieb, et al.)
Components of Skeletal System
Bones
Cartilages
Tendons
Ligaments
Bones of the Skeletal System

Figure 6.11
Skeletal System Functions

1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
Extracellular Matrix 1

• Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal system are

all connective tissues.
• Their characteristics are largely determined by the composition of
their extracellular matrix.
• The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance, and other
organic molecules, as well as water and minerals.
Extracellular Matrix 2

• Collagen is a tough, ropelike protein.

• Proteoglycans are large molecules consisting of many
polysaccharides attaching to and encircling core proteins.
• The proteoglycans form large aggregates and attract water.
• The extracellular matrix of tendons and ligaments contains large
amounts of collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like
ropes or cables.
Cartilage Extracellular Matrix
• The extracellular matrix of cartilage contains collagen and
proteoglycans.
• Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the water-filled
proteoglycans make it smooth and resilient.
• As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it springs back to its
original shape after being bent or slightly compressed.
• It is an excellent shock absorber.
Bone Extracellular Matrix
• The extracellular matrix of bone contains collagen and
minerals, including calcium and phosphate.
• The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the bone.
• The mineral component gives bone compression (weight-
bearing) strength.
• Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of calcium
phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatite.
Shape Classification of Bones 1

• There are four bone shape classifications: long, short, flat, and
irregular.
• Long bones are longer than they are wide; examples are upper and
lower limb bones.
• Short bones are approximately as wide as they are long; examples
are the bones of the wrist and ankle.
Shape Classification of Bones 2

• Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened shape; examples are

bones of the skull and sternum.
• Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial bones, which
have shapes that do not fit readily into the other three
categories.
Long Bone Structures 1

Diaphysis:
Shaft
compact bone
tissue (on outside)
Epiphysis:
ends spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilage:
covers epiphyses
reduces friction
Figure 6.2a
Long Bone Structures 2

Epiphyseal plate:
site of growth
between
diaphysis and epiphysis
Medullary cavity:
center of
diaphysis red or yellow
marrow

Figure 6.2b
Long Bone Structures 3

Periosteum:
membrane around
bone’s outer
surface
Endosteum:
membrane that
lines medullary
cavity
Figure 6.2a
Structure of Long Bone

Figure 6.2
Bone Marrow 1

• Bones contain cavities, such as the large medullary cavity in the

diaphysis, as well as smaller cavities in the epiphyses of long bones
and in the interior of other bones.
• These spaces are filled with soft tissue called marrow.
• Red marrow is the location of blood forming cells.
• Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
Bone Marrow 2

• In newborns most bones have blood making red bone marrow.

• In adults red marrow in the diaphysis is replaced by yellow bone
marrow.
• In adults most red bone marrow is in the flat bones and the long
bones of the femur and humerus.
Compact Bone Tissue 1

Location:
outer part of
diaphysis (long bones)
and thinner surfaces
of other bones
Osteon:
structural unit of
compact bone
includes lamella,
lacunae, canaliculus,
central canal, osteocytes
Lamella:
rings of bone matrix
Figure 6.2c
Compact Bone Tissue 2

Lacunae:
spaces between lamella
Canaliculus:
tiny canals
transport nutrients
and remove
waste
Central canal:
center of osteon
contains blood vessels
Figure 6.2c
Structure of Bone Tissue

Figure 6.3
(a) ©Trent Stephens
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
Spongy bone
• It is located at the epiphyses of long bones
and center of other bones.
• It has trabeculae, which are interconnecting
rods, and spaces that contain marrow.
• It has no osteons.
Spongy Bone Tissue

Figure 6.4
Bone Cells
• Osteoblasts: responsible for the formation of
bone and the repair and remodeling of bone.
• Osteocytes: cells that maintain bone matrix
and form from osteoblast after bone matrix
has surrounded it.
• Osteoclasts: contribute to bone repair and
remodeling by removing existing bone, called
bone reabsorption.
Bone Formation
• Ossification is the formation of bone by
osteoblasts.
• Bone formation that occurs within connective
tissue membranes is called intramembranous
ossification.
• Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline
cartilage is called endochondral ossification.
• Both types of bone formation result in
compact and spongy bone.
Intramembranous Ossification 1

• Intramembranous ossification occurs when

osteoblasts begin to produce bone within
connective tissue.
• This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
• Osteoblasts line up on the surface of
connective tissue fibers and begin depositing
bone matrix to form trabeculae.
Intramembranous Ossification 2

• The process begins in areas called ossification

centers and the trabeculae radiate out from the
centers.
• Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in
each flat skull bone and mature skull bones result
from fusion of these centers as they enlarge.
• The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they
may enlarge or be replaced by compact bone.
Bone Formation in the Fetus

Figure 6.5
(b) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Endochondral Ossification
• Endochondral bone formation is bone formation
within a cartilage model.
• The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
• Initially formed is a primary ossification center,
which is bone formation in the diaphysis of a long
bone.
• A secondary ossification center is bone formation
in the epiphysis.
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage.
Endochondral Ossification of a Long Bone

Figure 6.6
Bone Growth in Width
• Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new
bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue.
• As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the
surface of bones between the periosteum and
the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in
width, or diameter.
• This process is called appositional growth.
Bone Growth in Length 1

• Growth in the length of a bone, which is the

major source of increased height in an
individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
• This type of bone growth occurs through
endochondral ossification.
• Chondrocytes increase in number on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
Bone Growth in Length 2

• Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.

• The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
• Much of the cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts, and the
dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts.
Bone Growth in Length 3

• The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing

bone lamellae on the surface of the calcified
cartilage.
• This process produces bone on the diaphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate.
Endochondral Bone Growth

Figure 6.7
(a) ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; (c) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling involves:
• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
• occurs in all bones
• responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
• repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
• calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair 1

1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot

forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network
between 2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts
enter the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form
compact and cancellous bone.
Bone Repair 2

Figure 6.8
(a) (top and bottom) ©Andrew F. Russo
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is a major storage site for calcium
• Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
determine blood levels of calcium
• Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone
• Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break
down bone
• Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
Calcium Homeostasis

Figure 6.10
Bone Anatomical Terms 1

Foramen:
• hole
• Example - foramen magnum
Fossa:
• depression
• Example - glenoid fossa
Process:
• projection
• Example - mastoid process
Bone Anatomical Terms 2

Condyle:
• smooth, rounded end
• Example - occipital condyle
Meatus:
• canal-like passageway
• Example - external auditory meatus
Tubercle:
• lump of bone
• Example - greater tubercle
Axial Skeleton 1

• The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the

vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
• The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the
braincase and those of the face.
• The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity,
consists of 8 bones that immediately surround
and protect the brain.
• The bony structure of the face has 14 facial
bones.
Axial Skeleton 2

• Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly

connected to form the bulk of the face.
• The mandible, however, forms a freely movable
joint with the rest of the skull.
• There are also three auditory ossicles in each
middle ear (six total).
Cranial Bones 1

Frontal bone
• Anterior part of cranium
Parietal bones
• Sides and roof of cranium
Occipital bones
• Posterior portion and floor of cranium
Temporal bones
• Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the cranium
• Temporomandibular joint
Cranial Bones 2

Sphenoid bone
• Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior
portions of eye orbits, lateral portions of cranium
anterior to temporal bones
• Sella turcica
Ethmoid bone
• Anterior portion of cranium, including medial surface
of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity
• Nasal conchae
Facial Bones 1

Maxillae
• Form upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate, part
of lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors of eye orbits
• Maxillary sinus
Palatine bones
• Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall of
nasal cavity
Facial Bones 2

Zygomatic bones
• Cheek bones
• Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit
Lacrimal bones
• Medial surfaces of eye orbits
Nasal bones
• Form bridge of nose
Facial Bones 3

Vomer
• In midline of nasal cavity
• Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone
Inferior nasal conchae
• Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity
Mandible
• Lower jawbone
• Only movable skull bone
The Skull 1

Figure 6.12
The Skull 2

Figure 6.13
(b) ©Eric Wise
The Skull 3

Figure 6.15
(b) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
The Skull 4

Figure 6.16
(b) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Paranasal Sinuses 1

Several of the bones associated with the nasal

cavity have large cavities within them, called the
paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal
cavity.
The paranasal sinuses are:
• Frontal
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxillary
Paranasal Sinuses 2

Figure 6.14
Hyoid Bone 1

• The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped bone that

is not part of the skull and has no direct bony
attachment to the skull or any other bones.
• The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being
the only bone in the body that does not articulate
with another bone.
• The hyoid bone provides an attachment for some
tongue muscles, and it is an attachment point for
important neck muscles that elevate the larynx.
Hyoid Bone 2

Figure 6.17
Vertebral Column 1

• The vertebral column, or spine, is the central axis of

the skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to
slightly past the end of the pelvis.
• In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones,
grouped into five regions.
• The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacrococcygeal.
 The cervical region curves anteriorly.
 The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
 The lumbar region curves anteriorly
 The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve
posteriorly
Vertebral Column 2

7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
Atlas:
• 1st vertebra
• holds head
Axis:
• 2nd vertebra
• rotates head
Functions of Vertebral Column
• Supports body weight
• Protects the spinal cord
• Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
• Provides a site for muscle attachment
• Provides movement of the head and trunk
Vertebral Column 3

Figure 6.18
Vertebra

Figure 6.19
Regional Differences in Vertebrae

Figure 6.20
(a) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Sacrum

Figure 6.21
(c) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Thoracic Cage 1

Protects vital organs

12 pair of ribs
Sternum:
• breastbone
True ribs:
• attach directly to sternum by cartilage
False ribs:
• attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
Floating ribs:
• not attached to sternum
Thoracic Cage 2

Figure 6.22
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
Scapula:
• shoulder blade
Clavicle:
• collar bone
Pectoral Girdle

Figure 6.23
Scapula and Clavicle

Figure 6.25
(d) ©Trent Stephens
Upper Limb Bones 1

Humerus:
• upper limb
Ulna:
• forearm
Radius:
• forearm
Carpals:
• wrist
Metacarpals:
• hand
Upper Limb Bones 2

Figure 6.23
The Humerus

Figure 6.27
(c) ©McGraw-Hill Education/ Christine Eckel
Ulna and Radius

Figure 6.28
(b) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Figure 6.29
Pelvic Girdle
Where lower limbs attach to the body
Pelvis:
• includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
Ischium:
• inferior and posterior region
Ilium:
• most superior region
Acetabulum:
• hip socket (joint)
Pelvis

Figure 6.32
Hip Bones

Figure 6.33
(c) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Comparison of the Male Pelvis
to the Female Pelvis

Figure 6.34
Lower Limb Bones 1

Femur:
• thigh
Patella:
• knee cap
Tibia:
• large lower leg
Fibula:
• small lower leg
Lower Limb Bones 2

Tarsals:
• ankle
Metatarsals:
• foot
Phalanges:
• toes and fingers
Lower Limb Bones 3

Figure 6.31
Bones of the Thigh

Figure 6.35
(b) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Bones of the Leg

Figure 6.36
(b) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel
Bones of the Foot

Figure 6.37
Articulations
• Articulations (joints) are where two bones come together.
• Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or
synovial, according to the major connective tissue type that
binds the bones together and whether a fluid-filled joint
capsule is present.
• Joints are also be classified in functional categories according
to their degree of motion as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or
diarthroses.
Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective tissue
• subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses
Cartilaginous:
• united by means of cartilage
• subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
Synovial:
• joined by a fluid cavity
• Most joints of the appendicular skeleton
Functional Classification of Joints
Synarthrosis:
• non-movable joint
• Example – skull bone articulations
Amphiarthrosis:
• slightly movable joint
• Example - between vertebrae
Diarthrosis:
• freely movable joint
• Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations
Types of joints based on shape
• Plane joint- the articular surfaces are essentially flat and only
short slipping or gliding movements are allowed.
ex. Wrist
• Hinge joint- the cylindrical end of bone fits into a trough-
shaped surface on another bone.
ex. Elbow joint, ankle joint and joints between phalanges
• Pivot joint- the rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or
ring of bone.
ex. Radius and ulna
Structure of a Synovial Joint
Types of Synovial Joints
Homeostatic Imbalance

• Sprain- results when the ligaments or tendons

reinforcing a joint are damaged by excessive
stretching or are torn away from the bone.
-It heals slowly and can be extremely painful
because both tendons and ligaments are cords of
dense fibrous connective tissue with a poor blood
supply.
Homeostatic Imbalance
• Arthritis- arth (joint), it is (inflammation)
-It is an inflammatory or degenerative disease that
damage the joints.
-All forms of arthritis have the same initial symptoms:
• Pain
• Stiffness
• Swelling of the joint
Chronic Forms of Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis – most common form of arthritis. It is a chronic
degenerative condition that typically affects the aged.
-It is also called degenerative joint disease (DJD) or “wear-and-
tear”
-patients complain of stiffness on arising that lessens with activity
and the affected joints may make a crunching noise (crepitus)
when moved.
-the joints most commonly affected are those of the fingers, the
cervical and lumbar joints of the spine and the knees and hips.
Chronic Forms of Arthritis
• Rheumatoid Arthritis – is a chronic inflammatory
disorder. Its onset is insidious and usually occurs
between the ages of 40 and 50, but may occur at any
age.
-Many joints, particularly those of the fingers, wrists,
ankles, and feet are affected at the same time and usually
in a symmetrical manner.
-RA is an autoimmune disease- a disorder in which the
body’s immune system mistakenly attempts to destroy its
own tissues.
Chronic Forms of Arthritis
• Gouty Arthritis – or gout is a disease in which uric acid
accumulates in the blood and may be deposited as
needle-shaped crystals in the soft tissues of joints. This
leads to an agonizingly painful attack that typically
affects a single joint, often the great toe.
-Gout is most common in men and rarely appears before
the age of 30. It tends to run in the families, so genetic
factors are definitely implicated.
Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
The first “long bones” in the very young fetus are formed of
hyaline cartilage, and the earliest “flat bones” of the skull are
actually fibrous membranes.
At birth, the skull has fibrous membranes connecting the cranial
bones are called fontanels.
*Anterior fontanel- diamond shaped
*Posterior fontanel- triangle shaped
The fontanels allow the fetal skull to be compressed slightly
during birth. They usually fully ossify by 2 years of age.
Older Adults
Bones have to be physically stressed to remain healthy.
When we remain active physically and muscles and gravity pull on
the skeleton, the bones respond to become stronger. By contrast,
if we are totally inactive, they become thin and fragile.
Osteoporosis- is a bone-thinning disease that afflicts half of the
women over 65 and some 20 percent of men over the age of 70.
-It can make the bones so fragile that even a hug or a sneeze can
cause bones to fracture. The bones in the spine and the neck of
the femur are particularly susceptible.
Osteoporosis- is a bone-thinning disease that afflicts half
of the women over 65 and some 20 percent of men over
the age of 70.
-It can make the bones so fragile that even a hug or a
sneeze can cause bones to fracture. The bones in the spine
and the neck of the femur are particularly susceptible.
-Vertebral collapse frequently results in a hunched-over
posture (kyphosis) known as dowager’s hump.
FRACTURES
When a bone is broken, it is called fracture.
*Closed(simple) fracture- the bone breaks cleanly
but does not penetrate the skin
*Open(compound) fracture- when the broken bone
ends penetrate the skin.
END OF DISCUSSION