The Ribosomes and the ER
The Cytoplasm: The Factory Floor
The real work of the cell occurs in the cytoplasm, the cell's "factory floor." The term "cytoplasm" refers
to everything between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane. It consists mostly of water, salts,
some proteins, and many small structures called organelles (or little organs).
These structures perform several different functions for the cell which generally fall under the
categories of production, maintenance, and energy transformation. This tour of the cell includes The endoplasmic reticulum is like
several stops on the "factory floor." Let's start with the production team. a factory conveyor belt.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
In a factory, the assembly of parts takes place on the factory floor. The highly skilled
craftspeople who assemble these components sit hour after hour at their stations,
plugging away at their work. These workers are highly compensated because they can
read plans and use that information to make different kinds of products. Each one of
them has his or her own work platform, surrounded by tools. These workers do not
create the product designs; rather, they read the plans sent from the executive
department.
The cell has its own assembly line and workers. Within the
cytoplasm is a series of large, flattened membranes that fold back
The steps involved in building a protein. and forth on each other and have a very large surface area. This
collection of membranes is called the ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM, or ER.
The ER stretches from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane. It serves as a pathway through the
cytoplasm, as a support structure for the attachment of other organelles, and as a workstation for the
ribosomes. The ER can be divided into two parts: the rough ER and the smooth ER.
The smooth ER helps
The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and provides a surface along which the process of protein transport materials
within the cell.
assembly can occur. The smooth ER does not have ribosomes and is much more tubular in appearance. In
some human cells, the smooth ER produces steroids; in others it regulates calcium levels. In a process that
scientists still don't understand, the rough ER manufactures the membranes of the smooth ER.
The Ribosomes
Ribosomes, the workers that build proteins, are manufactured by the nucleolus. They consist of
two separate subunits: a large, lower subunit and a small, upper subunit. Ribosomes attach to
the rough ER . Now let's take a look at how final processing occurs.
Ribosomes manufacture proteins.
The Golgi Apparatus
What happens to all the products that are built on the assembly line of a factory? The final touches are put on them in the finishing
and packing department.
Workers in this part of the plant are responsible for making minor adjustments to the finished products. They inspect the products for
flaws, clean them of any extra material added during their manufacture, wrap them, and target them for packing. The Golgi
apparatus performs all these tasks in the cell.
Golgi Apparatus Structure
After leaving the production site of the ER, most products are transported to the Golgi apparatus. The GOLGI APPARATUS consists of
several flattened saclike membranes. These sacs sit one on top of the other like a stack of pancakes, and all of the sacs are
interconnected. The smooth ER manufactures the Golgi apparatus by pinching off parts of itself. These bits of membrane add
themselves to the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi Apparatus Function
The Golgi apparatus is analogous to the finishing and packing room in a factory.
Once the ribosome finishes manufacturing a protein in the rough ER, the protein
needs to be prepared for use or export. Special enzymes will trim off any extra
amino acids, and then the unfinished protein moves through channels in the
smooth ER.
The Golgi apparatus receives ER proteins and modifies them
prior to shipping.
Eventually, some of the smooth ER membrane is pinched off as a
SPHERICAL VESICLE. The proteins are either contained inside these
structures or are carried on their surfaces. These vesicles are
absorbed by the Golgi apparatus, and proteins are processed as they
pass from one sac to the next. As the proteins move they are
processed. When the protein is ready for export, it is pinched off of the
Golgi and released into the cytoplasm.
What becomes of the final product of protein synthesis once it enters
the cytoplasm? Some of these proteins eventually become
membrane proteins and help with the functions of transport or self-
recognition. These proteins are carried on the outside of the spherical
vesicles and transported to the plasma membrane. Some of these
proteins are retained within
the cytoplasm for use by the Animation of
cell. exocytosis
Other proteins are stored inside the vesicles until they are needed for export. Hormones and enzymes are stored in this fashion
until released though the plasma membrane in a process known as exocytosis. EXOCYTOSIS, a type of active transport, occurs
when a vesicle inside a cell fuses with the cell's membrane and releases its contents to the outside environment.
All of this production leaves behind quite a mess! Who cleans up the trash?
Proteins are received by the cis face of
the Golgi and exit through the trans
face after modification.
Lysosomes and The Cytoskeleton
Any factory needs a good maintenance crew to keep everything orderly, to get rid of the trash, and to dismantle and dispose of
outmoded machinery. The maintenance crew also functions as a second line of defense. If someone gets past the security guard at
the front door, it is usually the maintenance crew who catches the trespassers and chases them out. In a cell, the role of building
maintenance crew is filled by the lysosomes.
Lysosomes
The word "lysosome" is Latin for "kill body." This is a very colorful description for some of
the most unusual organelles in the cell. LYSOSOMES are organelles produced by the Golgi
apparatus that contain powerful protein digesting enzymes.
Lysosomes are responsible for the breakdown and absorption of materials taken in by
the cell. Often, a cell engulfs a foreign substance through ENDOCYTOSIS, another form of
active transport. During endocytosis, the cell membrane puckers up, forms a pouch
around materials outside the cell, and pinches off to become a vesicle. If the contents
need to be destroyed, lysosomes combine with the vesicle and release their enzymes.
When a white blood cell engulfs a bacterium, it is the lysosomes that digest the bacteria.
Lysosomes are sometimes called "suicide sacks" because they are responsible for Production of lysosome by Golgi
AUTOLYSIS, a process in which a cell self-destructs. Autolysis, incidentally,
apparatus is Greek for
"self kill." How does this happen? When a lysosome ruptures in a cell, it causes all of the
cell's internal proteins to be digested. This action is not accidental; rather, it is regulated
by signals that scientists do not fully understand. Autolysis allows an organism to
eliminate worn-out cells.
Maintenance crews do not get the glory of chief executive officers, or even that of the
production worker, but they serve a very important purpose.
Autolysis: A. Cellular swelling B. Normal cells C. Without lysosomes, the cell would accumulate too much junk and would not be able to
function
Swellingfor
andvery long.
rupture (notice holes on membrane)
Support Beams
There is another major department in a cell factory, although it usually isn't given a department name in a regular factory. It's the
walls, floors, and ceilings of a factory.
Within the cytoplasm of the cell are many protein fibers that act as support structures. These protein fibers, called MICROFIBERS are
composed of a specialized protein called ACTIN.
Actin has the ability to link together to form fibers quickly. These fibers make up an invisible support structure inside the cytoplasm
called the cytoskeleton. The CYTOSKELETON maintains the cell's shape and can be used to move the cell membrane. Thicker protein
structures, called MICROTUBULES, are composed of several microfibers and allow movement within the cytoplasm.
The cytoskeleton supports the cell.
