BLACK & WHITE

PHOTOGRAPHY
A BASIC MANUAL
SECOND EDITION, REVISED

HENRY HORENSTEIN
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2013

http://archive.org/details/blackwhitephotog00hore_0
BLACK AND WHITE
PHOTOGRAPHY
A BASIC MANUAL
BLACK
AND
WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY

A BASIC MANUAL
Second Edition, Revised

by Henry Horenstein
Drawings by Carol Keller

LITTLE, BROWN AND COMPANY

Boston • New York • London

Also by Henry Horenstein
Beyond Basic P h o t o g r a p h y : A Technical Manual

Copyright © 1983 by Henry Horenstein

All p h o t o g r a p h * '- H e n r y H o r e n s t e i n u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e c r e d i t e d .

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including
information storage and retrieval systems without permission in
writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
brief passages in a review.

Second Edition
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Horenstein, Henry.
Black and white p h o t o g r a p h y .
Bibliography:
Includes index.
1. P h o t o g r a p h y . 1. T i t l e .
TR146.H793 1SS3 770\28 82-24967
I S B N 0-316-37313-3
I S B N 0-316-37314-1 ( p k b . I

H C : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
I ' B 3 0 2 9 2 8 27 2 6

Designed by Janis Capone

KP
Printed in the United States of America
This book is for Lew.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

So m a n y people w e r e involved in p r e p a r i n g this book.

Dick McDonough initiated both editions of the book, and I owe him
many thanks.
M a r g a r e t Harris helped immeasurably with the first edition, and
this n e w version still reflects much of h e r clear and insightful work.
T h a n k s also to Carol Keller, who did all t h e new drawings; to all
those who contributed photographs: Bill Burke, Bobbi C a r r e y , Bar-
bara C r a n e , Jim Dow, Sharon Fox, Russell H a r t , Allen Hess, Marjorie
Nichols, Elaine O'Neil, Neal Rantoul, E r i c Roth, J . Seeley, John
Sexton, F r a n k Siteman, and Jim Stone; and to Archive and The
P i c t u r e Cube photography agencies, as well as to the American Folk-
life C e n t e r and the F a r m Security Administration collection, both of
which a r e housed at the Library of Congress.
Several people read p a r t s of the manuscript and offered their e x p e r t
advice in the revision process, in particular Russell Gontar, Allen
Hess, T e n Keough, Neal Rantoul, and Elaine O'Neil.
Russell H a r t and Stanley Rowin printed many of the photographs.
Teri Keough. Robbie M u r p h y , and Nancy Palmer provided much
needed editorial help.
L a n Degeneres, E m m a , J e n n y , Sue Kirchmyer, Ben Rosenberg,
Lew Rosenberg, and Joann Rothschild posed for illustrations.
Sheri Blaney, B a r b a r a C r a n e , Carl Fleischhauer, and Anne W h i t e
also lent t h e i r support in various ways.
T h a n k s also to Mary Tondorf-Dick, my editor, who has been enthu-
siastic and supportive; Peggy F r e u d e n t h a l for h e r patience and skill
in copyediting; J a n i s Capone for a lovely and clear design; P e t e r
deAngeli for an elegant cover; and Mary Allen and Caroline P a t t e r s o n
for their help throughout.
Kim Mosley at St. Louis Community College p r e p a r e d an excellent
workbook for t h e first edition as an aid to s t u d e n t s using the book as
a t e x t . It is available directly from Kim at 1515 Hialeah Place, Flor-
issant, Missouri 63033.
And the following helped t h e first edition happen: Claire Nivola,
Pam E d w a r d s , Sean Wilkinson, Linda B u r n e t t , Stephen F r a n k , Paul
Krot, Dick Liebowitz, P e t e r Macomber, Leslie Arnold, and B a r b a r a
Pitnof. Many t h a n k s to all of t h e m as well.
CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 AN OVERVIEW 3

The Negative: How Light Affects Film / Controlling Film Ex-

posure / The Print: Reversing the Negative

CHAPTER 2 THE C A M E R A B O D Y $

S t o r i n g Film i L o a d i n g a n d A d v a n c i n g Film / V i e w i n g and Fo-

cusing the Subject

CHAPTER 3 THE C A M E R A LENS 18

I m a g e F o c u s / Q u a n t i t y of L i g h t / T h e I m a g e A r e a / D e p t h of
Field

CHAPTER 4 THE SHUTTER 36

C o n t r o l l i n g T i m e / C o n t r o l l i n g M o v e m e n t / T y p e s of S h u t t e r s

CHAPTER 5 FILM EXPOSURE 43

Controlling E x p o s u r e / Combining the Controls / About Light

Meters / E x p o s u r e Systems / Problem E x p o s u r e Conditions

CHAPTER 6 FILM D E V E L O P I N G 68

The Darkroom / E q u i p m e n t Needed / Chemicals Needed / Set-

ting U p the Chemicals / Loading the Film / T h e Developing
Process
CHAPTER 7 THE N E G A T I V E 86

Adjusting Negative Contrast / Pushing Film / Grain / Evalu-

ating the Negative

CHAPTER 8 M A K I N G THE PRINT 101

Equipment Needed / Printing Papers / Printing Chemicals /

T h e P r i n t i n g P r o c e s s / T h e F i n a l P r i n t / W a s h i n g a n d Drying-
P r i n t s / C o n t a c t P r i n t i n g / A Simple P r i n t i n g S y s t e m / Miscel-
laneous Considerations

CHAPTER 9 FINAL T O U C H E S 144

Toning / Spotting / Mounting / Framing

CHAPTER 10 C A M E R A ACCESSORIES 159

Filters / Flash / Close-up E q u i p m e n t / U s e f u l Tools

C H A P T E R 11 ALTERNATIVE T E C H N I Q U E S , PROCESSES, A N D M A T E R I A L S 185

High C o n t r a s t / Solarization and t h e S a b a t t i e r Effect / Photo-

grams / Negative Prints / Sandwiching Negatives / Infrared
Film / Chromogenic Black-and-White Film

APPENDIX 1 BUYING A N D M A I N T A I N I N G EQUIPMENT 201

APPENDIX 2 B U L K - L O A D I N G FILM 204

APPENDIX 3 N E G A T I V E A N D PRINT P R O B L E M S 207

APPENDIX 4 FILM, PAPER, A N D C H E M I C A L BRANDS 212

GLOSSARY 214

BIBLIOGRAPHY 220

INDEX 226
BLACK AND WHITE
PHOTOGRAPHY
A BASIC MANUAL
CHAPTER 1 AN OVERVIEW

This manual is intended to be a basic guide to black-and-white pho-

tography. As such, it s t a r t s at the beginning and assumes t h e r e a d e r
has no prior u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e subject. Use of a reasonably so-
phisticated camera (one with adjustable f-stops and s h u t t e r speeds)
as well as an in-camera or s e p a r a t e light m e t e r is also a s s u m e d , though
"box" or "instamatic" camera u s e r s will find t h a t the workings of
simple and complex cameras a r e much the same.
The text follows all the necessary s t e p s f r o m the beginning of
picture-taking (such as loading t h e camera, focusing t h e lens, and
tripping t h e shutter), through developing film and making p r i n t s , to
the final presentation steps of spotting and mounting. T h e illustrations
and captions highlight important points in t h e t e x t . It may be useful
to examine the a p p r o p r i a t e equipment or material (such as camera,
film, m e t e r , or enlarger) while reading the t e x t .

The N e g a t i v e : How Photographic film consists of a t r a n s p a r e n t plastic base (or support)

that holds a light-sensitive emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin
Light Affects Film and silver-halide crystals. (Silver halide is a collective t e r m for t h e
combination of silver with a halogen element, such as bromine, chlo-
rine, or iodine.) T h e gelatin acts primarily to bind t h e crystals to the
plastic base, while the silver-halide crystals t r a p light.
Light acts like a glue to bind t h e silver crystals t o g e t h e r . Upon
exposure to light, t h e s e crystals "clump" t o g e t h e r . At first this change
is invisible, but during chemical development t h e silver clumping is
converted into a buildup of visible black metallic silver, r e f e r r e d to as
density. Unexposed crystals a r e removed from t h e film in the chemical
process. Different proportions of silver d e n s i t y on t h e film make up
the photographic image.
Thus two s e p a r a t e and distinct changes t a k e place: an invisible
change, when film is exposed to light, creating what is sometimes
r e f e r r e d to as a latent image; and a visible change, when exposed film
is developed chemically, and those a r e a s s t r u c k by light a r e r e n d e r e d
as densities of black metallic silver.
In a camera, film is exposed by light
reflecting off the subject.

In a camera, film is exposed by light reflecting off the subject. Since

light-colored subjects reflect light and dark-colored subjects absorb
light, m o r e light will reflect back to the film from white (or light)
p a r t s of t h e subject t h a n f r o m black (or d a r k ) p a r t s . Those a r e a s of
the film that receive t h e most light will u n d e r g o proportionately m o r e
silver clumping, and will produce t h e g r e a t e s t density. T h u s light
a r e a s of the subject become dense (or d a r k ) on the film, while d a r k
a r e a s of the subject a p p e a r thin (or light).
Film t h a t has been exposed and developed becomes a negative,
since the lights and d a r k s a r e r e n d e r e d as t h e r e v e r s e of the original
subject. Most negatives show a variety of silver buildup or density.
The gradations of densities depend on t h e r e l a t i v e a m o u n t s of light
t h a t reflect back to the film. A white s w e a t e r will reflect more light
than a yellow d r e s s , so the white will c r e a t e m o r e silver buildup, and
appear more d e n s e on t h e negative. Both will be dark, but t h e white
s w e a t e r will be d a r k e r .
The original subject.

A negative of that subject is a re-

versed image. The light areas are
dense (dark) and the dark areas are
thin (light).

A positive print from the negative

so it looks like the original subject
— light areas are rendered light and
dark areas are rendered dark.
C o n t r o l l i n g Film An important function of t h e c a m e r a is t o allow film to be exposed to
the correct amount of light. A c c u r a t e film e x p o s u r e results in a neg-
Exposure ative with a full r a n g e of densities: f r o m light to d a r k . Thin (clear or
light) p a r t s of the negative a r e called shadow areas, since t h e y rep-
resent d a r k subject areas; dense p a r t s of t h e n e g a t i v e a r e called
highlight areas, since t h e y r e p r e s e n t light subject a r e a s .
In a good n e g a t i v e t h e s h a d o w a r e a s a r e thin, but not completely
t r a n s p a r e n t . Some d e n s i t y is required to r e n d e r detail. The highlight
a r e a s in a good negative a r e dense, but not totally black. Too much
density could mean no highlight detail.
The correct e x p o s u r e is controlled in-camera with a lens and a
s h u t t e r . T h e lens focuses light, it has an opening called an aperture,
which is adjustable on most c a m e r a s to allow varying a m o u n t s of light
to p a s s through to t h e film.
The shutter is a shield t h a t protects film f r o m light. It opens to let
light pass only w h e n a s h u t t e r b u t t o n is p r e s s e d . The amount of time
the s h u t t e r r e m a i n s open is called the shutter speed, and is a d j u s t a b l e
A good negative has detail in both on most cameras.
the shadow (light) and highlight
So a certain amount of light, controlled by t h e a p e r t u r e , passes
(dark) areas.
through the camera lens and e x p o s e s the film for the amount of time
for which the s h u t t e r r e m a i n s open. T h e correct conjunction of t h e s e
factors c r e a t e s a well-exposed negative. Lens, s h u t t e r , and e x p o s u r e
are all discussed in g r e a t e r detail l a t e r in t h e t e x t .

The Print: Reversing t h e Photographic film and p a p e r react to light in much the same way.
W h e r e a s film has a light-sensitive silver-halide and gelatin emulsion
Negative on a clear plastic base, photographic p a p e r has a light-sensitive emul-
sion on a white p a p e r base. T h e emulsions a r e similar, but not exactly
the same. W i t h p a p e r as with film, e x p o s u r e to light causes an invisible
clumping (or binding) of silver crystals, which d a r k e n when chemically
developed. T h e g r e a t e r the exposure, t h e g r e a t e r t h e binding, and
the d a r k e r t h e p a p e r becomes when processed. Unexposed or lightly
exposed a r e a s of printing p a p e r remain w h i t e or light. T h e chemical
process r e m o v e s the unexposed (thus t h e unbound) silver-halide crys-
tals.
Photographic p r i n t s a r e m a d e by exposing p a p e r to light projected
through a negative. The amount of light t h a t reaches t h e p a p e r varies
with several factors, including the density of the negative. Dense
n e g a t i v e s will block more light t h a n thin n e g a t i v e s , and r e q u i r e a
longer p r i n t exposure.
More important, all n e g a t i v e s have a r a n g e of densities. Thin
(shadow) a r e a s of a negative allow more light to reach the p a p e r t h a n
dense (highlight) areas. Since those a r e a s of the p a p e r receiving most
light p r i n t dark, and vice versa, t h e negative image is r e v e r s e d in t h e
developed print. Thin a r e a s of a negative are r e n d e r e d as d a r k a r e a s
in the print; dense a r e a s are r e n d e r e d as light areas. T h e r e f o r e , the
p r i n t reproduces t h e original subject, r e n d e r i n g a positive image.
Most prints are made with t h e use of an enlarger, an i n s t r u m e n t
that projects light through a negative and a lens on t h e e n l a r g e r t h a t
focuses t h e image onto photographic paper. In some ways, the enlar-
g e r is to t h e printing process what the camera is to t h e negative-
making process.
E x p o s u r e of p a p e r to light can be controlled by several factors, but
as with film exposure, the quantity of light reaching t h e p a p e r and
the duration of time for which t h a t light strikes t h e p a p e r a r e the two
critical factors. E n l a r g i n g lenses, like camera lenses, have a p e r t u r e s
that can be a d j u s t e d to allow more or less light through to expose the
paper. The duration of time for which t h e light strikes t h e p a p e r can
be controlled by t u r n i n g the e n l a r g e r light on and off, leaving the
light on for a longer or s h o r t e r period of time, much as adjustable
s h u t t e r speeds on c a m e r a s control the length of time film is exposed.

This introduction is a simple overview of the photographic process.

A good photograph is largely dependent on good exposure in both the
picture-taking and printing stages. However, many other factors con-
t r i b u t e . The specifics of how to achieve desired r e s u l t s a r e covered in
detail in the following chapters.
CHAPTER 2 THE CAMERA BODY

The c a m e r a body is a light-tight container w i t h s e v e r a l functions:

• It s t o r e s film.
• It a d v a n c e s film to allow d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s .
• It provides a s y s t e m of viewing and focusing t h e subject.
• It contains a lens (sometimes removable) t h r o u g h which light
exposes t h e film, a s h u t t e r t h a t controls t h e length of time
of t h a t e x p o s u r e , and o f t e n a light m e t e r to aid in d e t e r m i n i n g
the correct e x p o s u r e for each light condition.

This c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e above functions of t h e c a m e r a body.

Keep in mind t h a t the body does not act independently, but in concert
with t h e lens, s h u t t e r , and light m e t e r to expose film. Succeeding
c h a p t e r s will cover t h e s e m a t t e r s in g r e a t e r detail.

Storing Film C a m e r a s a r e classified according to the t y p e of film t h e y hold. F o r

example, a camera using 35-millimeter film is called a 35-millimeter
camera. T h e r e a r e many t y p e s of film sold, many providing different
negative sizes, also called film formats. H e r e a r e some common film
formats:
35-millimeter film is packaged in roll form, p r o t e c t e d b y a metal
cassette. This film m e a s u r e s 35 millimeters wide, and is available in
rolls long enough to produce a variety of exposures, usually 20 or 36.
L a r g e r rolls, called bulk film, a r e sold for loading into reusable cas-
s e t t e s (see Appendix Two). T h e actual size of t h e n e g a t i v e s produced
by 35-millimeter film is 24 x 36 millimeters or 1" x 1M>". {Half-frame
c a m e r a s use 35-millimeter film, but provide twice as m a n y n e g a t i v e s
that are half the size of those produced by full 35-millimeter cameras.)
C a m e r a s using 35-millimeter (and smaller) film a r e sometimes re-
f e r r e d to as small-format cameras.
Roll-film cameras, such as those accepting film sizes 120 or 220,
w e r e once popular with a m a t e u r photographers, but a r e used most
often now by serious a m a t e u r s and professionals. T h e t e r m "roll film"
Film formats

Left:

A 35-millimeter negative.

Right:
35-millimeter packaged in a metal
cassette.

Left:

A roll-film negative.

Right:
Size 120 roll film wrapped in a paper
backing.

Left:

A sheet-film negative.

Right:
Size 4" x 5" sheet-film holder.
is confusing; m o s t film is packaged in rolls, but this t y p e is p r o t e c t e d
by a p a p e r backing, s o m e w h a t longer t h a n t h e film, which is w r a p p e d
along with t h e film a r o u n d a spool.
The film format with roll films d e p e n d s on t h e p a r t i c u l a r camera
used. A s q u a r e n e g a t i v e m e a s u r i n g 2'/i" x 2'A" is most common,
but several o t h e r f o r m a t s a r e also available, such as 2 l /j" x 1%",
2Vi" x 2%", and 2Va" x 3 W . Size 120 roll film p r o d u c e s 12 exposures
with a 2V.\" x 2'/«" camera, 8 e x p o s u r e s with a 2'/«" x 3'/i" c a m e r a , and
10 exposures with a 2 W x 2:{/i" c a m e r a . Size 220 is considered a
professional film; it is double t h e size of 120, so produces twice as
many negatives. Some roll-film c a m e r a s accept odd-size films, such as
127 and 620, but t h e s e a r e less common.
C a m e r a s using roll film a r e often called medium-format cameras.
Sheet-film cameras a r e used only by serious a m a t e u r and profes-
sional p h o t o g r a p h e r s . Sheet films provide 1 e x p o s u r e p e r s h e e t , and
for use m u s t be preloaded into special film holders t h a t fit into t h e
back of the camera. Common sheet-film f o r m a t s are: 4" x 5" and
8" x 10", though o t h e r sizes a r e available, such as ZVa" X 4Vi" and
5" x 7".
C a m e r a s using 4" x 5" or larger films are r e f e r r e d to as large-
format cameras.
Instamatic, snapshot, sub-miniature, and instant cameras vary
widely as to t y p e s , models, and sizes. S o m e t a k e film packed in rolls;
o t h e r s t a k e film packaged in cassettes. Film sizes include 110, 126,
127, and 16 millimeter. I n s t a n t c a m e r a s produce small p r i n t s directly
without a usable n e g a t i v e (though Polaroid makes a black-and-white
m a t e r i a l that produces both an instant n e g a t i v e and positive). While
most of t h e s e c a m e r a s a r e useful (and some a r e complex and expen-
sive). many lack important f e a t u r e s such as a c c u r a t e e x p o s u r e and
fine focusing control.

Loading a n d Film is loaded for use t h r o u g h the r e a r of t h e c a m e r a , or the camera

back. Usually the back is on a hinge and s w i n g s open for loading
A d v a n c i n g Film (though some camera models open in o t h e r ways).
T h e film cassette or roll is loaded onto one side of t h e c a m e r a back,
t h e n s t r e t c h e d across the r e a r of t h e c a m e r a (with t h e dull, or emul-
sion, side of t h e film facing t h e lens), directly o v e r and fiat up against
a r e c t a n g u l a r or s q u a r e cut-out hole, onto a take-up spool. T h e size
and shape of this hole d e t e r m i n e t h e film f o r m a t ; the hole is located
b e t w e e n t h e lens and t h e film, and allows a certain amount of the light
t h a t t r a v e l s through t h e lens to s t r i k e t h e film. A 35-millimeter camera
has a r e c t a n g u l a r hole t h e size of a 35-millimeter negative — 24 x 36
Parts of a 35-millimeter camera

millimeters, or 1" x 1 W . A 2Vi" x 2Vi" roll-film c a m e r a has a s q u a r e

hole that m e a s u r e s 2Vi" x 2lA".
Built into most camera bodies is a m e a n s for advancing the film
a f t e r e x p o s u r e to allow f u t u r e exposures. A film-advance lever is
connected to the take-up spool. When this lever is cocked or t u r n e d ,
the take-up spool also turns, and picks u p and advances t h e loaded
film f r o m the opposite side of t h e camera. The advance mechanism
automatically stops when j u s t enough film has passed to permit an-
other e x p o s u r e on the roll of film. {With some simple or old cameras,
the advance mechanism must be manually stopped.)
Once an e n t i r e roll has been exposed, the film must be p r e p a r e d for
unloading. A f t e r the last e x p o s u r e is made. 35-millimeter film is re-
wound into its original cassette. This is done b y depressing (or turn-
ing) the rewind button, located on the bottom of most cameras, and
r o t a t i n g the winding lever, located above the cassette, clockwise until
the film unravels off the take-up spool and r e e n t e r s the cassette. When
the film has r e t u r n e d to t h e cassette, there is a noticeable lack of
resistance. The cassette containing t h e exposed film can t h e n be re-
moved f r o m t h e camera.
With roll-film c a m e r a s , t h e advance lever is cocked or t u r n e d s e v e r a l
times a f t e r the final e x p o s u r e to g u a r a n t e e t h a t all t h e film is advanced
onto t h e take-up spool. T h e n the c a m e r a back is opened and the film
removed. Roll film m u s t be secured to k e e p t h e film from being
exposed by moistening the loose t a p e attached to the p a p e r backing
of t h e film, and affixing it around t h e tightly wound spool.
Sheet-film c a m e r a s do not advance film (though some can b e fitted
with roll-film backs). A special holder, fitted with a single sheet of
film on each side, protected from light by a removable shield called a
dark slide, is inserted into t h e c a m e r a back. T h e d a r k slide is removed
to allow the film to be e x p o s e d . Then t h e slide is replaced and the
holder removed. E a c h e x p o s u r e r e q u i r e s t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e .

Viewing a n d Focusing All but the simplest camera bodies include both a viewing and focusing
system. A viewing system provides the m e a n s of seeing how the
the Subject photograph will be f r a m e d ; in o t h e r words, w h a t t h e film will record.
A focusing s y s t e m provides a method of c r e a t i n g a s h a r p image on
t h e film.
C a m e r a s a r e classified according to their viewing and focusing sys-
tems. F o r example, a single-lens reflex c a m e r a is one that has a single-
lens reflex viewing and focusing s y s t e m . H e r e is a list of common
s y s t e m s , followed by explanations of how each works:

viewfinder
s i n g l e - l e n s reflex
rangefinder
t w i n - l e n s rellex
view a n d p r e s s

Viewfinder cameras have a simple plastic or glass v i e w e r and no

a d j u s t a b l e focusing s y s t e m . T h e viewer is located j u s t above or to t h e
side of t h e lens, and indicates approximately what the final photograph
will look like (though some parallax problems — t h e difference be-
tween what the e y e sees through the v i e w e r and what is actually
recorded through t h e lens — a r e a p p a r e n t in the processed negative
or print). Focus is generally p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y the m a n u f a c t u r e r .
With fewr exceptions, this t y p e of c a m e r a is inexpensive and simple,
offering little or no e x p o s u r e control. Many " s n a p s h o t " cameras, such
as simple I n s t a m a t i c s and Polaroids, can be classified as viewfinder
Viewfinder camera cameras.
Simple viewer and no adjustable Single-lens reflex (SIM) c a m e r a s allow viewing and focusing t h e
focusing. subject directly through the lens. T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r sees exactly what
Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera

Through-thc-lens viewing and focus- the lens records. (Actually, many S L R viewers "cut o f f " a v e r y small
ing. Light reflects off the subject, p a r t of the image on its edges.)
through the lens, off a mirror, and Since t h e film is loaded directly behind t h e lens, a complex mecha-
upward to a ground glass. The im- nism is required to bypass t h e film, and allow through-the-lens view-
age is focused on the ground glass ing. A f t e r all, it is impossible to look through t h e film.
by turning the lens. It is viewed by
looking through an eye-level viewer This "bypass," or reflex, mechanism uses a m i r r o r and a prism to
to a prism that reflects the image redirect light. A mirror at an angle to the film is positioned in front
from the ground glass. of the film and behind the lens. Light coming in through the lens
m e e t s this mirror, and is reflected upward onto a ground-glass surface.
In a f e w SLR models, the photographer looks down on the ground
glass to view and focus the image. In most, an eye-level viewer,
containing a prism, is located over the ground glass. The prism has
several mirrored surfaces that reflect light f r o m t h e ground glass
through a viewer, so t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r sees the ground-glass image
at eye level. E i t h e r way, with a single-lens reflex camera, t h e pho-
tographer sees exactly what the lens sees!
The mirror in back of the lens p r e v e n t s light f r o m reaching t h e film.
(The s h u t t e r also blocks light, but m o r e on s h u t t e r s in c h a p t e r 4.) It
has a hingelike mechanism, and when the picture is taken, t h e m i r r o r
swings upward and allows t h e film to be exposed. It snaps back into
place immediately a f t e r the exposure.
It is the n a t u r e of all lenses to turn images upside down. In t h e
S L R , the m i r r o r and prism placements t u r n t h e image right-side up
again for easier viewing.
Focusing a single-lens reflex camera is simple. The ground glass is
located at the same distance from the lens as t h e film is from the lens.
If the image a p p e a r s s h a r p on the ground glass, it will also appear
Rangefindcr camera

rotating1 prism

Viewing and focusing through a s h a r p on t h e film. As the lens is t u r n e d for focusing, t h e image on t h e
viewfinder. Light reflects off the ground glass (and t h e film) becomes e i t h e r s h a r p e r or less sharp.
subject and enters the camera T h e means for j u d g i n g t h e focus of t h e image varies with t h e t y p e
through both the viewer (on the top of ground glass used. Several t y p e s a r e available. With some, out-of-
left) and the piece of glass (on the focus images appear as b l u r r y or fuzzy and in-focus images a p p e a r
top right). A prism located behind s h a r p with clearly delineated lines, much as one's eyesight might go
the glass rotates on a pivot as the
in and out of focus. O t h e r t y p e s of ground glass use a screen p a t t e r n ,
lens is turned to focus the image.
w h e r e u n s h a r p images a r e r e n d e r e d as tiny clots that reduce in size
The image from this prism reflects
and disappear as the image is focused. A popular t y p e of ground glass
to a mirror positioned behind, and
employs a split-image screen, w h e r e a line in the middle of t h e viewer
then through the viewer. So, there
divides the image (or p a r t of t h e image) in half. W h e n it is out of
are two superimposed images — one
focus, part of the subject a p p e a r s to be split in two; w h e n it is in
reflecting through the viewer and
the other from the prism on the focus, the t w o halves line up. Many m o d e r n c a m e r a s h a v e a ground
right. When the two images come glass t h a t combines t w o or t h r e e of t h e s e types.
together, as the lens (and mirror) In r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e single-lens reflex camera has become e x t r e m e l y
are turned, the image is in focus.
popular. It is versatile, easy to use, and accurate. Most b u t not all
single-lens reflex c a m e r a s use 35-millimeter film.
Rangejinder cameras do not h a v e through-the-lens viewing and
focusing. A glass v i e w e r is located on the top of t h e c a m e r a , to t h e
left of the lens. With most rangefinders, this v i e w e r is parallax cor-
rected: t h a t is, it is aligned with the lens by the m a n u f a c t u r e r to
eliminate the difference b e t w e e n what t h e v i e w e r sees and t h e lens
records. (Despite this correction, some r a n g e f i n d e r c a m e r a s do have
parallax problems, especially when focused at close distances.) A rec-
tangle within the v i e w e r indicates the subject t h a t t h e lens records.
Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras

viewer

ground glass

v i e w i n g lens

t a k i n g lens

Viewing and focusing through the The t e r m rangefinder r e f e r s to the focusing s y s t e m . A piece of glass
top lens. Light reflects through the is located above the lens, to the right of the viewer. A prism is
viewing lens (on top) to a mirror positioned behind this glass, and is coupled with t h e lens so t h a t it
and up onto a ground glass for view- rotates on a pivot as the lens is turned to focus t h e image. Light
ing and focusing. The image is ex- reflecting off the s u b j e c t reaches the prism, and is reflected by it to
posed onto film by the taking lens the left, toward the viewer. A fixed mirror, located within t h e viewer,
(on the bottom). reflects the image from the prism back through t h e viewer, so t h a t
the image off the prism is superimposed onto the image seen through
the viewer.
As the lens is focused, t h e prism pivots and the two images come
together. A double image indicates an out-of-focus subject; a single
image indicates a focused subject. Usually t h e double images a r e not
seen in t h e entire viewer, but only in a small area located at t h e c e n t e r
of the viewer.
In recent years, r a n g e f i n d e r cameras have become less popular.
However, t h e y a r e accurate, reliable, and, often, m o r e reasonably
priced than single-lens reflex cameras of comparable quality. Most
rangefinder c a m e r a s use 85-millimeter film.
View camera

Viewing and focusing directly Twin-lens reflex (TLR) c a m e r a s h a v e two lenses, one placed over
through the lens. Light reflects the other. On top is a viewing lens, through which t h e image is viewed;
through the lens directly on a on t h e bottom is a talcing lens, t h r o u g h which film is exposed to light.
ground glass. The image is focused Most T L R s a r e parallax c o r r e c t e d , so t h e viewing lens sees what the
by expanding or contracting the bel- taking lens records.
lows that is positioned between the
A m i r r o r is located behind t h e viewing lens at an angle to t h e film,
lens and film.
and reflects light t r a v e l i n g t h r o u g h this lens up onto a ground glass
for viewing and focusing t h e image. T h e film is located behind the
taking lens and a t t h e s a m e distance f r o m this lens as the viewing
lens is from t h e ground glass. T h e lenses a r e mounted t o g e t h e r , so
t h a t as t h e c a m e r a is focused (usually with a knob on t h e side of the
camera body), t h e y move simultaneously. W h e n t h e image f r o m t h e
viewing lens is r e n d e r e d s h a r p on t h e g r o u n d glass, t h e image f r o m
the taking lens will be r e n d e r e d s h a r p on t h e film.
A focusing hood fits around t h e g r o u n d glass of most T L R s to block
e x t r a n e o u s light and help make t h e viewing screen b r i g h t e r . A spring-
mounted magnifier is sometimes built into t h e hood for critical
focusing.
A disconcerting fact about t h e T L R viewing and focusing s y s t e m is
t h a t t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r looks down on the g r o u n d glass at a r e v e r s e d
image. T h e left side of t h e subject a p p e a r s to be on t h e right, and
vice v e r s a . Sophisticated T L R s o f f e r an accessory p r i s m t h a t fits on
top of t h e ground glass, and allows eye-level viewing t h a t corrects
this r e v e r s e d image.
Twin-lens reflex c a m e r a s use 120 or 220 roll film, and generally
p r o d u c e a 2 , /i" x 2'A" n e g a t i v e .
View can/eyas h a v e t h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s v i e w i n g and f o c u s i n g (some-
what like a n S L R but w i t h o u t m i r r o r s ) , and use s h e e t film. T h e i m a g e
is viewed on a g r o u n d g l a s s located d i r e c t l y behind t h e lens. T h e lens
is m o u n t e d on a lens board, which is a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a m e r a back by
a bellows — a light-tight, collapsible cloth or c a r d b o a r d t u b e . A g r o u n d
glass is mounted on t h e c a m e r a back. A s t h e bellows is c o n t r a c t e d or
e x p a n d e d , t h e lens m o v e s t o w a r d or a w a y f r o m t h e g r o u n d glass, t h u s
focusing or blurring t h e image. W h e n t h e i m a g e h a s b e e n v i e w e d and
focused, t h e c a m e r a back is opened and a sheet-film h o l d e r slid into
place behind t h e lens t o m a k e a single e x p o s u r e .
View c a m e r a s mostly use l a r g e - f o r m a t film. T h e most common for-
mat is 4" x 5", t h o u g h several o t h e r sizes a r e available. A n accessory
roll-film back is available for some v i e w c a m e r a s t o a d a p t t h e c a m e r a
for use of size 120 or 220 film.
View c a m e r a s h a v e d i r e c t t h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s v i e w i n g since t h e film
is not placed behind t h e lens until it is r e a d y t o b e e x p o s e d . Since
view c a m e r a s do not u s e m i r r o r s , t h e i m a g e will a p p e a r upside down
on t h e g r o u n d glass. A focusing hood or cloth m u s t be fitted a r o u n d
t h e g r o u n d glass t o block e x t r a n e o u s light, which would m a k e t h e
image on t h e glass pale and difficult to focus.
View c a m e r a s p r o v i d e m a n y a d v a n t a g e s . L a r g e - f o r m a t n e g a t i v e s
p r o d u c e p r i n t s t h a t a r e s h a r p , with much detail and little grain ( m o r e
on g r a i n later). Also, in a view c a m e r a , t h e relationship b e t w e e n t h e
lens and film can be a d j u s t e d f o r s e v e r a l useful p u r p o s e s , such as to
i n c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t of s u b j e c t focus and s t r a i g h t e n o u t c o n v e r g i n g
lines w h e n p h o t o g r a p h i n g up at a tall building. F u r t h e r m o r e , view
c a m e r a s can accept a wide v a r i e t y of accessories, lenses, and film
formats.
A m a j o r d r a w b a c k of t h e view c a m e r a is i t s bulk. I t is l a r g e and
c u m b e r s o m e , and n e e d s a t r i p o d t o hold it, t h u s m a k i n g f a s t or candid
p h o t o g r a p h y impractical.
Press cameras a r e p o r t a b l e view c a m e r a s . T h e y contain a r a n g e -
finder-type focusing s y s t e m for quick use, and can also be used on a
tripod for v i e w i n g and focusing on a g r o u n d glass.
CHAPTER 3 THE CAMERA LENS

T h e c a m e r a lens is located on t h e front of t h e c a m e r a body with film

positioned directly behind it. W h e n the s h u t t e r opens, light travels
through t h e lens and exposes the film.
On some camera models, t h e lens is Jived, attached directly to the
c a m e r a body. On o t h e r models it is removable, or interchangeable.
C a m e r a s with interchangeable lenses *are normally m o r e expensive
and more versatile t h a n c a m e r a s with fixed lenses. Interchangeable
lenses can be replaced with a variety of lenses t h a t s e r v e a variety of
p u r p o s e s to be discussed in detail l a t e r in this c h a p t e r . W i t h a few
exceptions, viewfincler, rangefinder, and twin-lens reflex cameras
have fixed lenses, while single-lens reflex, view, and p r e s s cameras
h a v e interchangeable lenses.
The camera lens controls four functions:
image focus
q u a n t i t y of light r e a c h i n g t h e film
image area
d e p t h of field of t h e i m a g e

I m a g e Focus Focus r e f e r s to t h e relative s h a r p n e s s of an image. Optically, light is

focused at t h e point at which t h e light r a y s passing through a lens
converge. In practical t e r m s t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r does not need to un-
d e r s t a n d optics, only how to make the image sharp.
Most lenses, especially those m a d e for 35-millimeter cameras, a r e
focused by t u r n i n g a ring on t h e b a r r e l of t h e lens t h a t causes t h e
lens to move in (closer to the film) and o u t (away from t h e film). Some
cameras, particularly view and p r e s s c a m e r a s , a r e c o n s t r u c t e d with a
cardboard or cloth bellows t h a t can be s t r e t c h e d o r contracted to focus
an image.
The method of d e t e r m i n i n g focus varies, as discussed, depending
on a camera's viewing and focusing s y s t e m . W i t h some cameras, an
image seen through a viewfinder a p p e a r s fuzzy or b l u r r e d w h e n out
of focus and s h a r p when in focus; with o t h e r cameras, an image is
seen as double when out of focus and as single when in focus.

is
Camera lens
largest focusing ring

distance
serial n u m b e r

focal l e n g t h
brand

The lens is located on the front of Head-on view of a camera lens and Top view of a camera lens.
the camera body with the film posi- its markings.
tioned directly behind it.

QlJOntity Of Light Light must pass t h r o u g h the lens opening or aperture to reach the
film. The a p e r t u r e is adjustable on all but the simplest lenses. It can
be opened wide to allow m o r e light in, or closed down to k e e p out
light.
The a p e r t u r e size is critical to good film exposure. In general, when
photographing in low light, a large a p e r t u r e is required to allow
enough light to reach t h e film; when photographing in bright light, a
smaller a p e r t u r e is needed to reduce the amount of light reaching the
film.
F-stop is a m e a s u r e m e n t of the size of t h e lens opening. Most all
camera lenses offer a variety of f-stop settings. T h e s e a r e common
f-stops:
f 1.4
f 2
f 2.8
f 4
f 5.6
f 8
f 11
f Hi
f 22

The larger the f-stop n u m b e r , t h e smaller t h e lens opening; t h e

smaller the f-stop number, the larger t h e opening. A lens set at f 2
allows much more light to pass through it t h a n a lens set at f 16.
Quantity of light

•oooooooo
f 22 f 16 r 11 f8 f 5.6 f4 f 2.8 f2 f 1.4

Large f-stop numbers represent F - s t o p n u m b e r s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by a simple formula. T h e m e a s u r e d

small apertures (lens openings), and d i a m e t e r of a lens opening, for example 25 millimeters, is divided into
vice versa. t h e focal length of t h e lens, for e x a m p l e 50 millimeters. (Focal length
will be discussed later.) T h e result — 50 millimeters divided b y 25
millimeters — is the f-stop. in this case f 2. A smaller d i a m e t e r lens
opening would m e a s u r e as a l a r g e r f-stop number. F o r example, a 12-
millimeter lens d i a m e t e r with a 50-millimeter lens would be approxi-
mately f 1 — 50 millimeters divided b y 12 millimeters.
The f-stops in t h e list a b o v e h a v e a special relationship to each
other. A change of one full f-stop on e i t h e r side m e a n s doubling or
halving t h e amount of light passing through t h e lens. F 8 allows twice
as much light t h r o u g h as f 11, and half as much t h r o u g h as f 5.6. This
relationship is critical.
Not all lenses offer all t h e f-stops listed. The widest (largest) f-stop
on some lenses is f 2 or f 2.8, not f 1.4. A f e w lenses offer even wider
f-stops, such as f 1.2. Sometimes the smallest f-stop on a lens is f 16,
not f 22; some lenses offer f 32 or even smaller " s t o p s . "
On some lenses, partial f-stops are d e s i g n a t e d . A s e t t i n g of f 1.8
allows a bit more light t h r o u g h t h a n f 2, but not twice as much. A
setting of 3.5 is a half-stop b e t w e e n f 2.8 and f 4; it allows m o r e light
through t h a n f 4 and less light t h r o u g h t h a n f 2.8. It is possible to
make minor c h a n g e s in t h e amount of light t h a t p a s s e s through t h e
lens either b y using t h e s e partial f-stop s e t t i n g s (if t h e y a r e desig-
nated), or simply b y s e t t i n g t h e lens b e t w e e n t w o designated stops.
Lenses a r e r a t e d according to t h e widest f-stop to which t h e y open.
F o r example, a lens that opens to f 1.4 is called an "f 1.4 lens." L e n s e s
that open v e r y wide a r e called fast lenses because they can expose
film more quickly t h a n slow lenses. A n f 1.4 lens is said to be " f a s t e r "
than an f 2.8 lens.
Fast lenses are almost always more desirable t h a n slow lenses.
Because t h e y can open wide to let m o r e light t h r o u g h to the film, fast
lenses a r e ideal for use indoors or in any low-light situation.
F u r t h e r m o r e , since fast lenses a r e b r i g h t e r when wide open, they
make for easier viewing and focusing with through-the-lens camera
types, such as S L R and view c a m e r a s . T h e wider t h e maximum
a p e r t u r e , the more light passes through the lens to both the film and
the ground glass, so the b r i g h t e r and clearer the image is through t h e
viewer.
However, fast lenses are more expensive than slow lenses. An f 1.4
lens may cost as much as S50 to $100 more t h a n an otherwise equiv-
alent f 2 lens. The f a s t e r lens is nice, but the e x t r a money might be
b e t t e r saved or spent on a useful camera accessory or simply m o r e
film.
Preset (or manual) lenses must be opened u p b y hand so t h e v i e w e r
will be bright enough for accurate focusing, t h e n closed down to the
required f-stop for shooting. This procedure is slow and inconvenient.
All view-camera lenses are manual, as are many o u t d a t e d and a very
few current S L R lenses.
Most single-lens reflex cameras use automatic lenses (not to be
confused with automatic exposure, explained later). An automatic lens
s t a y s open to its maximum a p e r t u r e r e g a r d l e s s of what f-stop s e t t i n g
is chosen. T h e lens is coupled to t h e s h u t t e r so when the s h u t t e r
button is pressed, the lens closes down to t h e a p e r t u r e at which it is
set to make the exposure. Then the lens immediately opens up again
to its maximum a p e r t u r e . An f 2 lens, for example, set at f 11 will
remain at f 2 until the picture is taken. It will close to f 11 for t h e
exposure, then open up to f 2 again to allow for bright, e a s y viewing
and focusing.
Rangefinder cameras do not need automatic lenses since viewing is
not through the lens. T L R cameras have s e p a r a t e viewing and taking
lenses, and do not need automatic lenses either.
Some cameras a r e p r o g r a m m e d for automatic exposure, and allow-
no control of the a p e r t u r e size. The f-stop is d e t e r m i n e d and set in
the camera automatically. A scale or readout of some sort located
inside t h e viewer indicates which f-stop is being used. More on auto-
matic cameras in c h a p t e r 5.

Jhe I m a g e Area l e n s controls the image area, or t h e angle of view t h a t the lens
"sees" and "records." This image area is determined by the focal
length of the lens used. Focal length is a m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e lens
size. The longer the focal length of the lens, t h e n a r r o w e r t h e angle
of view; the shorter the focal length of the lens, t h e w i d e r t h e angle
of view. Focal length is usually measured in millimeters. A 28-milli-
m e t e r lens is s h o r t e r and provides a wider angle of view t h a n a 135-
millimeter lens.
The m e a s u r e m e n t of a lens for focal lengt h is not based on the actual
size of the lens p e r se. but is the distance b e t w e e n t h e film plane of
Image area

A subject viewed through a normal lens with a focal

length of 50 millimeters.

A wider angle of view. The same subject viewed

through a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 24
millimeters.

A narrower angle of view. The same subject viewed

through a telcphoto lens with a focal length of 200
millimeters.
t h e camera and the optical c e n t e r of t h e lens when the lens is focused
at infinity. T h e film plane is the plane along which the film r e s t s in
the camera body. The location of the optical c e n t e r of a lens varies
with each lens, but is a t a location known as the nodal point of the
lens.
Film format also affects the relationship between image area and
focal length. L a r g e film f o r m a t s r e q u i r e longer lenses t h a n small
f o r m a t s for equivalent angles of view. F o r example, a 50-millimeter
focal-length lens fitted on a 35-millimeter camera p r o d u c e s approxi-
mately the same angle of view as a 150-millimeter focal-length lens
on a 4" x 5" format camera.
The following categories of lenses, producing a variety of angles of
view, a r e available to lit onto cameras t h a t accept interchangeable
lenses:

normal
wide a n g l e
telephoto
zoom

C a m e r a s with fixed lenses generally provide a normal lens or a slightly

wide-angle lens.
A norma! lens sees and records the subject much as the eye sees
it. Its angle of view is approximately 46°. Typically, a "normal" lens
for shooting with 35-millimeter film is about 50 millimeters long. E x a c t
focal lengths vary somewhat with each m a n u f a c t u r e r . Normal lenses
for 35-millimeter cameras may vary a n y w h e r e from approximately 45
to 58 millimeters.
The focal length of a normal lens is approximately equal to the
diagonal m e a s u r e m e n t of the film format used. T h e r e f o r e , a "normal"
focal-length lens for shooting 35-millimeter film is approximately 50-
millimeters. A normal-focal-length lens for larger film f o r m a t s is ac-
cordingly longer; an 80-millimeter lens for a 2Vi" x 2V\" film f o r m a t ;
a 150-millimeter lens for a 4" x 5" film format; and so on.
A wide-angle lens (or short-focal-length lens) sees and records a
broader angle of view than does a normal lens. S u b j e c t s viewed
through a wide-angle lens a p p e a r smaller than t h e y really a r e
(whereas through a normal lens they seem life-size).
Some common wide-angle-lens focal lengths (for 35-millimeter cam-
eras) include 35, 28, and 24 millimeters, though some a r e even s h o r t e r
and wider. Again, the s h o r t e r the Jens, the wider the view. A 35-
millimeter lens has an angle of view m e a s u r i n g approximately 64°,
whereas a 24-millimeter lens has an angle of view of about 84°.
Wide-angle lenses are particularly useful when t h e r e is not enough
Image area

The angle of view that the lens "sees" and "records" varies with the focal
length of the lens. The shorter the lens, the wider the angle of view; the
longer the lens, the narrower the angle of view.

A normal lens with a 35-millimeter A short (or wide-angle) lens has a A long (or telephoto) lens has a nar-
camera has an angle of view of ap- broader angle of view. Pictured rower angle of view. Pictured here,
proximately 46c. here, a 28-millimeter lens on a 35- a 135-millimeter lens on a 35-
millimeter camera has a 75° angle of millimeter camera has an 18° angle
view. of view.

room to move back f a r enough to t a k e in an e n t i r e s u b j e c t , such as

with architecture, landscape, and general interior photography.
Wide-angle lenses typically c r e a t e both distance and image distor-
tion. T h e distance distortion causes objects to a p p e a r f a r t h e r away
and smaller than in real life. T h e image distortion c r e a t e s a curved
effect; p a r t s of the subject located in t h e c e n t e r of t h e photograph
a p p e a r f a t t e r than those p a r t s on t h e e d g e s of t h e photograph.
T h e amount of image distortion v a r i e s widely with lens size, lens
quality, distance f r o m the subject, and angle to t h e s u b j e c t . Maximum
distortion is caused by t h e widest lenses, cheapest-quality lenses,
closest focus distances, and e x t r e m e angles to t h e subject. Distortion
sometimes is so marked that image s h a r p n e s s and b r i g h t n e s s diminish
perceptibly, particularly on the edges of t h e image. Distortion can be
minimized by using a moderately wide lens of high quality; by not
focusing close to t h e subject; and b y keeping the camera level, shying
away from e x t r e m e angles.
A telephoto lens (or ton g-Joca I -1 ength lens) sees and records a nar-
row angle of view. S u b j e c t s viewed through a telephoto lens a p p e a r
magnified, sometimes dramatically.
Some common telephoto lens focal lengths (for 35-millimeten cam-
eras) include 135 millimeters and 200 millimeters, though some are
even longer. Again, the longer the lens, t h e n a r r o w e r the view. A
135-millimeter lens has an angle of view of approximately 18°, w h e r e a s
a 200-millimeter lens has an angle of view of approximately 12°.
Since they magnify t h e subject, telephoto lenses are most useful
when it is not possible or desirable to m o v e close enough to the
subject, such as with s p o r t s action from t h e sidelines and close-up
portraits, without "crowding" the subject.
Telephoto lenses also can create distance and image distortion.
Subjects a p p e a r closer to the camera than they really are. In addition,
the subject field is fiattened; background and f o r e g r o u n d a p p e a r to
compress, as though t h e y are closer to each o t h e r than t h e y really
are. The longer t h e focal length of the lens, the g r e a t e r the distance
and image distortion.
Telephoto lenses a r e sometimes large and bulky, t h e r e f o r e difficult
Teleconvertcr
to hand-hold. C a m e r a or lens movement d u r i n g t h e e x p o s u r e may
cause the final image to be less t h a n r a z o r s h a r p , so t a k e e x t r a care
tcleconverter to steady the camera when using a telephoto lens. A tripod (see
c h a p t e r 10) is useful to hold a camera s t e a d y , especially when using
extra-long lenses. A fast s h u t t e r speed (not to be confused with a fast
lens, see c h a p t e r 4) can also r e d u c e t h e chances of camera movement.
A teleconverter is a tubelike accessory that fits b e t w e e n the camera
body and t h e lens. It gives the lens a longer effective focal length,
commonly two ( 2 x ) to three ( 3 x ) t i m e s the size of t h e lens it converts.
Teleconverters cost far less t h a n telephoto lenses. H o w e v e r , the im-
Accessory that fits between the age they produce will likely be less s h a r p and clear. Also, telecon-
camera body and lens to give the v e r t e r s reduce the light that passes through the lens b y the equivalent
lens a longer effective focal length. of at least one or two f-stops.
A zoom lens incorporates a variety of focal lengths into a single
lens. The photographer views t h e subject, t h e n can a d j u s t to a longer
or s h o r t e r focal length as desired before taking t h e picture. Most
"zooms" are telephoto lenses (such as one incorporating lengths of 80
Image distortion

A wide-angle lens creates a curved

effect to the photograph. Notice the
distortion on the edges of the image.

A telephoto lens creates a flattened-

out effect. The background and fore-
ground appear to be closer to each
other than thev reallv are.

m I t e r - * ' J J p ' s r ^ " t "

to 200 millimeters), but some offer wide-angle options (for example,
35 to 70 millimeters).
Zoom lenses a r e convenient, compact, and, in a sense, economical.
Zooms are initially more expensive than most lenses, but t h e y a r e
less expensive t h a n t h e variety of lenses t h e y replace. H o w e v e r , t h e
slightly lower optical quality, smaller maximum a p e r t u r e , and relative
bulk of most zoom lenses a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e s to be considered.

Angles of view for different focal Ic ngth lenses*

Lens Type Focal Length Angle of View

Normal 50 millimeter 4(5°

Wide-angle 35 millimeter 64°

28 millimeter 7(5°
24 millimeter 84°
21 millimeter 92°

Telephoto 105 millimeters 21°

135 millimeters 18°
200 millimeters 12°
300 millimeters 8°
' T h i s c h a r t is ' o r 3 5 - m i l l i m e t e r film f o r m a t . L a r g e r f o r m a t s r e q u i r e l o n g e r lenses f o r
equivalent a n g k of v : e w .

Of Field Depth of field r e f e r s to the zone of focus in a photograph or the distance

between the closest and farthest p a r t s of the picture t h a t are reason-
ably sharp. For example, if a lens is focused sharply on an object, say
a tree, an area in front of and an area in back of t h a t tree will also be
in focus. T h a t area from the front to the back t h a t is acceptably s h a r p
is t h e depth of field of the photograph.
Depth of field varies with each photograph, and is d e t e r m i n e d by
t h r e e controllable factors:
lens o p e n i n g
focus d i s t a n c e
focal length of t h e lens

Lens opening. The smaller the a p e r t u r e used, t h e g r e a t e r t h e depth

of field. F 16 c r e a t e s an area with far g r e a t e r d e p t h of field than f 2.
Distance. The g r e a t e r t h e focus distance (from camera to subject),
the g r e a t e r the depth of fit !<l. A lens focused 5 feet away f r o m t h e
A photograph with a lot of depth of field A photograph with little depth of field
The zone of focus, or the distance
between the closest and farthest
parts of the picture that are reason /
ably sharp. Depth of field works in a
ratio of approximately one to two;
that is, if an area 2 feet in front of £
the focused subject is in focus, an -J
area 4 feet behind the subject will 8'
also be in focus. Here, the camera is 10'

focused at a subject 10 feet away. 14'

The area 2 feet in front and 4 feet in
back of the subject is also in focus.

subject c r e a t e s an image with much less d e p t h of field t h a n a lens

focused 15 feet away from t h e s a m e subject at t h e s a m e a p e r t u r e .
Focal length. The longer t h e focal length of t h e lens, t h e smaller
the d e p t h of field. A telephoto lens produces an image with less d e p t h
of field t h a n a wide-angle lens (assuming the s a m e a p e r t u r e and focus
distance).

A large depth of field is usually desirable, but sometimes selective

focus, when part of the image is in focus and the background or
foreground is blurred, is more effective. F o r example, a sharply fo-
cused portrait of a person will stand out much more dramatically
against an out-of-focus house than it would against a sharply focused
house. Within limits, the p h o t o g r a p h e r has the ability to vary the
a p e r t u r e , distance, or focal length, either to maximize d e p t h of field
or to focus selectively.
To maximize depth of field, focus at a point approximately one-third
of t h e way into the subject area. F o r example, to photograph a car
from t h e front to the back so that t h e entire c a r will be sharp, focus
on t h e front windshield. In practice, d e p t h of field w o r k s so t h a t the
s h a r p area in front of the focused subject is smaller t h a n t h e s h a r p
area in back of that subject by a ratio of approximately 1 to 2. S a y
the camera lens is focused on a man located 10 feet a w a y f r o m the
camera. If the area 2 feet in front of t h e man is in focus, the area 4
feet in back of him will also be in focus — a ratio of 1 to 2 (2 feet to
4 feet).
Controlling depth of field

Lens opening: the larger the aper-

ture. the smaller the depth of field.
no
Of 4

depth of field 22' 9' 12'

Distance: the farther the camera-to-subj&ct

distance
camera-to-subject distance, 10'
the greater the depth of
field.
_
—^
jjlr ^N im/M
Nil lit y ^ f
\

j — U

4' 10' 20'

depth of Held
Focal length: the longer the focal
length of the lens, the smaller the
depth of field.

camera-to-subject
distance

I h
i> 8 12" _ 2'
50 mm 35 mm
d e p t h of field
Selective focus

Part of the image is in focus and the background is blurred.

Same subject, lens set*at f 1(5 for more depth of field

Subject focused close to the camera, 3 feet away Same subject focused farther from the camera, 20 feet
away, has greater depth of field.

Subject taken with a telephoto lens, a focal length of Same subject taken with a wide-angle lens, 24 milli
200 millimeters. meters, has greater depth of field.
Depth of field varies with In some situations, it is important to know exactly w h a t t h e depth
of field will be before taking t h e picture. H e r e a r e t h r e e m e t h o d s of
A. Lens opening previsualizing depth of field: using the p r e v i e w s e t t i n g on t h e c a m e r a ,
The smaller the aperture, the reading the depth-of-field scale on the lens, and focusing in zones.
greater the depth of field.
Previeiv setting. Depth of field can be previsualized easily w h e n
B. Distance using cameras with through-the-lens viewing and focusing s y s t e m s ,
The farther the focusing distance, such as single-lens reflex and view c a m e r a s . When the a p e r t u r e is
the greater the depth of field. opened (set at t h e lower numbered f-stops), t h e depth of field visibly
decreases; when it is closed (set at the higher numbered f-stops), the
C. Focal length d e p t h of field visibly increases.
The longer the focal length of the W i t h S L R s fitted with automatic lenses, the a p e r t u r e r e m a i n s wide
lens, the smaller the depth of field.
open until the s h u t t e r button is pressed. T h e r e f o r e , the depth of field
usually a p p e a r s minimal, since it r e p r e s e n t s the image s h a r p n e s s at
the widest opening of t h e lens regardless of the p r e s e t f-stop. To
compensate for this, most S L R s have a previeiv setting (or manual
switch) to allow previsualizing d e p t h of field at any f-stop.
The preview setting is usually located on t h e camera body n e x t to
the lens or on the barrel of the lens. W h e n t h e s e t t i n g is activated,
the a p e r t u r e closes down to its p r e s e t f-stop for viewing what the
depth of field will be at t h a t a p e r t u r e . F o r example, an f 2 lens set at
f 11 will generally show a minimal depth of field — what it would be
at f 2. When the preview setting is switched on, t h e lens will close
down to f 11 for previsualizing the depth of field a t what it would be
with t h e lens set at f 11.
U n d e r dim lighting conditions, especially at small f-stops, t h e d e p t h
of field may be difficult to judge because the viewfinder will be d a r k .
A f t e r using the preview setting, turn it off, refocus t h e subject if
necessary, and take the picture.
Depth-of-field scale. A distance and depth-of-field scale located on
t h e lens indicates in feet and m e t e r s how much of t h e image will be
in focus a t each f-stop setting.
The distance scale, usually located on the lens, t u r n s as t h e image
is focused and indicates how far away the focused subject is from t h e
camera. That distance is indicated b y a m a r k e r located on t h e lens
opposite the distance scale. If the focused subject is 10 feet away,
"10" on the distance scale will line up with the m a r k e r .
Surrounding the distance m a r k e r on both sides is t h e depth-of-field
scale; it incorporates the s t a n d a r d f-stop designations and reads:
16' 8' 4' A 1' 8' 16'
To discover the d e p t h of field a t any focusing distance, when t h e lens
is set at any f-stop, match up the focus-distance m e a s u r e m e n t with
the m a r k e r and look at e i t h e r side of the m a r k e r for t h e p a r a m e t e r s
of t h e d e p t h of field at each f-stop. The distance figures opposite t h e
two f-stop designations indicate t h e f r o n t and r e a r distances f r o m the
film t h a t will be in focus at t h a t f-stop.
F o r example, a focused subject 10 f e e t a w a y will r e g i s t e r on t h e
distance scale opposite t h e m a r k e r a t 10 f e e t . To discover t h e d e p t h
of field when set a t f 8 at t h a t distance, look at the distance scale
opposite "8" on both sides of the m a r k e r . On one side, it indicates 8
feet, and on t h e o t h e r side 14 feet. So t h e d e p t h of field at f 8, w h e n
focused at 10 feet, r a n g e s from 8 to 14 feet a w a y from t h e camera.
At smaller f-stops, such as f 11 or f Hi, t h e d e p t h of field increases;
at larger f-stops, such as f 5.6 and f 4, it decreases.
T h e distance scale can be used to g u a r a n t e e an a d e q u a t e d e p t h of
field when s h a r p focus is critical. F i r s t , d e t e r m i n e the distance from
t h e camera of t h e closest and f a r t h e s t p o i n t s in t h e subject t h a t r e q u i r e
s h a r p n e s s b y focusing on each point and r e a d i n g t h e distance scale on
t h e lens. Say t h a t t h e closest point n e e d i n g s h a r p focus is 5 feet away
f r o m t h e camera, and the f a r t h e s t point is 11 feet a w a y . Set t h e focus
on t h e lens at 7 feet — a mid-point according to the l-to-2 r a t i o (2
feet in f r o n t and 4 f e e t in back of the focus point). Check t h e depth-
of-field scale on the lens to see what f-stop is needed to provide a
d e p t h of field f r o m 5 to 11 feet. If 1' 11 is needed, use f 11 or a smaller
a p e r t u r e , such as f 16 or f 22.

Depth-of-field scale

10' focus distance

To determine the depth of field of an
image at a given f-stop, read the
distance scale against the depth-of- distance scale
(in feet and
field scale. The latter scale has a • meters)
range of f-stops on either side of the distance marker depth-of-field
focus distance (camera to focused scale
subject) marker. Above, at a focus •Hlllj— f-stop ring
distance of 10 feet, the depth of field
at f 8 is approximately 8 to 14 feet.
T h e depth-of-field scale incorporates all the f a c t o r s controlling d e p t h
of field: lens opening, distance, and focal length. While lens opening
and distance vary, t h e focal length r e m a i n s constant for each lens.
Various focal length lenses have different depth-of-field scales since
wide-angle lenses produce g r e a t e r d e p t h of field than normal or tele-
photo lenses.
While this scale is useful, it slows the picture-taking process. F o r
candid photography and situations requiring a f a s t e r response, zone
focusing is more practical.
Zone focusing. Zone focusing r e f e r s to making an e n t i r e area (or
zone) s h a r p r a t h e r than focusing on a specific subject. This g u a r a n t e e s
that any subject within t h a t zone will be in focus a t all times. Zone
focusing is especially useful when the subject is active y e t r e m a i n s
within a contained area.
F o r example, to photograph a child playing in a sandbox, d e t e r m i n e
the distance of both t h e front and back of the box f r o m t h e camera
by focusing on each. If the front of the box is G feet away f r o m t h e
camera and the back is 12 feet away, set the distance scale and the
depth-of-field scale on the lens at settings to g u a r a n t e e a depth of
of at least 6 to 12 feet. Set the focus at 8 feet, according to the 1-to-
2 ratio rule — in this case, 2 feet in front and 4 feet in back of t h e
focus distance needs to be s h a r p . Now r e f e r to t h e depth-of-field scale
to d e t e r m i n e the minimum f-stop needed to g u a r a n t e e a depth of field
of 0 to 12 feet. Here, the minimum f-stop is 1'8, so set the lens at f 8,
f 11, f 16, or f 22.
Once all the calculations a r e made, zone focusing allows for rapid
shooting. The e n t i r e zone (the sandbox) will be s h a r p , eliminating the
need to focus specifically on the moving child. Keep the f-stop and
distance constant, f r a m e the subject, and shoot.
Guess focusing, a variant of zone focusing, is ideal for candid shoot-
ing situations when quickness is essential. Literally, g u e s s t h e camera-
to-subject distance, and set the distance scale on the lens accordingly.
Then choose the smallest practical f-stop to maximize the d e p t h of
field. If the guess of the distance is close and t h e a p e r t u r e small
enough, the subject should fall within t h e p a r a m e t e r s of the depth of
field, and be acceptably sharp.
If the subject is approximately 6 feet away, set the distance scale
on the lens for 6 feet, close down the a p e r t u r e , then quickly t a k e the
picture. The subject will barely notice he or she is being photographed.
Sometimes an inaccurate guess will cause an out-of-focus image, but
g u e s s focusing generally allows good candid s h o t s t h a t might not h a v e
been possible if time w e r e : aken to focus more critically.
CHAPTER 4 THE SHUTTER
©

E v e r y c a m e r a has a shut lev, a shield located s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e

film and t h e front of t h e lens. The s h u t t e r p r o t e c t s t h e film from light
e n t e r i n g t h e lens. T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r chooses when to make an expo-
s u r e b y p r e s s i n g the shutter button, which t h e n opens and closes t h e
shutter.
T h e s h u t t e r has t w o main functions: it sets t h e amount of time for
which film is s t r u c k by light, and it affects t h e amount of m o v e m e n t
r e n d e r e d in t h e image.

C o n t r o l l i n g Time The amount of time for which the s h u t t e r r e m a i n s open is critical to

t h e film exposure. A photographic image is c r e a t e d by light t r a v e l i n g
through t h e lens and falling onto t h e film. T h e amount of t h a t light is
controlled in p a r t by the lens opening. H o w e v e r , light cannot actually
reach the film until t h e s h u t t e r opens. Opening and closing t h e s h u t t e r
controls t h e duration of time for which light exposes t h e film. To-
g e t h e r , t h e s e controls — a p e r t u r e and s h u t t e r — a r e the key variables
for good film exposure.
T h e time d u r i n g which the s h u t t e r is open is called the shutter
speed. In most c a m e r a s s h u t t e r speed is widely variable, and can b e
controlled.
S h u t t e r speed m u s t be set according to t h e prevailing lighting con-
ditions. W h e n t h e lighting is dim, a long or "slow" s h u t t e r speed is
required: t h a t is. t h e s h u t t e r m u s t r e m a i n open for a time long enough
to allow a lot of light to reach the film. W h e n t h e lighting is bright, a
short or "fast" s h u t t e r speed is needed so t h a t relatively little light
reaches the film.
T h e choice of s h u t t e r s p e e d s is usually made on a s h u t t e r - s p e e d dial
(except with certain automatic camera models). This dial is usually
located s o m e w h e r e on the camera body (though on some cameras it
is located a t t h e base of t h e lens). H e r e a r e t h e s h u t t e r - s p e e d choices
typically found on m o d e r n cameras:
1
2
4
8
15
30
60
125
250
500
1000
"1" stands for 1 full second; the other n u m b e r s r e p r e s e n t fractions:
"2" m e a n s 1/2 of a second; "125" is 1/125 of a second; and so forth.
S h u t t e r speeds slower t h a n 1 second (for example, 2 seconds) and
f a s t e r t h a n 1/1000 of a second (for example, 1/2000 of a second) a r e
also designated on some cameras.
The relationship between the s h u t t e r speeds offered is essential to
u n d e r s t a n d i n g film exposure. E a c h setting doubles t h e time of the
setting on one side of it and halves the time of the s e t t i n g on t h e
o t h e r side: "4" (1/4 of a second) r e p r e s e n t s half as much time, so allows
half as much light to reach the film, as "2" (1/2 of a second).
This half-and-double relationship is no coincidence. R e m e m b e r that
f-stop settings have the same relationship. Once again the combination
of these factors is critical in d e t e r m i n i n g good film exposure. (More
on film exposure in c h a p t e r 5.)
( F o r t h e r e m a i n d e r of the text, s h u t t e r speeds will be r e f e r r e d to
shutter button shutter-speed dial b y the fraction of a second t h e y r e p r e s e n t . So, "1/8" m e a n s one-eighth
of a second; "1/500" means one five-hundredth of a second; and so
forth.)
Some s h u t t e r s are mechanical, run by g e a r s and springs, while
o t h e r s a r e electronic, controlled by circuits and batteries. Mechanical
s h u t t e r s can be set only for the speeds designated by t h e s h u t t e r -
speed dial; even if the s h u t t e r speed is set b e t w e e n t w o designated
speeds, t h e g e a r s will lock in at one speed or t h e other. Some elec-
tronic s h u t t e r s function only at designated s h u t t e r speeds, but some
provide speeds in between, such as 1/200 (between 1/250 and 1/125).
Most cameras with electronic s h u t t e r s will not w o r k if their b a t t e r y
Location of shutter button and becomes exhausted; cameras with mechanical s h u t t e r s will work with-
shutter-speed dial on top of a 35- out batteries.
millimeter camera. Most s h u t t e r speed dials have "B" and/or "T" settings. Both permit
t h e s h u t t e r to remain open for an indefinite period of time. T h e s e
settings are especially useful in dim lighting conditions, when a s h u t t e r
speed longer than 1 full second is required for a d e q u a t e film exposure.
" B " s t a n d s for bulb. When set at "B," t h e s h u t t e r r e m a i n s open as
long as the s h u t t e r button is p r e s s e d down. W h e n t h e b u t t o n is
released, t h e s h u t t e r closes down. Most s h u t t e r s h a v e a "bulb" setting.
" T " s t a n d s for time. W h e n set at "T," t h e s h u t t e r r e m a i n s open
from the time the button is p r e s s e d a first time until it is p r e s s e d
again. T h e second time the s h u t t e r b u t t o n is p r e s s e d , t h e s h u t t e r
closes. This s e t t i n g is found on relatively f e w m o d e r n c a m e r a s .

Controlling Movernont if t h e subject or camera moves while the s h u t t e r is open, the r e s u l t

will be a blurred image. A s h a r p image is needed most of the time,
but sometimes a less s h a r p image may be a p p r o p r i a t e to emphasize
m o v e m e n t or c r e a t e a special point of i n t e r e s t in t h e photograph. At
any r a t e , t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r can choose to r e n d e r a s h a r p or blurred
image b y a d j u s t i n g t h e s h u t t e r speed accordingly.
S u b j e c t m o v e m e n t may h a v e an effect at any time, but particularly
at slower s h u t t e r speeds. T h e f a s t e r t h e m o v e m e n t , t h e g r e a t e r the
image blur. The motion of a dog walking may b e " s t o p p e d " b y a s h u t t e r
set at 1/125, yet a speeding car will a p p e a r b l u r r e d a t the s a m e speed.
T h e direction of t h e subject m o v e m e n t in relationship to t h e camera
m u s t also be considered. If t h e subject t r a v e l s directly across the
viewfinder from left to r i g h t (or r i g h t to left), its m o v e m e n t a p p e a r s
f a s t e r than if it travels t o w a r d (or away f r o m ) t h e c a m e r a a t the s a m e
speed. T h e r e f o r e , a f a s t e r s h u t t e r s p e e d is needed to s t o p t h e move-
ment of a subject t r a v e l i n g across the viewfinder t h a n to stop t h e
m o v e m e n t of a subject t r a v e l i n g t o w a r d or a w a y from t h e camera.
Subtle subject movement should also b e noted. F o r example, a
s t r o n g wind can easily move g r a s s , foliage, or t r e e b r a n c h e s . On windy
days use a fast s h u t t e r speed to g u a r a n t e e a s h a r p image; or use a
slow s h u t t e r speed to c r e a t e blur and emphasize t h e motion.
A deliberately b l u r r e d subject within an o t h e r w i s e s h a r p image can
be an effective way to show action, m o v e m e n t , or simply to c r e a t e an
evocative image. T h e s h u t t e r speed must be f a s t enough to k e e p the
stationary p a r t s of the s u b j e c t s h a r p but slow enough to make the
moving p a r t s of the subject b l u r r y .
Panning m e a n s moving the camera d u r i n g t h e e x p o s u r e in t h e same
direction as the motion. A successful "pan" r e n d e r s the subject in
motion s h a r p , and causes t h e background to blur. H o w e v e r , panning
is difficult since t h e camera movement m u s t a p p r o x i m a t e the speed
of t h e subject m o v e m e n t . Use a medium s h u t t e r speed, about 1/30 or
1/60, and e x p e r i m e n t .
While panning is deliberate camera m o v e m e n t for effect, accidental
camera movement is a common photographic problem. If t h e camera
Controlling movement

Part of the subject is blurred and

part is sharp due to a shutter speed
that is too slow to stop the action.

The entire image is blurred due to

camera movement during the
exposure.
Panning

The moving subject is sharp and the moves d u r i n g e x p o s u r e , t h e e n t i r e image will not b e r e n d e r e d as
background is blurred due to camera s h a r p . Too slow a s h u t t e r speed is a common cause of blurring f r o m
movement in the direction of the ac- c a m e r a m o v e m e n t . Single-lens reflex c a m e r a s a r e particularly prone
tion during the exposure. to accidental movement since t h e y a r e relatively h e a v y and contain
m i r r o r s t h a t can cause vibration as t h e y flip u p and down.
To minimize blurring, hold t h e camera as still as possible, and t r y
to shoot at a s h u t t e r s p e e d of 1 60 or f a s t e r . E a c h person's ability to
hold a camera s t e a d y varies, but the f a s t e r t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e less
the image blur — for everyone!
W h e n a s h u t t e r speed slower t h a n 1 60 is indicated, use a tripod to
s t e a d y the camera. If a tripod is unavailable, try bracing t h e camera
against a t r e e or on a table. A b e a n b a g placed b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a
and its brace will help cushion m o v e m e n t .
T y p e s Of Shutters The t w o common s h u t t e r t y p e s are:
leaf s h u t t e r
focal-plane s h u t t e r
Leaf shutter. Located in the r e a r of the lens, a leaf s h u t t e r consists
of several overlapping metal "leaves" t h a t open and close in a circular
p a t t e r n . Leaf s h u t t e r s a r e mostly used with rangefinder, twin-lens
reflex, and view cameras.
Focal-plane shutter. Located in t h e camera body, a focal-plane
s h u t t e r is a curtain positioned behind the lens and immediately in
front of the film. When opened, the curtain moves in a horizontal or
vertical direction, exposing film one section a t a time in rapid succes-
sion.
Focal-plane s h u t t e r s a r e ideal for cameras with interchangeable
lenses, particularly S L R s . Since the camera body incorporates the
s h u t t e r , there is no need for s e p a r a t e s h u t t e r s in each accessory lens.
Focal-plane s h u t t e r s allow f a s t e r speeds t h a n most leaf s h u t t e r s ,
with 1/1000 or 1/2000 as a common maximum speed. However, they
are somewhat more noisy and prone to vibration t h a n leaf s h u t t e r s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , focal-plane s h u t t e r s are less flexible t h a n leaf s h u t t e r s
when using flash. (See chapter 10 for more details on setting s h u t t e r
speed when using flash.)

Leaf shutter

Left:
Located in the rear of the camera
lens.

Right:
Consists of overlapping metal
"leaves" that open and close in a cir-
cular pattern.
Foe a I-plane shutter

Left:
Located in the camera body behind
the lens and just in front of the film.

Right:
Consists of a curtain that opens in a
horizontal or vertical direction, ex-
posing sections of film in rapid
succession.
CHAPTER 5 FILM EXPOSURE

The most important technical s t e p to a good print is a good negative.

The key to a good negative is correct film exposure, t h e quantity of
light that reaches the film. This point cannot be o v e r s t r e s s e d . A good
negative will produce a good print with relative ease; a bad negative
will be difficult and sometimes impossible to p r i n t satisfactorily.

C o n t r o l l i n g Exposure A well-exposed negative has good overall density. Both highlight and
shadow a r e a s must retain some detail. The highlight a r e a s must be
d a r k but not too dense; and t h e shadow a r e a s must be light but not
too thin. To this end, t h e correct amount of light must reach and
expose the film. Too much light will cause too g r e a t a silver buildup
on t h e film, thus a dense negative; too little light will cause a thin
negative, lacking silver buildup. (Of course, film e x p o s u r e c r e a t e s a
latent image only; the film must b e developed chemically b e f o r e t h a t
image is visible.)
T h r e e variables control film exposure:
lens o p e n i n g
s h u t t e r speed
film speed

The first two have been described earlier, but b e a r reviewing:

Lois opening. The amount ol' light traveling t h r o u g h t h e lens is
controlled by the lens opening, or the a p e r t u r e .
The larger t h e o p e n i n g , t h e g r e a t e r t h e a m o u n t of light
t h a t r e a c h e s t h e film.
Therefore, a brightly lit subject r e q u i r e s a smaller a p e r t u r e than a
i dimly lit subject.
The size of t h e lens opening is m e a s u r e d b y f-stop n u m b e r s : the
larger t h e f-stop number, the smaller the opening, and t h e less light
reaches the film. H e r e again, are full f-stops:
fl.l m o s t light
f 2
f 2.8
f 4
f 5.6
f 8
f 11
f 16
f 22 least light
E a c h full f-stop r e p r e s e n t s a doubling or halving of the light t h a t
t r a v e l s through the lens. F o r example, f 11 allows half as much light
t h r o u g h as f 8.
Shutter speed. The time for which film is exposed to light is con-
trolled b y t h e s h u t t e r speed.
T h e f a s t e r t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e s h o r t e r t h e d u r a t i o n of film
e x p o s u r e , and t h e less light r e a c h e s t h e film.
A dimly lit subject r e q u i r e s a slower s h u t t e r speed t h a n a brightly lit
subject. H e r e again a r e typical s h u t t e r - s p e e d settings, r e p r e s e n t i n g
fractions of a second:
1 m o s t light
2
4
8
15
30
60
125
250
500
1000 least light

E a c h s e t t i n g r e p r e s e n t s a halving or doubling of t h e light t h a t reaches

the film. F o r example, 1/8 allows light in for twice as much time as
1/15.
Film speed. The third film-exposure control is film speed, or t h e
sensitivity of film to light. Fast films receive and record light more
readily t h a n slow films. (The t e r m s "fast film" and "slow film" should
not be confused with "fast" and "slow" as applied to s h u t t e r speed or
lens.) Imagine t w o s t r i p s of film, one with a fast speed and t h e o t h e r
with a slow speed. If both s t r i p s a r e exposed to equal a m o u n t s of
light, upon development t h e f a s t film will p r o d u c e a g r e a t e r density
than the slow film.
T h e f a s t e r t h e film speed, t h e less t h e r e q u i r e d e x p o s u r e .
A fast film is needed in dimly lit conditions to capture t h e little light
that exists. A slow film is adequate for brightly lit subjects w h e r e
light is plentiful.
F a s t films have emulsions that consist of larger silver crystals t h a n
slow films. These crystals, when exposed and developed, clump to-
g e t h e r to create the density t h a t makes an image. T h e s e clumps a r e
f r e q u e n t l y visible in the final print. T h e y a r e r e f e r r e d to as grain,
and look like fine particles of sand. Grain can make the image appear
fuzzy and less sharp. T h e f a s t e r t h e film speed, t h e larger (or coarser)
the grain. (More on grain in c h a p t e r 7.)
Film speed is rated by an ASA number. ASA s t a n d s for the A m e r -
ican S t a n d a r d s Association. The higher the ASA r a t i n g , the f a s t e r
the film speed. H e r e a r e ASA ratings for common black-and-white
films, along with some guidelines for their use:

• 32 ASA: Slow film; best with brightly lit subjects; produces

very-fine-grain negatives.
• 125 A S A : Medium-speed film; best for general outdoor use;
produces medium-fine-grain negatives.
• 400 ASA: F a s t film; best for indoor or dimly lit subjects, though
can be used outdoors; produces acceptable, b u t coarser, grain
t h a n slower films.

(There a r e o t h e r ways to rate film speed. The German s y s t e m —

DIN — is rarely used in the United States. ISO is an international
s t a n d a r d t h a t includes both ASA and DIN. F o r example, 400 A S A
film is also r a t e d 27 DIN and 400/27 ISO. F o r practical purposes, use
only the ASA film-speed r a t i n g system.)

Combining the The relationship b e t w e e n f-stop and s h u t t e r speed is t h e key to un-

derstanding film exposure. T h e combination of t h e s e two controls
Controls d e t e r m i n e s how much light actually reaches the film. As noted, each
designated f-stop or s h u t t e r speed doubles or halves the amount of
light allowed in by the next designated f-stop or s h u t t e r speed. F 11
lets in half as much light as f 8, and twice as much as f 16; a s h u t t e r
speed of 1/60 lets in light for half as much time as 1/30, and twice as
much time as 1/125.
Therefore, f-stop and s h u t t e r speed h a v e a reciprocal relationship.
If the s h u t t e r speed is slowed down (to allow more light to reach t h e
Grain

The faster the film speed, the coarser the grain.

A print made from a section of a 400 ASA negative: A print made from a section of a 32 ASA negative has
note the coarse grain. finer grain.

film), t h e f-stop must b e closed down (to let less light s t r i k e t h e film)
to make an equivalent exposure. T h e following combinations of f-stop
and s h u t t e r speed will produce t h e exact same film e x p o s u r e :
f IB a t 1/30
f 11 at 1/60
f 8 a t 1/125
f 5.6 a t 1/250
f 4 a t 1/500

Five pictures, shot one a f t e r another, of the s a m e s u b j e c t with t h e s e

five different exposures will r e n d e r five n e g a t i v e s of equal density.
How changing f-stops and shutter speeds affects exposure

1/125

Five different negatives taken at Note t h a t t h e smaller t h e a p e r t u r e , the slower t h e s h u t t e r speed.

the same time with the same expo- ( R e m e m b e r , small a p e r t u r e m e a n s larger f-stop number.) With less
sure achieved by five different com- light passing through the lens, the s h u t t e r - s p e e d time needs to b e
binations of f-stop and shutter lengthened to compensate. Conversely, the larger t h e a p e r t u r e , t h e
speed. f a s t e r the s h u t t e r speed.
So why choose one combination of f-stop and s h u t t e r speed over
another? The exposure choice is made according to the needs of t h e
particular picture. If a lot of depth of field is needed, use a smaller
a p e r t u r e (and slower s h u t t e r speed), say, f 16 at 1/30. a t t h e risk of
a blurred image. If a fast s h u t t e r speed is important to stop t h e action
of a moving subject, choose f 4 at 1/500 and sacrifice some depth of
field. In effect, the choice of exposure is a trade-off b e t w e e n maximum
depth of field and minimum image blur.
Film speed affects exposure as surely as the a p e r t u r e and t h e
s h u t t e r speed. F a s t films are more sensitive to light t h a n slow films,
so r e q u i r e a smaller lens opening or f a s t e r s h u t t e r speed. F o r example,
a subject shot with an exposure of f 1(5 at 1/125 with 400 ASA film
will need an exposure the equivalent of two f-stops more light, such
as f 11 at 1/60, with 100 A S A film. ( R e m e m b e r t h a t because of t h e
reciprocal relationship of f-stop and s h u t t e r speed, many exposure
combinations can be chosen. F 11 at 1/60 "equals" both f 8 at 1/125
and f 16 at 1/30, as well as several other combinations.)
The advantage of fast films is that t h e y produce more d e p t h of field
or less potential image blur than slow films. But r e m e m b e r that slow
films produce images with finer grain than fast films.
The relationship among different film speeds is reflected in their
respective ASA numbers. Film r a t e d 125 ASA is approximately four
times f a s t e r or more sensitive to light t h a n 32 ASA film (4 x 32 =
128). If f 4 at 1/60 is a correct e x p o s u r e with 32 ASA film, film r a t e d
a t 125 ASA needs f 5.6 at 1/125 (or f 4 at 1/250, or f 8 a t 1/60, and so
forth) for an equivalent exposure. The difference b e t w e e n 32 ASA
and 125 ASA is the equivalent of two f-stops (one f-stop provides
double the exposure. an<l another provides four times t h e exposure).
A change of t w o s h u t t e r - s p e e d s e t t i n g s o r one f-stop and one s h u t t e r
speed provides t h e same r e s u l t s .
Film r a t e d at 400 A S A is almost four t i m e s m o r e sensitive to light
t h a n film r a t e d at 125 ASA (4 x 125 = 500). T h e equivalent e x p o s u r e
with t h e above e x a m p l e and 400 ASA film is b e t w e e n f 5.6 and f 8 at
1/250 (or b e t w e e n f 4 and f 5.6 a t 1/500, or b e t w e e n f 8 and f 11 a t
1/125, and so forth). Again, f a s t e r film r e q u i r e s a smaller a p e r t u r e or
f a s t e r s h u t t e r speed t h a n slower film.

The reciprocal relationship b e t w e e n f-stops and s h u t t e r speeds

b r e a k s down at v e r y slow (and e x t r e m e l y f a s t ) s h u t t e r speeds. This
b r e a k d o w n is called reciprocity failure. W h e n u s e d at speeds of 1
second o r slower (and 1/1000 or faster), films respond m o r e slowly to
light. T h e r e f o r e , although f 8 a t 1/2 is equal to f 5.6 at 1/4 second, it
is not equal to f 11 at 1 second, since at 1 second, reciprocity failure
occurs and t h e film needs e v e n m o r e exposure. In practice, f 8 at 1/2
is approximately equal to f 11 a t 2 seconds.
Use t h e following chart as a g e n e r a l guideline to compensate for
reciprocity failure with black-and-white films. T h e exact compensation
required will vary, d e p e n d i n g on t h e film used.

Either/Or
open use this and change
indicated aperture shutter development
shutter speed by speed time as follows
instead

1/1000 of a no adjust - no adjustment 10% more time

second ment needed needed
1 second 1 f-stop 2 seconds 10# less time
10 seconds 2 f-stops 50 seconds 20% less time
100 seconds 3 f-stops 1200 seconds 30% less time

N o t e t h a t reciprocity failure is tied to long s h u t t e r s p e e d s , so as

t h e speed g e t s longer, reciprocity failure becomes m o r e pronounced,
and e x t r e m e l y long e x p o s u r e s p e e d s a r e r e q u i r e d . W h e n making an
a d j u s t m e n t for reciprocity failure, open lip the a p e r t u r e if possible to
avoid t h e s e long s h u t t e r - s p e e d times.
(Film development is covered in c h a p t e r 6. T h e changes recom-
mended a r e to c o m p e n s a t e for highlight a r e a s of t h e film. T h e s e
respond less critically to slow s h u t t e r s p e e d s t h a n shadow a r e a s .
However, most film is shot in rolls at various s h u t t e r speeds, so a
single development a d j u s t m e n t is not practical. Besides, controls in
the printing s t a g e can generally compensate for t h e s e differences.
However, for using sheet film or roll film at a constant very slow or
v e r y fast s h u t t e r speed, use t h e above film development changes.)

AbOUt Light Meters A light meter m e a s u r e s light and t r a n s l a t e s that m e a s u r e m e n t into a

workable set of f-stop and shutter-speed combinations, a p p r o p r i a t e to
the lighting conditions of the subject. As such, it is a guide to using
the three exposure controls: lens opening, s h u t t e r speed, and film
speed.
M e t e r s have a light-sensitive cell to r e g i s t e r a reading. T h e s e cells
in m o d e r n m e t e r s are b a t t e r y operated.
F o r use, the m e t e r must first be set for the ASA r a t i n g of the film
being used. This s e t t i n g is made b y t u r n i n g a dial on the m e t e r (or
on the camera, if the m e t e r is built into the camera). T h e n t h e m e t e r
is pointed in the direction of the subject, and r e a d s t h e light reflecting
back off the subject. Some meters, called incident-light meters, read
light falling onto t h e subject: t h e y a r e discussed later in this chapter.
Once the m e t e r r e a d s t h e light, it indicates an appropriate f-stop
and shutter-speed combination. Some t y p e s of m e t e r indicate a variety
of choices, while others indicate only one. R e m e m b e r that several
combinations a r e possible. If a m e t e r indicates an e x p o s u r e of f 8 a t
1/60, any equivalent exposure, such as f 5.(5 at 1/125 and f 4 a t 1/250,
will work as well.
Some cameras have built-in light m e t e r s and some do not. All
camera models can be classified as manual, semiautomatic, or auto-
matic:
Manual cameras. Both the f-stop and the s h u t t e r speed must be
chosen and set manually with the aid of a built-in or a s e p a r a t e light
meter.
Semiautomatic cameras. E i t h e r the f-stop or s h u t t e r speed is
chosen and set, and the camera automatically sets t h e other control.
In shutter-priority models, the photographer chooses the s h u t t e r
speed, and the camera automatically sets the f-stop; in aperture-
priority models, the photographer chooses the f-stop and the camera
sets the s h u t t e r speed.
Automatic cameras. Once the film speed is set, the camera chooses
t h e f-stop and s h u t t e r speed automatically when pointed a t t h e sub-
ject.
Many camera models combine f e a t u r e s . A s e m i a u t o m a t i c model, for
example, may offer an override option so t h e f-stop and s h u t t e r speed
can be set manually. Or a c a m e r a may o f f e r both s h u t t e r priority and
full automation.
Each model has a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages. H o w e v e r , serious
p h o t o g r a p h e r s should retain as much control over film e x p o s u r e as
possible. R e m e m b e r , good film e x p o s u r e is the key to a good print.
Light m e t e r s a r e not infallible, and s o m e t i m e s e x p o s u r e r e a d i n g s need
to be i n t e r p r e t e d . More on this later, b u t a manual c a m e r a (or a semi-
automatic or automatic camera with a manual option) should b e used
for m a x i m u m e x p o s u r e control.

Light m e t e r s are available in many "sizes, s h a p e s , and t y p e s . T h e r e

a r e too m a n y t y p e s to be covered in detail, but t h e r e a r e two m a j o r
categories: t h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s m e t e r s and hand-held m e t e r s .
Through-the-Iens light meters. T h e s e m e t e r s a r e built into t h e cam-
e r a and r e a d t h e light t h a t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e lens. T h e reading is
t h e n t r a n s l a t e d into an f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combination in a
variety of ways, depending on t h e camera model, such as with match-
ing needles, electronic diodes, o r digital r e a d o u t s .
In a matching-needle s y s t e m , the viewfinder contains t w o needles
on an edge of the image f r a m e . One needle moves up and down with
the intensity of light reaching it; the o t h e r needle moves up and down
as the f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d choices a r e made. T h e needles match
up on reaching t h e correct combination for t h e given s u b j e c t lighting.
A variation of this s y s t e m has a single needle t h a t moves as f-stops
and s h u t t e r s p e e d s are s e t . T h e correct e x p o s u r e is indicated when
the needle is centered b e t w e e n s t a t i o n a r y m a r k i n g s in t h e viewfinder.
Light meter types

Hand-held light meter.

Through-the-lens light meter.

FILM KXI'OSt'RF.

T h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s light m e t e r types
(as seen through the viewer)

Left:
Matching-needle. The two needles
move as the f-stop and shutter
speed are changed. They come to-
gether (or "match") when the cor-
rect exposure combination is
reached.

Right:
Electronic diodes. A readout of the
chosen f-stop and shutter speed as
they appear through the viewfinder. S o m e c a m e r a s use electronic diodes i n s t e a d of needles. One s y s t e m
has t h r e e diodes positioned vertically on t h e edge of t h e viewfinder.
T h e c e n t e r diode lights up w h e n t h e correct f - s t o p and s h u t t e r speed
a r e chosen. T h e t o p and bottom diodes indicate u n d e r - or overexpo-
sure.
Digital r e a d o u t s in t h e viewfinder a r e u s e d in m a n y m o d e r n cam-
e r a s . S o m e t i m e s t h e readout simply displays t h e f-stop and s h u t t e r
s p e e d chosen, and s o m e t i m e s additional information, possibly related
to a coupled flash a t t a c h m e n t , is provided.
It is easy to get carried a w a y with o r confused by c a m e r a technol-
ogy. T h e wide variety of t h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s s e e m s
endless a n d is e v e r changing. Most all s y s t e m s work well. S o m e
p h o t o g r a p h e r s find electronic r e a d o u t s in t h e viewfinder a s e r i o u s
distraction; o t h e r s like t h e clarity t h e y provide. M a k e choices a f t e r
t r y i n g out d i f f e r e n t c a m e r a s . C a m e r a s t o r e s a r e t h e b e s t sources of
t h e latest information on t h e variety of f e a t u r e s of t h e c u r r e n t models.
Hand-held meters. T h e s e m e t e r s a r e s e p a r a t e f r o m a n d work in-
d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e camera. (Some c a m e r a s have light m e t e r s a t t a c h e d
to t h e body t h a t function like hand-held models; t h e s e a t t a c h e d m e t e r s
do not r e a d light t h r o u g h t h e lens.)
To u s e a hand-held m e t e r , first set t h e A S A of t h e film b e i n g used,
then point t h e m e t e r at t h e subject. T h e m e t e r r e a d s light reflecting
back f r o m t h e s u b j e c t , and t r a n s l a t e s t h a t r e a d i n g into one or m o r e
f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combinations.
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s of hand-held light m e t e r s . Some u s e a
needle to indicate exposure, while o t h e r s use a digital r e a d o u t . H e r e
is how a typical hand-held m e t e r w o r k s :
A needle on t h e m e t e r indicates how much light reflects back f r o m
t h e s u b j e c t . T h e needle points t o a light-intensity scale. One end of
t h e scale r e p r e s e n t s a maximum amount of light, while t h e o t h e r end
r e p r e s e n t s the absence of light.
With many hand-held m e t e r s , t h e light-intensity scale is r a t e d nu-
merically. T h e s e r a t i n g s v a r y depending on t h e m e t e r used. The low
n u m b e r s r e p r e s e n t little light; the high n u m b e r s r e p r e s e n t a lot of
light. The needle responds to light f r o m t h e s u b j e c t , and indicates a
numerical value on the light-intensity scale. This value can be matched
up to a dial with f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combinations located else-
w h e r e on t h e m e t e r . A m a r k e r on t h e dial can t h e n be m a t c h e d up to
t h e light value and several f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combinations will
be indicated.
Some hand-held m e t e r s do not use light values. I n s t e a d , the needle
points directly to possible f-stop aAd s h u t t e r - s p e e d combinations.
O t h e r t y p e s of hand-held m e t e r s use c h a r t s of f-stops and s h u t t e r
s p e e d s r a t h e r t h a n dials.
Digital hand-held m e t e r s h a v e no needle. W h e n pointed at t h e
s u b j e c t , t h e y provide a direct readout of a r e c o m m e n d e d f-stop and
s h u t t e r speed o r a light value.

Hand-hold light m e t e r

When pointed at the subject, the

meter reads light and points with a
needle to a numerical light value —
here, 15'/2. Once the arrow on the
dial is set at that value, several
combinations of f-stop and shutter
speed are provided — such as f 5.6
at 1/250, f 8 at 1/125. and f 11 at
1/60.

film-speed setting
(ASA)
Reflected light Light m e t e r s r e a d e i t h e r reflected or incident light. Some read j u s t
reflected light; others r e a d j u s t incident light; many r e a d both. Re-
flected and incident m e t e r s will produce t h e same e x p o s u r e informa-
tion when correctly used. T h e y vary in how t h e y d e t e r m i n e that
exposure.
Reflected light is t h e light t h a t reflects off the subject and bounces
back to t h e m e t e r . To read reflected light, t h e m e t e r is pointed directly
at the subject. Most light m e t e r s read reflected light.
Incident light is the light that falls onto the subject. M e t e r s t h a t
read incident light h a v e a diffuser attached over their light-sensitive
cell. T h e m e t e r is brought to the subject, and pointed back t o w a r d
T h e light t h a t r e f l e c t s off t h e s u b -
the camera position for a reading.
j e c t . T o t a k e a r e f l e c t e d light r e a d -
ing, p o i n t t h e m e t e r a t t h e s u b j e c t . Some m e t e r s a r e averaging meters and some a r e spot meters. The
difference is the angle of light each reads. An a v e r a g i n g m e t e r r e a d s
a large angle of light, p e r h a p s 30° to 50°, while a spot m e t e r r e a d s a
much n a r r o w e r angle, p e r h a p s 1° to 10°. A few m e t e r s offer a choice
of either a spot or an a v e r a g e reading.
Some models, called center-weighted meters, combine an a v e r a g e
and a spot reading. T h e s e m e t e r s read light through the lens, and
assume t h a t the subject area shown in the c e n t e r of t h e v i e w e r is of
Incident light
more importance for the purpose of determining e x p o s u r e than the
area on the edges of the viewer. T h e light from the c e n t e r is t h u s
camera "weighed" more heavily t h a n t h e light f r o m t h e edges when t h e m e t e r
position
calculates t h e recommended exposure.
Actually, the t e r m s "average" and "spot" are a bit deceptive. Both
m e t e r t y p e s "average" light; t h a t is, t h e y record all t h e light values,
d a r k and light, in the subject, and a v e r a g e t h e m to arrive at a rec-
ommended exposure. A spot m e t e r simply averages light off a smaller
section of the subject than an a v e r a g i n g m e t e r . Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s
p r e f e r a spot-meter reading to g u a r a n t e e correct e x p o s u r e for specific
T h e light t h a t falls o n t o t h e s u b j e c t . p a r t s of the subject. F o r example, if the main subject is a t r e e in t h e
To t a k e an incident-light reading, middle of the forest, a spot m e t e r is ideal to g u a r a n t e e an accurate
point t h e m e t e r b a c k t o w a r d t h e reading of t h e light reflecting off t h a t t r e e , r e g a r d l e s s of the light
camera position.
reflecting from the r e s t of t h e forest.

Modern camera technology is so advanced that nearly anyone can

use a through-the-lens m e t e r and g e t accurate e x p o s u r e s most of the
time. So why bother understanding how m e t e r s work? Why not simply
aim the camera, line up the m e t e r or switch to an automatic mode,
and shoot?
First of all, light-meter readings a r e not always accurate. M e t e r s
are only machines; t h e y ar dependent on the information fed to them.
Averaging meter Spot meter

R e a d s a l a r g e a n g l e of light — h e r e , 40°. R e a d s a n a r r o w a n g l e of light — h e r e , 5°.

S o m e t i m e s that information m u s t be i n t e r p r e t e d and a d j u s t m e n t s

made.
In addition, " a c c u r a t e " e x p o s u r e does not a l w a y s m e a n the best
exposure. S o m e t i m e s u n d e r e x p o s u r e or o v e r e x p o s u r e will provide a
more printable negative. (More on this in c h a p t e r 7.)
F u r t h e r m o r e , n o t e v e r y o n e owns a camera w i t h a t h r o u g h - t h e - l e n s
m e t e r . Many sophisticated c a m e r a s , especially large-format models,
have no built-in m e t e r . And m a n y older c a m e r a s without t h r o u g h - t h e -
lens m e t e r s a r e still in use.
Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s a r g u e t h a t hand-held m e t e r s can provide m o r e
a c c u r a t e film exposure. T h e s e m e t e r s generally provide m o r e infor-
mation, such as a w i d e r r a n g e of e x p o s u r e choices, t h a n t h r o u g h - t h e -
lens m e t e r s . Good hand-held m e t e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y sensitive to light,
though most n e w e r through-the-lens m e t e r s a r e also sensitive. Being
independent of the c a m e r a , a hand-held m e t e r can be b r o u g h t up close
to t h e subject for precise r e a d i n g s more easily. And some hand-held
spot m e t e r s can r e a d a far n a r r o w e r angle of light t h a n t h r o u g h - t h e -
lens models.
The main rule-of-thumb for u n d e r s t a n d i n g how light m e t e r s w o r k
is:
Meters read for a middle gray.

T h a t is, m e t e r s a v e r a g e w h a t e v e r light t h e y r e a d , w h e t h e r f r o m a
dark, light, or g r a y s u b j e c t . The a v e r a g e r e p r e s e n t s t h e g r a y , that
is, halfway b e t w e e n black and white.
This a v e r a g e r e a d i n g usually w o r k s well enough, since most sub-
j e c t s h a v e approximately equal a m o u n t s of d a r k and light areas. How-
ever 1 , when t h e subject is primarily either d a r k or light, t h e m e t e r
r e a d i n g will be inaccurate. M e t e r s do not discriminate a m o n g different
subject m a t t e r . They a r e calibrated only to a v e r a g e the light. T h e r e -
fore, the photographer must do the discriminating.
F o r example, a m e t e r pointed at a d a r k (or shadow) area of the
subject will read on the low end of the light scale. Since d a r k a r e a s
absorb light, the m e t e r will indicate t h a t little light is reflecting back
from t h e subject. It will recommend an f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d com-
bination that allows a lot of light to reach the lilm to compensate for
this relative absence of light. L e t ' s say t h e subject is a woman with
dark hair. If the m e t e r is pointed only a t t h e hair, it might give a
reading of f 4 a t 1/60.
If, instead, the m e t e r is pointed at a light (or highlight) area of t h e
same subject, it will read on the high end of t h e light scale, and
indicate much more light reflecting back. Light a r e a s reflect light.
Therefore, the m e t e r would provide an f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d com-
bination geared to compensate by allowing less light to reach the film.
A reading made off t h e woman's white s w e a t e r might be f 16 a t 1/60.
A m e t e r reading made off t h e same woman's middle-gray skirt
would provide still a n o t h e r reading. Her gray skirt will reflect less
light back to the film than h e r white s w e a t e r and more light back than
her d a r k hair. Say this reading is f 8 at 1/60.
So. t h r e e entirely different readings are given for t h e same subject,
depending on w h e r e the m e t e r is pointed. Both the readings from t h e
dark and light a r e a s would produce inaccurate exposures. Why? Be-
cause m e t e r s read for middle g r a y . Most subjects combine enough
light and dark a r e a s to simulate t h a t g r a y . H o w e v e r , when light
readings are made largely from either d a r k or light a r e a s , the result-
ing exposure will be inaccurate.

Exposure Systems W h a t follows a r e several s y s t e m s for accurate film exposure. Each

s y s t e m w o r k s well, in most conditions, for either through-the-lens or
hand-held light m e t e r s .
Take a general reading.
Use a g r a y c a r d .
E x p o s e off skin.
R e a d i n c i d e n t light.
Average the shadows and highlights.
Bracket.
E x p o s e for t h e s h a d o w s a n d c o m p e n s a t e .

Take a general reading. Most of the time a general light-meter

reading of an entire subject produces an accurate exposure recom-
mendation. However, before accepting t h a t reading, examine the sub-
A general light-meter reading pro-
duces accurate e\])0sure most of the
time — when the dark, middle, and
light values of the subject roughly
average out.

ject carefully. T r y to p r e visualize t h e i m a g e as it will look in black

and white. Do d a r k , middle, and light values roughly a v e r a g e out? If
so, use an f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combination f r o m the general
r e a d i n g without correction; if not, make one of t h e following a d j u s t -
m e n t s to that reading.
F o r predominantly white or light subjects, add m o r e light — b y t h e
equivalent of one f-stop or m o r e — t h a n the m e t e r s u g g e s t s . E i t h e r
open u p t h e a p e r t u r e or slow down t h e s h u t t e r speed. If t h e m e t e r
r e a d i n g is f 8 at 1/500, use instead f 5.6 at 1/500 or f 8 at 1/250. ( F o r
especially light s u b j e c t s , add even m o r e light.)
F o r predominantly dark subjects, cut back on t h e light the m e t e r
suggests; close clown the a p e r t u r e or make t h e s h u t t e r speed faster.
If t h e m e t e r reading is f 4 at 1/60, use instead f -5.6 at 1/60 or f 4 at
1 125. ( F o r especially d a r k subjects, cut back the light even f u r t h e r . )
Use a gray card. P h o t o g r a p h e r s sometimes use a gray card to
reflect an a v e r a g e amount of light falling onto the subject r a t h e r than
the light reflected off specific p a r t s of the subject. A g r a y card is a
small, rectangular piece of cardboard colored middle g r a y on one side
and white on t h e other. It is inexpensive and available a t most camera
stores.
To take light reading with a gray
card, place the card in front of the
subject, toward the camera position,
and meter off the card.

To use a g r a y card, place it in front of the s u b j e c t , and aim it t o w a r d

the camera position. T a k e a m e t e r r e a d i n g off the card only; take care
not to cast a shadow onto t h e card while r e a d i n g the light. Use t h e f-
s t o p and s h u t t e r - s p e e d combination indicated by t h e m e t e r without
adjustment.
G r a y cards a r c easiest to use with hand-held m e t e r s , but can be
used with through-the-lens m e t e r s . T h e y a r e most u s e f u l in stationary
shooting situations, like still-lifes or formal p o r t r a i t s , when t h e r e is
time t o approach the subject, hold out t h e card, and t a k e t h e m e t e r
reading.
Expose off skin. Skin can be a s u b s t i t u t e for a g r a y card. T a k e a
light reading off the palm of a hand, flattened out and positioned
directly in f r o n t of the subject, t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a position. Or t a k e
t h e reading off t h e s u b j e c t ' s face. Re careful not to cast a shadow onto
t h e hand or the face when taking t h e r e a d i n g .
Skin tones vary, and t h e indicated m e t e r r e a d i n g will probably need
a d j u s t m e n t . F o r " a v e r a g e " Caucasian skin, add the equivalent of one
f-stop more exposure. If t h e m e t e r r e a d s f 1(5 at 1/250, use instead
f 11 at 1/250 or f 1G at 1/125. Dark skin m a y simulate a g r a y card
perfectly, so use t h e m e t e r reading without a d j u s t m e n t . E x t r e m e l y
d a r k skin may need as much as one-half to one f-stop less exposure
than t h e m e t e r suggests. If the m e t e r r e a d s f 8 at 1/125, use instead
the half-stop b e t w e e n f 8 and f 11 at 1/125, or p e r h a p s f 11 a t 1/125
or f 8 at 1/250.
Read incident light. Incident-light m e t e r s r e a d light falling onto the
subject r a t h e r t h a n light reflecting off t h e subject. T h e y do not r e a d
specific dark, g r a y , or light areas of t h e subject. As such, t h e y provide
an a v e r a g e exposure for the given subject lighting conditions, much
like a gray card.
Incident readings a r e especially useful in e x t r e m e lighting condi-
tions, such as on bright sunny days or when either light or dark a r e a s
could dominate a reflected m e t e r reading.
Directions for using an incident-light m e t e r w e r e detailed earlier in
this chapter.
Average the shadows and highlights. Since m e t e r s r e a d for middle
gray, the correct exposure will be s o m e w h e r e between the m e t e r
readings for the dark and light a r e a s of t h e subject. M e t e r a dark
area, then a light area, and a v e r a g e the two readings. If the reading
off the d a r k area is 1' 4 a t 1/60, and the reading off t h e light area is
f 16 at 1/60, use f 8 at 1/60.
Most of the time this exposure system works well enough. However,
t h e dark and light areas metered should be approximately equal in
d a r k n e s s and lightness. Do not a v e r a g e m e t e r readings from a j e t
black car and mildly tanned Caucasian skin.
Bracket. Bracketing means taking exposures on either side of the
recommendations of the m e t e r . It is a safe way to g u a r a n t e e good
exposure.
U s e any s y s t e m to determine exposure. If the recommended f-stop
and shutter-speed combination is f 8 at 1/60, t a k e an e x p o s u r e at t h a t
setting, b u t also take an exposure allowing twice as much light to
reach the film — f 5.6 a t 1/60 or f 8 a t 1/30 — and an exposure allowing
half as much light — f 11 a t 1/60 or f 8 at 1/125.
Bracketing produces several different exposures of the same image.
At least one exposure should be ideal.
Bracketing is not always practical, such as with candid or moving
subjects, so do not approach it as a crutch. Learn to expose well, and
bracket only when practical and with especially important pictures.
Expose for the shadows and compensate. A more exact s y s t e m for
exposing film is to t a k e the m e t e r reading in a d a r k shadow area of
the subject and then make an a d j u s t m e n t to that reading. The area
should b e the d a r k e s t part of the subject w h e r e detail is desired in
the final print.
Bracketing exposures

T h e first n e g a t i v e w a s m a d e w i t h a n
exposure t a k e n directly from the
m e t e r ' s recommendation — f 8 at
1/125. T h e s e c o n d n e g a t i v e w a s
t a k e n with an exposure the equiva-
lent of o n e f - s t o p m o r e — 1*5.(5 a t
1/125, a n d t h e t h i r d n e g a t i v e w a s
t a k e n w i t h an e x p o s u r e t h e e q u i v a -
l e n t of o n e f - s t o p less — f 11 at
1/125.

[MM

T h e rule-of-thumb is:
T a k e t h e m e t e r r e a d i n g in t h e d a r k e s t s h a d o w a r e a
a n d expose f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t w o f - s t o p s less.

L e t ' s say a d a r k s w e a t e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e d e e p e s t shadow area w h e r e

detail is desired. Read off the s w e a t e r only. (A spot m e t e r would be
helpful. ) Suppose the m e t e r indicates f 2.8 at 1/60. Use instead an
e x p o s u r e of t w o f-stops (or t h e equivalent) less, such as f 5.6 at 1/60,
f 4 at 1/125, or f 2.8 at 1/250.
If t h e d a r k e s t a r e a s of the subject a r e not particularly d a r k , the
a d j u s t m e n t should be one stop, r a t h e r t h a n two. In t h e above example,
use f 4 at 1/60 or f 2.8 a t 1/125.
Meter r e a d i n g s off d a r k a r e a s always s u g g e s t too much exposure.
Since little light is reflecting back f r o m t h e s h a d o w s , t h e m e t e r rec-
ommends allowing a lot of light in. T h e r e f o r e , if the s h a d o w area
reading is used without a d j u s t m e n t , the silver buildup on the negative
will be too dense. By exposing for less light, t h e amount of silver is
reduced, so t h e shadows will be thin on the negative, but j u s t d e n s e
enough to r e n d e r detail. I n o t h e r words, t h e shadow d e n s i t y will be
exactly what it should be.
T h e corrected e x p o s u r e should g u a r a n t e e a n e g a t i v e with properly
exposed shadows. W h e n the s h a d o w s a r e exposed correctly, the g r a y
and highlight a r e a s should fall right in place, because t h e y will always
be r e n d e r e d as d e n s e r t h a n t h e shadow a r e a s . A f t e r all, t h e y reflect
more light back to the film t h a n the shadows.
Meter for the shadows

A negative made with an exposure

t a k e n in t h e s h a d o w a r e a of t h e s u b -
j e c t — f 8 at 1/60 — is o v e r e x p o s e d .
I t is t o o d e n s e .

A print from that negative.

A negative m a d e a f t e r exposing for

t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t w o f - s t o p s l e s s
e x p o s u r e t h a n a b o v e — f 16 a t 1/60
— is c o r r e c t l y e x p o s e d .

A print from that negative.

P r o b l e m Exposure Difficult lighting conditions can m a k e any e x p o s u r e s y s t e m less ac-
c u r a t e . H e r e a r e solutions to t h r e e common problems:
Conditions A backlit subject. The subject is backlit if t h e p r i m a r y light source
(such as the sun or a lamp) is aiming at t h e f r o n t of t h e lens and in
back of the main subject. Backlighting causes t h e subject to be in
shadow. Instructions with simple c a m e r a s say " s t a n d with y o u r back
to the sun to t a k e a picture." This is to avoid backlighting.
A general reading will reproduce t h e existing lighting. Because t h e
subject is in shadow, it is d a r k and will lack detail. S o m e t i m e s back-
lighting is desirable because it r e n d e r s t h e subject in silhouette or
evokes an interesting, m y s t e r i o u s feeling.
H o w e v e r , if good subject detail is needed, t h e m e t e r reading must
b e a d j u s t e d . Add t h e equivalent of one or t w o f-stops to t h e m e t e r
r e a d i n g (depending on how d a r k t h e s u b j e c t is) to g u a r a n t e e good
subject detail. S a y t h e subject is a m a n , lit by t h e sun from behind,
and the m e t e r recommends f 8 at 1/125; use instead f 8 a t 1/60 or f 5.6
at 1/125. If the sun is especially b r i g h t , the man will b e especially
d a r k , so add t h e equivalent of a n o t h e r f-stop of e x p o s u r e , such as f 5.6
at 1/60 o r f 4 at 1/125.

Backlighting

Left:
A s u b j e c t lit f r o m b e h i n d is e x p o s e d
a t t h e m e t e r r e a d i n g of f 11 a t
1/125. It is in s h a d o w .

Right:
The s a m e subject has g r e a t e r detail
w h e n e x p o s e d f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t of
two f-stops m o r e exposure — f 8 at
1/60. H o w e v e r , t h e b a c k g r o u n d is
now too bright.
A subject in shadow The problem with increasing exposure in this way is t h a t the back-
ground may receive too much light, and become blocked up — too
If t h e m a i n s u b j e c t ( h e r e , t h e girl) is dense on the negative and too bright in the print. This problem can
in s h a d o w , a n d t h e r e s t of t h e pic- be compensated for by using a flash, developing t h e film for less time,
t u r e is in b r i g h t e r l i g h t , a d d light t o or "burning in" the background d u r i n g the printing process. T h e s e
a g e n e r a l light-meter r e a d i n g to solutions a r e explained in subsequent chapters.
g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e m a i n s u b j e c t will There is a form of backlighting t h a t occurs when t h e main subject
b e well e x p o s e d . T h i s p h o t o g r a p h is in shadow and t h e background contains brightly lit areas. F o r
w a s t a k e n a t an e x p o s u r e of 1/250 a t
example, if the subject is positioned u n d e r a tree, in shadow, and the
f 8, e v e n t h o u g h a g e n e r a l r e a d i n g
entire image includes brightly lit a r e a s around the tree, t h e subject
s u g g e s t e d 1/250 a t f 11.
is effectively backlit. If the bright background a r e a s t a k e up a small
part of the picture, then a normal m e t e r r e a d i n g will probably be
accurate. If the bright .-.reus are more dominant, an exposure increase
equivalent to one or two f-stops is needed.
Low-light conditions

S u b j e c t s in low light r e q u i r e a f a s t
film, a s l o w s h u t t e r s p e e d , a n d o r a
wide aperture. Sometimes, addi-
t i o n a l e x p o s u r e is r e q u i r e d s i n c e
light m e t e r s m a y u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e
a m o u n t of e x p o s u r e n e e d e d . T h i s
p h o t o g r a p h w a s t a k e n w i t h 401) A S A
film; t h e m e t e r s u g g e s t e d 1 60 at
f 2.8. but t h e e x p o s u r e w a s m a d e at
1/60 at f 2. j u s t t o b e s u r e .
Low-light conditions. Photography in dim light is sometimes re-
f e r r e d to as available-light photography, and causes a whole set of
technical problems. The crux of the m a t t e r is how* to c a p t u r e w h a t
little light exists.
Inevitably, low-light photography r e q u i r e s a fast film, a slow s h u t -
t e r speed, and/or a wide a p e r t u r e . As a result, the pictures will be
relatively grainy. They may also be blurred and will probably h a v e
minimal depth of field. (Slower film can sometimes be used in a camera
on a tripod with longer exposures to make less grainy pictures, pos-
This picture was exposed at f 2 at
sibly with g r e a t e r d e p t h of field.)
1/30, e v e n t h o u g h t h e m e t e r r e c o m -
m e n d e d t h e e q u i v a l e n t of o n e f - s t o p To complicate matters, light m e t e r s a r e least accurate u n d e r low-
less (f 2 a t 1/60), t o g u a r a n t e e a light conditions. T h e y frequently u n d e r e s t i m a t e the amount of expo-
good, printable negative. s u r e needed. Additional film development, know : n as "pushing film"
Subject with mostly highlight areas

< v • H I Q b K mm
S u b j e c t s c o n s i s t i n g of p r e d o m i n a n t l y b r i g h t t o n a l v a l u e s , s u c h a s s n o w or
sky, frequently need more exposure than a general light-meter reading sug-
g e s t s . T a k e a g e n e r a l r e a d i n g a n d a d d t h e e q u i v a l e n t of o n e o r t w o f - s t o p s
of e x p o s u r e .
(see c h a p t e r 7), can sometimes solve this problem. H o w e v e r , at o t h e r
times, the light is simply too low and artificial light (such as flash)
must be used.
T h e r e are few choices available when taking pictures in low light.
A fast film, probably 400 ASA, is a must. The s h u t t e r speed has to
be slow, with 1/30 or 1/60 the likely possibilities unless a tripod is
used. The a p e r t u r e must be wide open, say f 1.4, f 2, or f 2.8. Some
combination of t h e s e s h u t t e r speeds and f-stops will w o r k u n d e r m a n y
low-light conditions.
If possible, add the equivalent of one f-stop of e x p o s u r e to the
recommended m e t e r reading. H e r e , overexposure is far b e t t e r t h a n
u n d e r e x p o s u r e because detail in the shadow a r e a s is more likely to
be p r e s e r v e d . Besides, indoor light is so variable (for example, a lamp
in one place and total d a r k n e s s in another) t h a t some sort of backlight-
ing is common, so m o r e exposure is desirable. If the main subject is
sitting on a Couch in a low-lit room, and the m e t e r reads f 2 a t 1/60,
use instead f 2 at 1/30 or f 1.4 at 1/60.
.4 subject with mostly highlight areas. If t h e subject has mostly
highlights (such as brightly lit sky, sand, snow, or water), the m e t e r
will read too much reflected light and suggest too little exposure. The
result will be an underexposed negative. To compensate, add the
equivalent of one to two f-stops of exposure to t h e m e t e r reading.
F o r example, if the subject is framed by a lot of b r i g h t sky and the
m e t e r reading is f 16 at 1/250, use instead f 11 at 1/250 or f 16 at
1/125. E x t r e m e cases, such as a skier framed by brightly lit snow,
may r e q u i r e still another f-stop of exposure.
CHAPTER 6 FILM DEVELOPING

The D a r k r o o m A photographic darkroom is simply a room with t h e equipment needed

for developing film and making a print. Any room f r o m which light
can be blocked can be used, such as a large closet or a b a t h r o o m .
Window light can be blocked out with d a r k s h a d e s or homemade
plywood s h u t t e r s .
Any table or c o u n t e r top will hold the developing and printing
equipment. R u n n i n g w a t e r is ideal, b u t not r e q u i r e d ; w a t e r can be
brought in and chemicals t a k e n out of t h e room in pails.
T h e main problems w i t h home d a r k r o o m s a r e with convenience,
cleanliness, and f u m e s . F o r p u r p o s e s of convenience, use space t h a t
is not normally used, such as an e x t r a bedroom, a large closet, or a
room in a b a s e m e n t . In this way, equipment can be k e p t in place and
not h a v e to be set up, then packed a w a y a f t e r each use.
D a r k r o o m s should be k e p t clean; h o w e v e r , some m e s s is unavoid-
able. Spilled chemicals, for example, can leave stains long a f t e r a
cursory clean-up. Take special c a r e to k e e p t h e d a r k r o o m area spot-
less, particularly if it doubles as a living a r e a . Food p r e p a r a t i o n a r e a s ,
such as kitchens and pantries, a r e not r e c o m m e n d e d for darkroom
use.
Photographic chemicals h a v e an u n m i s t a k a b l e odor t h a t some find
unpleasant or physically irritating. T h e best d a r k r o o m s h a v e venti-
lation s y s t e m s . Since this is not practical in most h o m e darkrooms,
air out t h e room regularly. An open window helps, t h o u g h a window
fan is b e t t e r . (Be s u r e t h e fan is aimed out a window or a door to
r e m o v e t h e odor from the house, not displace it to a n o t h e r living
area.) A darkroom located away f r o m a g e n e r a l living area is best to
control this problem.
Many communities have d a r k r o o m facilities open to t h e public or
available for r e n t . Check local schools, universities, libraries, city
halls, YMCAs or Y W C A s . T r y adult education p r o g r a m s o r camera
clubs. C a m e r a s t o r e personnel may be able to provide information
about such facilities.
A good r e n t a l d a r k r o o m eliminates the i m m e d i a t e problems of
space, convenience, cleanliness, and odor. It is likely to be b e t t e r

(i8
equipped t h a n most home darkrooms. In addition, a g r o u p of inter-
ested photographers, with ideas and information to s h a r e , may g a t h e r
around school, community, or rental darkrooms, and make the dark-
room time more informative, interesting, and fun.

Equipment N e e d e d The following equipment is needed for film developing:

reel and t a n k
thermometer
scissors
can opener
c l o t h e s p i n s and s t r i n g
g r a d u a t e s or m e a s u r i n g c o n t a i n e r s
storage containers
funnel
p h o t o sponge
timer
s t i r r i n g rod and c o n t a i n e r s
r u b b e r gloves
negative envelopes
changing bag (optional)
Reel and tank. Since film is light-sensitive, it must be processed in
total darkness. A roll of film is loaded in t h e d a r k onto a spiral reel,
and the reel is placed in a light-tight processing tank. The top of the
tank contains a light trap, an opening that allows developing chemicals
to be poured in and out while keeping out light.
Reels and t a n k s are made of either plastic or stainless steel. Stain-
less steel is more durable, but some find the reel difficult to use.
Plastic reels a r e easier to use and most models a r e less expensive.
Reels a r e sold according to film size, such as 35-millimeter and 120.
Stainless reels a r e made for one size film only. Some models of plastic
reels are adjustable and can be used for different film sizes.
Processing tanks can be purchased in sizes t h a t hold one or more
reels, t h u s saving time when processing several rolls of film. Two rolls
can be developed a t once in a 2-reel tank; 4 rolls can be developed in
a 4-reel tank.
Thermometer. The t e m p e r a t u r e of processing chemicals is critical
and must be monitored regularly. F o r this purpose, a good photo-
graphic t h e r m o m e t e r is a must. Most models h a v e a wide t e m p e r a t u r e
range (such as 30° to 120° F). and will m e a s u r e solutions accurately
within 1°.
Scissors. A pair of sharp scissors is needed to cut film.
Processing reel and tank

Light-tight tank with spiral reel in-

side. The film is loaded onto the reel
in the dark and placed in the tank.
The lights can then be turned out.
Chemicals are poured into the top of
the tank, which has a light trap to
allow liquids in and keep light out.
top of tank

tank

Can opener. A common beer-can o p e n e r is used to pry open 35-

millimeter film cassettes.
Clothespins and string. Spring-type clothespins and s t r i n g can b e
used for hanging processed film to d r y .
Graduates. E i t h e r glass or chemical-resistant plastic g r a d u a t e s or
m e a s u r i n g containers a r e needed to m e a s u r e processing solutions. At
least one large (32 to 64 ounce) and one small (about 6 to 10 ounce)
g r a d u a t e a r e necessary. The small one should be capable of accurately
m e a s u r i n g 1 ounce or less of solution.
Storage containers. Some photographic solutions a r e sensitive to
light or air, so s t o r a g e containers should be d a r k and kept filled to
capacity. Plastic s t o r a g e bottles can be squeezed when partially filled
to r e m o v e excess air. All containers m u s t be r e s i s t a n t to chemical
contamination.
Funnel. A funnel is helpful for pouring solutions into s t o r a g e bottles
with thin necks.
Photo sponge. A special photo sponge (or chamois cloth) is used for
wiping wet film a f t e r it is h u n g to d r y .
Timer. Developing procedures must be carefully timed, so a timer
that accurately measures both minutes and seconds is needed. Special
photographic timers a r e preferable, b u t a clock or a watch with a
second hand will do.
Stimng rod and containers. To mix chemical solutions, use a stir-
ring rod and container. Special stirring r o d s a r e available, b u t a
t h e r m o m e t e r will also work. The container can also b e a g r a d u a t e or
a s t o r a g e container with a wide opening.
Rubber gloves. Any pair of plastic gloves will protect skin when
mixing and handling photographic chemicals, and minimize potential
physical reactions to the chemicals. Some people develop skin allergies
to processing solutions; others experience dry or chafed skin.
Negative envelopes. Once negatives are processed and dried, t h e y
should be protected from damage. Several t y p e s of protective enve-
lopes a r e available. Clear plastic envelopes are excellent, especially
for long-term storage, but they a r e expensive. Glassine envelopes
made of a translucent p a p e r are less expensive and commonly used.
Changing bag. When a darkroom is unavailable, film can be loaded
onto a developing reel by using a changing bag. T h e s e bags a r e black
sacks t h a t have two holes for arms. The holes allow the e n t r y of film,
reel, and processing tank, but keep out light.

Negative envelopes

Translucent glassine envelopes that hold individual Clear plastic envelopes that hold an
strips of film. entire roli of film.
Chemicals N e e d e d Several chemicals are needed for film processing, and m a n y different
b r a n d s of each chemical are available. T h e r e is a list of most b r a n d
names in Appendix F o u r .
Chemicals a r e packaged in either powdered or liquid form. The
powder must be mixed w i t h w a t e r to make a stock solution — the
form in which chemicals a r e generally s t o r e d . Chemicals t h a t come
packaged as liquids a r e essentially premixed stock solutions. T h e y are
more convenient and easier to use and store t h a n p o w d e r e d chemicals.
Most stock solutions must b e diluted with w a t e r b e f o r e use. The
usable form of the chemical ( w h e t h e r diluted or undiluted) is called a
working solution. Most stock solutions store for a longer time than
working solutions, though many working solutions can be stored and
r e u s e d for a while if bottled in d a r k , ' filled containers.
T h e s e a r e common film-developing chemicals, followed by descrip-
tions of their functions:
film developer
stop bath
fixer with hardener
fixer remover
wetting agent
Film developer. The p r i m a r y processing chemical is the developer,
which r e a c t s with the film to make the latent image visible. The
developer w o r k s to bind t o g e t h e r only the exposed silver crystals and
turn t h e m into clumps of d a r k metallic silver. T h e g r e a t e r t h e film
exposure, t h e d e n s e r t h e silver.
Many different b r a n d s of film d e v e l o p e r s a r e available, each claim-
ing its own characteristics. F o r e x a m p l e , some d e v e l o p e r s w o r k to
produce n e g a t i v e s with finer grain t h a n others, while some produce
n e g a t i v e s with g r e a t e r contrast t h a n o t h e r s (more on contrast later).
Despite their different characteristics, all d e v e l o p e r s do develop
film. Poor negatives a r e r a r e l y c a u s e d b y t h e t y p e of developer used.
More likely causes are:
inaccurate film exposure
improper loading of film onto the reel
chemicals mixed incorrectly
wrong processing temperatures or times
Most common negative problems, probable causes, and solutions are
listed in Appendix T h r e e .
Stock solutions of d e v e l o p e r a r e p r e p a r e d and used in different
ways, d e p e n d i n g on the b r a n d . Some must be diluted with w a t e r ,
while o t h e r s can be used undiluted. Some develop film quickly, while
o t h e r s take much longer. "One-use" developers a r e used one time
only, then thrown out; others can be replenished and reused.
A replenisher is a chemical used to extend the useful life of a
developer. It replaces those chemical components of the developer
that a r e used up d u r i n g the processing.
T h e developing time is determined by several factors including the
t y p e of film, the t y p e of film developer, the dilution of that developer,
and the t e m p e r a t u r e of the solution. A time-temperature chart is
provided with most packages of film or developer. (If not available,
inquire at a camera store or contact the m a n u f a c t u r e r of t h e film or
developer for a chart.) Here is a sample t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e chart:

Film type: Kodak Tri-X

Film developer: Kodak D-7(5
Developer dilution: 1 part D-76 to
1 part water

Temperature Time

65° F 11 minutes
(>8° F 10 minutes
70° F Wi minutes
72° F 9 minutes
75° F 8 minutes

So if the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e diluted developer solution is 70°, the

developing time is 9M> minutes. If the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e developer
falls between the t e m p e r a t u r e s listed, a d j u s t t h e developing time
accordingly; at 71°, the developing time is 9:5/i minutes.
Stop bath. Developer continues to develop film until it is neutralized
by a stop bath, which usually consists of a plain w a t e r rinse or a mild
solution of acetic acid. An acid stop bath helps p r e s e r v e the useful life
of the following bath — the lixer — which is a far more expensive
solution than "stop."
Packaged stop b a t h s have different ingredients and must be diluted
for use according to the manufacturers' instructions. Plain acetic acid
is packaged in liquid form and generally available in t w o s t r e n g t h s —
28% and 99%. The 28% acid makes a good stock solution. T h e 99%
acid is so s t r o n g that it should be diluted for s a f e s t o r a g e and use.
To dilute the 99% acid to a 28% stock solution, add 3 p a r t s of 99%
acetic acid to 8 parts of w a t e r (for example, 9 ounces of 99% to 24
ounces of w a t e r m a k e s 33 ounces of 28% acid). The fumes are very
strong. Avoid b r e a t h i n g t h e m directly when mixing.
The 28% stock solution m u s t be diluted down to a milder acid for
use as a working solution of " s t o p . " To do so, mix 1 p a r t of 28% acid
to 20 p a r t s of w a t e r : for example, 2 ounces of 28% to 40 ounces of
w a t e r , for 42 ounces of working solution.
Stock solutions of acetic acid will s t o r e for a long t i m e . W o r k i n g
solutions can be u s e d for several rolls of film; 1 q u a r t can develop
about 20 rolls of 36-exposure, 35-millimeter film. Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s
sell an indicator s t o p bath t h a t c h a n g e s color when e x h a u s t e d .
Fixer. A f t e r the stop bath, film must still be protected from light
o r t h e unexposed silver will become exposed and d a r k e n . Fixer (or
hypo) r e m o v e s the unexposed silver from t h e film and allows t h e film
to be viewed in room light.
The t e r m s hypo and fixer a r e s o m e t i m e s used interchangeably.
Actually, hypo is the p r i m a r y fixing agent, but m o s t fixers consist of
other chemicals as well.
F i x e r comes packaged in either a powdered or liquid form. Pow-
d e r e d fixers act in 5 to 10 minutes; most liquid fixers a r e rapid fixers,
and r e q u i r e less t h a n half as much processing time.
Film fixers should contain a hardener, a chemical t h a t t o u g h e n s t h e
film emulsion and makes it m o r e scratch-resistant. Most powdered
fixers contain a h a r d e n e r , while a s e p a r a t e h a r d e n i n g solution, gen-
erally packaged w i t h the fixer, n e e d s to be added to most liquid fixers.
F i x e r can be s t o r e d and reused for s e v e r a l rolls of film. One q u a r t
of working solution of fixer, p r o p e r l y s t o r e d , can be used for about 20
rolls of 36-exposure, 35-millimeter film.
The fixing time should be e x t e n d e d as the fixer becomes used. If in
doubt about t h e f r e s h n e s s of a solution, squeeze a few d r o p s of a
chemical called fixer check (or hypo check) into the used fixer solution.
If a white precipitate forms, t h e fixer has gone bad and f r e s h fixer
should be used.
Fixer remover. F i x e r must be washed out of t h e film or it will
eventually cause t h e film to d e t e r i o r a t e . H o w e v e r , a long w a t e r rinse
is required to do an a d e q u a t e j o b of washing. A quicker and b e t t e r
w a s h is possible with a presoak in a fixer remover. F i x e r r e m o v e r
(also called hypo remover, clearing hath, hypo eliminator, and o t h e r
names) converts t h e fixer in the film into a compound that is easy to
w a s h out, t h u s providing a quicker and more efficient wash t h a n a
plain w a t e r rinse.
Use a fixer r e m o v e r a f t e r the fixer for a short t i m e (about 2 m i n u t e s
with most brands). T h e n rinse t h e film with constantly changing run-
ning w a t e r for approximately 5 minutes. F i x e r r e m o v e r can be reused
for approximately half the amount of film as fixers.
Wetting agent. When the film is washed and h u n g to dry, w a t e r
may cling to its surface and leave s t r e a k s or spots. A brief t r e a t m e n t
in a solution of wetting agent reduces the surface tension of t h e film,
and allows w a t e r to (low more rapidly from t h e film without clinging
to it. The stock solution of w e t t i n g agent is highly concentrated and
must be diluted heavily with w a t e r for use.

Setting Up t h e Processing film is a straightforward procedure. Three solutions —

developer, stop bath, and fixer — do all the i m p o r t a n t processing
Chemicals work. T h e r e s t of t h e steps involve washing and drying t h e film.
Each brand of chemical is p r e p a r e d differently, so check t h e package
for specific instructions. F o r example, a 1-quart package of powdered
film developer m u s t be mixed with enough w a t e r to make a total of 1
quart of stock solution of developer. The instructions on t h e box may
say: "To use the developer, mix 1 part stock solution with 1 part
w a t e r . " Such a package would yield 1 q u a r t of stock solution but 2
q u a r t s of working solution of developer.
Before s t a r t i n g the process, set up three containers of working
solutions — one each of developer, stop bath, and fixer. G r a d u a t e s
make excellent containers for this purpose. Be sure to mix enough of
each solution to fill the processing tank fully. Most 1-reel t a n k s hold
approximately 8 ounces of solution; 2-reel t a n k s hold about 16 ounces.
Film can be processed with solutions m e a s u r i n g o v e r a wide r a n g e
of t e m p e r a t u r e s . The ideal is 68° to 70° F, though 65° to 75° is usually
acceptable. The higher the t e m p e r a t u r e of the solutions, the quicker
the processing times. However, w a r m or hot solutions, particularly
when coupled with great t e m p e r a t u r e variation from solution to so-
lution, can lead to excess negative graininess or reticulation (a con-
dition that a p p e a r s as cracks in the film emulsion).

Setting up the chemicals

Before starting, set up three con-

tainers of working solutions of de-
veloper, stop bath, and fixer.

developer slop bath fixer

All processing solutions used for the same batch of film should be
close to the same t e m p e r a t u r e , though this is not always possible.
T h e r e are many w a y s to maintain equal t e m p e r a t u r e . W h e n mixing
stock solutions with w a t e r , m e a s u r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s constantly and

Reticulation

Hot or variable film-processing solu-

tions can make the film emulsion ap-
pear cracked.
a d j u s t each by using hot then cold w a t e r . P o w d e r e d chemicals fre-
quently need to be mixed with hot w a t e r to make a stock solution, so
will need e x t r a time to cool down. A f t e r mixing, let the solutions
stand unused for a while until they all reach the same t e m p e r a t u r e .
O r place all the containers of working solution in a t r a y or dishpan
filled with w a t e r a t 70° to help even out the t e m p e r a t u r e s .
Like any chemical, processing solutions should be handled with
caution. Read the hazard warnings printed on chemical packages.
When mixing and using the chemicals, avoid inhaling t h e fumes as
much as possible. Process by an open window or use a fan to exhaust
fumes f r o m a room (many bathrooms and kitchens have built-in ex-
haust fans). T a k e all reasonable precautions.
In addition, use r u b b e r gloves when handling chemicals to protect
skin. Rashes and o t h e r skin irritations a r e common enough to w a r r a n t
concern.

L o a d i n g t h e Film The hardest p a r t of the film-developing process can be loading t h e

film onto t h e spiral developing reel. Once loaded, t h e reel is placed in
a processing tank, and t h e chemical solutions poured in and out until
t h e film is fully processed.
T h e reel is used to g u a r a n t e e that the chemical solutions reach all
parts of the film evenly. When properly positioned on t h e reel, no
section of the film touches any o t h e r section.
The t a n k is a light-tight container that holds both t h e film (on the
reel) and the processing chemicals. Processing tanks consist of a con-
tainer and a cover. The cover fits tightly on the container. It incor-
porates a light t r a p so t h a t processing solutions can be poured into
the tank through an opening on top of t h e t a n k cover without letting
in light. The opening can then be closed off with a cap on most models
of tanks.
The film must be loaded onto the reel in total d a r k n e s s (or inside a
changing bag), since it is sensitive to light. Be s u r e to practice with
an unexposed roll of film in room light b e f o r e t r y i n g to load exposed
film for t h e first time. It is a difficult and a w k w a r d process.
Step inside a darkroom and lock the door, if possible, so t h a t no one
will e n t e r inadvertently and expose the film. Shut off the room lights
and check for light leaks. If t h e r e a r e leaks, close t h e m off with
w h a t e v e r is available, such as t a p e and cardboard or towels.
The steps for loading film onto a reel a r e as follows:
1. Remove the protective cover. F o r 35-millimeter film, use a can
opener to pry open the fiat end of t h e metal c a s s e t t e . (The o t h e r end
has a spool sticking out of it and is more difficult to p r y open.) Then
pull t h e film out of the cassette, and toss the c a s s e t t e aside. T h e film
is wound tightly on a spool, so t e n d s to u n r a v e l rapidly once out. To
k e e p the film f r o m unraveling, cup t h e ends of t h e spool in t h e palm
of one hand.
Roll film, such as 120 size, is packaged along with a protective p a p e r
backing. This backing protects t h e film f r o m e x p o s u r e . The film and
t h e backing must be s e p a r a t e d for loading the film onto t h e reel. To
do so, slit the t a p e on t h e outside of t h e p a p e r , and slowly s t a r t to
unroll t h e backing. The film will roll out naturally, independent of t h e
backing. Once loaded on the reel, t h e film must be detached f r o m t h e
backing by r e m o v i n g the t a p e t h a t holds t h e m t o g e t h e r .
2. Cut the leader. T h e loading process r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e end of t h e
film be straight. At t h e beginning of a roll of 35-millimeter film t h e r e
is a curved leader t h a t must be cut off w i t h scissors b e f o r e the film
can be loaded onto t h e reel. Try to k e e p the e d g e as straight as
possible. This s t e p is u n n e c e s s a r y with 120 and o t h e r roll films, since
t h e y come packaged with a s t r a i g h t end.
3. Roll the film onto the reel. This p r o c e d u r e varies with t h e t y p e
of reel used. The aim is to lay t h e film into t h e grooves of t h e spiral
so t h a t no p a r t of t h e film touches any o t h e r p a r t of t h e film. Touching
sections will not develop fully.
Stainless-steel reels consist of t w o spiral, w i r e disks with their
c e n t e r s attached to each o t h e r b y a wire post. The disks contain
grooves t h a t hold the film.
(These instructions a s s u m e t h a t a right-handed person is loading
t h e film. Left-handed people should r e v e r s e t h e directions as t h e y
r e f e r to "left," " r i g h t , " and "clockwise.")
T h e reels work only in one direction. To identify t h a t direction,
place the reel u p r i g h t on a table or counter. Both spiral disks h a v e a
prong (or flat edge) a t their outside point, w h e r e t h e spiral ends.
T h e s e p r o n g s should point to t h e right ( r e m e m b e r , to the left for left-
hand ed people), or t h e film cannot be rolled correctly onto the reel.
To roll the film, hold t h e reel in t h e left hand. It is easier if t h e reel
is placed on a table or c o u n t e r top to s t e a d y it. W i t h t h e right hand,
place t h e s t r a i g h t end of the film directly into the c e n t e r of the reel.
T h e c e n t e r post has some sort of clip, wire, or o t h e r device to hold
t h e film in place. T h e film should be pinched e v e r so slightly b e t w e e n
t h e t h u m b and forefinger as it is put into t h e c e n t e r of t h e reel. (The
film is the same width as t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e spiral disks, so it
must be curved slightly to e n t e r properly.) T r y to avoid touching t h e
film a n y w h e r e b u t on its edges.
L o a d i n g t h e film o n t o t h e r e e l

A. R e m o v e t h e p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r . H e r e ,
a can o p e n e r is u s e d t o p r y o p e n t h e
m e t a l c a s s e t t e t h a t h o l d s a roll of B. C u t off t h e film l e a d e r . M a k e s u r e
3 5 - m i l l i m e t e r film. t h e cut is s t r a i g h t .

C . B e g i n t o roll t h e film o n t o t h e r e e l .
K e e p t h e film p i n c h e d s l i g h t l y be- L). T u r n t h e r e e l c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e , a n d it will pick u p t h e
t w e e n t h e t h u m b and forefinger. film a n d load a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c a l l y .

E . C u t t h e e n d of t h e film off its spool. F.

Once t h e film is firmly set in the c e n t e r of t h e reel, t u r n t h e reel
counterclockwise (clockwise, if left-handed). T h e first t u r n is most
important to g u a r a n t e e that the film is aligned correctly in t h e reel.
Once t h a t t u r n is made, k e e p the reel on t h e table and continue to
t u r n it counterclockwise. Make s u r e t h e film r e m a i n s pinched in t h e
s a m e curved position, and m o v e only t h e reel. It is not n e c e s s a r y to
move t h e film, since the t u r n i n g reel will pick u p t h e film smoothly.
Keep reel, film, and hand as s t e a d y as possible. E a c h e d g e of the film
will fall properly into s e p a r a t e grooves on t h e spiral.
Plastic reels load m o r e easily. T h e s e reels consist of t w o spiral disks
t h a t contain grooves and connect to each o t h e r in t h e c e n t e r by a
tube. E a c h disk moves independently back and f o r t h on t h e t u b e , like
a r a t c h e t . The s t r a i g h t e d g e of the film is loaded from t h e o u t e r e d g e
of the spiral disks, r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e disks as with
stainless-steel reels. Both disks h a v e slotted openings on their outer
edges; t h e s e openings should be lined up to allow the film to e n t e r the
grooves.
Place the film in the plastic grooves, u n d e r t h e ball b e a r i n g s located
a t t h e o u t e r e d g e of t h e spiral. T h e n t u r n t h e reel back and forth with
both hands and t h e film will "catch" and m o v e t o w a r d t h e c e n t e r of
t h e reel. One disk moves back, while the o t h e r m o v e s f o r w a r d in an
a l t e r n a t i n g p a t t e r n . T h e reel n e a t l y picks up t h e film, and loads almost
automatically.
Work slowly and steadily. Do not t r y to r u s h t h e loading process.
Also, make sure the reel is completely dry before loading. W e t reels
a r e difficult to load.
In the d a r k , an experienced hand can usually feel when t h e loading
is going wrong. The film will move unsmoothly to one or t h e other
side of the reel; or it will bend too much. An e d g e of t h e film may
crinkle and cause t h e film to j u m p a groove. Or, on a plastic reel, it
may g e t stuck and not move at all. If it feels w r o n g , do not continue
loading t h e film. The problem is likely to g e t w o r s e . Stop, unwind the
film, and t r y again.
4. Cut off the end. Once t h e loading is completed, the film must be
cut off from its spool. It is held on t h e spool by a piece of tape. T a k e
a pair of scissors, and make t h e c u t as close to t h e spool as possible
to keep from cutting off exposed film by mistake.
5. Place the reel in the tank. Place t h e loaded reel in t h e processing
tank and put t h e cover tightly on t h e tank. If the cover is the type
t h a t s c r e w s onto t h e t a n k , be s u r e it s c r e w s on s t r a i g h t .
The room lights can now be t u r n e d on. and t h e developing process
started.
S u m m a r y : Film Processing*

Step Time Comments Capacity**

1. Developer Varies; refer to time- Monitor temperature care- "One-use" type should be
temperature chart. fully; 68 ; t o 70° is best, but discarded immediately after
range of 05' to 75° is ac- use; others can be replen-
ceptable; agitate by rotat- ished and used for many
ing and inverting lank for rolls.
fii*st 30 seconds, then for 5
seconds of every 30 seconds
thereafter.

2. Stop bath 15 seconds Agitate constantly; use a 20 rolls of 36-exposure, 35-

mild acetic acid or plain millimeter film per quart of
water rinse at same tem- working solution, if using
perature as developer. an acetic acid bath; other-
wise, change water with
each batch of film devel-
oped.

3. Fixer 5 to 10 m i n u t e s Agitate for half the fixer 20 rolls of 36-exposure, 35-

with regular fixers; time; use at same tempera- millimeter film per quart of
2 to 1 minutes ture as developer. working solution.
with rapid fixers.

4. Fixer remover 2 minutes Optional step, but highly 10 rolls of 36-exposure, 35-
recommended; agitate for millimetcr film per quart of
half the fixer-remover time working solution.
at same temperature as de-
veloper.

5. Wash 5 m i n u t e s if treated Use constantly changing

first in fixer re- water at same temperature
mover; as developer; pour out
20 t o 25 m i n u t e s water from tank periodi-
cally to guarantee a water
if not treated in fixer
change; keep film on reel
remover.
and in tank during wash for
maximum efficiency.

6. Wetting agent 30 seconds Do not agitate; use at same Many rolls; discard periodi-
temperature as developer; cally.
keep film on reel and place
reel in wetting agent.

- These times and capacities are intended as guidelines. They vary according to the brands used and t h e conditions of use.
Refer t o manufacturer's instructions before proceeding.
35-millimeter film, 1 roll of size
** A roll of 36-exposure, 35-millimeter film is approximately equal to 2 rolls of 20-exposure,
120 film, and 2 sheets of 4" x 5" film
The D e v e l o p i n g Chemical solutions a r e poured in and out of t h e processing t a n k in the
_ following order: developer, stop bath, and fixer. The processed film is
t h e n washed, preferably with a fixer r e m o v e r and a short w a t e r rinse.
Finally, the film is t r e a t e d with a w e t t i n g agent and h u n g up to dry.
Read o v e r t h e s e s t e p s until totally familiar w i t h t h e m b e f o r e begin-
ning. This process needs to be timed, and should move smoothly from
s t e p to step, so make s u r e all of the solutions and containers a r e easily
accessible. Follow t h e s e steps:
1. Take the temperature of the developer, and determine the correct
developing time a t t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e by r e f e r r i n g to the t i m e - t e m p e r -
a t u r e chart for t h a t developer/film combination. F o r best results, k e e p
solution t e m p e r a t u r e s as constant as possible t h r o u g h o u t all t h e pro-
cessing steps, including t h e w a t e r tfash.
2. Pour the developer into the processing tank, holding t h e t a n k at
an angle to facilitate pouring. S t a r t t i m i n g t h e development as soon
as all the developer is in the t a n k .
3. dentil/ tap the bottom of the tank against a table, counter, or
sink to dislodge any air bubbles t h a t may h a v e formed in t h e solution.
If the tank has a cap, cover t h e opening with it. (The cap m u s t be
removed and replaced with each s t e p . )
4. Agitate the tank for the first 30 seconds of development. To
agitate, gently r o t a t e t h e t a n k in a circular direction, t h e n invert it.
R e p e a t the rotation and inversion for t h e full 30 seconds. (Some plastic
t a n k s h a v e no caps on t h e top, so should b e r o t a t e d only and not
inverted to keep t h e solution from spilling out.) W h e n t h e 30 seconds
are up, s t o p agitating. F o r t h e remaining time in t h e developer,
agitate the tank for about 5 seconds out of e v e r y 30 seconds. Over-
agitation can cause t h e film to become overdeveloped o r s t r e a k e d at
its edges.
5. Start pouring the developer out of the tank approximately fifteen
seconds before t h e developing time is up. If t h e d e v e l o p e r is a "one-
use" type, discard t h e used solution. If it is r e u s a b l e , store t h e solution
in a clean bottle and m a r k it "used d e v e l o p e r . " A f t e r the film has been
processed, replenish the used d e v e l o p e r with a replenisher solution
according to the directions packaged with the r e p l e n i s h e r .
(5. Pour the stop bath into the tank as soon as all of t h e developer
is poured out. Use e i t h e r a plain w a t e r or mild acetic acid bath.
7. Agitate the tank continuously for a t o t a l of 15 seconds, r o t a t i n g
and inverting t h e t a n k , as described in s t e p 4.
8. Pour out the stop bath j u s t b e f o r e the 15 seconds a r e up, and
save t h e solution for r e u s e .
9. Pour in the fixer.

S2
The film-developing process

T a k e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e P o u r t h e d e v e l o p e r into t h e t a n k . T a p t h e t a n k g e n t l y t o dislodge a i r
developer. bubbles.

A g i t a t e t h e t a n k b y r o t a t i n g it a n d P o u r t h e d e v e l o p e r o u t of t h e t a n k . A r u n n i n g - w a t e r w a s h . T h e film is
i n v e r t i n g it f o r t h e f i r s t 30 s e c o n d s still o n t h e r e e l a n d t h e r e e l is still
of d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d 5 s e c o n d s of in t h e t a n k .
every succeeding 30 seconds.
10. Agitate the tank for a t least one-half t h e r e c o m m e n d e d fixing
time. Most regular fixers w o r k in 5 to 10 minutes; rapid fixers w o r k
in 2 to 4 minutes.
11. Pour out the fixer and save it for r e u s e . (Before reusing t h e
fixer, t e s t its usefulness with a fixer-check solution.) Once the time in
the fixer bath is up, the reel can be removed and the film unwound
for viewing. Unwind only a few f r a m e s , and handle t h e w e t negatives
with care. Rewind t h e film onto t h e reel b e f o r e proceeding to wash
the film.
12. Add a fixer-remover solution to help facilitate t h e film-washing
process. T h e time is generally about 2 minutes, d e p e n d i n g on the
b r a n d of fixer r e m o v e r used. Agitatg for a t least half t h a t t i m e . Some
m a n u f a c t u r e r s recommend a s h o r t w a t e r w a s h prior to t r e a t m e n t in
the fixer r e m o v e r .
13. Pour out the fixer remover. Some b r a n d s can be stored and
reused.
14. Wash the film by r e m o v i n g t h e top of the processing tank, and
allowing w a t e r to r u n directly into t h e tank. Keep the film on t h e reel
and in the t a n k for best r e s u l t s , so all p a r t s of the film a r e washed
with equal efficiency. P o u r out the w a t e r in t h e t a n k e v e r y 30 seconds
or so to g u a r a n t e e a complete change of w a t e r . A plain w a t e r wash
t a k e s about 20 to 25 minutes. A w a s h preceeded by a fixer r e m o v e r
t a k e s about 5 minutes and w a s h e s the film more thoroughly.
Keep the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w a s h w a t e r as constant as possible,
consistent with t h e processing t e m p e r a t u r e s , ideally at 68° to 70° F.
If t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m t h e faucet varies significantly, fill a
bucket of w a t e r at the same t e m p e r a t u r e as t h e processing solutions.
Then pour w a t e r from t h e bucket into t h e open tank, close up the
tank, and agitate for 30 seconds. P o u r out t h e w a t e r , refill the t a n k
from t h e bucket, cover and a g i t a t e t h e t a n k for 30 m o r e seconds. If
t r e a t e d first in a fixer remover, t h e film should receive a thorough
wash — at a constant t e m p e r a t u r e — with a total of ten changes of
water.
15. Pour the wash water out of the tank once t h e wash is complete.
16. Take the developing reel out of the tank and place it gently in
a container of diluted wetting agent. Do not a g i t a t e . It m a y cause
s t r e a k i n g on the s u r f a c e of the film. Keep t h e film in the w e t t i n g agent
for approximately 30 seconds.
p i n on t h e b o t t o m of t h e film t o k e e p
it f r o m c u r l i n g . ( O p t i o n a l ) W i p e t h e 17. Take the reel out of the wetting agent, carefully remove the film
film w i t h c a r e , u s i n g a p h o t o s p o n g e from the reel, and hang the film to dry in a d u s t - f r e e environment.
o r c h a m o i s -soaked w i t h d i l u t e d w e t - Handle t h e film b y its edges to avoid damaging it as wet film is
ting agent. especially susceptible to gouging and scratching. Use a s p r i n g - t y p e
clothespin to hang the film from a t a u t piece of s t r i n g h u n g like a
clothesline. Place another clothespin on t h e v e r y b o t t o m of the film to
keep the film from curling.
18. (Optional) Gently wipe the film front top to bottom on both sides
with a photo sponge or chamois, soaked with diluted w e t t i n g agent.
This helps the film to d r y more quickly and with less streaking. Be
s u r e the sponge or cloth is clean, or it might scratch t h e film. Film
takes about 1 to 4 hours to dry, depending on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and
humidity of the environment.
19. Store the film as soon as it dries to keep it clean and scratch-
free. Carefully cut t h e roll of negatives into s t r i p s of five or six f r a m e s
each (depending on the size of t h e storage envelopes used), and slip
the strips into protective envelopes, one s t r i p in each. Use either
plastic or glassine envelopes.
CHAPTER 7 THE NEGATIVE

A good negative is t h e key to a good print. Well-exposed and well-

developed negatives p r i n t easily, while poorly exposed and poorly
developed negatives p r i n t with difficulty. In most cases, a v e r a g e film
e x p o s u r e and normal development produce highly printable negatives,
but sometimes manipulation of e x p o s u r e and development can produce
even b e t t e r negatives.
T h e basics of film e x p o s u r e and development h a v e been covered.
N o w it is important to u n d e r s t a n d how n e g a t i v e s can be f u r t h e r
controlled, manipulated, and evaluated. This c h a p t e r covers t h e s e
issues.

Adjusting N e g a t i v e Contrast is the difference b e t w e e n highlight and shadow a r e a s . High-

contrast s u b j e c t s h a v e d a r k s h a d o w s and b r i g h t highlights, such as
Contrast occur on a bright, s u n n y day, and a r e said to be hard. Normally
exposed and normally developed n e g a t i v e s t a k e n in this kind of light-
ing will also be high contrast and produce p r i n t s of high contrast.
Low-contrast subjects a r e gray, lacking either v e r y d a r k shadows
or v e r y bright highlights, such as on cloudy days or with s h a d e d light,
and a r e said to be flat. Normally exposed and normally developed
n e g a t i v e s t a k e n in flat light will be low in c o n t r a s t and produce low-
contrast prints.
N e g a t i v e c o n t r a s t can be controlled by manipulating film e x p o s u r e
and development. The key to this control is u n d e r s t a n d i n g how ex-
posure and development work.
T h e shadow a r e a s of the negative a r e controlled b y e x p o s u r e — the
amount of light t h a t reaches the film. T h e highlight a r e a s a r e affected
b y e x p o s u r e but controlled primarily by t h e developing time — the
amount of t i m e the film is allowed to react with t h e developer. T h u s
t h e rule of thumb:

Expose for the shadows;

develop f o r t h e h i g h l i g h t s .

T h e shadows r e p r e s e n t a r e a s of little exposure. Dark p a r t s of a

subject reflect less light back to t h e film t h a n b r i g h t p a r t s of a subject.
Subject lighting

High-contrast subjects have dark

shadows and bright highlights.

Low-contrast subjects are gray,

with neither dark shadows nor
bright highlights.

i?" y^y'r:
Because they receive so little light, t h e s h a d o w s form much more
rapidly on the negative d u r i n g development t h a n do highlights. If the
normal developing time for a roll of film is 10 minutes, t h e n the
s h a d o w s form fully in about half that time, or 5 minutes. T h e remain-
ing 5 minutes of development affect mostly t h e highly exposed a r e a s
— the highlights.

The longer the developing time,

the denser the highlights.

Shadows, because t h e y a r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e film exposure, a r e

not affected much by changes in developing time. If t h e film is devel-
oped for 15 minutes, r a t h e r t h a n 10 minutes, t h e highlights continue
to become d e n s e r . The shadow density still does not change appreci-
ably (it is already fully formed), so t h e increased development m e a n s
a change in the difference b e t w e e n t h e highlight and shadow density.
This difference — or t h e contrast — becomes m o r e pronounced, so:
T h e l o n g e r t h e film d e v e l o p i n g t i m e ,
t h e g r e a t e r t h e c o n t r a s t of t h e n e g a t i v e .

If the developing time is s h o r t e n e d , say to 7 r a t h e r t h a n 10 minutes,

t h e highlight a r e a s become less d e n s e . Since the shadow density would
still remain constant, t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e highlight and shadow
density is reduced, and t h e c o n t r a s t of the n e g a t i v e is decreased.
T h e s h o r t e r t h e film d e v e l o p i n g t i m e ,
the l o w e r t h e c o n t r a s t of t h e n e g a t i v e .

So the contrast of t h e negative can be controlled by changing t h e

amount of time the film is k e p t in t h e developer. More time increases
t h e contrast; less time d e c r e a s e s t h e c o n t r a s t . However, negative
contrast can b e altered even m o r e dramatically b y manipulating both
film e x p o s u r e and development.
To d e c r e a s e c o n t r a s t : o v e r e x p o s e and u n d e r d e v e l o p t h e film.
To i n c r e a s e c o n t r a s t : u n d e r e x p o s e a n d overdevelop t h e film.

In most cases, all t h a t is needed is a minimal e x p o s u r e and devel-

opment a d j u s t m e n t . Each film-and-developer combination w o r k s a
little differently, but h e r e a r e some g e n e r a l guidelines:
To reduce contrast:
Overexpose by t h e e q u i v a l e n t of o n e f-stop a n d u n d e r d e v e l o p by
20%, o r in e x t r e m e cases:
Overexpose by t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t w o f - s t o p s a n d u n d e r d e v e l o p by
40%.
T h e l o n g e r t h e f i l m d e v e l o p i n g t i m e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e c o n t r a s t of t h e n e g a t i v e

All t h r e e n e g a t i v e s w e r e e x p o s e d f o r t h e s a m e l e n g t h of t i m e . N o t e t h a t t h e
s h a d o w a r e a s of all t h r e e h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e d e n s i t y , r e g a r d l e s s
of d e v e l o p m e n t t i m e s . O n l y t h e h i g h l i g h t a r e a s a r e a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t e d .
T h e g r e a t e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t time, t h e d e n s e r t h e highlights and t h e
greater the contrast.

A n e g a t i v e d e v e l o p e d f o r 10 min- A negative developed for 6 minutes. A n e g a t i v e d e v e l o p e d f o r 20

utes, the manufacturer's recom- minutes,
mended time.

A print from that negative. A print from that negative. Note A print from that negative. Note
the decreased contrast. the increased contrast.
To increase contrast:
U n d e r e x p o s e by t h e e q u i v a l e n t of o n e f - s t o p a n d overdevelop by
50%, o r i n e x t r e m e c a s e s :
U n d e r e x p o s e by t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t w o f - s t o p s a n d overdevelop bv
100% to 150%.

Of course, one of t h e problems with manipulating film development

is t h a t an e n t i r e roll of lilm m u s t be u n d e r - or overdeveloped, so t r y
to shoot all t h e f r a m e s on the roll in similar lighting conditions. Oth-
erwise, develop for t h e f r a m e s t h a t a r e most i m p o r t a n t , and accept
t h e fact t h a t t h e r e s t of t h e roll will be u n d e r - or overdeveloped. (A
m a j o r a d v a n t a g e of sheet film is tfyat each s h e e t can be developed
separately, at different times, for d i f f e r e n t c o n t r a s t r e q u i r e m e n t s . )
H e r e are some specific e x a m p l e s of c h a n g i n g film e x p o s u r e and
development:
Overexpose and underdevelop. On a b r i g h t , sunny day, t h e lighting
is high c o n t r a s t . T h e shadow a r e a s of t h e s u b j e c t will b e quite d a r k
and t h e highlights will be especially bright. In o r d e r to decrease this
contrast, overexpose and underdovelop t h e film.
With high-contrast light, d a r k (shadow) a r e a s of t h e subject a r e
r e n d e r e d thin (lacking in density) on t h e n e g a t i v e because relatively
little light is reflecting back to t h e film from t h e s e a r e a s . E x t r a film
e x p o s u r e is needed to build u p t h e d e n s i t y to r e n d e r more shadow
detail. So overexpose t h e negative.
If the m e t e r indicates an e x p o s u r e of f 16 at 1/500, overexpose by
t h e equivalent of one f-stop: f 11 at 1/500, or f 16 at 1/250.
With high-contrast light, bright (highlight) a r e a s of t h e s u b j e c t are
r e n d e r e d d e n s e on the negative because a lot of light is reflecting back
to t h e film from t h e s e areas. W h e n t h e film is o v e r e x p o s e d , t h e high-
lights become even d e n s e r . D e n s e highlights can block up, or become
so d a r k t h a t t h e y print with little or no detail.
To d e c r e a s e highlight density, u n d e r d e v e l o p t h e film. If normal
developing time is 10 m i n u t e s , underdevelop by 20%. so develop for
8 minutes.
T h e r e s u l t i n g negative will h a v e less e x t r e m e shadow and highlight
density. As a result, it will print m o r e easily and with less contrast
t h a n if normally exposed and developed.
Underexpose and overdevelop. In flat lighting, such as on a cloudy
day or a f t e r a r a i n s t o r m , t h e lighting is low c o n t r a s t with lots of g r a y s
and f e w (if any) very bright or d a r k a r e a s . To increase this contrast,
underexpose and overdevelop t h e film.
With low-contrast light, s h a d o w a r e a s of the subject a r e not v e r y
M a n i p u l a t i n g film e x p o s u r e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

Si u |
M
JU I
m &

—
A negative given normal exposure N e g a t i v e of t h e s a m e s u b j e c t t h a t A n e g a t i v e of t h e s a m e s u b j e c t t h a t
a n d d e v e l o p m e n t — f 8 at 1/125 — has b e e n o v e r e x p o s e d b y t h e equiv- has been u n d e r e x p o s e d by t h e
d e v e l o p e d n o r m a l l y f o r 10 m i n u t e s . a l e n t of o n e f - s t o p — f 5 . 6 a t 1/125 e q u i v a l e n t of o n e f - s t o p — f 11 a t
— a n d u n d e r d e v e l o p e d b y 20% — 8 1/125 — a n d o v e r d e v e l o p e d b y 50%
minutes. — 15 m i n u t e s .

A print from that negative. A print from that negative shows A print from that negative shows
decreased contrast. increased contrast.
d a r k , so will be r e n d e r e d too d e n s e on t h e negative. To r e d u c e t h a t
density, u n d e r e x p o s e t h e negative. Less e x p o s u r e m e a n s thinner
s h a d o w s (which, in t u r n , will p r i n t d a r k e r ) .
If t h e m e t e r indicates an exposure of f 8 a t 1/125, u n d e r e x p o s e by
t h e equivalent of one f-stop: f 11 a t 1/125 o r f 8 at 1/250.
With low-contrast light, a r e a s of t h e subject a r e not v e r y bright,
so will be r e n d e r e d too low in d e n s i t y on t h e negative. W h e n t h e film
is underexposed, the highlights become even less dense.
To increase highlight density, overdevelop t h e film. If normal de-
veloping time is 8 minutes, overdevelop by 50%. U s e 12 minutes.
The increased development will not appreciably affect t h e shadow
detail (which is d e t e r m i n e d by exposure), but it will increase highlight
density. T h e r e f o r e , t h e difference b e t w e e n shadow and highlight den-
sity — the contrast — will increase, which will m a k e for a more
printable negative.

W h e n film is to be overexposed or u n d e r e x p o s e d , it may be easier

j u s t to change t h e ASA s e t t i n g on t h e m e t e r , r a t h e r t h a n t r y to
r e m e m b e r to compensate with each exposure. F o r t h e equivalent of
one f-stop more e x p o s u r e , cut the A S A in half (400 to 200; 125 to 63;
32 to 16). T h e e x t r a e x p o s u r e is like a s s u m i n g t h e film speed is slower,
or less sensitive to light t h a n it really is.
F o r one stop less exposure, set the m e t e r a t double the A S A r a t i n g
of the film (400 to 800; 125 to 250; 32 to 64). Giving less e x p o s u r e is
like assuming t h a t the film is f a s t e r , or more sensitive than it really
is.
Some camera models have e x p o s u r e compensation s e t t i n g s t h a t
make it easy to over- or underexpose quickly. C a m e r a s w i t h this
f e a t u r e h a v e a dial with n u m b e r s such as + 1 , + 2 , - 1 , and - 2 . E a c h
n u m b e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e equivalent of one f-stop change. Set the dial
a t M , and t h e film will automatically receive twice as much exposure;
set t h e dial a t - 2 , and the film will automatically receive t h e equiv-
alent of two f-stops less exposure.

Pushing Film Pushing film means overdeveloping to simulate increased film speed.
F o r example, film r a t e d at 400 A S A can be pushed to a r a t i n g of 800
or 1600.
In effect, pushing film is t h e same as u n d e r e x p o s i n g and over-
developing; however, t h e t e r m is usually applied when shooting u n d e r
low-light conditions. Generally, film is not pushed to increase negative
c o n t r a s t (though that is a result), b u t to r e n d e r enough d e n s i t y on t h e
B e c a u s e of t h e low-light c o n d i t i o n s ,
t o m a k e t h i s p i c t u r e , t h e film w a s
"pushed" — underexposed and
overdeveloped.
Both these negatives have been shot
on 400 ASA film rated at 1600. At
400 ASA, the light-meter reading
was f 2 at 1/15. At 1600 ASA. the
reading suggested the equivalent of
two stops less exposure: f 2 at 160.
So, at this reading, the film is un-
derexposed and must be "pushed"
for enough contrast to make a good
print.

A negative exposed at f 2 at 1 60
and developed normally for 10
minutes.

A print from that negative has low

contrast.
f

A print from that negative has

higher contrast and p r i n t s m o r e
easily.
negative for photographing in low-light situations, or to allow for
increased d e p t h of field or a f a s t e r s h u t t e r speed to m e e t t h e require-
m e n t s of a picture.
Photographing in low light. W h e n p h o t o g r a p h i n g indoors (or any-
w h e r e t h e r e is low light), it will be difficult to allow enough light to
reach t h e film for a good exposure. The lens may be opened wide, say
to f 2. The s h u t t e r speed may b e set as slow as it can be (and still
allow for hand-holding the camera), say to 1/60. Yet t h e light m e t e r
may still indicate that f 2 a t 1/60 does not allow enough light in for a
good exposure.
The solution is to "fool" the light m e t e r by s e t t i n g it at a higher
film speed. For example, set 400 ASA film a t 800. The h i g h e r n u m b e r
tells the m e t e r that the film is f a s t e r , or m o r e sensitive to light t h a n
it really is (by t h e equivalent of one f-stop), and t h e r e f o r e needs less
exposure. At a r a t i n g of 800, t h e m e t e r m a y indicate t h a t f 2 a t 1/60
will provide an a d e q u a t e exposure. If so, t a k e t h e picture at t h a t
setting, and overdevelop (or push) t h e film by 50%.
A m a j o r problem with pushing film is t h a t the film will actually be
u n d e r e x p o s e d . A f t e r all, increasing t h e A S A s e t t i n g on t h e m e t e r
does not increase the sensitivity of the film to light. It j u s t causes the
film to receive less exposure. In low-contrast light, film may be un-
derexposed deliberately to reduce s h a d o w density, which might oth-
erwise be r e n d e r e d too dense in the negative. But u n d e r low light,
chances a r e t h a t t h e shadows will not be illuminated enough to r e g i s t e r
even a d e q u a t e d e n s i t y on t h e n e g a t i v e . T h e r e f o r e , in most cases,
pushing t h e film r e d u c e s or eliminates shadow density (and detail) in
the negative and ultimately in t h e print.
W h e n pushing, t h e film must be overdeveloped to k e e p t h e negative
from becoming so thin and flat (from t h e combination of low light and
u n d e r e x p o s u r e ) t h a t m a k i n g a decent p r i n t is impossible. Added de-
velopment m e a n s more highlight density, t h u s increased contrast for
a more printable negative.
Allowing for more depth of field or a faster shutter speed. E v e n if
a m e t e r r e a d i n g of f 2 a t 1/30 at 400 ASA is a d e q u a t e to make a well-
exposed negative, f 2 might not provide enough d e p t h of field for the
subject. By pushing t h e film to 800, t h e lens can be closed down to
provide m o r e d e p t h of field. U s e f 2.8 a t 1/30 a t 800 A S A . If the film
is pushed f a r t h e r , t h e lens can be closed down again to f 4 a t 1/30 at
1600 A S A .
If subject or camera m o v e m e n t , not depth of field, is t h e concern,
push the film to make t h e s h u t t e r speed f a s t e r . I n s t e a d of f 2 at 1/30
at 400 ASA, t r y f 2 at 1/60 at 800 ASA, or f 2 a t 1/125 at 1600 A S A .
The general underexposure and overdevelopment guidelines given
earlier apply when pushing film. F o r example, to push 400 A S A film:

n e w film
speed r a t i n g u n d e r e x p o s e by o v e r d e v e l o p by

800 ASA one f-stop or one 50%

shutter speed set-
ting

1600 ASA two f-stops, two 100% to 150%

shutter speed set-
tings, or one of
each

To push films with a rating other than 400 ASA, double the r a t i n g
for each time the exposure is halved. F o r example, 125 ASA film,
underexposed by the equivalent of one f-stop, should b e r a t e d a t 250
ASA, then overdeveloped by 50%.
Obviously an entire roll of film must be pushed a t t h e same time.
Special extra-active, "high-speed" developers are made for pushing
film. These work by simulating increased development, times, so t h a t
normal developing times with t h e s e developers a r e like increased
times for normal developers. Follow the developing times provided
with these developers, not the above guidelines for increasing devel-
opment. Appendix F o u r provides a list of brand n a m e s of some of
t h e s e products.
The following are potential disadvantages to pushing film:

• Shadow detail will be lost owing to underexposure.

• C o n t r a s t is increased owing to overdevelopment.
• Grain size is also increased owing to overdevelopment.

These should be considered before deciding to push a roll of film.

However, since pushing film may make the difference between ac-
tually g e t t i n g the picture and having to pass it up, t h e s e technical
deficiencies may simply have to be accepted.

Grain G m i n r e f e r s t 0 t k e tin
> : ' s a n d l i k e particles visible in some prints. It
is an inherent part of film emulsions, and is caused by t h e clumping
t o g e t h e r of silver crystals a f t e r film is exposed and developed. Grain
is small and not really noticeable in the negative, but it is magnified
and sometimes quite obvious in an enlarged print.
In general, grain is not desirable. It t e n d s to m a k e t h e image appear
less s h a r p and clear. However, sometimes grainy p h o t o g r a p h s a r e
effective: t h e y can s e e m soft, fuzzy, or even romantic. In t h e s e specific
cases, coarse grain can be used as a tool, b u t it should be used
sparingly.
Some negatives h a v e fine grain, barely noticeable, while others
have coarse grain, obvious and obtrusive. H e r e a r e some of the many
factors that affect how grain a p p e a r s in the final print:

film used
film developer used
negative density
processing temperatures
enlargement•
n e g a t i v e size

Film used. T h e f a s t e r the film speed, t h e coarser t h e grain struc-

t u r e . A film r a t e d at 400 A S A is useful in low-light situations, but
expect negatives with coarser grain t h a n when using film r a t e d a t 32
ASA.
Film developer used. Most m a n u f a c t u r e r s classify t h e i r developers
according to w h e t h e r t h e y produce fine, m o d e r a t e , or coarse-grained
negatives. All o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g equal, fine-grain developers produce
n e g a t i v e s of the finest g r a i n . Some fine-grain developers produce finer
grain than o t h e r s .

Grain

A detail from a negative enlarged

many times shows what grain looks
like: tiny, sandlike particles.
Negative density. The d e n s e r t h e negative, the coarser t h e grain.
Dense negatives a r e the result of overexposure or overdevelopment,
so the g r e a t e r the exposure and development, the coarser the grain.
For example, pushed film t e n d s to have coarser grain t h a n normally
developed film.
Processing temperatures. Grain size is increased when w a r m film
processing t e m p e r a t u r e s are used — negatives processed a t 78° will
tend to have coarser grain than those processed a t 68° — or when t h e
processing and wash t e m p e r a t u r e s are not kept consistent throughout.
To minimize grain, t r y to keep all solutions a t approximately t h e s a m e
t e m p e r a t u r e throughout all the processing steps.
Enlargement. Grain is magnified as a negative is enlarged, so the
g r e a t e r the print size, t h e more a p p a r e n t the grain. An 8" x 10" p r i n t
shows coarser grain than a 5" x 7" print of the same negative.
Negative size. Small-format negatives need to be enlarged m o r e
than large-format negatives to make t h e same size print. Therefore,
grain t e n d s to appear coarser on prints made from small negatives
t h a n on p r i n t s made from large negatives. A 35-millimeter negative
needs to be enlarged much more than a 4" x 5" negative to make an
8" x 10" print, so t h e print from the 35-millimeter negative will h a v e
coarser grain.

Evaluating th6 L e a r n i n g to read or evaluate a negative can be very helpful. A r e the

exposure and development correct? How will it be r e n d e r e d as a print?
Neganve With low or high contrast? With good or poor shadow or highlight
detail? F o r guidance, r e f e r to the rule:
Expose for the shadows and
develop for t h e h i g h l i g h t s .

To evaluate film exposure, look only at the shadow a r e a s of t h e

negative. Ignore the highlights. If the shadows a p p e a r dense, the
negative has been overexposed. If t h e y appear thin, t h e negative has
been underexposed. A well-exposed negative has the minimum den-
sity necessary to r e n d e r full shadow detail. Shadows should be light,
but not clear.
To evaluate film development, ignore the shadow a r e a s of t h e neg-
ative and look only at the highlights. Well-developed negatives should
be dense but not opaque. If the highlights a r e thin, the film has been
underdeveloped and the negative will lack c o n t r a s t . If t h e y are too
dark, the film has been overdeveloped and will likely h a v e a lot of
contrast.
Film development is a little h a r d e r to j u d g e t h a n e x p o s u r e because
highlight density is inevitably affected by film exposure. Underex-
posed negatives will h a v e both thin s h a d o w s and thin highlights;
overexposed n e g a t i v e s will h a v e both dense s h a d o w s and dense high-
lights. So if a n e g a t i v e is e i t h e r u n d e r e x p o s e d or overexposed, it is
h a r d e r to tell w h e t h e r it has been correctly developed.
The j u d g m e n t of w h a t constitutes good shadow and highlight den-
sity t a k e s experience. Use the accompanying illustrations as a guide,
and continue to check and evaluate n e g a t i v e s on a r e g u l a r basis.

It is w o r t h r e p e a t i n g t h a t a good negative is critical for a good

print. Film exposure is t h e most i m p o r t a n t factor, b u t film develop-
ment is also i m p o r t a n t . Sometimes Exposure and development should
be altered to obtain t h e best possible negative. A f t e r all, t h e b e t t e r
the negative, t h e b e t t e r t h e print. It is well w o r t h t h e e x t r a care
needed to u n d e r s t a n d and use the controls available to r e a c h t h a t end.
CHAPTER 8 MAKING THE PRINT

Equipment N e e d e d P r i n t s are made from negatives in a d a r k r o o m . However, m a k i n g

prints r e q u i r e s a larger and more expensive investment in equipment
and materials than developing film. H e r e is a list of both n e c e s s a r y
and useful tools for printing:

enlarger
e n l a r g i n g lens
enlarging timer
focusing magnifier
processing trays
print tongs
safelights
easel
b r u s h o r a i r blower
film c l e a n e r and s o f t cloth
print washer
print drier
paper safe (optional)
paper trimmer
graduates, funnels, and storage bottles
p r i n t squeegee
piece of glass
towel

Enlarger. An enlarger makes prints from n e g a t i v e s in sizes g r e a t e r

t h a n the negative size. F o r example, a 35-millimeter negative mea-
sures approximately 1" x IV2", yet il may be "enlarged" to a print
measuring 5" x 7", 8" x 10", or larger.
E n l a r g e r s a r e available to handle different size negatives. If an
enlarger uses negatives as large as 4" x 5", it is r e f e r r e d to as a
"4" x 5" enlarger," but it can handle smaller f o r m a t s as well. A
"35-millimeter enlarger" can handle t h a t size and smaller negatives.
E n l a r g e r s can be formidable in appearance, but a r e simple to op-
orate. A long post holds the enlarger housing, which in turn holds a
light bulb, condenser (or diffuser), n e g a t i v e carrier, bellows, and lens.
At its bottom, the poM i< attached to a baseboard.
A negative.

A print from that negative.

P a r t s of an cnlarger

Light from t h e bulb travels through the condenser, negative, and

lens to project the image of t h e negative onto t h e baseboard. Light
bulbs h a v e a "hot spot" in the center; that is, the projected light is
b r i g h t e r in the center t h a n on the outside of the bulb. To spread the
light evenly before it reaches the negative, a condenser (a glass lens)
01 a d i f f user (a translucent piece of glass or plastic) is located b e t w e e n
t h e light source and the negative. Condensers produce a higher-con-
trast print than diffusers.
The negative is positioned in a negative carrier, which fits into t h e
en larger below t h e condenser or diffuser. Most carriers a r e t w o pieces
of m e t a l o r plastic t h a t hold e i t h e r a full s t r i p of negatives or a single
n e g a r h v . lat and \n p l a c e . The c a r r i e r has a cut-out t h e size of a
used r e q u i r e s its own carrier. Some
M A KING THE PRINT

c a r r i e r s h a v e glass covering the negative while o t h e r s a r e "glassless."

Glass c a r r i e r s m u s t be handled with care, cleaned constantly, and
kept f r o m being scratched.
A bellows is located u n d e r t h e negative carrier. It is used to focus
the image. As t h e bellows is e x p a n d e d or contracted, the lens moves
closer to o r f a r t h e r f r o m t h e b a s e b o a r d until t h e image is s h a r p .
As the e n l a r g e r housing is moved up t h e post a w a y f r o m t h e base-
board, the projected image size is increased. A s it moves down, the
image becomes smaller.
E n l a r g e r s can be locked in place once t h e p r o j e c t e d image is of the
size and s h a r p n e s s desired. Depending on the e n l a r g e r used, cranks,
knobs, or dials a r e positioned n e x t to t h e housing and t h e bellows,
and are t u r n e d to a d j u s t t h e projected i m a g e and lock it in place.
Enlarging lens. An enlarging lens w o r k s s o m e w h a t like a c a m e r a
A negative c a r r i e r holds t h e nega-
lens to focus t h e image and control t h e light. S o m e t i m e s a lens is
tive flat and in place.
packaged with an e n l a r g e r , and s o m e t i m e s it must b e bought sepa-
rately.
The lens must be matched to the size of t h e n e g a t i v e being enlarged.
T h e r e c o m m e n d e d focal length for an enlarging lens is t h e same
as the focal length of t h e normal lens on the c a m e r a used. F o r
a 35-millimeter negative, use a 50-millimeter enlarging lens. F o r a
2 W x 2lA" negative, use an 80-millimeter enlarging lens; and for a
4" x 5" negative use a 150-millimeter lens.
All camera and enlarging lenses h a v e a certain covering power, t h a t
is, the amount of even illumination t h a t a l e n s p r o j e c t s . In general,
t h e longer the focal length of a lens, t h e g r e a t e r its covering power.
A 50-millimeter lens is too short to project enough covering power to
enlarge a 4" x 5" negative; the c o r n e r s and edges of the n e g a t i v e will
receive too little illumination and will be "cut off." An 80-millimeter
lens will "cover" a 2Vi" x 2lA" n e g a t i v e , and it will also "cover" smaller
negative sizes, such as 35-millimeter. ( H o w e v e r , t h e p r o j e c t e d image
size from a long lens will be smaller than t h a t f r o m a s h o r t e r lens, so
s h o r t e r lenses a r e best for m a k i n g large prints. F o r example, an 80-
millimeter lens cannot m a k e as large a p r i n t from a 35-millimeter
n e g a t i v e as a 50-millimeter lens can.)
Like c a m e r a lenses, enlarging lenses a r e classified according to their
maximum a p e r t u r e . An f 1 enlarging lens allows more light through
it than an f 5.6 enlarging lens. More light m e a n s t h a t t h e projected
image will be easier to see and focus, and t h a t the e x p o s u r e time can
be s h o r t e r . (More on p r i n t i n g e x p o s u r e later on.)
Enlarging timer. A timer is needed to r e g u l a t e t h e amount of time
for which a print is exposed. A n y clock or watch with a second hand
Covering power

This print w a s made from a

2lA" x 2Va" n e g a t i v e w i t h a 50-
m i l l i m e t e r lens. T h e lens did not
p r o j e c t e n o u g h e v e n illumination for
t h a t size n e g a t i v e , so t h e c o r n e r s of
t h e p r i n t a r e "cut o f f . "

can be used, but special enlarging timers are more accurate and
convenient.
These timers connect directly to t h e enlarger. W h e n set and acti-
vated. t h e y automatically turn t h e enlarger on and off. R e p e a t i n g
timers are the best kind. T h e y r e p e a t t h e p r e s e t exposure, unless
changed, over and over, t h u s providing consistency from print to
print.
Focusing magnifier. A magnifier enlarges the projected image to
facilitate more accurate focusing. T h e image can be focused without
a magnifier, but the results a r e less likely to b e sharp. A grain
maffu.'Hcr enlarges the ; - :<in p a t t e r n s of t h e projected negative, al-
lowing even easier accurate focusing.
Processing trays. T r a y s hold t h e chemicals for print processing. At
least four t r a v s a r e needed. T h e size should b e chosen according to
t h e anticipated p r i n t size. S t a n d a r d t r a y sizes are: 5" x 7", 8" x 10",
11" x 14", and 16" x 20".
Print tongs. T o n g s should be used instead of b a r e f i n g e r s to handle
w e t enlarging p a p e r and c a r r y it from t r a y to t r a y . S e p a r a t e tongs
should be used for each t r a y of chemicals, so at least t h r e e tongs a r e
needed.
T h e main purpose of tongs is to minimize chemical contact with
skin, t h u s eliminating contamination. F i n g e r s wet with one chemical
may cause print staining when dipped into a second chemical, o r when
touching clothes, negatives, and equipment. In addition, some people
A safelight illuminates the
darkroom. develop skin allergies to t h e chemicals.
Safeligkts. E n l a r g i n g p a p e r is sensitive to most colors of light, so
special colored safelights are used to illuminate t h e d a r k r o o m . Most
safelights are simple 15- to 25-watt light bulbs, p r o t e c t e d b y a housing,
and covered b y a colored filter, usually r e d or a m b e r .
Safelights should be positioned at least 3 or 4 feet a w a y f r o m the
e n l a r g e r and developer t r a y . In a small d a r k r o o m , one safelight should
be sufficient; a larger room may r e q u i r e two or more.
Easel. An easel holds printing p a p e r flat and in place u n d e r t h e
e n l a r g e r . It consists of t w o p a r t s : a base on which the p a p e r is laid
and positioned, and a hinged top piece with crossing metal "blades"
to hold t h e p a p e r flat. T h e desired image size of t h e p r i n t is set by
a d j u s t i n g the metal blades along a ruled molding on t h e edges of t h e
top piece of t h e easel.
Easels are available in many sizes according to the largest size
printing p a p e r t h e y will accommodate. An 8" x 10" easel holds

ruled molding

A n e a s e l holds p r i n t i n g p a p e r flat
a n d in place u n d e r t h e e n l a r g e r .

blades
8" x 10" or smaller paper. F o r most purposes an 8" x 10" or 11" x 14"
easel is adequate. Some easels a r e made for one size only; o t h e r s hold
several sizes but are not a d j u s t a b l e . Most easels produce white bor-
ders on all four edges, but some create p r i n t s without borders.
The best (and m o s t expensive) easels have four a d j u s t a b l e blades.
They allow a wider variety of centering and b o r d e r possibilities t h a n
less expensive models.
Brush or air blower. Dust t h a t accumulates on n e g a t i v e s should be
cleaned off before beginning t h e printing process. Otherwise, the dust
will show up on the final print. T h e r e a r e several inexpensive tools
available to eliminate dust, such as a soft, wide brush, a r u b b e r
squeeze blower, or a simple e a r syringe. Canned air u n d e r p r e s s u r e
is popular and effective for removing dust, but it is expensive, and
needs periodic replacement.
Film cleaner and soft cloth. Dirty negatives m a y require a serious
cleaning. Film can be rewashed in water, but chemical film cleaners
a r e quicker and easier to use. A soft wipe, such as a chamois cloth,
antistatic cloth, or lens tissue, should be used with the cleaning so-
lution.
Print washer. A t r a y or washer must be used for print washing.
Specially made print washers are available in a variety of models. A
simple processing tray, preferably a large one with a special tray
siphon (described later), will also do t h e job.
Print drier. P r i n t s can be dried electrically or by air. Large, ex-
pensive driers are highly efficient, but most people working on their
own need a less costly solution. Some options include a portable elec-
tric drier, a blotter book, a clothesline and clothespins, or a homemade
d r y i n g screen (plastic screening material s t r e t c h e d t a u t over a wood
frame).
Paper .safe. A paper safe is a light-tight box t h a t holds and allows
easy access to unexposed printing paper. It is a nice convenience, but
not a necessity.
Paper trimmer. Printing p a p e r sometimes needs cutting. Special
paper t r i m m e r s cut squarely and accurately. If necessary, a pair of
scissors or a utility knife and straightedge will do the job.
Graduates, funnels, and storage bottles. Similar equipment to that
used for film developing is necessary for m e a s u r i n g and storing chem-
icals. E x t r a bottles are needed to s t o r e used chemicals s e p a r a t e l y —
those used for p r i n t s from those used for film.
Print squeegee. A fiat, r u b b e r blade or r u b b e r roller, called a squee-
•;;<: . is needed to squeeze excess w a t e r from a washed print to facilitate
drying. A soft, r u b b e r sponge can also be used.
Piece of glass. T w o pieces of glass a r e needed: one for contact
printing (explained later) and the o t h e r for holding the p r i n t while it
is being squeegeed. Each piece should b e l a r g e r than t h e largest size
printing p a p e r used. Plexiglas may also be used when squeegeeing
prints.
Towel. Clean, cloth towels or rolls of p a p e r tow-els a r e needed to
k e e p hands d r y d u r i n g t h e printing process. H a n d s should b e rinsed
off and dried regularly to minimize chemical contact with skin.

Printing Papers ^ e printing p a p e r consists of a light-sensitive silver-halide

emulsion on a base or s u p p o r t material. Film uses a base of clear
plastic, while printing p a p e r uses a base of white paper.
Common p r i n t i n g p a p e r sizes are: 5" x 7", 8" x 10", 11" x 14", and
16" x 20". A box of p a p e r may contain 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, or 500
s h e e t s of one size and type. The g r e a t e r t h e q u a n t i t y , t h e lower the
per-sheet cost.
The m a j o r considerations in choosing f r o m t h e w i d e v a r i e t y of print-
ing p a p e r s made a r e as follows:
base t y p e
weight
tone
surface
contrast

Check at camera stores for samples of p r i n t s m a d e on t h e various

p a p e r types.
Base type. P r i n t i n g p a p e r s are available in fiber and resin-coated
bases. Resin-coated (RC) p a p e r s a r e coated on both sides of the p a p e r
base with a thin layer of clear plastic.
R C p a p e r s a r e more convenient to use than fiber-based papers.
T h e y expose m o r e quickly t h a n fiber-based, and t h e y t a k e f a r less
time to process, w a s h , and dry. Upon drying, RC p a p e r s t e n d to curl
less t h a n fiber-based papers.
T h e convenience of R C p a p e r s m a k e s t h e m particularly tempting
for t h e beginner or t h e person who has little time to w o r k in t h e
darkroom. More advanced w o r k e r s should t r y out different t y p e s of
paper, and may end u p p r e f e r r i n g fiber-based paper.
Weight. P r i n t i n g p a p e r s are classified according to t h e thickness of
their base, e i t h e r as single, medium, or double weight. R C p a p e r s a r e
usually medium weight; fiber-based p a p e r s a r e e i t h e r single or double
weight.

All weight p a p e r p r o d u c e s t h e same image, b u t h e a v i e r p a p e r s

10S
c r e a s e and d a m a g e less easily and d r y f l a t t e r , with less wrinkling or
curling. H o w e v e r , double-weight p a p e r is significantly m o r e e x p e n s i v e
than single-weight p a p e r .
Tone. Tone r e f e r s to t h e color bias of t h e printing p a p e r . S o m e
p a p e r s a r e warm tone, t e n d i n g t o w a r d brown, while o t h e r s a r e cold
tone, m o r e n e u t r a l black. Some w a r m - t o n e p a p e r s literally produce
p r i n t s of b r o w n and white tones. Cold-tone p a p e r s usually h a v e a
p u r e r , cleaner w h i t e base; w a r m - t o n e p a p e r s have a c r e a m i e r , off-
w h i t e base. F o r practical purposes, t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m a n y cold-
and w a r m - t o n e p a p e r s is subtle.
P r i n t d e v e l o p e r s also affect t h e t o n e of t h e p r i n t , so for m a x i m u m
effect they should complement t h e t y p e of p r i n t i n g p a p e r used. While
most all print d e v e l o p e r s work with all printing p a p e r s , t r y t o process
cold-tone p a p e r s in a cold-tone developing solution. U s e a w a r m e r
developer for w a r m - t o n e p a p e r s .
Surface. Most p a p e r s a r e available in a wide v a r i e t y of surfaces,
most commonly: glossy, lustre, semi-matte, and m a t t e . T h e glossier
t h e surface, t h e s h a r p e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e image.
Contrast. C o n t r a s t r e f e r s to t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e light and
d a r k tones in a print. Low-contrast (soft or flat) p r i n t s a r e g r a y , with
few b r i g h t or d a r k areas; high-contrast (hard) p r i n t s a r e mostly light
and d a r k , with f e w e r g r a y a r e a s .
Most b r a n d s of paper a r e available in m a n y d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of
c o n t r a s t . To a g r e a t extent, t h e c o n t r a s t of t h e final print is controlled
by t h e g r a d e of p a p e r used.
E a c h p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e r has its own s y s t e m of g r a d i n g p a p e r s ,
but in all cases low n u m b e r s r e p r e s e n t lower c o n t r a s t than high num-
bers. H e r e is a typical scale of p a p e r grades:
#1 = low c o n t r a s t
#2 = average contrast
#3 = slightly high contrast
#4 = high contrast
#5 = very h i g h c o n t r a s t

Some p a p e r b r a n d s offer a # 0 (very low contrast) and some offer a

#(5 (extremely high contrast).
Variable-contrast p a p e r s c h a n g e c o n t r a s t g r a d e when exposed un-
der t h e e n l a r g e r with special filters. T h e s e p a p e r s a r e economical
since only o n e b a t c h of p a p e r a n d one s e t of filters n e e d b e p u r c h a s e d
to achieve a wide r a n g e of c o n t r a s t , usually from # 1 t o # 4 g r a d e .
H a l f g r a d e s a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e (#1V&, # 2 ' / 2 , a n d #3'/2), p r o v i d i n g s t i l l
n ^ T o.'iifrast cojit:-;!. Wi i;sed without a filter, a variable-contrast
Print contrast can be controlled by using graded papers or filters (with vari-
able-contrast papers): the higher the number the greater the contrast.

A print made on a #1-grade print- A print made from the same nega-
ing paper. tive on a #2-grade printing paper
has increased contrast.

A print on a #:i-grade paper has A print on a #4-grade paper pro-

even greater contrast. duces the greatest contrast.
p a p e r is approximately the equivalent of an average-contrast-grade
paper.
Filters are available in complete sets or as individual squares of
colored gelatins. Once purchased, t h e y can be reused almost indefi-
nitely. Some enlargers incorporate a place to position the filters be-
tween the light source and the negative; otherwise t h e filters must be
positioned under t h e enlarging lens with a filter holder.
Although it can be controlled by p a p e r g r a d e (or filters), p r i n t
contrast can ultimately be affected by a number of other factors. Some
of t h e s e factors are: negative contrast, t y p e of print developer, dilu-
tion of print developer, and developing time. More on t h e s e factors
later on.

Printing C h e m i c a l s Processing chemicals for prints are basically the same as those used
for processing film. The one exception is t h e developer. Film and
p a p e r developer perform the same function (developing the latent
image), but their chemical composition is slightly different so it is
necessary to buy separate film and paper developers.
Stop bath, fixer, and fixer remover are all the same for film and for
paper. Dilutions and times may vary, so be s u r e to check package
instructions. When storing these chemicals, differentiate b e t w e e n pro-
cessing solutions used for film and those used for paper.
Set up four trays for t h e printing process. If the darkroom has a
large enough counter (or sink) space, position t h e t r a y s in a line, and
work from left to right with developer, stop bath, fixer, and w a t e r ,
in t h a t order. The t r a y s should be filled to approximately one-half
capacity. For an a v e r a g e work session, fill a 5" x 7" tray with about
16 ounces of solution; an 8" x 10" tray with 32 ounces; an 11" x 14"
tray with 64 ounces; a 16" x 20" tray with 1 gallon; and so forth. F o r
a short printing session, use less solution to save money.

developer stop hath lixer hold inn h a t h

F o u r t r a y s s e t up for p r i n t i n g with
print tongs.
Chemicals d e t e r i o r a t e at different r a t e s d e p e n d i n g on many factors,
such as t h e brand used, t h e f r e s h n e s s of the solution, and t h e n u m b e r
and size of the p r i n t s processed. As a v e r y g e n e r a l guideline, process
no more than the equivalent of t w e n t y to twenty-five 8" x 10" p r i n t s
(forty to fifty 5" x 7" prints; and so forth) in each q u a r t of working
solution of e v e r y chemical, except for fixer r e m o v e r . P r o c e s s approx-
imately half as m a n y p r i n t s in t h e fixer r e m o v e r — t e n to fifteen
8" x 10" p r i n t s .
Diluted developer and s t o p b a t h , once used, should not b e stored
for r e u s e ; d e v e l o p e r e x h a u s t s too rapidly, and s t o p bath, though it
will keep, is cheap and should b e used f r e s h to help extend t h e capacity
of the fixer, which is significantly m o r e e x p e n s i v e . Diluted fixer and
some fixer r e m o v e r s can be r e u s e d , if t h e y h a v e not p r o c e s s e d too
many p r i n t s , and if t h e y have been s t o r e d in tightly capped bottles.
F i x e r check can be used to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e u s e d fixer is ex-
hausted.
All solutions should be mixed and diluted according to t h e manu-
f a c t u r e r s ' instructions. T h e s e can vary widely.
Always use an acid bath for processing fiber-based prints. T h e acid
should be diluted to a mild solution, the s a m e as for film developing.
A plain w a t e r stop bath is a d e q u a t e for resin-coated p a p e r s .
Some fixers r e q u i r e a lot of dilution, while o t h e r s are used undiluted.
A h a r d e n e r is incorporated into some t y p e s of fixer, and m u s t be
added s e p a r a t e l y to others. RC papers, like film, scratch easily, so a
hardened fix is required to protect t h e emulsion. F i b e r - b a s e d p a p e r s
a r e more scratch-resistant, and can b e p r o c e s s e d safely with or with-
out a h a r d e n e r . P r i n t s that a r e not h a r d e n e d d r y flatter and a r e easier
to wash thoroughly and spot (touch up) t h a n h a r d e n e d prints. Also,
p r i n t s t h a t a r e to be s u b j e c t e d to heat (in t h e process of d r y i n g or
mounting) should be h a r d e n e d for protection.
Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s use a two-bath fixing s y s t e m for processing
prints. T w o t r a y s of fixer a r e set up. r a t h e r t h a n one. F i x e r f r o m t h e
first t r a y exhausts more rapidly t h a n fixer f r o m t h e second, so w h e n
it is discarded, the second fixer is used as t h e first, and a n e w second
fixer solution is mixed. Two-bath fixers a r e a good method to g u a r -
a n t e e efficient print fixing, since t h e second b a t h will always remain
fresh, even when t h e first bath is e x h a u s t e d .
The fourth t r a y , called a holding bath, consists of plain w a t e r . A f t e r
fixing, fiber-based p r i n t s a r e held in w a t e r until t h e end of t h e printing
session (or until t h e t r a y fills up), at which point t h e accumulated
p r i n t s a r e washed t o g e t h e r . The w a t e r in t h e holding b a t h needs
changing e v e r y half hour or so to minimize t h e accumulation of fixer
in the water. Resin-coated p r i n t s should be washed soon a f t e r t h e y
h a v e been fixed.
Chemicals should be mixed to be approximately 70°. In time, solu-
tions will become room t e m p e r a t u r e , so the processing t e m p e r a t u r e
is not as easily controllable for p r i n t s as for film (unless the room is
t e m p e r a t u r e controlled). However, t r y not to w o r k in either an ex-
tremely cold or hot room.

ThG P N n t i n Q PfOCGSS Making a print r e q u i r e s a variety of j u d g m e n t s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,

much more so than when developing a roll of film. W h a t follows a r e
the basic printing steps, along with discussion of some of t h e j u d g m e n t
areas.

Setting Up the Negative

1. Put (i strip of negatives in the negative carrier, with t h e negative
to be printed framed by the cut-out section. The negative needs to be
positioned with its emulsion side (the dull surface) down or t h e print
will have the w r o n g orientation — the left side of t h e subject will be
r e n d e r e d on the right side of t h e print; words will read backward; and
so f o r t h . Handle negatives with care, touching t h e m only b y t h e edges,
since t h e y scratch and smudge easily.
2. Then use a blower or a brush to remove dust that might have
accumulated on either side of the negative.
?>. Close the carrier, and fit it tightly in place in the enlarger hous-
ing.
4. Set the easel for the approximate image size for the print. T h e
image size is t h e size of the printing paper minus the b o r d e r s . F o r
example, a 7V>" x 9 1 / / size image on an 8" x 10" sheet of p a p e r has a
1/4" border all around. The easel has size scales on its top. bottom, or
sides for setting the image size. The blades of the easel are positioned
with the aid of the scales so t h a t whatever falls within the area f r a m e d
by the blades will make up the desired image size. Some easels are
nonadjustable and offer only one standard image size.
5. Place the easel on the base of the enlarger.
6. Tu rn on the safelights, a nd turn off the room lights.
7. Then turn on the enlarger. The enlarger will project the negative
i m a g e down to t h e e a s e l .
8. Open the apolun- of 'he enlarging lens to its widest f-stop in
„•("; :• t o p r o j e c t e n o - V ••. s e e t h e image clearly. N o w t h e size
of the image mus<' ; > the n e g a t i v e f o c u s e d .
Setting up the negative

negative
carrier

P u t a s t r i p of n e g a t i v e s in t h e n e g a - P u t t h e n e g a t i v e c a r r i e r in t h e en-
tive carrier. l a r g e r s o t h e e m u l s i o n (dull) s i d e of
the negative faces down.

9. To set the image size, move the enlarger housing up and down
on its post. The position of t h e easel on the e n l a r g e r base will need
to b e a d j u s t e d until t h e p r o j e c t e d image is framed tightly by the easel
blades. As t h e housing moves up the post, t h e p r o j e c t e d image be-
comes l a r g e r ; as it moves down, t h e i m a g e becomes smaller. Once the
desired image size is set, lock t h e housing in place on t h e e n l a r g e r
post.
It is not necessary to print t h e full negative each time. W h e n only
a section of t h e n e g a t i v e is printed, t h a t n e g a t i v e is said to b e cropped.
F o r example, if t h e negative is a portrait of a m a n from his head to
his waist, the e n l a r g e r housing can b e moved up on t h e post to project
an image of only his head and shoulders. A cropped p r i n t may have
less s h a r p n e s s and show coarser grain because of t h e e x t r a enlarge-
Open t h e l e n s t o its m a x i m u m T o s e t t h e i m a g e size, m o v e t h e en- Focus t h e negative by t u r n i n g t h e
aperture. larger housing up and down the focusing knob to expand o r contract
post. t h e bellows.

ment it requires, but it might result in a more satisfactorily composed

photograph.
10. Once the image size is set, focus the negative b y t u r n i n g the
focusing knob to expand or contract the bellows. The image size will
need minor a d j u s t m e n t at this point, and t h e easel may need to be
moved around. A d j u s t the size first, then t h e focus and easel location.
Keep r e a d j u s t i n g until t h e projected image is t h e correct size and in
focus.
F o r fine focusing, place a sheet of printing p a p e r (the thickness of
the p a p e r to be used) in the easel, and focus t h e image onto that p a p e r
through a magnifier. The p a p e r is necessary for focusing on the exact
same plane as the print (the easel surface is slightly lower t h a n the
plane of the paper). A n- niiier makes the projected image larger so
helps make the focusing mon- accurate.
Cropping

A p r i n t m a d e f r o m a full n e g a t i v e . A cropped print m a d e from a section

of t h a t n e g a t i v e .
Understanding Print Exposure

When printing p a p e r is exposed to light projected through a nega-

tive, it forms a latent image. Like film, this image is not visible until
developed chemically. The more light t h a t strikes the p a p e r , t h e
d a r k e r the printed image.
More light passes through the shadow (thin) a r e a s of a negative
than through its highlight (dense) areas. T h u s more light reaches t h e
printing p a p e r to r e n d e r shadows than highlights, so when developed,
shadows are dark and highlights a r e light on t h e print. In effect, t h e
printing process reproduces t h e light, g r a y , and d a r k a r e a s much as
in the original subject.
J u s t how much light (exposure) is needed to make a print depends
on t h e density of t h e negative. The denser t h e negative, the g r e a t e r
the amount of exposure needed.
T h e r e a r e t w o primary factors in controlling p r i n t exposure:
a p e r t u r e of t h e e n l a r g i n g lens
print exposure time
T h e s e correspond roughly to the controllers of film exposure: the
a p e r t u r e of the camera lens and the s h u t t e r . T h e same relationship
exists. If one is increased, the other must be decreased equally for
the exposure to remain constant. A print exposure of f 11 at 20 seconds
gives the same result as an exposure of f 8 at 10 seconds. The time is
cut in half, but twice as much light travels through the lens.
In a camera, correct film exposure is figured with t h e help of a light
m e t e r . In a print, exposure is determined with t h e help of a t e s t strip.
( E x p o s u r e m e t e r s for p r i n t s a r e available but r a r e l y used.)

Making a Test Strip

A test strip is a section of printing p a p e r with several different

exposures made from a single negative. It is simple to make, and can
save much time and money on wasted printing p a p e r and chemicals.
To make a test strip:
1. Close down the lens aperture from its wide-open position. Any
f - s t o p c a n b e used for printing, but the middle stops — f 8 or f 11 —
are suggested s t a r t i n g points, i n the dark, f-stop m a r k i n g s on the
l e n s a r e h a r d t o s e e . b u t m o s t l e n s e s have "click stops," so turn the
Ions u n t i l i t c l i c k s • : h e .'.. s i r e d opening. If the maximum f-stop of a
l e n s i s f 4. t h r e e c l i c k , ' - i o s e d d o w n is f 11: f 5.6 f 8 ^ f 11.
M a k i n g a test strip

opaque
cardboard
strip of
printing
paper

Close down t h e a p e r t u r e to a C o v e r m o s t of t h e s t r i p of p r i n t i n g p a p e r w i t h a n
s m a l l e r f - s t o p , s a y f 8 o r f 11. o p a q u e p i e c e of c a r d b o a r d .

2. Take out a sheet of printing paper f r o m its box or from a p a p e r

safe. W h e n opening the box of p r i n t i n g paper, be s u r e t h a t no light
(other t h a n safelight) s t r i k e s t h e paper. E v e n slightly exposed (or
fogged) p a p e r will t u r n g r a y or black upon development. W h e n closing
up t h e box, be s u r e the p a p e r is packed with its p r o t e c t i v e w r a p p i n g
tightly around it. A p a p e r s a f e allows easy access to printing p a p e r
without having to pack and repack t h e box over and over.
3. Cut the sheet of printing paper into three strips. Only one s t r i p
of p a p e r is needed a t this point, so p u t the o t h e r s safely a w a y for
future tests.
4. Lay the strip of paper in the easel, emulsion side up. The emul-
sion is the shiny side of most printing p a p e r s .
5. Use an opaque piece of cardboard to cover most of the strip of
p a p e r — about 80% of it. C o v e r the s t r i p either horizontally or ver-
tically, d e p e n d i n g on which orientation will provide t h e most infor-
mation r e g a r d i n g t h e specific image to b e p r i n t e d . T h e best strips
give good detail in each e x p o s u r e s e g m e n t for both light and d a r k
a r e a s of the negative.
(J. Set the enlarging timer for 3 seconds. T h r e e seconds r e p r e s e n t s
an a r b i t r a r y s t a r t i n g point; actual e x p o s u r e t i m e s can v a r y widely.
7. Switch on the timer to expose the uncovered area of the strip for
that time. If an enlarging timer is not available, use the second hand
of a clock or watch, and switch the enlarger on and off manually. This
will work, but it will provide less consistent exposure times t h a n an
enlarging timer.
8. Move the cardboard, taking care not to move the s t r i p of p a p e r
along with it. L e a v e another 20% or so of the s t r i p uncovered, and
expose this and t h e first section of the strip for 3 seconds. The first
section has now received a total exposure of 6 seconds; t h e second
section, 3 seconds.
9. Move the cardboard two more times, uncovering and exposing
each section of t h e strip 3 seconds each time. Previously exposed
sections will continue to receive additional a m o u n t s of exposure.
10. Remove the cardboard altogether and expose t h e e n t i r e s t r i p
for a final 3 seconds. Now the strip has a latent image with five
different sections r e p r e s e n t i n g five different exposure times: 15, 12,
9, 6, and 3 seconds. Once developed, t h e t e s t s t r i p should provide a
good guide to the required print exposure for t h a t particular negative.

Developing the Test Strip

The print-developing process is the same for both t e s t strips and

for final prints. A v e r a g e processing times a r e suggested here, but
they v a r y with different materials and solutions. Refer to the instruc-
tion sheets for the printing p a p e r and processing solutions being used
for specific recommendations. Processing t e m p e r a t u r e s are not as
critical for prints as for film. U s e 68° to 70° if possible, but a range of
65° to 75° is permissible.
1. Slip the exposed test strip, emulsion side down, into the tray of
developer, and agitate it by rocking the t r a y gently. Develop RC
p a p e r s for approximately 1 minute and fiber-based p a p e r s for 1 to 3
minutes, agitating for the entire time.
W h e n handling the print, use tongs and g r a b the p a p e r at its edges.
Do not touch t h e image surface. For the first 20 seconds or so, keep
the p a p e r emulsion side down in the t r a y to ensure t h a t it thoroughly
soaks up t h e developer. Agitate t h e p a p e r constantly, then t u r n it
over and watch the image form.
B e s u r e t o k e e p t h e s t r i p i n t h e developer for the e n t i r e recom-
m e n d e d t i m e , e v e n i f it b e g i n s t o l o o k a bit dark. E x p o s u r e is difficult
t o j u d g e u n d e r s a f e l i ^ i n i l l u m i n a t i o n . The image a p p e a r s almost fully
, • .]• .. . ,ncls o r b ^ i n u e s to develop more subtly a f t e r t h a t
S u m m a r y : P r i n t Processing-

Step line Comments Capacity1

1. Developer 1 to 3 minutes for Agitate constantly; dilute Twenty to twenty-five

fiber-based papers; according to manufacturers' 8" x 10" prints (or equiva-
1 minute for RC instructions; develop for at lent) per quart of working
papers. least the minimum recom- solution.
mended time.

2. Stoj) bath 15 to 20 seconds for Agitate constantly; use mild Twenty to twenty-five
fiber-based papers; acetic acid bath for fiber- 8" x 10" prints (or equiva-
5 to 10 seconds for based papers; plain water lent) per quart of working
RC papers. bath for RC papers. solution.

'->. Fixer 5 lo 10 minutes for Agitate constantly: if a two- Twenty to twenty-five

fiber-based papers; bath fixer is used, fix for 8" x 10" prints (or equiva-
2 minutes for RC half the time in the first lent) per quart of working
papers. bath and the other half in solution.
the second, then discard
Rapid fixers require the first bath when ex-
less time. hausted, use the second
bath for a first bath, and
mix a fresh second bath.

4. W a t e r rinse 2 minutes Optional

5. Fixer remover 2 to 1 minules Optional, but highly recom- Ten to fifteen 8" x 10"
mended with fiber-based prints (or equivalent) per
papers; do not use with RC quart of working solution.
papers: agitate constantly.

6. Wash 5 to 15 minutes for Agitate; make sure wash

fiber-based papers if water is changing con-
treated first in fixer stantly: do not wash more
remover: than 10 to 15 prints at a
I hour for fiber- time.
based papers if not
treated in fixer re-
mover;
I minutes for RC
papers.

:
These times and capacities are intended as guidelines. They vary according to the brands used and the conditions of use.
Refer to manufacturers' instructions before proceeding.
5
The following are approximately equivalent to twenty 8" x 10" prints: forty 5" x 7" prints: ten 11" x 14" prints; five
16" x 20" prints.
time. Also, for an accurate t e s t strip, developing time as well as
exposure time should be a known and consistent factor.
2. Lift the fully developed test strip out of the developer with tongs
at one corner of the paper. F o r a few seconds let the excess developer
drain off the bottom corner of the strip.
3. Put the test strip in the stop bath for 5 to 10 seconds, if using RC
paper, or 15 to 20 seconds, if using fiber-based paper. Agitate it for
the entire time. The stop bath neutralizes the developing activity, and
produces no visible change in t h e image.
4. Remove the test strip from the stop bath with print tongs, and
let the excess solution drain off.
5. Place the test strip in the fixer. The fixing time depends on the
t y p e of p a p e r used and the f r e s h n e s s of the solution. With resin-coated
paper use a time of 2 minutes; with fiber-based paper, use 5 to 10
minutes. Rapid fixers require even less time. Agitate for at least half
the fixing time by rocking the fixer t r a y .
T h e fixer clears the printing paper of its unexposed silver, and
allows the t e s t strip to be viewed u n d e r room light. A strip or a print
can be looked at a f t e r it has been in the fixer for about 30 seconds; if
the strip or print is to be saved, it must t h e n be r e t u r n e d to the fixer
for t h e full remaining fixing time. (Before t u r n i n g on t h e room lights,
be sure all unexposed printing p a p e r is safely stored away.)
6. Remove the test strip from the fixer with tongs, and let the excess
solution drain off.
7. Put the test strip in the holding bath — a tray of plain w a t e r —
until it is r e a d y to be washed. (Print washing is described in full later
in this chapter.) The t e s t s t r i p does not need to be saved; it can be
left in the holding bath for reference until the final print f r o m t h a t
negative is made, then thrown away.
To view a t e s t s t r i p (or a final print), remove the p r i n t from the
fixer or w a t e r and put it in a clean t r a y . T u r n on an overhead light.
F o r the best viewing, use a 60- to 75-watt incandescent light bulb,
not fluorescent. F o r convenience, the bulb should be positioned above
the processing t r a y s . View the print with the tray placed at an angle
to, and about 3 feet away from, the light source. The brightness of
the light and the angle at which it strikes the print can make a big
difference in how the print looks.
The finished test s t r i p will have a range of five exposures; some
may be light and some dark. If all five exposures a r e either too light
or too dark, make another test strip. The ideal strip is d a r k on one
end and light on the other.
I r' the entire s n i p is < o dark, cut back the exposure. E i t h e r close
Test strip

15 seconds

12 seconds

9 seconds

i> seconds

3 seconds

A test strip representing live differ-

ent exposure times has a good range
from light to dark.

A print using the exposure that

looks best — 9 seconds.
down the lens — t r y f 16 instead of f 11 — or shorten t h e amount of
exposure time — use 2-second i n c r e m e n t s instead of 3.
If the test s t r i p is too light, increase the exposure. Open up the
lens — say to f 8 instead of f 11 — or extend the exposure time —
perhaps using 5-second increments instead of 3.

ThG Final Print Once a good test s t r i p is made, examine it carefully and choose the
exposure that looks best. If in doubt, look for important highlight and
shadow a r e a s of the image — for example, Caucasian skin or bluejeans
— and see if those areas look right. Caucasian skin should be light
but not washed out; j e a n s should be dark, but retain detail.
Sometimes the correct exposure is somewhere b e t w e e n t w o sections
of the t e s t strip. If the 6-second exposure looks too light and the 9-
second exposure looks too dark, choose 7 or 8 seconds instead.
Place a f r e s h , full sheet of printing p a p e r in the easel, and expose
it for t h e time chosen. Do not change the f-stop setting. Develop,
stop, and fix the exposed p a p e r in the same way as t h e t e s t strip. If
the two-bath fixing system is used, fix the print for half t h e recom-
mended time in t h e first fixer bath, and the o t h e r half in the second
bath.
In evaluating the quality of this print, consider t h e s e factors:
brightness
contrast
b u r n i n g and d o d g i n g

Brightness. P r i n t exposure determines t h e overall brightness of a

print. Too much exposure results in both shadows and highlights being-
dark; too little exposure leaves shadows and highlights too light.
B r i g h t n e s s is determined by a good t e s t strip. Once an initial print
from that s t r i p is made, it may need slight a d j u s t m e n t s . If t h e print
is too bright at a 10-second exposure, make a second print at 12
seconds. If it is too d a r k at 10 seconds, try a print at 7 seconds. Keep
adjusting t h e exposure time, making new p r i n t s until the overall
brightness seems right.
Contrast. A f t e r determining the exposure needed for good print
brightness, examine the print contrast and make a d j u s t m e n t s if nec-
essary. C o n t r a s t r e f e r s to t h e difference b e t w e e n shadows and high-
light s. High-contrast prints have mostly d a r k s h a d o w s and light high-
lights, while low-contrast p r i n t s a r e mostly gray, with f e w solid blacks
or whites.
lii genera', a good v : . hould h a v e both dark and light areas and
Brightness

Left:
A p r i n t t h a t is t o o l i g h t , h a v i n g r e -
c e i v e d t o o little e x p o s u r e .

Center:
A print from the same negative that
is t o o d a r k ; it n e e d s less e x p o s u r e .

Right:
A p r i n t w i t h t h e right a m o u n t of
b r i g h t n e s s ; it h a s r e c e i v e d n e i t h e r
too little n o r too m u c h e x p o s u r e .

a lot of g r a y s in b e t w e e n . Most d a r k a r e a s of t h e print should retain

some detail, so as not to become a solid black mass; most light a r e a s
should also r e n d e r detail, and not be a solid white. H o w e v e r , each
print b e a r s interpretation. Some p r i n t s look best when printed hard
(with high contrast), and some look best when printed flat or soft (with
low contrast).
Each negative has its own contrast range, which is d e p e n d e n t on
several factors, such as s u b j e c t lighting, e x p o s u r e and developing
time, and t h e t y p e of film used. In t h e print, this c o n t r a s t can be
a d j u s t e d in any one of several ways.
t
u I
r

The p r i m a r y control for print contrast is p a p e r grade. This factor

h a s been discussed earlier in t h e chapter, but it b e a r s repeating. Most
printing papers are r a t e d according to their ability to r e n d e r contrast.
A #1-grade paper produces a significantly lower-contrast print than
a # 5 - g r a d e paper. A # 2 or a # 3 r e p r e s e n t s a v e r a g e contrast with
most b r a n d s of paper.
Variable-contrast printing p a p e r s produce p r i n t s of different con-
t r a s t when exposed through different filters in t h e enlarger. A # 1
filter wil h variable-contrast p a p e r produces a relatively low-contrast
p r i n t much as a # l - g r a d e p a p e r does. Used without a filter, variable-
Contrast

Left:
A print with too little contrast; it is
too gray overall.

Center:
A print with too much contrast; its
shadow areas are too dark and its
highlight areas too bright.

Right:
A print with average contrast con-
tains dark areas with detail, light
areas with detail, and plenty of
grays in between.

c o n t r a s t p a p e r s print as approximately a # 2 c o n t r a s t . F i l t e r s are

available in half-grades, such as #\V>, #2V>, and #'6V>, for fine contrast
control.
C o n t r a s t g r a d e s v a r y with t h e p a p e r b r a n d used. A # 2 Kodak p a p e r
will be different from a # 2 Agfa or # 2 Ilford paper. However, t h e
g r a d i n g principle is the same. T h e higher t h e n u m b e r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e
contrast.
Note t h a t t h e amount of contrast achieved from various p a p e r
g r a d e s is relative to the contrast of the negative to be printed. A
negative of a v e r a g e contrast will provide an average-contrast print
on a # 2 - or # 3 - g r a d e paper. A high-contrast negative may produce a
high-contrast print even on # 1 paper; a low-contrast negative may
need a # 5 p a p e r to produce a print of a v e r a g e contrast. However, a
higher p a p e r g r a d e will a l w a y s produce a p r i n t of more c o n t r a s t f r o m
a given negative t h a n a lower p a p e r grade.
Different g r a d e d p a p e r s and filters can a f f e c t p r i n t e x p o s u r e time.
With some b r a n d s , a # 1 p a p e r is more light-sensitive t h a n a # 5 paper,
so r e q u i r e s less e x p o s u r e . A # 4 filter is d a r k e r t h a n a # 1 filter, so
holds back more light, and r e q u i r e s a longer e x p o s u r e time.
One s u r e way to d e t e r m i n e t h e e x p o s u r e change with different
p a p e r g r a d e s or filters is to make a s e p a r a t e t e s t s t r i p each time a
different c o n t r a s t filter or p a p e r is used. This may seem like a w a s t e
of time, but it is t h e best and quickest way to d e t e r m i n e what the
n e w e x p o s u r e t i m e should be.
T h e r e a r e f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n p a p e r g r a d e and n e g a t i v e c o n t r a s t t h a t
affect print contrast. T h e g r e a t e r tlic e n l a r g e m e n t , t h e lower the print
c o n t r a s t . A negative enlarged to 11" x 14" produces a p r i n t of less
c o n t r a s t t h a n t h e s a m e n e g a t i v e enlarged to 5" x 7"
P r i n t contrast can be altered s o m e w h a t b y m a k i n g changes in the
p r i n t developer. F o r example, some developers, such as Kodak Selec-
tol Soft, produce p r i n t s of less c o n t r a s t t h a n o t h e r s . And each devel-
o p e r can be used differently to provide m o r e or less c o n t r a s t . F o r
g r e a t e r print contrast, use a less-diluted d e v e l o p e r (perhaps a stock
solution r a t h e r t h a n a diluted solution), develop for a longer period of
time, o r heat up the developing solution. F o r less c o n t r a s t , use a more
heavily diluted developer or a s h o r t e r developing time.
Burning and dodging. A p r i n t may h a v e good overall e x p o s u r e and
contrast, but still have a r e a s t h a t a r e e i t h e r too bright or too d a r k .
Burning is a technique used to selectively add e x p o s u r e to d a r k e n an
a r e a of a print. Dodging is holding back e x p o s u r e to lighten an area
of a print.
To understand burning, imagine a well-exposed p r i n t made at f 11
at 10 seconds. Once developed, the p r i n t m a y look r i g h t except for a
c o r n e r that is too light. That c o r n e r can be m a d e d a r k e r without
affecting the overall b r i g h t n e s s of t h e r e s t of t h e p r i n t b y making
a n o t h e r p r i n t and adding e x p o s u r e only to t h e a r e a t h a t n e e d s dark-
ening.
To "burn in" a section of a print:
1. Place afresh sheet of printing paper in the easel, and expose it
for the time needed to produce a good overall print; in t h e above
example, f 11 at 10 seconds.
2. After the paper has been exposed, place an opaque piece of card-
board just under the lens. Do not use p a p e r since it will t r a n s m i t
light. Also, do not move the easel or t h e exposed printing p a p e r in
any way.
Burning:

A print with good overall exposure

at f 8 at 12 seconds. However, the
sky is too light.

The same print made at the same

j exposure, but the sky has received
an extra 12 seconds of exposure and
| is significantly darker.
B u r n inn

To burn in an area in the center of a

print, use a piece of opaque card-
board with a hole cut out.

3. Turn on the enlarger again, and move the cardboard so that the
projected light falls only on the area of the paper that needs darkening,
such as a corner of t h e print.
4. Move the cardboard back and forth slightly while adding extra
exposure to p r e v e n t t h e " b u r n " f r o m c r e a t i n g a noticeable line on the
print. In effect, t h e print t o n e s must m e r g e t o g e t h e r evenly. (Ac-
tually. p a r t s of t h e a r e a s a d j a c e n t to t h e "burned-in" a r e a will receive
some additional e x p o s u r e , but if d o n e correctly, this added exposure
will not be enough to affect t h e print significantly.)
The additional e x p o s u r e c a u s e s only a p a i l of the print to become
d a r k e r upon development. The amount of b u r n i n g n e c e s s a r y to make
a perceptible change varies with each print, b u t s o m e t i m e s it is con-
siderable. To d a r k e n an area moderately, t r y a 40% to 50% " b u r n " (or
4 to 5 seconds additional e x p o s u r e for a 10-second original exposure).
F o r a more significant darkening, b u r n for at least 100% of the original
exposure time (a 10-second burn for a 10-second exposure). It is not
unusual to "burn" for four or five times t h e original e x p o s u r e (40 to
50 seconds more for a 10-second exposure), or even longer.
To burn in an area in the c e n t e r of a print, use a piece of opaque
cardboard with a hole cut out. First expose the e n t i r e p a p e r for t h e
correct time. Then position t h e cardboard about halfway b e t w e e n the
lens and the easel, and turn on the enlarger again. L e t light project
through the hole to t h e a r e a s of the p r i n t that need darkening. Be
sure to keep moving the cardboard so the b u r n i n g m e r g e s evenly with
the a d j a c e n t areas in the print.
The size of the projected beam of light through the hole can be
varied by stocking several pieces of cardboard, each with different
size holes, and by varying the position of the board u n d e r the enlarger.
When the cut-out is close to the lens, the beam of light reaching the
p a p e r is b r o a d e r than when it is close to t h e paper. (If held close to
the paper, t h e cardboard needs to be large enough so that light doesn't
"spill over" and expose the corners and edges of t h e p a p e r b y acci-
dent.)
A long initial exposure time is not desirable if substantial burning
is indicated. Say the required exposure is f 11 at 20 seconds, and a
burn of five times t h a t exposure is needed in an area. One hundred
seconds is too long a time to burn in easily. Open the lens to f 8, and
cut t h e exposure time to 10 seconds; then burn in for 50 seconds.

Dodging is the opposite of burning. An area of a print can be

lightened selectively by holding back light from t h a t area d u r i n g the
exposure. T h e rest of the print will not be affected, and will be
r e n d e r e d at the same overall brightness. To "dodge" a print:
1. Make an initial print that has a good overall brightness. Let's
say t h a t the exposure is f 8 at 10 seconds. Look at t h e print and
determine what areas (if any) a r e too d a r k .
2. Expose a fresh sheet of printing paper for the correct t ime (f 8 a t
10 seconds).
During that exposure, place an opaque piece of cardboard just
under the lens to block light from reaching the dark area(s). Use t h e
image projected on the easel as a guide to t h e area to be lightened.
4. While dodging, move the ca rdboa rd back and forth to p r e v e n t a
noticeable line from appearing in (he final print.
The amount of dodging needed varies from print to print. However,
a relatively s h o r t dodging time can lighten an area significantly. Dodg-
' v lav 2 ' • -)f (}•»• initial exposure time (2 seconds out of a 10-second
.. ] v. n! >1)..; nble difference. N e v e r dodge for more
Dodging

A print with good overall exposure

at f 11 at 9 seconds, but the center
of the print is too dark.

The same print made at the same

exposure, but light was held back
for 3 seconds from the center of the
print when this print was made, and
that area is significantly lighter.
Dodging:

T o d o d g e an a r e a in t h e c e n t e r of a
print, use a stiff wire handle with a
piece of c a r d b o a r d t a p e d on.

than half the overall exposure (more t h a n 5 seconds out of a 10-second

exposure), because the difference between the dodged and the un-
dodged a r e a s will show up and seem obvious.
An area in the center of a p r i n t that is too d a r k can be lightened
with a homemade dodging tool, consisting of a stiff wire handle (a
piece cut from a clothes h a n g e r w o r k s well) and a small piece of
cardboard taped onto the end of the wire. Make u p several tools with
differently shaped pieces of cardboard (for example, round, square,
and oblong) of different sizes.
To dodge with this tool, t u r n on the e n l a r g e r and expose the print
for the predetermined time. During the exposure, position t h e dodging
tool so that t h e cardboard covers the area to be lightened. R e m e m b e r
to k e e p t h e tool moving while dodging. The wire handle will not affect
the overall print exposure because it is so thin.
A short initial exposure time is not desirable when dodging. An
example, m a k e s it difficult to dodge
accurately. A 1-second < l . i s too brief, y e t r e p r e s e n t s 33% of the
tolal exposure — a significant amount when dodging. It is best to
close down the lens and extend the exposure time — say to f 11 at 6
seconds, or even f l(j at 12 seconds — to allow more latitude in dodging
times. This way, if t h e initial exposure is 12 seconds, a 1-second dodge
allows a subtle change, whereas a 4-second dodge makes a much more
dramatic change.

These final printing steps — burning and dodging — often make

the difference b e t w e e n an a d e q u a t e print and an excellent print. Most
prints need either less or more light in certain areas, and many prints
need both. A f t e r determining t h e correct exposure and contrast for a
print, examine that print carefully to see how it can be f u r t h e r im-
proved. Then burn or dodge, several times in the same print if nec-
essary, until t h e best possible print is made.
Use a soft lead pencil to note exposure, contrast, burning, and
dodging data on each print for f u t u r e reference. Write gently on the
edge of t h e back of the paper so t h e mark will not affect the surface
of the image on t h e front. This data may not be exactly repeatable
each time the negative is printed, but it will provide useful guidelines.

W a s h i n g a n d Drying Finished prints must be washed f r e e of fixer, or they will deteriorate

D . , in time. A short running-water wash — about 4 minutes — is rec-
rnnTS ommended for resin-coated papers. However, fiber-based papers ab-
sorb more fixer so need a much longer w a t e r wash, almost a full hour.
It is best to presoak fiber-based p r i n t s in a solution of fixer remover,
and then wash them. Use t h e fixer remover for about 2 to 4 minutes,
then wash the prints for 5 to 15 minutes. T h e s e times will vary with
t h e weight of t h e printing p a p e r (double-weight p a p e r t a k e s longer to
wash than single-weight paper) as well as the brand of fixer remover
used, and the efficiency of t h e print washer. Some manufacturers
recommend a brief w a t e r rinse, about 2 minutes, before using the
fixer remover.
RC prints should be washed, then dried, soon a f t e r t h e y have been
fixed, but fiber-based p r i n t s can be stored in t h e holding bath (a t r a y
of plain w a t e r ) until the end of the printing session. Change t h e w a t e r
in the holding bath every 80 minutes or so to minimize the accumu-
lation of fixer in t h e w a t e r .
To wash fiber-based papers, mix t h e fixer r e m o v e r and pour it in a
t r a y . Take p r i n t s from t h e holding bath, drain them briefly, and slide
each print one at a time into the fixer remover. Do not put too many
prints at once into t h e fixer remover. Limit this step to approximately
10 to 15 prints. If more prints need washing, do t h e m in additional
batches.
When all the prints are in t h e solution, s t a r t t h e timing, and agi-
tate the prints by constantly shuffling the bottom p r i n t s to the top.
Use rubber gloves, if available, to minimize skin contact with t h e
chemicals.
At t h e end of the required time, drain each print briefly, t h e n place
them one at a time facedown in the w a t e r wash.
To wash either resin-coated or fiber-based prints, use a good p r i n t
siphon w a s h e r that will effect a constant change of w a t e r . F o r example, if
fresh w a t e r e n t e r s from t h e bottom, it should spill over the top of t h e
washer to drain. Some excellent (and expensive) print w a s h e r s a r e
available to maximize washing efficiency, but there a r e inexpensive
alternatives.
A good washer can be made using a plain processing t r a y , a bit
larger than the prints to be washed, along with a tray siphon. The
siphon is an inexpensive plastic device t h a t clips onto t h e side of a
t r a y . It connects with a rubber hose to a s t a n d a r d faucet. W a t e r from
the faucet e n t e r s the tray at the top of t h e siphon, and t r a y w a t e r
drains off at the bottom. To help the draining action f u r t h e r , use a
h a m m e r and nail to make holes at the sides t o w a r d the bottom of the
wash trav.
Washing prints with a siphon and a When washing prints, agitate by hand to keep t h e m from sticking
processing tray with holes punched t o g e t h e r . If the drain action of t h e w a s h e r used is not efficient, man-
out at the sides, toward the bottom. ually drain the tray e v e r y few minutes and let it fill u p again with
f r e s h water.
Once washed, prints should be squeegeed to remove excess w a t e r
for quicker and more even drying. Place each print, one at a time,
facedown on a large, clean sheet of glass or Plexiglas. Actually, any
flat, waterproof surface will do. Push a r u b b e r squeegee or sponge
over t h e back of t h e print. Do not push too hard or t h e print may
crease. Turn t h e print over, and lightly s q u e e g e e the f r o n t , taking-
e x t r a care not to scratch the emulsion. (Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s prefer
to squeegee only the back of a print.)
Once washed and squeegeed, prints a r e r e a d y to be dried. Air
drying is the simplest and cheapest way. Hang each print by a corner
from a clothesline ( o r p i e c e of string). O r h a n g two prints, back to
b a c k , w i t h f o u r clothespins, o n e o n each corner, to help reduce the
t e n d e n c y o f p r i n t s t o c u r l . O r l a y t h e p r i n t s faceup on a clean counter
or table.
Simplf <]-y:isor--. - u; b e constructed for more efficient air
:
•.lake • >-Yan» . four inexpensive wood strips (1" x 2"
S q u e e g e e i n g a p r i n t o n a p i e c e of
g l a s s ( o r o t h e r flat s u r f a c e ) t o r e -
move excess water. Be gentle when
s q u e e g e e i n g t h e f r o n t of t h e p r i n t t o
avoid s c r a t c h i n g t h e e m u l s i o n .

rubber

stock w o r k s well), and staple plastic s c r e e n i n g (available f r o m any

h a r d w a r e s t o r e ) t o the f r a m e . T h e screens do not need to be especially
strong, since p r i n t s weigh so little. T h e wood can be h a m m e r e d or
s c r e w e d t o g e t h e r , and metal corner b r a c e s used to k e e p the f r a m e
square.
D r y i n g s c r e e n s can be m a d e to any size to fit space and s t o r a g e
r e q u i r e m e n t s . S e v e r a l s c r e e n s can be s t a c k e d one on top of a n o t h e r
to s a v e space. T h e y should be washed periodically with a mild soap
solution.
RC* prints should be placed emulsion side u p on d r y i n g screens;
t h e y will air d r y in approximately 15 to 30 m i n u t e s . Fiber-based p r i n t s
should be placed emulsion side down t o minimize curling; t h e y t a k e
much longer to dry, 3 h o u r s or longer. T h e s e t i m e s will v a r y with t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity of t h e d r y i n g area. To minimize curling,
r e m o v e the p r i n t s from the s c r e e n s as soon as t h e y a r e d r y .
Print b l o t t e r s are a n o t h e r inexpensive and easy way to dry prints.
T h e y a r e available in rolls, spiral-bound books, or single sheets.
To use blotters, place each s q u e e g e e d print b e t w e e n pieces of t h e
b l o t t e r p a p e r until d r y . Blotters can be reused often, b u t must be
replaced from time to time. P r i n t s t a k e longer to d r y when placed in
b l o t t e r s t h a n in the air. H o w e v e r , b l o t t e r s t a k e u p less room than
screens or clotheslines, and a r e portable in case p r i n t s m u s t b e moved
while still wet.
Air d r y i n g

Hanging a print to dry by the cor-

ners from a clothesline.

Laying prints on simple drying

screens (top view).

plastic
Many t y p e s of electrically heated d r i e r s a r e available for both resin-
coaled and fiber-based prints. Simple models have a m e t a l heating
unit with a cloth cover. P r i n t s a r e placed b e t w e e n the cloth and t h e
metal plate, and the heat dries t h e m . More expensive models h a v e an
electrically r o t a t i n g d r u m as a h e a t i n g unit t h a t p u s h e s p r i n t s through
and dries t h e m automatically.
Some d r i e r s a r e set up to handle resin-coated p a p e r s , and o t h e r s
a r e not. Air d r y i n g is always recommended for R C p r i n t s unless a
good electric RC print d r i e r is available. A hand-held hair d r i e r can
be used for quick d r y i n g , b u t is generally not r e c o m m e n d e d .

ContQCt PrintinQ A contact print is a print t h e size of a negative. A contact p r i n t f r o m

a 35-millimeter negative m e a s u r e s 1" x 1 W ; a contact p r i n t from a
2Vi" x 2V\" n e g a t i v e m e a s u r e s 2lA" x 2 W ; and so f o r t h .
A contact sheet is a large sheet of paper, usually 8" x 10" or
8 1 / / x 11". containing a series of contact p r i n t s .
"Contacts" are best used as proof s h e e t s . An e n t i r e roll of film is
contact-printed onto one single sheet of paper. Each contact print is
t h e n examined for its value, and only t h o s e t h a t look promising need
be individually printed, s a v i n g much time and money (in w a s t e d chem-
icals and printing paper).
Contact s h e e t s also provide a useful way to file w o r k b y n u m b e r i n g
rolls of n e g a t i v e s to correspond to each contact s h e e t . F o r example,
designate the first roll of n e g a t i v e s as # 1 , and m a r k t h e negative
envelopes "1." T h e n m a r k t h e contact s h e e t of t h a t roll accordingly,
as "1." Such a n u m b e r i n g s y s t e m will become e x t r e m e l y valuable when
t h e r e are a lot of n e g a t i v e s and contact p r i n t s to k e e p t r a c k of.
The back side of a contact s h e e t can also be used to s t o r e additional
information, such as w h e r e , when, or how t h e pictures w e r e t a k e n .
L a r g e - f o r m a t n e g a t i v e s a r e s o m e t i m e s contact-printed to make a
final print. A 4" x 5" negative m a k e s a 4" x 5" contact p r i n t t h a t is
large enough to view. Because the n e g a t i v e is not enlarged, t h e print
will have m a x i m u m s h a r p n e s s and minimum g r a i n .
To make a contact print:
1. Position the enlarger housing near the top of its post, so it
projects a wide circle of light when t u r n e d on. T h e a p e r t u r e s e t t i n g
is optional; s t a r t with f 8 or f 11.
2. Place a fresh sheet of 8" x JO" printing paper, emulsion side up,
at the base of the enlarger. Do not use an easel.
Contact prints

A contact sheet of contact prints

from an entire roll of 35-millimeter
negatives. This illustration is re-
duced in size. The original sheet is
8" x 10".
3. Position several strips of negatives emulsion side down in rows
on the paper.
4. Then gen tig lower a clean sheet of glass (preferably heavy-weight)
over both the negatives and paper to hold t h e m flat and tight against
each other.
5. Tu rn on the enlarger for a predetermined period of time. TIT
f 8 at 5 seconds. A t e s t strip can be made to d e t e r m i n e exposure,
using an "average" negative for t h e t e s t . Over an entire roll of neg-
atives, some may print light and others dark, so simply aim for a good
overall exposure.
6. Once exposed, process the contact sheet like any other print. If
it is too dark, t r y another sheet and expose for less time; if too light,
expose for more time. If the same eVilarger, lens, and printing paper
a r e used, t h e time should s t a y p r e t t y much t h e same from contact
sheet to contact sheet, assuming reasonably consistent negatives.
Contact prints can also be m a d e without an enlarger. Use a 15- or
25-watt light bulb positioned 3 feet or so above a counter or table.
Place t h e paper, negatives, and glass u n d e r t h e light, and briefly turn
the light on to make the exposure.

A S i m p l e Printing A print is sometimes difficult to evaluate. Is it too light or too dark?

Q . Doe? it have too much or not enough contrast? W i t h experience these
oyolt?lll j u d g m e n t s can be made intuitively. The following method will help
systematize the process.
F o r film, t h e rule is to "expose for the shadows and develop for t h e
highlights," but for prints the opposite is true:
Expose for the highlights;
adjust contrast for the shadows.
To use this system, consider only t h e important highlight and shadow
areas of a print. Middle-gray a r e a s tend to "fall in place" and look
right if the lights and darks are rendered well on the print.
Expose for the h ighlights. P r i n t exposure affects t h e overall print:
highlight, middle-gray, and shadow areas. The longer t h e exposure,
t h e d a r k e r the entire print.
With this system, consider a print well exposed only if t h e highlights
(such as light clothes or light skin) look right. Ignore middle gray and
shadow areas for judging exposure. If t h e highlights look good, the
exposure is correct; if they seem light, add exposure; if they seem
dark, cut back on exposure.
Ignore e x t r e m e highlight a r e a s , such as particularly bright snow or
sky, when judging exposure. Consider t h e e n t i r e print. Unusually
bright a r e a s need burning in a f t e r t h e e x p o s u r e and contrast have
been determined.
W h a t constitutes good highlight exposure is s o m e w h a t subjective.
For most prints, highlights should be light gray, containing clearly
defined detail. Compare the highlights to the white b o r d e r of the
printing paper. They should be d a r k e r than that white. If highlights
are too light, detail will be lost; if too dark, highlights are no longer
light a r e a s , but r a t h e r middle g r a y s or shadows.
Adjust contrast for the shadows. Once the p r o p e r highlight exposure
has been determined, examine the important shadow a r e a s , such as
dark hair and dark clothes. Ignore extremely d a r k areas. T h e s e can
be dodged out during the print exposure.
In most prints, good shadow a r e a s should be dark, but still retain
detail. Shadows that are too dark become solid black; shadows t h a t
are too light look gray and " m u d d y . "
F r e q u e n t l y , once the highlight a r e a s are well exposed, t h e shadows
and, therefore, t h e contrast look right, and no c o n t r a s t a d j u s t m e n t s
are needed. However, if the shadow areas are too dark, the print
needs less contrast, p e r h a p s a # 1 p a p e r grade; if t h e s h a d o w s are
light, it needs more contrast, possibly a # 4 grade. Added contrast
will result in d a r k e r shadows.
Final changes. The final s t e p is fine-tuning t h e print. A f t e r a d j u s t -
ing contrast to suit the shadow a r e a s , make s u r e the highlights of the
new print match t h e original print w h e r e highlight exposure was
j u d g e d to be correct. The contrast change may h a v e lightened or
darkened the highlights somewhat, so the new print may need a bit
more or less exposure. Or, looking at a print with more or less contrast
may make the highlights seem lighter or d a r k e r t h a n before. In ad-
dition, changing p a p e r g r a d e s (or filters) usually alters comparable
exposure times, so some fiddling with new times and even additional
contrast changes are commonplace.
Fine-tuning a p r i n t can be difficult, especially if the negative is
technically bad — either dark, light, or with too much or too little
contrast. Well-exposed and well-developed n e g a t i v e s are r a r e l y diffi-
cult to print.
At all times, keep in mind that the key to evaluating print exposure
is in the highlights. If t h e light areas look good, the p r i n t is well
exposed. Then, the key to evaluating contrast is in t h e d a r k n e s s or
lightness of the shadow areas.
Miscellaneous • If possible, t r y to use a r a n g e of print e x p o s u r e times of approxi-
mately
. , ritinnc ^ t0 secon( s
l - Short times can make dodging difficult be-
^onblut?ruilurib c a u s e t h e dodging time m u s t b e v e r y s h o r t . Long t i m e s can make
b u r n i n g times too long and tedious. Also, e n l a r g e r s can be b u m p e d or
moved slightly d u r i n g long exposures, and cause t h e printed image to
be less s h a r p t h a n it could be.
• Thin n e g a t i v e s nearly always print flat — w i t h low contrast — so
generally need a # 3 - or # 4 - g r a d e p a p e r for a higher c o n t r a s t print.
• P r i n t s generally d r y slightly d a r k e r t h a n t h e y look w h e n w e t . The
difference is subtle, but should be considered.
• The larger t h e print, t h e more e x p o s u r e it needs. A negative t h a t
needs f 11 a t 10 seconds for a good 5" x 7" p r i n t needs about f 11 at
20 seconds for a good 8" x 10" print. Make a t e s t s t r i p to d e t e r m i n e
the new e x p o s u r e .
• As discussed earlier, an enlarged negative loses c o n t r a s t . A neg-
ative t h a t p r i n t s well on a # 2 - g r a d e p a p e r a t 5" x 7" n e e d s a higher
g r a d e p a p e r — about a g r a d e # 3 — for a p r i n t of comparable c o n t r a s t
at 8 " x 10".
• A l w a y s develop p r i n t s for at least t h e minimum time recommended
by the m a n u f a c t u r e r . P r i n t s pulled f r o m the d e v e l o p e r prior to full
development may be s t r e a k e d and will lack solid blacks. If t h e print
is becoming too d a r k , make a n o t h e r p r i n t at a s h o r t e r e x p o s u r e and
develop t h a t print fully.
• Gang-printing means m a k i n g several p r i n t s from a single negative
in one batch. F i r s t , establish t h e e x p o s u r e , contrast, burning, and
dodging needs of a print, t h e n expose several s h e e t s of printing p a p e r
one a f t e r the o t h e r accordingly. (Be s u r e to place exposed p a p e r out
of t h e way of the e n l a r g e r light w h e n working on s u b s e q u e n t prints.)
Once several p r i n t s , p e r h a p s six or seven, h a v e been exposed, place
each one facedown in t h e developer, one at a time, so t h a t each print
is thoroughly soaked b e f o r e a n o t h e r is added. Once all t h e p r i n t s are
in, s t a l l timing t h e process. T h e n shuffle t h e p r i n t s f r o m the bottom
to t h e top of t h e pile. K e e p shuffling until t h e developing time is
nearly completed. Pick up all t h e p r i n t s f r o m t h e solution, drain t h e m
briefly, and place each print in the stop bath, t h e n in t h e fixer one at
a time, and r e p e a t the shuffling process. Drain all t h e p r i n t s well
before placing t h e m in the holding bath.
W h e n gang-printing, use r u b b e r gloves to p r o t e c t hands f r o m chem-
ical contact. Also, use oversized t r a y s , if possible, to facilitate t h e
shuffling action.
• Archival s t a n d a r d s for processing n e g a t i v e s and p r i n t s suggest
guidelines to maximize the p e r m a n e n c e of t h e s e materials. Unless
processed, washed, and stored correctly, negatives and p r i n t s may
fade or deteriorate with time. J u s t how much time depends on the
materials and processes used. The fixing and washing steps a r e es-
pecially critical to preservation.
Museums, archives, and art collections have a particular interest in
the archival handling of prints. Most p h o t o g r a p h e r s do not need to
a d h e r e to such strict archival s t a n d a r d s for their own work. T h e y
should, however, be a w a r e of the potential problems, and t a k e care
to process and wash negatives and p r i n t s for t h e correct a m o u n t s of
time in fresh solutions, according to the m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' suggestions.
E x t r a care may be indicated for negatives and p r i n t s of special value.
CHAPTER 9 FINAL TOUCHES

Once washed and dried, a p r i n t can still be i m p r o v e d . This c h a p t e r

covers several "final touches":
toning
spotting
mounting
framing

Toning A t o n e r is a chemical solution that c h a n g e s e i t h e r t h e color or the

tone of a print. Several t y p e s a r e available. Some t u r n black-and-
white p r i n t s to different colors, such as brown, sepia, blue, or r e d .
More subtle toners, such as selenium t o n e r , can be used to affect only
the p r i n t tone.
A p r i n t must be toned while it is w e t . A d r y p r i n t can be resoaked
in a t r a y of w a t e r for a few minutes, t h e n toned.
E x t r a t r a y s a r e n e e d e d to hold t h e toning baths. Some toners are
toxic or foul-smelling, so use a well-ventilated d a r k r o o m , or t o n e n e a r
an open window. Use t o n g s or r u b b e r gloves to handle p r i n t s in t h e
toning bath.
Sepia t o n e r s usually come in t w o p a c k a g e s and r e q u i r e s e p a r a t e
baths. P r i n t s are t r e a t e d first in a bleach, which makes t h e image
nearly invisible, t h e n in a r e d e v e l o p e r , which makes the image reap-
p e a r in a different color.
Liquid toners a r e usually one-bath solutions. T h e y change the color
o r tone of a print directly, without a bleaching step.
Toners v a r y in dilution and method of application. Some, such as
Kodak Polytoner, can produce a v a r i e t y of t o n e s or colors depending
on the dilution of the solution and t h e toning time. R e f e r to the
m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' instructions for dilution and t i m e suggestions, but feel
free to e x p e r i m e n t . In general, longer t r e a t m e n t s in less dilute solu-
tions m a k e for more pronounced r e s u l t s .
Selenium t o n e r is a popular one-bath t o n e r . It produces richer black
t o n e s and it helps increase print p e r m a n e n c e . On some p a p e r s it makes
a colder-tone image. Used in s t r o n g concentrations, selenium toner
produces a marked red-brown, almost purple, image. In a more dilute
solution, the change is more subtle. H e r e is a popular formula t h a t
will improve the quality of a print without altering it too dramatically:
1. Mix 1 quart of working solution of fixer remover with 2 ounces
of selenium toner concentrate. Pour this mixture into a clean pro-
cessing tray.
2. Transfer the print to be treated directly from the fixer to the
toning bath. Do not rinse it in w a t e r first. If t h e p r i n t to be toned is
dry, soak it for about 2 minutes in a fresh fixer bath, t h e n t r a n s f e r it
to the toner. For best results, use a fixer without a h a r d e n e r .
3. Agitate the tray for about 5 minutes, or until t h e desired results
a r e achieved. Since the tonal change is subtle, use a duplicate print
from the same negative for comparison. The comparison print should
be wet, but untoned.
4. Once the toning is complete, wash the print in the normal man-
ner, with a fresh fixer-remover bath (with no toner) and a thorough
w a t e r wash.
Selenium in solution should be handled with care. Avoid direct skin
contact by using r u b b e r gloves or tongs when handling p r i n t s being
toned.
When several prints need to be toned, gang-process t h e m in the
manner described at t h e end of chapter 8. P u t each p r i n t one a t a
time in the toning bath, and shuffle t h e m constantly f r o m the bottom
to the top of the pile. When t h e toning time is up, drain each print
and wash as directed.

Dirty negatives cause some of the most annoying and time-consuming

darkroom problems. Grit, dust, and fingerprints on t h e negative block
light from reaching the printing paper, and create d a r k spots, while
scratches cause lines on the finished print.
The best defense against d i r t y negatives is to d r y t h e m in a dust-
free environment, and pack t h e m away in negative envelopes imme-
diately a f t e r t h e y are dry. In addition, before t h e y are positioned in
the enlarger, each negative should be brushed with a soft brush, or
blown clean with an air blower or canned air. Film-cleaning solutions
are available to help combat tough fingerprint, smudge, and dust
problems. Use a soft cloth or chamois with t h e s e solutions to avoid
scratching t h e film.
Despite all these precautions, few negatives a r e totally dirt-free.
Spotting is a technique for covering up print spots. T h e s e spots can
be matched and blended to t h e areas around t h e m with a thin brush
and a spotting solution.
Spotting

A detail from a print that needs spotting. A d e t a i l f r o m t h e s a m e p r i n t a f t e r it h a s b e e n

spotted.
Spotting is tedious and can be f r u s t r a t i n g . It r e q u i r e s a steady hand
and much patience. However, a print covered with small scratches
and spots is a sloppy print, so the few e x t r a minutes taken for spotting
is well-spent time.
The following are needed for spotting:
brush
s p o t t i n g dye
c o t t o n gloves
blotter
white test s t r i p
s a u c e r and w h i t e m i x i n g d i s h
Brush. Use a good-quality, thin-tipped b r u s h . The smaller the num-
ber of the brush, the thinner the tip; a # 1 brush is thinner, t h u s
b e t t e r for spotting, than a # 3 brush. A # 0 0 0 brush is especially thin,
and ideal for spotting. An a r t supply store is t h e best source for e x t r a -
thin brushes.
Spotting dye. Spotting dyes and pigments a r e available in liquid
and d r y form. Most are black, but brown and white spotting colors
a r e available. D r y dyes need to be mixed with w a t e r for use. Both
d r y and premixed types become lighter as they a r e diluted, so a black
liquid can be made to match any shade of g r a y when mixed with
water. (Some use w e t t i n g agent or saliva in lieu of w a t e r . )
Cotton gloves. F i n g e r p r i n t s cause p r i n t s to smudge, so use white,
cotton, lintless gloves, available at d r u g or camera stores, when han-
dling p r i n t s while spotting.
Blotter. Use a p a p e r towel, sponge, or blotter material to absorb
excess spotting solution or w a t e r f r o m the brush.
White test ship. A piece of the white border of a print (made with
the same paper t y p e as the print to be spotted) is useful for testing
the spotting solution before applying it to the finished print.
Saucer and white mixing dish. Use a small saucer to hold w a t e r
used for diluting the spotting solution, and a plain white dish (or plate)
to mix and dilute the spotting solution with t h e w a t e r .
Spotting techniques vary, but all r e q u i r e applying, diluting, and
reapplying spotting solutions to match various tones in a print. Here's
how to spot:
1. Position the white test paper next to a spot on the print.
2. Soak the tip of the brush with spotting solution. Use w a t e r to
liquefy dry spotting dyes.
3. Then blot the brush gentry until blotting paper, and touch the tip
of thr brush lightly to the test paper. Do not make a brush stroke,
j u s t a small spot mark.
4. Use the test paper to match up that mark with the tone of the
area on the print that needs spotting. T h e m a r k will probably be
d a r k e r t h a n t h e area. If so, dilute the solution on t h e b r u s h with
w a t e r , blot it, and make a n o t h e r t e s t m a r k . Do not lick t h e tip of the
brush to dilute t h e solution.
5. Apply the brush immediately to the print when the test mark is
slightly lighter than the area to be spotted. A light spot can always be
d a r k e n e d . Again, touch t h e tip of the b r u s h lightly to t h e print. If the
area to b e s p o t t e d is larger, make r e p e a t e d tiny s p o t s in t h e area until
it is filled in. Do not t r y to fill in a large area b y painting it in. If the
d y e is too d a r k , wipe it off t h e p r i n t a t once, b e f o r e it dries.
6. Examine the print for other areas needing a spot of a similar
tone. If t h e r e a r e any, spot t h e m r i g h t a w a y b e f o r e t h e b r u s h dries.
R e p e a t this procedure, m a t c h i n g all a r e a s t h a t need spotting. L a r g e
dust and scratch spots t a k e a lot of w o r k since t h e y m u s t be filled in
slowly with little spots, n e v e r painted in. As t h e b r u s h dries up, more
solution must be a d d e d , so tones m u s t be matched u p again.
Beginning s p o t t e r s inevitably make m a r k s t h a t are e i t h e r too d a r k
or too large. Use the spotting solution only when it m a k e s a t e s t m a r k
slightly lighter than seems to be n e e d e d . R e m e m b e r , light spots can
always be darkened. Besides, t h e y often a p p e a r d a r k e r in the context
of t h e e n t i r e print. Spots made too d a r k can generally be removed by
soaking the print in w a t e r for a f e w minutes. H o w e v e r , t h e p r i n t must
t h e n be dried and r e s p o t t e d .
Again, be patient and use small m a r k s r e p e a t e d l y to fill in large
areas. Don't t r y to economize with f e w e r strokes. A sloppily spotted
p r i n t can look w o r s e t h a n an u n s p o t t e d print.
High-gloss, resin-coated p a p e r s a r e h a r d to spot because the surface
r e s i s t s dye penetration. Use a n e a r - d r y b r u s h or spotting solutions
made specially for R C papers.
Some s p o t t i n g solutions are packaged in kit form with different
bottles or dyes for w a r m - and cold-toned printing p a p e r s . The man-
u f a c t u r e r s ' instructions can be followed for mixing t h e solutions. (In
general, cold-toned p r i n t s need neutral-black solutions and warm-
toned p r i n t s need brown-black solutions.) H o w e v e r , in practice, slight
tonal differences in spots r a r e l y show up, so don't w o r r y too much
about t h e s e distinctions. U s e a black s p o t t i n g solution for black-and-
white prints; use a b r o w n solution for sepia and brown-toned prints.
Most of all, be patient. Spotting is a tedious, b u t necessary, step.
Don't ruin a p r i n t t h a t took much time and effort to make by rushing
and ruining t h e spotting job.
Mounting P r i n t s can be mounted on a stiff board for display and protection. The
board helps the print to lay flat and provides a good background for
viewing the print. In addition, the board acts as a backing to protect
the print from nicks, creases, and other d a m a g e .
Mount board can be purchased at any camera store, but a r t supply
stores generally offer a more varied selection. Consider the following
factors when choosing mount board:

color
weight
surface
quality
size

Color. A white or an off-white shade is t h e most neutral and com-

monly used mount board, but black, gray, and o t h e r colors a r e avail-
able. Generally, the board should provide a good viewing background;
it should not be the focus of attention, which is a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t for
a white, off-white, or, possibly, a g r a y board.
Weight. Boards a r e available in a variety of thicknesses, sometimes
rated by "ply." Two-ply board is lightweight, and economical; four-
ply board is heavier and sturdier, but more expensive.
Surface. The surface of mount board also varies, f r o m glossy to
rough. A surface in between is usually p r e f e r r e d — flat and m a t t e ,
but not too rough — to provide a neutral and a t t r a c t i v e background.
Quality. Excellent-quality mount boards look good and age well,
while cheaper boards may discolor and d e t e r i o r a t e in time, or cause
mounted prints to stain. So-called r a g (literally recycled rags) or acid-
f r e e boards are considered best and most stable. However, be sure
the p r i n t to be mounted is worth the price. Good mount board is
expensive. Many prints rate more moderate-priced boards.
Size. Mount boards come in various sizes, and may have to be cut
down for use. The cutting can be done b y a r t supply stores at a fee,
or at home with a large straightedge (ruler) and a utility knife with a
sharp blade. Pick a board size that is compatible with t h e size of the
. A print centered on a piece of print to be mounted (refer to the chart on t h e next page).
mount board.
Position the print against a sample-size board to e n s u r e that the
border size is pleasing. A print with a vertical orientation is usually
mounted vertically; a print with a horizontal orientation can be
mounted either horizontally or vertically. Sometimes a print is cen-
u red exactly in the- middle of t h e board, and sometimes it is positioned
to leave equal b o r d e r of mount board showing on each side and a
>mewhat larger bord bottom than on t h e top.
Keep in mind t h a t r e a d y - m a d e f r a m e s a r e available in s t a n d a r d
sizes, such as 8" x 10" and 11" x 14". So, if a mounted p r i n t is to be
f r a m e d , odd-size mount board will r e q u i r e custom f r a m i n g .
T h e s e print and board sizes should be used as guidelines:

Print Size Hoard Size

5" x 7" 8" x 10"

8" x 12"
10" x 12"
8" x 10" 11" x 14"
12" x 15"
t 12" x 16"
11" x 14" 14" x 17"
14" x 18"
16" x 20"

An overmal is a mount board with a hole (or window) in t h e middle.

The hole is approximately the size of t h e print, which lays u n d e r the
o v e r m a t , a t t a c h e d to a backing board. Special c u t t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s are
made to cut o v e r m a t s easily and accurately. H o w e v e r , o v e r m a t s can
be cut inexpensively at home with the following e q u i p m e n t :

c u t t i n g tool
straightedge
cutting surface
board
tape
Cutting toot. A utility knife, available a t any h a r d w a r e store, will
m a k e a good, straight cut. Special mat c u t t e r s are available to make
a beveled (angled) cut — the p r e f e r r e d way to cut an o v e r m a t .
Straightedge. A heavy-duty s t r a i g h t e d g e or r u l e r makes it easier
to cut o v e r m a t s . Art s u p p l y s t o r e s sell stainless-steel s t r a i g h t e d g e s
with a r u b b e r backing to p r e v e n t slippage. T h e s e a r e ideal, though
simple rulers will work.
Cutting surface. A Hat c u t t i n g surface, such as Masonite or a n o t h e r
piece of mount board, is needed to p r o t e c t table tops f r o m scratching
and to provide a smooth area for mat cutting.
Board. T w o pieces of board of equal size a r e needed: an overmat
and a backing board. T h e o v e r m a t is visible, so needs to b e clean and
attractive; the backing board is hidden so can b e less p r e s e n t a b l e .
Tape. T h e o v e r m a t and t h e print need to be attached to t h e backing
board. Masking t a p e can be used; white linen t a p e is m o r e expensive,
Overmatting

A print mounted behind an overmat

— a piece of mount board with a
hole cut out.

but p r e f e r r e d . Photo corners can be used in place of t a p e to attach

the print to t h e backing board.
Miscellaneous. White cotton gloves are useful for handling the print
and board during the overmatting. Pencils and kneaded e r a s e r s a r e
useful for measuring and cleaning up the board. Fine s a n d p a p e r can
smooth over rough-cut edges and corners of the window.
Here's how to overmat:
1. Cut (or buy) t wo pieces of mount board of the same size, one for
an o v e r m a t and the other for a backing. The backing can be of lighter
weight than the o v e r m a t — for example, a two-ply backing with a
four-ply overmat.
2. Position the print on the backing board.
3. Measure the image size of the print (the size of the printing pa-
per minus t h e white borders). Say it is 7" x 9" (on 8" x 10" printing pa-
per). S u b t r a c t t h e s e dimensions from those of t h e m o u n t board, say
11" x 14". F o r a vertical print with the above dimensions, centering
(on a vertical board) works out to a 2" border on each side, and a 2¥z
border both on t h e top and on t h e bottom. Or, it might look b e t t e r to
push t h e print up a bit. still leaving 2" b o r d e r s on each side, but a
2 W border on top and a 2 W border on the bottom.
4. With a straightedge and pencil, draw an outline of the dimensions
of the image on the back side of the overmat. R e d u c e t h e dimensions
of the image by 1/8" both horizontally and vertically to account for
possible e r r o r s , so if t h e image size is 7" x 9", make it 6%" x 8%"
instead. With m o r e experience, this compensation may not be neces-
sary. M e a s u r e carefully, making and connecting s e v e r a l dots for each
dimension.
5. Lay the overmat on the cutting surface, measured side up, and
cut out the loindow. Hold t h e s t r a i g h t e d g e firmly or s e c u r e it to t h e
table with masking t a p e , so it does not m o v e d u r i n g t h e cut. U s e a
utility knife with a s h a r p blade for a s t r a i g h t cut, or a special mat
c u t t e r for a beveled edge. P r e s s the c u t t i n g tool firmly down along
the s t r a i g h t e d g e to g u a r a n t e e a smooth, even cut. Be s u r e to cut t h e
c o r n e r s of t h e window cleanly, at a s h a r p 90° angle.
6. Use fine sa ndpaper to smooth ou t the rough edges of the cut-out
board.
7. Ilinge the overmat to the backing board by b u t t i n g the top side
of each up against the other; use t h e back side of t h e o v e r m a t and the
front side of the backing board. L a y a s t r i p of t a p e across t h e length
of t h e boards to attach t h e m . Linen t a p e is best. It m u s t b e moistened
for use, and burnished thoroughly to s e c u r e t h e t a p e to the board.
Masking tape is also acceptable, ('lose up t h e t w o boards and align
t h e m to each o t h e r before t h e t a p e has time to bind firmly.
8. Position the print between the two boards so t h a t the image fits
directly behind the cut-out window. Once it is in place, put a weight
(such as a small book or wallet) on t h e p r i n t to keep it f r o m moving,
using a piece of p a p e r b e t w e e n the print and w e i g h t to protect the
print.
9. Open the overmat, and attach the print to the backing board with
t a p e (preferably linen t a p e ) or photo corners.
10. Close up the overmat, and t h e job is complete.

Dry-mounting is a method of attaching a print directly to m o u n t

board. T h e bond is made with dry-mounting tissue, a thin p a p e r that
becomes sticky when heated. The heat is provided by a dry-mounting
press, or, if necessary, a simple clothes iron. Like o v e r m a t t i n g , dry-
mounting r e q u i r e s a c u t t i n g tool, s t r a i g h t e d g e , c u t t i n g surface, and
cotton gloves. A p a p e r t r i m m e r can be used instead of a utility knife
and s t r a i g h t e d g e for t r i m m i n g t h e p r i n t b o r d e r s . T h e following special
equipment is used for dry-mounting:
dry-mounting press
protective sheet
Dry-mounting

A print dry-mounted onto a piece of

mount board with a piece of dry-
mounting tissue.

t a c k i n g iron
dry-mounting tissue

Dry-mounting press. This expensive piece of equipment resembles

a large flatiron and can be opened and closed tight to provide an even
source of heat. It has a t h e r m o s t a t to r e g u l a t e its t e m p e r a t u r e .
P r e s s e s can be found at m a n y a r t studios and g r o u p darkrooms, but
if unavailable, a clothes iron will suffice, especially for m o u n t i n g small
prints.
Protective sheet. A sheet of k r a f t p a p e r or o t h e r thin smooth p a p e r
or board must be used in the d r y - m o u n t i n g p r e s s to p r e v e n t p r i n t s
f r o m directly touching t h e heating plate. T h e sheet should be the same
size as or larger t h a n t h e h e a t i n g plate.
Tacking iron. A special hand iron, with a rounded, n a r r o w tip, is
^ used for tacking dry-mounting tissue to t h e back of a p r i n t and to t h e
front of t h e mount board. A tacking iron is not expensive, but a clothes
iron, carefully used at low t e m p e r a t u r e s , can b e used instead, if
A tacking iron. necessary.
Dry-mounting tissue. Special heat-sensitive tissues are made by
many m a n u f a c t u r e r s in a variety of sizes. Buy tissue in t h e size of the
largest p r i n t s to be dry-mounted. It can always b e cut down for use
with smaller prints. Tissue is available for both fiber-based and resin-
coated printing papers. Be s u r e to use t h e r i g h t t y p e for the print to
b e mounted.
A finished print

This 11" x 14" print, shown in re-

duced size,^ has an image size of
8" x 12"; it was first spotted, then
mounted on 14" x 18" mount board.
The following directions a s s u m e t h e availability of a d r y - m o u n t i n g
press:
1. Set the temperature on the press. U s e 180" for m o u n t i n g resin-
coated p r i n t s or 250 for fiber-based p r i n t s .
2. Plug iti the tacking iron, and set its thermostat a t a medium
setting. Wait s e v e r a l minutes for both t h e p r e s s and t h e iron to heat
up.
3. Remove excess moisture from both the print and the mount board.
To do so. place each in the heated p r e s s s e p a r a t e l y for about 1 m i n u t e .
Position t h e print and board u n d e r a p r o t e c t i v e sheet in the p r e s s t o
k e e p t h e m from being scorched.
4. Take the print and place it facedown on a clean, flat surface.
5. Lay a sheet of dry-mounting tissue, the size of the print for
larger), on the back of the print.
6. With a short, continuous stroke, move the heated tacking iron
across the middle of the tissue. Since t h e tissue becomes sticky when
h e a t e d , it will a d h e r e to t h e print at t h e s p o t s t h a t a r e touched.
7. Torn ore,- the print and cut off the white border, using either a
p a p e r t r i m m e r or a utility knife (with a s h a r p blade) and s t r a i g h t e d g e .
Since t h e dry-mounting t i s s u e and t h e print a r e a t t a c h e d , t h e y will
be cut at t h e same time, and t h e y will be the same size. Make t h e
cuts carefully so t h e y will be even and s q u a r e , and do not slip into
t h e image itself.
8. Center the trimmed print (with the attached tissue) on the mount
board. T h e same rule of t h u m b as for o v e r m a t t i n g applies: position
t h e print either directly in t h e c e n t e r of t h e board or a little u p on
the board. Use a r u l e r and light pencil m a r k s to m e a s u r e t h e b o r d e r s
with g r e a t care.
9. Once the print is positioned, put a weight on it to keep it in place.
Use a clean piece of p a p e r b e t w e e n t h e p r i n t and t h e w e i g h t to protect
t h e print surface.
10. Lift up one corner of the print, lea ving the tissue lying flat in
place on the board, and apply the tacking iron gently to the corner of
the tissue to attach it to the mount board. Being careful to hold the
print iand tissue) perfectly flat against t h e board, "tack" t h e diagonally
opposite corner of t h e print also. Now t h e t i s s u e is a t t a c h e d , both to
t h e p r i n t in t h e middle and to t h e board at t w o c o r n e r s .
11. Remeasure the print now t h a t it is a t t a c h e d to t h e mount board
to be s u r e t h e borders a r e square. If t h e y a r e not. r e m o v e t h e tissue
at the c o m e r s , reposition the print, and tack down t h e corners again.
12. Place the print and the attached board in the dry-mounting
press. Be sure t h a t the protective sheet is positioned b e t w e e n the
To dry-mount a print

A . U s e a t a c k i n g iron t o a t t a c h t h e d r y - B . C u t off t h e w h i t e b o r d e r of t h e p r i n t
m o u n t i n g t i s s u e t o t h e b a c k of t h e with a utility knife and s t r a i g h t e d g e
print. (or a p a p e r t r i m m e r ) .

dry-mounting
tissue

C . C e n t e r t h e t r i m m e d p r i n t on t h e I). L i f t u p a c o r n e r of t h e p r i n t a n d
mount board. tack t h e dry-mounting tissue to t h e
mount board.

E . P l a c e t h e p r i n t a n d m o u n t b o a r d in
t h e dry-mounting press.
heating plate of t h e p r e s s and the board. Close t h e p r e s s for about 30
seconds, or until the print is affixed firmly to t h e board.
13. Take the mounted print out of the press and lay it under a flat,
heavy object, such as a large book, until it cools o f f . T h e surface of
the p r i n t should be protected at all times by a clean s h e e t of p a p e r or
board.
14. Bend the board gently to test the binding. If t h e p r i n t is not
affixed firmly, it will begin to lift off t h e board, so p u t the print and
board back in t h e p r e s s for a longer time.
A clothes iron can b e used in lieu of a d r y - m o u n t i n g p r e s s , but with
less efficiency. The iron should contain no w a t e r , and its t h e r m o s t a t
should be set at a low t e m p e r a t u r e . P r e h e a t both t h e p r i n t and the
board by covering each completely with a sheet of k r a f t or o t h e r
dry-mounting tissue paper, and ironing t h e m in a circular motion for about 2 m i n u t e s on
each side. A f t e r tacking the dry-mounting tissue to t h e back of the
print, t r i m the print borders and center t h e t r i m m e d print on the
mount board. Tack t w o diagonal corners to t h e mount board, and
cover t h e p r i n t and board with a protective s h e e t . Then, iron t h e m
for several m i n u t e s until t h e print and board a r e firmly bonded to-
g e t h e r . S t a r t t h e ironing motion a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e p r i n t and move
out to each corner to g u a r a n t e e an even bond.

P r i n t s can be flush mounted: t h a t is, d r y - m o u n t e d without the board

showing. The procedure is slightly easier t h a n for dry-mounting since
the border of the print does not need to be t r i m m e d until t h e print
and board are bonded t o g e t h e r . Also, the print does not need to be
centered precisely on t h e mount board.
To flush mount, attach d r y - m o u n t i n g tissue to t h e back of t h e print,
then position the print a n y w h e r e on t h e mount board. Tack one corner
of the tissue to the board, and place t h e print and board in the dry-
mounting p r e s s to attach t h e m . T h e n t h e b o r d e r of t h e print can be
cut off t o g e t h e r with t h e mount board using a utility knife and
A flush-mounted p r i n t h a s no m o u n t straightedge (or heavy-duty p a p e r trimmer), and t h e print is mounted
board showing. with no borders showing.

A dry-mounting p r e s s can be used to flatten fiber-based p r i n t s that

have curled u p a f t e r drying. Place t h e p r i n t in t h e p r e s s for 30 seconds
or so, and let it cool off u n d e r a heavy, flat object. He s u r e t h e print
is covered b y a protective sheet at all t i m e s — in the p r e s s and u n d e r
the weight.
FrO m i HQ F r a m e s protect p r i n t s and enhance their a p p e a r a n c e . T h e y can be
purchased ready-made in s t a n d a r d sizes, or custom-made a t a f r a m e
shop.
The choice of a f r a m e is both an economic and aesthetic considera-
tion, but t h e purpose of t h e f r a m e is to show off t h e photograph, not
to show off t h e f r a m e . Simple f r a m e s m a d e of thin wood or metal
moldings usually w o r k best. U s e plain colors, such as white, gray,
black, gold, or silver.
P r i n t s should be o v e r m a t t e d before being placed in a f r a m e . In t h a t
way, the surface of the photograph will be protected f r o m directly
touching the glass in t h e f r a m e . Alternatively, special f r a m e s a r e
available with s e p a r a t e slots for the glass and t h e mounted p r i n t to
p r e v e n t the glass and surface of t h e print f r o m touching.
CHAPTER 10 CAMERA ACCESSORIES

Budding p h o t o g r a p h e r s a r e o f t e n equipment-minded, constantly ask-

ing about this camera or t h a t lens. Some find their main interest
becomes equipment and materials; o t h e r s g e t confused by the options.
What follows is a description of many important and widely used
camera accessories. Consider t h e options, but don't g e t carried a w a y .
It is t h e person, not t h e equipment, who ultimately m a k e s a good or
a bad photograph.

Filters Filters a r e used in front of the camera lens to protect the lens or to
effect a variety of tonal changes in the print. Most filters a r e made of
glass, though sheets of gelatin or acetate filters are also available.
Glass filters a r e cased in a metal or plastic rim. T h e rim is attached
directly to the front of the lens with either a screw or bayonet mount-
ing s y s t e m . A screw mount r e q u i r e s placing t h e rim fiat against t h e
front of the lens, and screwing the filter on. A bayonet mount r e q u i r e s
a short turn once the filter is positioned against the lens.
F i l t e r s come in a variety of sizes, m e a s u r e d in millimeters, to fit
different lenses. The sizes r e p r e s e n t t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e f r o n t of a
lens, thus a 52-millimeter filter is needed to fit onto a lens with a 52-
millimeter d i a m e t e r .
Do not confuse t h e filter size with film format or focal-length mea-
s u r e m e n t s . F o r example, a 35-millimeter camera may have a 50-
millimeter lens t h a t t a k e s a 52-millimeter filter. The "35" r e f e r s to t h e
film size the camera uses; "50" to t h e focal length of t h e lens; and "52"
to the diameter of t h e front of the lens.
Clear filters a r e used to protect the front of t h e camera lens, keeping
it clear and f r e e f r o m scratching. Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s keep clear
filters on each lens a t all times. At the least, t h e y should be used
when photographing n e a r t h e water, sand, or u n d e r any conditions
w h e r e the lens might be subject to d a m a g e . The best protective filters
are completely clear glass, skylight, haze, or ultraviolet (U.V.) filters.
Colored filters work to d a r k e n or lighten certain colors in the subject
and, thus, tones of g r a y in t h e image. A filter lightens its own color
in t h e final print, and t e n d s to d a r k e n complementary colors.
Filters

A print from a negative shot with no filter on the lens. A print from a negative of the same subject shot with a
The sky is very light. yellow filter on the camera lens. Note that the blue sky
is darker.

A print from a negative of the same subject shot with a

red filter on the camera lens. Note that the blue sky is
significantly darker.
The reason filters work this way is t h a t t h e y allow more light of
their own color to pass through to t h e film, and tend to a b s o r b light
of complementary colors. T h e r e f o r e , those p a r t s of t h e subject t h a t
are the s a m e color as t h e filter are r e n d e r e d d e n s e r on the negative
arid lighter on the print. F o r example, a red filter allows more reflected
light through from a r e d car, t h u s t h e car is r e n d e r e d d e n s e r on t h e
negative and lighter on t h e print.
Those p a r t s of t h e s u b j e c t s t h a t a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y to the color of
the filter are somewhat absorbed when traveling through t h e lens and
are r e n d e r e d less dense on t h e negative and d a r k e r on t h e print. T h e
same red filter a b s o r b s light from a blue sky, causing t h e sky to b e
lighter on t h e negative and d a r k e r on t h e s u b s e q u e n t print.
Colored filters are used to d a r k e n or lighten certain p a r t s of t h e
photograph. Bright a r e a s , such as blue sky or w a t e r , are common
problems. They tend to reflect more light t h a n t h e r e s t of t h e s u b j e c t ,
and come out too light on a print.
To d a r k e n blue sky (or water), place a yellow, g r e e n , orange, or
r e d filter over the lens. All t h e s e filters will a b s o r b blue light, thus
r e n d e r i n g t h e sky less dense on t h e negative and d a r k e r on t h e print.
Since black-and-white film produces g r a y tones instead of colors,
a r e a s of two different colors in a subject could r e g i s t e r as t h e same
tone in a print. Filters can be used to d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e s e colors. F o r
example, say the subject is a boy w e a r i n g bluejeans and a red t-shirt.
Both the j e a n s and shirt may reflect t h e same amount of light, even
though they are different colors. T h e r e f o r e , both will r e n d e r equal
densities on the negative and p r i n t as t h e s a m e g r a y tone.
By placing a red filter on t h e lens, more r e d light will pass through
to the film, r e n d e r i n g t h e t-shirt denser in t h e negative and lighter in
the print. T h e same filter will absorb blue light, r e n d e r i n g t h e j e a n s
less dense in the negative and d a r k e r in the print. In this way, the
difference in color b e t w e e n the j e a n s and t-shirt will be b e t t e r rep-
resented in t h e final print.
H e r e is a c h a r t of various filters t h a t illustrates their effect on a
black-and-white print:

Filter Color Colors Lightened Colors Darkened Uses

Yellow Yellow, orange Blue Outdoor portraits:

sky, landscapes

Green Green Red, blue, violet More dramatic out-

»
door portraits and
sky; lightens foliage

Orange Orange, red Blue, green Adds more contrast

than yellow or
green, darkens
skies more

Red Red. orange Blue, green Most contrast and

darkening of skies:
not good for por-
traits

Most filters a r e available in a variety of densities — light, medium,

and d a r k . T h e d e n s e r t h e filter, the m o r e pronounced the effect.
H e r e a r e t w o special filters t h a t a r e sometimes used for black-and-
white p h o t o g r a p h y .
A polarizing filter acts to minimize reflection or glare f r o m a subject,
such as occurs when photographing a shiny object or t h r o u g h a glass
window. It fits onto t h e f r o n t of t h e lens, like a n y o t h e r filter, and is
r o t a t e d until the reflection or glare is reduced or eliminated. To r e d u c e
reflection, a polarizing filter w o r k s best when positioned at an angle
to the s u b j e c t , not directly facing it.
A neutral-density filter uniformly a b s o r b s some of t h e light that
r e a c h e s t h e film, without affecting the t o n e s of t h e final print. It can
be used w h e n t h e r e is too much light in t h e s u b j e c t for a desired effect
or with fast films on a bright day.
Because neutral-density filters cut down on the light reaching the
film, t h e a p e r t u r e must be opened or the s h u t t e r speed slowed down
when using them. T h e result is e i t h e r less depth of field or more
potential blurring owing to subject m o v e m e n t .
Polarizing filter

A p r i n t f r o m a n e g a t i v e s h o t w i t h n o filter o n t h e A p r i n t f r o m a n e g a t i v e of t h e s a m e s u b j e c t s h o t
lens. N o t e t h e g l a r e r e f l e c t i n g off t h e s u b j e c t — a w i t h a p o l a r i z i n g filter o n t h e l e n s t o r e d u c e t h e
storefront. glare.
E v e r y 0.30 density on t h e s e filters c u t s down the light b y t h e
equivalent of one full f-stop. So, if t h e m e t e r r e a d s f 4 a t 1/60, use a
0.30 neutral-density filter for an exposure of f 2.8 a t 1/60 (for less
depth of field) or f 4 at 1/30 (for a more blurred subject). To cut down
the light b y the equivalent of two f-stops, use a 0.60 filter, and so
forth.
Most colored filters also cut down the amount of light passing
through the lens and reaching the film. T h u s when using filters, ad-
ditional film e x p o s u r e is needed. E a c h filter has a filter factor t h a t
indicates how much e x t r a e x p o s u r e is needed when using t h a t filter.
T h e s e factors are printed on t h e rim of t h e filter or in t h e accompany-
ing instruction s h e e t . Some typical filter f a c t o r s are:

yellow ' 2x
green 4x
orange 4x
red 8x
polarizing 4x

T h e s e f a c t o r s v a r y with t h e brand of filter used, and the relative

d a r k n e s s of t h e specific filter; for example, some m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f f e r
both a light- and dark-green filter; one may have a filter factor of 2 x ?
t h e other of 4 x .
H e r e is a chart indicating t h e amount of e x t r a e x p o s u r e t h a t is
needed to compensate for various filter factors:

If the filter Acid the equiv-

factor is . . . alent of . . .

1.5x % f-stop
2x 1 f-stop
3x 1 % f-stop
4x 2 f-stops
fix 2 % f-stops
8x 3 f-stops
12x 3 % f-stops
16x 4 f-stops

If a m e t e r r e a d s f 8 a t 1/250, and a yellow filter with a factor of 2 x

is used, a d j u s t t h a t e x p o s u r e by t h e equivalent of one f-stop to f 5.6
at 1/250 or f 8 a t 1/125. If a filter with a factor of 6 x is used and the
m e t e r e d exposure is f 8 at 1/250, a d j u s t by t h e equivalent of 2%
f-stops to b e t w e e n f 2.8 and f 4 a t 1/250, b e t w e e n f 4 and f 5.6 a t
1/125, or b e t w e e n f 5.6 and f 8 at 1/60. ( F o r a change of 2/3 of an
f-stop, an approximate s e t t i n g b e t w e e n two designated stops on t h e
lens should suffice.)
C a m e r a s with through-the-lens m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s automatically
compensate for the filter factor, since t h e y r e a d t h e light a f t e r it has
been filtered. With these cameras, simply screw t h e filter on the lens,
and m e t e r normally. Or. use the camera in its automatic mode and
ignore t h e filter factor.
When a s e p a r a t e hand-held light m e t e r is used, t h e e x t r a light
needed must be calculated with each exposure, or the A S A setting on
t h e m e t e r changed. F o r example, a yellow filter with a factor of 2 x
needs twice as much light as no filter a t all. If the film speed is 400
ASA, set t h e m e t e r at 200 ASA instead. T h e m e t e r will s u g g e s t twice
as much e x p o s u r e as it would if it w e r e set a t 400 ASA, and will then
calculate automatically for the 2 x filter. (Be sure to change t h e ASA
setting back to the original film speed w h e n t h e filter is removed.)

Flash Flash units provide a convenient source of artificial lighting when the
existing light is inadequate. Most a r e small and portable, and can be
attached directly to t h e camera. L a r g e r , bulkier models a r e available
for studio photography.
Flash lighting comes in various forms. The earliest units, long since
outmoded, held powdered explosives. W h e n t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r lit the
powder, it exploded with a flash that provided the light necessary to
expose t h e film.
Flash bulbs replaced powdered flash. T h e s e w e r e f a r s a f e r and more
reliable, but each bulb still held only one flash. P h o t o g r a p h e r s had to
carry around a supply adequate for a day of work. Besides, the process
of replacing bulbs a f t e r each e x p o s u r e w a s inconvenient and time-
consuming. Flash bulbs a r e still in use, b u t mostly for simple cameras.
With t h e s e cameras, cubes and b a r s , each containing several flash
bulbs, h a v e all but replaced the traditional "one-shot" bulb.
Today, electronic flash (sometimes called strobe) is widely used by
both snapshooters and "serious" p h o t o g r a p h e r s . Consisting of a reus-
able t u b e powered by a b a t t e r y (or household current), electronic flash
provides a convenient, efficient, and invaluable auxiliary lighting-
source.

W h e n using flash, t h e b u r s t of light must synchronize with t h e

camera s h u t t e r . That is, the flash m u s t go off when the s h u t t e r is
wide open.
Flash bars contain several flash An electronic flash unit,
bulbs.

The mechanics of synchronization v a r y with t h e t y p e of flash or

camera used. However, r e g a r d l e s s of type, the flash unit must connect
electrically with the s h u t t e r . S o m e t i m e s this is done with a pc (or
synch) cord, which is a t t a c h e d to both t h e flash unit and the camera
body: t h e contact point on t h e camera body connects internally to the
camera s h u t t e r . Some c a m e r a s o f f e r a choice of "M" or " X " synchro-
nization contacts. "M" is for when flash bulbs are used: " X " for elec-
tronic flash.
Most m o d e r n c a m e r a s contain an a t t a c h m e n t , called a hot shoe, that
serves t h e same p u r p o s e as a pc cord. A shoe is a slotted coupling,
usually located on t h e camera body, t h a t allows a flash unit to be
attached to t h e body. A hot shoe incorporates an electric contact t h a t
connects directly to t h e s h u t t e r , and allows t h e flash and s h u t t e r to
be synchronized without t h e use of a pc cord.
Focal-plane s h u t t e r s , commonly found in single-lens reflex cameras,
synchronize with electronic flash only at slow s h u t t e r speeds, usually
1 60 and slower (though some synchronize at 1 125). If a faster shutter
speed is used, t h e s h u t t e r will cover part of t h e film while t h e flash
goes off. and only a section of t h e image will r e g i s t e r on the film.
A flash u n i t a t t a c h e d t o a c a m e r a A h o t s h o e c o n t a i n s an e l e c t r i c a l
w i t h a p c cord f o r s y n c h r o n i z i n g t h e c o n t a c t f o r s y n c h r o n i z i n g t h e flash
flash w i t h t h e s h u t t e r . to the s h u t t e r (top view).

Leaf s h u t t e r s , commonly found in most rangefinder, twin-lens re-

flex, and view cameras, synchronize with electronic Hash a t any shut-
t e r speed.

Film exposure with flash is figured differently than with natural

light. The most important factors in d e t e r m i n i n g e x p o s u r e with flash
are distance and f-stop. S h u t t e r speed is rarely a factor, being impor-
t a n t primarily for synchronizing with the flash o u t p u t .
Distance. As t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e flash unit and the s u b j e c t
increases, the amount of the light t h a t reaches and t h e n reflects off
the subject decreases — dramatically. A flash situated 10 feet f r o m a
subject g e n e r a t e s four times as much reflected light as the same flash
located 20 feet from the same subject.
Distance is figured f r o m the flash unit to t h e subject. Most of t h e
time, flash units a r e situated on the camera and fired directly a t the
subject. In t h e s e cases flash-to-subject distance is the same as camera-
to-subject distance, and measurable on the distance scale located on
the camera lens.
Sometimes flash light is bounced off ceilings or walls to soften t h e
When existing light is inadequate, lighting effect, or used off c a m e r a to c r e a t e or "fill in" shadows. In
such as indoors or outdoors at night, e i t h e r case, t h e actual distance t h e flash light t r a v e l s (not the camera-
flash can provide enough additional to-subject distance) must be calculated, e i t h e r by m e a s u r i n g or guess-
light to allow for a good exposure. ing that distance. Often a close g u e s s will suffice since some latitude
does exist. A subject at a distance 10 feet from t h e flash, for example,
will need about t h e same e x p o s u r e as a subject 8 feet a w a y .
F-stop. The lens a p e r t u r e m u s t b e opened w i d e r as t h e distance
f r o m the flash to t h e subject increases, and closed up as t h e distance
decreases. Additional distance m e a n s reduced illumination. F o r ex-
ample. if a flash located 10 feet from the s u b j e c t needs an a p e r t u r e of
f 11, t h e s a m e flash located 20 feet f r o m the s a m e subject will need
KODAK SAFETY FILM 5 0 6 3 KODAK SAFETY FILM 5063 KOOAK SAFETY FILM 5 0 6 3

A negative made with a flash at- i'5.6. Since the flash illumination has been reduced by one-fourth, the
tached to an SLR camera with a lens must be opened up by two f-stops.
focal-plane shutter set at 1/250 — While distance and f-stop a r e the p r i m a r y f a c t o r s in controlling film
too fast a speed to synchronize with exposure, film speed and quantity of light must also be considered.
the flash. As a result, the shutter Film speed. The f a s t e r the film, t h e more quickly it accepts light,
covers part of the film while the
and the smaller t h e needed a p e r t u r e to make a good exposure. This
flash goes off, and only part of the
is t r u e , of course, w h e t h e r using flash or not.
film registers the image.
Quantity of light. The more powerful t h e flash unit, the more light
it produces, and the smaller the needed lens opening. T h e power of a
flash varies widely f r o m model to model.

The key to figuring flash exposure is to d e t e r m i n e what a p e r t u r e

must be set on t h e camera lens. This f-stop can be computed either
by using exposure tables or guide numbers. Most flash units h a v e
exposure tables printed on them. Sometimes t h e s e tables a r e blocked
out numerically, and sometimes they are printed in dial form. To use
either t y p e , simply match up the film speed and flash-to-subject dis-
tance to d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f-stop.
A n o t h e r way to d e t e r m i n e e x p o s u r e with flash is to use a formula
based on the guide number of the flash unit. T h e guide n u m b e r is a
quantitative indication of t h e intensity of the flash. Check t h e instruc-
tion booklet t h a t comes with the flash for the guide n u m b e r . The
formula for determining t h e correct a p e r t u r e with flash is:

f-stop = g u i d e n u m b e r -4- flash-to-subject distance

If the guide number of a given flash unit is 80, and the flash-to-subject
distance is 10 feet, t h e n use f 8 (8 = 80 - 10).
Guide n u m b e r s vary with film speed. A flash unit with a guide
n u m b e r of 80 for 32 A S A film has a guide n u m b e r of 110 for 64 ASA
film. So when figuring exposure, be s u r e to factor the correct guide
n u m b e r for the film speed used.
N e a r l y all c u r r e n t electronic flash units f e a t u r e "automatic" expo-
sure, t h u s eliminating t h e need to figure e x p o s u r e by tables, dials, or
guide n u m b e r s . Most w o r k in a similar m a n n e r . The film speed and
f-stop are set on a dial on the flash unit. W h e n t h e flash fires, a light-
sensitive cell (called a sensor) on the flash unit (or in t h e camera)
r e a d s the amount of light that reflects off t h e s u b j e c t back to the
c a m e r a . W h e n t h e correct amount of light required to expose t h e film
( r e m e m b e r t h e sensor "knows" t h e film speed and f-stop) has reflected
back, t h e s e n s o r causes the flash duration to be cut s h o r t .
Automatic, dedicated flash units r e q u i r e even less work. J u s t set
the film speed and fire. Light reflecting back to t h e film is r e a d off
the flash unit (or the film plane on some cameras), and computed in
such a way t h a t t h e correct s h u t t e r s p e e d and f-stop for t h a t amount
of light a r e set automatically.
C u r r e n t flash models a r e increasingly more automatic, sophisti-
cated, and easy to use. Distance does not h a v e to be calculated a f t e r
each exposure; f-stops r a r e l y need changing. Totally manual flash units
are still available, b u t most are either low-priced and low in p o w e r ,
or e x t r e m e l y large and powerful, practical for studio use only.
However, many automatic flash u n i t s h a v e a m a n u a l mode. To use
a flash manually, calculate the correct f-stop by m e a s u r i n g the flash-
to-subject distance, and t h e n using the e x p o s u r e dial on t h e flash unit
or dividing that distance into t h e guide n u m b e r of the unit. Set t h e
lens at t h e resulting calculated f-stop and fire a w a y .
A problem with automatic flash is its tendency to t r e a t all s u b j e c t s
in a similar w a y . As such, it w o r k s well most of t h e time, but can be
"fooled" in certain situations. F o r example, in a light-colored room
with a d a r k subject, the flash may reflect f a r m o r e light f r o m t h e walls
t h a n from the subject, causing the sensor to cut off the light too soon
to r e n d e r good subject detail.
Or, the sensor may misjudge which subject t o r e a d . If a bright
object s t a n d s b e t w e e n t h e flash and the m a i n subject, t h e sensor may
r e g i s t e r that object r a t h e r t h a n t h e s u b j e c t , cut t h e flash duration
short, and cause an u n d e r e x p o s e d negative.
T h e r e are several w a y s to g u a r a n t e e good flash e x p o s u r e in difficult
situations. If in doubt, use the manual m o d e 011 the flash, and calculate
t h e f-stop for t h e given flash-to-subject distance.
Or, fool t h e flash unit by deliberately s e t t i n g it for e i t h e r a higher
or lower film speed. If u n d e r e x p o s e d r e s u l t s a r e likely, set the speed
lower (use 200 ASA r a t h e r t h a n 400 A S A ) to allow m o r e light in. If
overexposed results a r e likely, set t h e speed higher (use 800 ASA
instead of 400 ASA) to allow less light in.
Or, use the flash in t h e automatic mode and set t h e a p e r t u r e one
stop wider than indicated (say, f 8 instead of f 11) to compensate for
underexposure; or set it one stop smaller t h a n indicated (say, f 16
instead of f 11) to compensate for u n d e r e x p o s u r e .

T h e placement of the Hash unit affects the s h a d o w s cast by the

subject. Think of a bright, sunny day and how t h e sun — the light
source — c r e a t e s shadows. Flash c r e a t e s s h a d o w s in a similar way,
and can strongly influence the overall look of a picture.
When the flash is mounted on top of a camera (over t h e lens), most
of the shadows fall directly in back of t h e subject. As such, they a r e
not particularly visible.
When t h e flash is mounted on the side of a c a m e r a , a shadow is cast
on the opposite side of t h e subject. To c r e a t e a m o r e dramatic shadow
effect, hold the flash off to one side of the camera with t h e help of an
extension flash cord.
When figuring exposure with a nonautomatic flash, r e m e m b e r to
figure t h e distance from t h e flash to the s u b j e c t , not f r o m t h e camera
to t h e subject. F o r an automatic flash to continue to w o r k automati-
cally when used off camera, a remote sensor must be attached to the
camera to read the flash light reflecting back.
Flash light, because it is direct and casts shadows, can produce
harsh-looking r e s u l t s . One way to soften that h a r s h n e s s is to bounce
(or reflect) the flash light off a white ceiling or wall. Bounced light is
more diffuse, thus s o f t e r than direct light.
To bounce light, aim t h e flash at an angle t o w a r d t h e ceiling (or
wall), so it will reflect toward t h e subject. The light must t r a v e l a
g r e a t e r distance when bounced, so to figure e x p o s u r e in a manual
mode, be s u r e to calculate t h e total distance t r a v e l e d , not t h e camera-
to-subject distance. F o r example, if t h e flash is 6 feet f r o m t h e subject,
but aimed a t t h e ceiling, calculate t h e distance t h e light t r a v e l s f r o m
t h e flash to t h e ceiling (say, 4 feet) and back to the subject (say, 6
feet), and use t h e total distance (10 feet) to calculate exposure. Au-
tomatic flash units with remote sensors will calculate automatically
t h e needed exposure when light is being bounced.
A relatively powerful flash is needed when bouncing light because
of the additional distance the light m u s t travel. Also, t h e reflecting
surface (here, t h e ceiling) usually absorbs some of t h e light, so a little
m o r e exposure t h a n indicated may be required.
A n o t h e r way to soften light is to diffuse it. Accessory kits, contain-
ing a plastic diffuser, are available for some flash units. A h o m e m a d e
diffuser is easily constructed b y taping tissue or t r a c i n g p a p e r directly
Direct flash

Here, the flash unit was positioned on the camera, to

the left of the lens, aiming directly at the subject. Note
the harsh shadows.

Flash directed at the subject.

B o u n c e d flash

Here the Hash unit was positioned on the camera,

pointing at the ceiling. The light reflecting off the ceil-
ing is more diffuse and softer than direct light.

Klash bounced off the ceiling to the

subject.
o v e r t h e Hash head. The d i f f u s e r b r e a k s u p light r a y s traveling
through it, c r e a t i n g a s o f t e r light.
More e x p o s u r e (or more flash light) is needed when u s i n g a diffuser.
Automatic flash units will calculate and a d j u s t for the required change.
W i t h manual units, a w i d e r a p e r t u r e b y t h e equivalent of about one
o r t w o f-stops is needed, d e p e n d i n g on the density of the diffusing
material.

T h e r e a r e a wide variety of flash units available. H e r e a r e t h e

important f e a t u r e s to look for:
power
power source
recycling time*
size and portability
energy used
Power. Generally, t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o w e r , the more desirable (and
expensive) t h e unit. More p o w e r m e a n s t h e flash will o p e r a t e a t
g r e a t e r distance; will allow the use of smaller a p e r t u r e s , t h u s produce
images with g r e a t e r d e p t h of field; and will m o r e easily permit bounc-
ing or diffusing for s o f t e r light.
The guide n u m b e r of a flash unit indicates its p o w e r . The higher
the n u m b e r (at a given film speed), t h e g r e a t e r the power.
Power source. Electronic flash units a r e commonly powered b y any
of t h e following sources: alkaline b a t t e r i e s (usually size AA, though
occasionally 510 volt or size D), r e c h a r g e a b l e b a t t e r i e s (nickel-cad-
mium), or s t a n d a r d AC household c u r r e n t . Some units can use more
than one p o w e r source.
Alkaline b a t t e r i e s drain quickly and m u s t be constantly replaced,
but t h e y are always available w h e n n e e d e d . Rechargeable b a t t e r i e s
are cheaper to operate, but may r u n out of juice a t inopportune times.
Household c u r r e n t is cheapest and most consistent, but is the least
portable since it can only be used w h e r e t h e r e is an available electrical
outlet.
Recycling time. The time it t a k e s a flash to reach full power again
a f t e r firing is called its recycling time. Some units recycle in a short
span of time — 1 second or less — while o t h e r s may r e q u i r e 5 seconds
or longer. As a b a t t e r y loses power, t h e flash n e e d s m o r e time to
recycle.
Size and portability. L a r g e r and less portable flash units generally
have more power and quicker recycling times. Many h a v e external
power sources, called b a t t e r y packs, t h a t must be carried s e p a r a t e l y ,
o v e r the shoulder or in a j a c k e t pocket.
Energy used. Many Hash units have energy-saving f e a t u r e s t h a t
save money b y prolonging the life of the b a t t e r y . Thyristor circuitry
is one such feature. It retains unused electric p o w e r in t h e capacitor
of the unit (where e n e r g y is stored). In non-thyristor automatic units,
when the flash duration is cut s h o r t for correct exposure, t h e remain-
ing power (the difference between the maximum duration and t h a t
which is used) is discarded. In a t h y r i s t o r unit, t h a t e n e r g y is s t o r e d
for reuse.
A n o t h e r energy-saving f e a t u r e is a p o w e r reduction switch. This
allows t h e flash to be used at fractions of the maximum p o w e r of t h e
unit. When less power is used, more e n e r g y is s t o r e d and this leads
to longer b a t t e r y life. P o w e r reduction also m e a n s quicker recycling
time, since the flash unit needs less power to r e c h a r g e fully.

Despite the multitude of choices to be made when choosing flash

equipment, all flash units have t h e same purpose: to provide an effi-
cient, convenient, and portable artificial lighting source. T h e main
consideration must be: will a flash be useful at all?
Most people prefer natural lighting, but u n d e r low-light conditions
a flash is often a necessity. To fully u n d e r s t a n d flash, learn to use it
manually (if it has a manual mode). Then use t h e automatic mode,
when appropriate, for simple and quick handling.

ClOSG-UP E q u i p m e n t Rangefinder and twin-lens reflex cameras a r e fundamentally unsuited

for close-up photography; most focus no closer to t h e subject t h a n 3
feet.
Single-lens reflex and view cameras a r e m o r e suited for close-up
w o r k t h a n other t y p e s of cameras. S L R s usually focus as close as 18
inches, and view cameras allow focus at even closer range.
T h e r e a r e several accessories t h a t allow cameras to focus even
closer to t h e subject. The following a r e particularly useful for working
with single-lens reflex cameras:
extension tubes
close-up lenses
m a c r o lenses
bellows
Keep in mind t h a t subjects focused close up will have very little depth
of field, since distance to subject is one of t h e p r i m a r y f a c t o r s that
controls depth of field.
Extension tubes fit b e t w e e n the lens and camera body. T h e y come
in sets — each tube with specified distance ranges. E x t e n s i o n tubes
can b e used singly or in combination to provide a v a r i e t y of close-
focusing choices. T h e longer t h e tube, t h e closer the lens can focus.
Extension t u b e s provide an inexpensive method of close-up photog-
raphy, though they a r e s o m e w h a t bulky to use and may slightly reduce
image sharpness.
Close-up lenses a r e attached to t h e f r o n t of a lens, much like a
filter. T h e y are available in various magnifications, again generally in
sets, each providing a certain close-focusing distance range. Close-up
lenses can also be used singly or in combination. T h e y a r e compact,
easy to use, and inexpensive, but may also cause a slight reduction in
image sharpness.
Macro lenses a r e accessory lenses t h a t are able to focus up to about
8 or 9 inches away f r o m t h e subject. Some models have accessory
t u b e s that allow focusing as close as 2 inches or so. T h e y a r e compact,
and produce sharp, high-quality images. However, macro lenses are
expensive; t h e y cost as much as or more t h a n most accessory lenses.
Bellows a r e collapsible cardboard or cloth t u b e s . Like extension
tubes, t h e y fit b e t w e e n the lens and the camera body. Bellows expand
and contract much like an accordion, allowing a wide range of close-
focusing possibilities. They provide good-quality image results, but
a r e bulky and best used on a tripod.

While macro and close-up lenses r e q u i r e no e x p o s u r e a d j u s t m e n t s ,

exposure can be a problem when using extension t u b e s or bellows.
T h e s e accessories extend the distance from t h e lens to the film, so t h e
amount of light reaching the film g e t s reduced, and additional expo-
s u r e is needed to compensate.
T h e best solution to the exposure problem is t o use a through-the-
lens m e t e r and r e a d light off a g r a y card positioned in front of the
subject. Also, use a fast film if possible. A tripod is useful to allow a
slower s h u t t e r speed and smaller a p e r t u r e . Depth of field a t close
distances is minimal, so a small a p e r t u r e is r e c o m m e n d e d .
E x p o s u r e corrections must be figured mathematically if through-
the-lens metering is not available. Extension t u b e s have factor num-
b e r s to indicate the needed a d j u s t m e n t s . T h e s e f a c t o r s w o r k like filter
factors; for a 2 x factor, the exposure must be doubled, and so forth.
If t h e indicated m e t e r r e a d i n g is f 8 at 1/60, an extension t u b e with a
2 x factor needs t h e equivalent of one f-stop more exposure, so f 5.6
at 1/60 or f 8 at 1/30.
Computing the needed e x p o s u r e a d j u s t m e n t when using bellows is
complicated but necessary. F i r s t , convert t h e following information
into inches: t h e focal length of the lens used and t h e length of t h e
A subject focused close up, from 3 bellows when the image is focused. (One inch is approximately equal
inches away from the camera. Note to 25 millimeters.) So, let's say t h a t t h e focal length of t h e lens is 50
t h e m i n i m u m d e p l h of field a t a millimeters (or 2 inches), and the length of the bellows is 4 inches.
close focus distance. N e x t , take a m e t e r r e a d i n g of t h e s u b j e c t . L e t ' s say t h a t t h e r e a d i n g
is f 11 at 1/8.
The purpose of the calculation is to find a n e w s h u t t e r speed t h a t
will allow enough m o r e light to reach t h e film to c o m p e n s a t e for the
reduction in light caused by the bellows expansion. H e r e a r e the
figures again for the above example:
focal l e n g t h of l e n s = 2 i n c h e s
l e n g t h of b e l l o w s = I i n c h e s
m e t e r e d s h u t t e r speed = 1/8
Call the n e w s h u t t e r speed to be calculated " X , " and plug in the above
figures to this formula:

( f o c a l l e n g t h of l e n s ) " metered s h u t t e r speed

( l e n g t h of b e l l o w s ) 2 ~~ c o r r e c t e d s h u t t e r s p e e d

(2)- 1/8
(4 f X

4 1/8
16 X

4X 2

X 1/2

So, the corrected s h u t t e r speed is 1/2, and t h e new e x p o s u r e to

compensate for the bellows factor is f 11 at 1/2.
If t h e corrected e x p o s u r e is 1 second or longer, an additional ad-
j u s t m e n t m u s t be made to allow for reciprocity failure. See c h a p t e r 5
for the chart on e x p o s u r e corrections with reciprocity failure.
The main exposure mistake in close-up work is u n d e r e x p o s u r e , so
be s u r e to let in enough light. If possible, increase the indicated
exposure to e n s u r e at least one well-exposed negative. If f 11 a t 1/2
is t h e indicated exposure, shoot a second e x p o s u r e allowing in twice
as much light, either f 11 at 1 second or f 8 at 1/2.

U S G f u l TOOlS H e r e a r e a few more of t h e most useful camera accessories readily

available at any good camera store:
tripod
cable relese
lens shade
utility case
photofloods and reflectors
lens tissue paper and cleaning solution
motor drive or power winder
A tripod is a stand t h a t a t t a c h e s to t h e bottom of t h e camera and
steadies it. Tripods a r e available in many different sizes and models,
but generally have three legs (though monopods, one-legged tripods,
are available) and a d j u s t m e n t s for moving the camera. T h e s e a d j u s t -
m e n t s allow for lifting, t u r n i n g , and tilting t h e c a m e r a while it is
A tripod. attached to the tripod.
Tripod

This photograph, taken in low light

needed a slow shutter speed — 1/8
of a second — so required a tripod
to hold the camera steady.
A cable release.

The most important consideration in buying a tripod is t h a t it be

s t u r d y enough to hold t h e camera s t e a d y . A small, inexpensive tripod
is adequate to hold most 35-millimeter cameras, b u t a h e a v i e r - d u t y
model is needed for larger cameras.
A tripod is particularly useful when shooting close-ups, or using a
telephoto lens, or when making exposures of longer t h a n 1/60 — all
situations that r e q u i r e e x t r a camera stability.
Photographing with a camera on a tripod is a slower process and
r e q u i r e s more care t h a n photographing "hand-held." H o w e v e r , since
the camera position can b e carefully controlled and steadied with a
tripod, there is time for precisely f r a m i n g and composing t h e picture.
Tripods are clearly not practical for candid photography and fast-
shooting situations.
A cable release is a cloth- or metal-covered wire t h a t screws onto
the s h u t t e r button. It allows an e x p o s u r e to be made while the pho-
t o g r a p h e r stands away from the camera.
Generally a cable release is used when the c a m e r a is on a tripod. It
Flare

A print with flare at its top edge. A

lens shade could have been used on
the camera lens to block the light
and reduce or eliminate the flare.
helps r e d u c e the chance of camera m o v e m e n t , since it e x e r t s a gentle
and even p r e s s u r e on the s h u t t e r release.
A lens shade is made of metal or r u b b e r and a t t a c h e s to the f r o n t
of a camera lens. It helps p r e v e n t excess light f r o m e n t e r i n g the lens
and causing flare — non-image light t h a t a p p e a r s as d a r k s p o t s or
s t r e a k s on t h e negative (and light spots or s t r e a k s on t h e p r i n t ) — or
lower image contrast. Lens s h a d e s a r e particularly useful when t h e
subject contains a lot of reflected light, such as on bright, s u n n y days.
Be s u r e t h a t t h e lens shade fits t h e focal length of the lens it is
protecting. T h e wider the lens, t h e wider the shade m u s t be. A shade
made for a telephoto lens and used on a wide-angle lens will block
light from the corners and edges of the negative, and cause vignetting;
t h a t is, t h e p r i n t will be lighter a t its corners and edges t h a n a t its
center.
A utility case is a bag used for c a r r y i n g and p r o t e c t i n g cameras,
lenses, accessories, and film. It keeps equipment t o g e t h e r in a compact
and portable way. Good utility cases h a v e subdivisions for different
pieces of equipment. Some models have shoulder s t r a p s ; others have
handles, or even s t r a p s for backpacking.

A l e n s s h a d e t h a t is t o o s m a l l f o r
t h e f o c a l - l e n g t h l e n s u s e d can block
l i g h t f r o m t h e c o r n e r s of t h e film
and cause vignetting.
Photofloods and reflectors, like flash, provide a source of artificial
light for picture-taking indoors or in o t h e r dimly lit conditions. Pho-
tofloods are like o r d i n a r y light bulbs, b u t m o r e powerful: 250, 500, or
1000 w a t t s . Reflectors a r e c u r v e d metal units t h a t house photofloods,
and help direct light in a particular direction. T h e y can be positioned
on top of a light stand — a tripodlike device — or directly onto an
existing object, like a table, with a clamp accessory.
Lens tissue paper and cleaning solution a r e used for cleaning
s m u d g e s and d i r t off lenses. To use, apply v e r y little solution and r u b
t h e front of t h e lens gently with t h e tissue. A chamois or an anti-
static cloth can be used instead of lens tissue. H o w e v e r , since t h e s e
cloths a r e reusable, be s u r e to k e e p t h e m clean or t h e y may scratch
t h e lens. *
A motor drive or power winder a t t a c h e s to t h e bottom of t h e camera
body and automatically advances and exposes film in rapid succession.
Motor drives a r e f a s t e r , t h u s deliver m o r e f r a m e s p e r second t h a n
power winders.
E i t h e r accessory is ideal for s p o r t s and o t h e r t y p e s of action pho-
t o g r a p h y w h e r e t h e picture possibilities change rapidly. Both a r e
expensive, drain b a t t e r i e s , and use up a lot of film.

A photoflood housed in a reflector on

a light stand.

A motor drive.
CHAPTER 11 ALTERNATIVE TECHNIQUES,
PROCESSES, A N D MATERIALS

So far. the most commonly used black-and-white techniques, pro-

cesses, and materials have been covered. However, t h e r e are many
less widely used approaches. This c h a p t e r includes some of t h e s e
alternatives. Often called "experimental," m a n y alternative ap-
proaches have, in fact, been in use for decades.

High Contrast High-contrast p r i n t s have black shadows and white highlights with
little or no detail in either. G r a y tones are minimal or nonexistent.
E x t r e m e l y high-contrast prints a r e pure black and white.
T h e r e are two basic m e t h o d s for making high-contrast prints. Ei-
t h e r make a high-contrast negative and print it; o r use a high-contrast
printing technique.
Shouting for high-contrast negatives. High-contrast negatives can
be made either by shooting with special high-contrast film, or manip-
ulating film e x p o s u r e and development. N e i t h e r technique g u a r a n t e e s
a totally black-and-white print. H o w e v e r , the higher the contrast of
t h e original subject, the easier it is to achieve a v e r y high-contrast
print.
Several b r a n d s of high-contrast copy film a r e available for special
applications, such as the copying of line drawings. Most b r a n d s a r e
available in sheet form. Kodak Technical P a n is a 35-millimeter high-
contrast film, as is Kodak Kodalith film, which is packaged only in
100-foot bulk rolls. (See Appendix T w o for an explanation of bulk
films.)
Copy films a r e "slow." T h e y produce sharp, fine-grain n e g a t i v e s
that make excellent e n l a r g e m e n t s . Most copy films are orthochromatic
— not sensitive to red light — so t h e y can be handled in a room
illuminated by red safelights.
Copy film is shot like any o t h e r film. Set the film speed on t h e light
m e t e r , take a reading, and follow t h e m e t e r ' s f-stop and s h u t t e r - s p e e d
recommendations. Because of the slow film speeds, a tripod may be
needed.
Development v a r i e s slightly from o t h e r films. A special high-con-
t r a s t developer should b e used for t h e best r e s u l t s . Develop for t h e
time recommended by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , and t h e n stop, fix. and w a s h
t h e film for about half the time t h a t regular films need.
High-contrast negatives m a y also be m a d e b y manipulating t h e
e x p o s u r e and development of normal films by u n d e r e x p o s i n g and
overdeveloping (see c h a p t e r 7 for details). This will not turn a negative
into a totally black-and-white image (unless t h e subject c o n t r a s t is
e x t r e m e l y high), but t h e n e g a t i v e c o n t r a s t will be heightened. How-
ever. t h e increased developing time will also increase t h e grain of the
negative.
The p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e to this approach is in maximizing film speed.
Copy films may give higher-contrast results and finer grain, but t h e y
a r e slow.
Printing a negative for high-contrast results. T h e r e a r e two ways
to make a high-contrast print f r o m an existing negative: manipulate
t h e printing process, or t r a n s f e r t h e negative onto high-contrast film
and t h e n p r i n t it.
The easiest way to m a k e a high-contrast p r i n t is to use high-contrast
printing paper. A #5-gracle p a p e r will always give a higher-contrast
result t h a n a # 2 - g r a d e paper. If t h e negative has a lot of c o n t r a s t to
begin with, a # 5 p a p e r will make a print with few, if any, g r a y tones.
If the negative has normal or low contrast, t h e high-grade p a p e r will
merely increase that contrast.
Processing solutions can be altered to increase p r i n t contrast some-
w h a t , though not dramatically. The g r e a t e r the concentration of t h e
print developer, t h e higher t h e p r i n t c o n t r a s t . Use stock solution of
the developer r a t h e r than diluting it according to the m a n u f a c t u r e r s '
instructions.
Also, h e a t i n g up t h e developer and e x t e n d i n g the developing time
will increase print contrast somewhat. F o r example, using an 80°
developer and doubling the recommended developing time will make
a noticeable difference. Take care when using resin-coated papers: a
hot developing solution may melt the plastic.
The best way to g u a r a n t e e a totally black-and-white print is to
t r a n s f e r an existing negative onto a sheet of high-contrast copy film,
such as Kodak Kodalith. This film is similar to Kodalith roll film,
except it is sold in a variety of sheet sizes; 4" x 5" Kodalith is econom-
ical and easy to use for m a k i n g e n l a r g e m e n t s .
Kodalith sheet film is handled j u s t like printing paper. Use a dark-
room illuminated by red safelights (the film is orthochromatic), and
project a negative in the enlarger onto a sheet of Kodalith film. Make
a t e s t strip to d e t e r m i n e the exposure, and process the sheet of
Kodalith in t r a y s with Kodalith high-contrast film developer. (Undi-
luted print developer will also work, but not as well.) U s e the same
stop bath, fixer, and fixer r e m o v e r as for prints. Processing times
vary with the materials and t h e solutions used, but t r y :

developer 2 minutes
stop bath 10 seconds
film fixer 2 minutes
fixer r e m o v e r 1 minute
wash 3 minutes

The longer t h e developing time, the higher the contrast.

Wash the Kodalith film — one sheet at a time — in a t r a y with care
to avoid scratching it. U s e a gentle s t r e a m of w a t e r from a t r a y siphon
or a faucet, and change the w a t e r in t h e tray several times d u r i n g the
wash.
Soak the film for a few seconds in a t r a y of w e t t i n g agent, then
hang it to d r y . The d r y i n g process t a k e s about 30 minutes.
The Kodalith image will have more contrast than the original neg-
ative, but it will be a positive. Since a negative is needed, contact-
print t h e film positive onto a n o t h e r sheet of Kodalith. To do so,
position the unexposed film, emulsion side up, u n d e r the enlarger.
P u t t h e film positive, emulsion side down, 011 top of t h e unexposed
Kodalith, and use a clean, scratch-free piece of glass to hold t h e m flat
against each other. Make a t e s t s t r i p t o d e t e r m i n e exposure, process
it, and d e t e r m i n e the correct e x p o s u r e needed. Once t h e exposure is
d e t e r m i n e d , use a fresh sheet of Kodalith to make t h e exposure.
Process, wash, and d r y . T h e new Kodalith negative will h a v e even
higher contrast t h a n t h e film positive.
Depending on t h e contrast of t h e original negative, this process may
have to be r e p e a t e d m o r e t h a n once to produce a totally black-and-
white print. T r y printing the n e w negative on a # 5 - g r a d e p a p e r to
see if it will r e n d e r high enough c o n t r a s t . If not, k e e p contact-printing
to make positives and n e g a t i v e s of increasingly g r e a t e r c o n t r a s t until
the desired results a r e achieved.
A 4" x 5" e n l a r g e r is needed to p r i n t t h e 4" x 5" Kodalith negative.
If such an e n l a r g e r is not available, the negative can be contact-printed
onto a sheet of printing p a p e r to m a k e a small — 4" x 5" — print. As
an alternative, s t a r t t h e e n t i r e process with l a r g e r s h e e t s of Kodalith,
p e r h a p s 8" x 10", and make a contact p r i n t f r o m t h e s e sheets. An
8" x 10" Kodalith will make an 8" x 10" contact print.
A n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e is to contact-print the original negative onto a
small piece of Kodalith. If t h e original negative is 35 millimeters, t h e
result will be a 35-millimeter positive t h a t can b e contact-printed to
make a 35-millimeter Kodalith negative. This negative can then be
printed in most enlargers to the desired size.

Many of t h e s e m e t h o d s for making high-contrast p r i n t s can be

combined. F o r example, a high-contrast negative made with Kodalith
film can be printed on # 5 - g r a d e p a p e r , and processed in hot developer
for even g r e a t e r contrast. Or, Kodalith film can be underexposed and
overdeveloped to increase its c o n t r a s t .
T h e s e techniques are useful not only for m a k i n g high-contrast
prints, but also for improving negatives t h a t a r e u n d e r e x p o s e d , under-
developed. or simply shot u n d e r e x t r e m e l y low-contrast lighting con-
ditions. F o r example, an e x t r e m e l y "flat" negative can be t r a n s f e r r e d
onto Kodalith film, which can t h e n be contact-printed to make a m o r e
printable, higher-contrast negative.
Solarization a n d t h e Grossly overexposed film in the camera actually r e v e r s e s itself once
developed. Highlight a r e a s become less dense and shadow a r e a s more
Sabattier Effect dense. This r e v e r s e d effect is called solarization.
The Sabattier effect r e f e r s to reexposing film or p a p e r d u r i n g de-
velopment to r e n d e r a silvery, almost eerie image, o f t e n containing
distinct white or light lines separating t h e highlight and shadow areas.
The Sabattier effect is usually r e f e r r e d to as solarization. Strictly,
this is inaccurate, but the misconception is so widespread as to be
commonly accepted. Therefore, in this t e x t reexposed negatives and
prints will be r e f e r r e d to as "solarized."
Solarization c r e a t e s a partially r e v e r s e d image with an unusual
negative and positive appearance. Lightly exposed a r e a s (shadows on
film and highlights on prints) are most affected since t h e s e are a r e a s
that prior to solarization have retained a lot of unexposed silver; with
reexposure, because t h e y h a v e much silver left to respond to light,
t h e y become more dense. Highly exposed a r e a s (highlights on film
and s h a d o w s on prints) are barely affected since t h e s e a r e a r e a s t h a t
already h a v e a lot of density prior to r e e x p o s u r e , so t h e additional
light does not affect t h e m as much.

A solarized print.
The distinct lines s e p a r a t i n g the highlight and s h a d o w a r e a s a r e
called Mackie lines. Tliese a r e caused w h e n chemical b y - p r o d u c t s from
the first p a r t of the development r e t a r d additional development. T h e
results a r e lines of low density, r e n d e r i n g as light on both a solarized
negative ( t h e r e f o r e d a r k on a print of t h a t n e g a t i v e ) and a solarized
print. Mackie lines show up m o r e dramatically on solarized n e g a t i v e s
t h a n on solarized prints.
To solarize:
1. Develop and agitate the film or paper normally.
2. One-third to halfway through the development (for prints, when
t h e image begins to form), remove the film or paper from the developer
and put it in a tank or tray of water for about 10 seconds, without
agitation, to slow up t h e development ^process.
3. Now reexpose the film or paper to light briefly (usually no more
t h a n 2 seconds), using a low-power bulb (15 to 25 w a t t s ) positioned 3
or 4 feet a w a y . W i t h roll film, b e s u r e all p a r t s of t h e film receive
equal a m o u n t s of r e e x p o s u r e by t a k i n g t h e film off t h e reel and holding
it taut at an equal distance f r o m t h e bulb. H a v e a n o t h e r person in the
darkroom r e a d y to t u r n the light on and off.
4. Put the film or paper back into the developer for the remaining
development time. Agitate normally.
5. Stop, fix, and wash the film or paper normally.
E x p o s u r e time varies widely d e p e n d i n g on several factors, such as
the t y p e of film or p a p e r used, t h e size of t h e light bulb, and t h e
distance f r o m t h e film or p a p e r to t h e bulb. E x p e r i m e n t or m a k e test
strips to d e t e r m i n e t h e r e e x p o s u r e t i m e for a specific film or print.
T r y a fraction of a second of r e e x p o s u r e for film and 2 seconds for
p a p e r as a s t a r t i n g point.
H e r e a r e some suggestions for maximizing t h e r e s u l t s when solar-
izing:
• Slow films a r e easier to w o r k with since fast films are likely to
r e q u i r e an extraordinarily s h o r t r e e x p o s u r e time.
• High-contrast-grade p a p e r s give a more d r a m a t i c solarized effect
t h a n do lower-contrast g r a d e s , particularly since solarization has t h e
added effect of lowering i m a g e c o n t r a s t .
• Use a negative with a lot of s h a d o w area or a p r i n t with a lot of
highlights for m a x i m u m effect, since r e e x p o s u r e affects t h e s e a r e a s
most.
• Sheet films a r e easier to use for solarization t h a n roll films. T r y
enlarging a 35-millimeter n e g a t i v e onto Kodalith film, t h e n making a
Kodalith negative, and solarizing t h a t negative d u r i n g development.
T h e additional a d v a n t a g e to this method is t h a t the original negative
remains intact, so if t h e solarization is not successful, t h e process can
be repeated. Also, this way t h e original negative can still be used for
a normal print, if desired.
• A solarized p r i n t is difficult to r e p r o d u c e exactly, w h e r e a s a solar-
ized negative can be r e p r i n t e d often, with consistency.
• Underexpose the film or p a p e r slightly prior to r e e x p o s u r e . S t a r t
by exposing film for the equivalent of one f-stop less t h a n the m e t e r
suggests; and exposing prints for 15% to 20% less t h a n the t e s t strip
suggests. A l t e r t h e s e figures according to experience.
• With p r i n t s , use a more diluted developer t h a n normal. If the
m a n u f a c t u r e r recommends diluting 1 p a r t of p r i n t developer to 2 p a r t s
of w a t e r , dilute it l-to-4 instead.

PhOtOgfOmS Photogramsy sometimes known as shadow pictures, are photographs

made without a camera by positioning objects b e t w e e n a light source
and photographic film or paper. The resulting image consists of
shapes, forms, and tones t h a t v a r y widely d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e s of
objects and how t h e y a r e used.
To make a typical photogram:
1. Raise the enlarger head high enough so t h a t the circle of light
projected by the lens will cover an entire sheet of film or paper.
2. Close the lens down to a small opening, say f 16.
3. Position a piece of sheet film or photographic paper, emulsion
side up, on the base of an enlarger, directly under the enlarger lens.
(An e n l a r g e r provides a convenient and controlled source of light, but
a low-watt light bulb suspended 3 or 4 feet above t h e film or p a p e r
will also work.) Any sheet film can be used, but slow-speed films that
can be handled u n d e r a safelight, such as Kodak Fine-Grain Positive
(for a wide range of g r a y tones) or Kodalith (for high contrast), are
preferable. The light-sensitive material can be held flat, if desired, in
an easel, although film or p a p e r does not necessarily need to be flat
for a successful photogram.
4. Place one or more objects either on or just above the light-sen-
sitive material.
5. Turn on the enlarger for a short period of time, say 5 seconds,
and expose the film or paper.
6. Process the exposed material normally in trays.
7. Examine the image and decide w h e t h e r to expose an additional
sheet for more or less time, or w h e t h e r to a l t e r t h e t y p e s of objects
used or how t h e y are positioned.
An opaque object will block all light from reaching the film or p a p e r
A photogram. and be r e n d e r e d as a silhouette. A t r a n s l u c e n t object will allow some
light t h r o u g h and will be r e n d e r e d as one or more g r a y tones.
P h o t o g r a m s o f t e n have a plain background of black, g r a y , or white,
r e p r e s e n t i n g a r e a s t h a t h a v e received full e x p o s u r e from t h e light
source. If film is used to make the image, t h e background is d a r k on
t h e negative and light on t h e print; if p a p e r is used, the background
is d a r k .
Correct e x p o s u r e s are difficult to j u d g e , since p h o t o g r a m s are not
literal images; t h e y can be r e n d e r e d in many d i f f e r e n t ways. Long
exposures allow more light to t r a v e l through t r a n s l u c e n t objects, and
make a different kind of picture t h a n s h o r t e r exposures. T e s t s t r i p s
have value in determining t h e e x p o s u r e required to create a certain
shade of g r a y or solid black on the film or printing paper.
A wide variety of objects and techniques can be used to make a
photogram. Objects from nature, such as leaves, vegetables, and
feathers, w o r k well. Moving objects, such as smoke blown b e t w e e n
the light source and t h e sensitized material, can add a nice variety of
tonalities to the image. Painted shapes or f o r m s on a piece of glass
offer a n o t h e r option. Place the painted glass over the film or paper,
or place it in the enlarger in lieu of a negative carrier, and make a
print of t h e painted forms.

N e g a t i v e Prints Negative prints, like film negatives, h a v e a r e v e r s e d , r a t h e r t h a n a

positive image. Dark s u b j e c t s r e n d e r as light; light subjects as d a r k .
Well-made negative prints a r e eye-catching and mysterious, since
people are more used to seeing things as t h e y a r e , r a t h e r t h a n in
reverse.
Simple negative p r i n t s can b e made by contact-printing a positive
print onto a fresh sheet of paper, using either an e n l a r g e r or a low-
w a t t light bulb as a light source. To do so:
1. Raise the enlarger head high enough so t h a t t h e circle of light
projected by the lens will cover an entire sheet of film or paper.
2. Open the enlarging lens to its icidest aperture, say f 4. The
exposure will be relatively long since the light m u s t p e n e t r a t e t h e
p a p e r base of t h e positive print.
3. Position the unexposed sheet of paper under the enlarger (or
light source)y emulsion side up.
4. Put the positive print facedown on the unexposed paper.
5. Use a clean, scratch-free piece of glass to press the two sheets of
paper firmly together.
(j. Expose the paper for about 20 to -JO seconds, depending on t h e
t y p e of p a p e r used (resin-coated p a p e r s expose m o r e quickly t h a n
fiber-based papers) and t h e density of the positive print (single-weight
papers allow light through more quickly t h a n double-weight papers).
If t h e print is too dark, expose a n o t h e r sheet for less time; if it is too
light, expose for more time. A t e s t strip can be m a d e first to help
d e t e r m i n e t h e accurate e x p o s u r e time.
7. Process the print like any other, and t h e resulting image will be
a negative print.
A negative print

A p r e f e r a b l e method for m a k i n g a negative print involves first

making a film positive and t h e n p r i n t i n g it. The r e s u l t s will be s h a r p e r
and have a wider r a n g e of g r a y t o n e s t h a n t h o s e obtained by contact-
printing through a positive print.
To make a film positive, use a sheet film such as Kodalith (for high
contrast) or Kodak Fine-Grain Positive (for a wide r a n g e of g r a y
tones). E i t h e r contact-print or enlarge t h e original image onto a sheet
of this film ( r e f e r to t h e beginning of this c h a p t e r for directions). The
r e s u l t i n g film positive can t h e n be enlarged o r contact-printed to make
a good-quality negative print.
Sandwiching Sandwiching negatives r e f e r s to printing t w o (or more) negatives
together to c r e a t e a multiple image with an unusual, sometimes sur-
Negatives real, quality.
T h e process for printing sandwiched n e g a t i v e s is the s a m e as for
printing a single negative. P u t t h e negatives t o g e t h e r , each emulsion
side down, in a negative carrier. Project t h e image to t h e d e s i r e d size,
and focus. Make a t e s t s t r i p to d e t e r m i n e t h e correct exposure, t h e n
expose, develop, stop, and fix the print normally.
Sandwiched negatives a r e d e n s e r than a single negative, so a longer
exposure time is required. They also m u s t b e dodged and b u r n e d for
a longer time than single negatives. In addition, because one negative
is on top of t h e other, t h e lens must be stopped down to a small
A print from two sandwiched a p e r t u r e (try f 11) to g u a r a n t e e that both negatives p r i n t with equal
negatives. sharpness.
Since some contrast loss will occur when p r i n t i n g sandwiched neg-
atives, use a high-contrast p a p e r g r a d e or filter n u m b e r .
Any t w o negatives can b e sandwiched and printed successfully, but
it is t h e r a r e combination t h a t m a k e s a s a t i s f y i n g p r i n t . U s e n e g a t i v e s
t h a t a r e compatible. F o r example, if both n e g a t i v e s h a v e a lot of detail
or content, the final image may b e confused. Often a simple image,
with large a r e a s of tone, say a w a t e r scene or clouds, combined with
a more complex image, m a k e s t h e most successful prints.

Infrared Film Infrared film is sensitive to i n f r a r e d radiation. It is used primarily in

industrial and scientific applications, b u t can b e used for general-
purpose photography with i n t e r e s t i n g effects. I n f r a r e d images can be
dreamlike and surreal.
I n f r a r e d radiation has a long w a v e l e n g t h and cannot be seen b y t h e
human eye. Since the film is sensitive to this radiation, the resulting
images a r e r e n d e r e d in a d i f f e r e n t way than the eye s e e s them. F o r
example, blue skies absorb much infrared radiation, so t h e y a r e ren-
d e r e d lighter on infrared film t h a n on a r e g u l a r film, and d a r k e r on a
print; vegetation reflects much i n f r a r e d so is r e n d e r e d relatively d a r k
on infrared film and light on a print.
U s e d without a filter, infrared film r e c o r d s both infrared radiation
and visible light, and r e n d e r s the i m a g e in much t h e same way as
r e g u l a r films. However, t h e p r e f e r r e d way to use i n f r a r e d film is with
a filter, which a b s o r b s visible light and lets mostly i n f r a r e d pass
t h r o u g h to the film.
A # 8 7 filter blocks all visible light, and produces the most dramatic
infrared effects. However, this filter is o p a q u e and must be removed
for focusing when using an S L R or o t h e r c a m e r a with through-the-
lens viewing. A d a r k red (#25) filter allows some visible light, but
mostly infrared radiation, to pass. This is a popular filter for use with
infrared film. Green (#58) and yellow (#12) filters can also b e used,
but allow much more visible light to pass t h r o u g h , and produce an
image with a less pronounced i n f r a r e d quality.
Light m e t e r s a r e built to r e a d visible light, not i n f r a r e d radiation,
so e x p o s u r e using infrared film is tricky. In addition, i n f r a r e d films
h a v e little latitude — t h a t is, t h e y do not allow for much e r r o r . Use
the indicated m e t e r reading at t h e r e c o m m e n d e d film-speed rating
(200 ASA for Kodak High-Speed I n f r a r e d film), and bracket this
e x p o s u r e by t h e equivalent of one full f-stop on e i t h e r side. If t h e
indicated r e a d i n g is f 8 at 1/60, also m a k e e x p o s u r e s of f 5.6 at 1/60
and f 11 at 1/60.
Infrared film

A print made from a normal negative. A p r i n t of t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a d e f r o m an i n f r a r e d

negative.
If a filter is used, be s u r e to compensate for t h e filter factor. F o r
example, a # 2 5 filter has a filter factor of 8 x , so r e q u i r e s the equiv-
alent of t h r e e f-stops more exposure.
A shift in focus occurs when using infrared film. Normally, t h e lens
focuses on a visible s u b j e c t , but infrared w a v e l e n g t h s a r e invisible so
cannot be specifically focused. H o w e v e r , since i n f r a r e d wavelengths
a r e longer t h a n visible w a v e s , it is possible to m a k e an educated guess
as to w h e r e to focus.
On most camera lenses t h e r e is a r e d dot (or m a r k i n g ) opposite t h e
distance scale, n e x t to t h e focusing mark. Focus normally and r e a d
t h e distance to the focused subject on t h e scale; say it is 10 feet. Now.
a d j u s t the focus by lining up t h e red dot opposite the 10-foot m a r k i n g
on t h e distance scale. In most cases, this a d j u s t m e n t should compen-
s a t e for t h e focus shift. W h e n possible, use a small a p e r t u r e or a wide-
angle lens to maximize t h e d e p t h of field of t h e image in case the
above compensation is not a d e q u a t e .
Infrared film is processed and p r i n t e d in t h e s a m e w a y as any o t h e r
film. H o w e v e r , it does r e q u i r e special handling. H e r e a r e some tips:

• I n f r a r e d film is heat-sensitive, so s t o r e it in a r e f r i g e r a t o r
before and a f t e r it is used. T a k e it out of the r e f r i g e r a t o r
about 2 hours b e f o r e use, r e t u r n it to its original container
a f t e r use. and r e r e f r i g e r a t e it. (Always leave r e f r i g e r a t e d
film in its original packaging until it is r e a d y for use to
p r e v e n t condensation f r o m forming.)
• Load and unload i n f r a r e d film into the camera in total d a r k n e s s .
This point is critical. I n f r a r e d radiation can p e n e t r a t e t h e felt
strips of the film c a s s e t t e . If possible, use a changing bag to
load the film into the camera and onto the processing reel,
even in total d a r k n e s s .
• Handle both processed (and unprocessed) infrared film with
great c a r e by its edges. It scratches v e r y easily.

C h r o m o g e n i c Black- Chromogenic films use chemical dyes r a t h e r t h a n silver compounds to

make up the negative image. Most color n e g a t i v e films a r e chromo-
a n d - W h i t e Film genic. Recently, some black-and-white chromogenic films h a v e ap-
peared on the m a r k e t .
The final negative image is silverless, but unexposed chromogenic
film does contain silver. Silver is used as an i n t e r m e d i a r y ; d u r i n g the
developing process t h e silver is r e m o v e d . This is what h a p p e n s .
Chromogenic film emulsion contains both silver-halide crystals (like
conventional film) and dye couplers. During development, the devel-
oper solution becomes e x h a u s t e d from working on t h e exposed silver
halides, and activates the dye couplers. T h e s e activated couplers t h e n
produce a dye density, creating layers on t h e film according to t h e
amount of silver halides that have been exposed and developed. High-
lights, or highly exposed a r e a s of t h e negative, activate a lot of silver
crystals. In turn, t h e s e crystals use up more developing solution,
thereby activating more couplers and creating g r e a t e r dye density.
Once the dye layers have been formed, the silver is bleached out, and
t h e remaining negative is silverless.
Chromogenic films produce n e g a t i v e s t h a t print much like conven-
tional silver-image negatives. T h a t is, t h e y r e n d e r t h e subject much
as t h e e y e sees it, unlike high-contrast and infrared films t h a t alter
t h e subject somehow.
Advocates of chromogenic black-and-white films make claims of
finer-grain and s h a r p e r n e g a t i v e s with a wider tonal range t h a n con-
ventional films. T h e s e claims a r e arguable, d e p e n d i n g on how t h e
materials a r e used, but chromogenic films do h a v e some i n t e r e s t i n g
qualities.
T h e film speed, r a t e d at 400 ASA, can b e varied f r o m exposure to
e x p o s u r e on a single roll of film. In t h e o r y , t h e first shot can be made
at 400 ASA, the second at 1G00 ASA, t h e third at 100 A S A , and all
will produce printable negatives. However, t h e slower s p e e d s appear
to produce the best r e s u l t s .
Unlike conventional film, overexposure r e s u l t s in finer-grain nega-
tives. Chromogenic film shot at 200 A S A will produce finer-grain
prints than when shot at 400 ASA. Too much overexposure, however,
could cause a reduction in image sharpness.
The developing process for chromogenic films is basically t h e same
as for color negatives. In fact, the s t a n d a r d color n e g a t i v e process
(the Kodak version is called C-41) can be used, though film manufac-
t u r e r s m a r k e t their own versions of this process. Total processing and
washing time is about 15 minutes, and t h e film must be developed in
hot solutions — about 100r' F . Processing t e m p e r a t u r e s and t i m e s are
more critical for chromogenic films (and color films in general) t h a n
for conventional films. R e f e r to t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' instructions for
specific processing steps and times.
Think of t h e various w a y s t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e techniques, processes,
and materials can be combined. Kodalith film can be used to make a
A print made by using several alter- photogram or a high-contrast-film positive. This positive can be
native techniques. A strip of nega- printed on a # 5 - g r a d e p a p e r for a negative print of even g r e a t e r
tives and the wing of a bird were c o n t r a s t . In t u r n , t h a t p r i n t can be solarized, or t h e film positive
placed between two sheets of clean
sandwiched with a n o t h e r film negative or positive for additional effect.
glass, and the glass was positioned
T h e possibilities a r e virtually limitless.
in an enlarger in place of a negative
carrier. The exposure was made and
the printing paper solarized during
development.
APPENDIX 1 BUYING A N D M A I N T A I N I N G EQUIPMENT

P h o t o g r a p h y can b e a costly h a b i t , like a n y c o n s u m e r - a c c e p t e x t r a l e n s e s a n d o t h e r a c c e s s o r i e s easily, a n d a r e

oriented hobby. C o n s i d e r skiing, audio, and c a m p i n g good f o r c l o s e - u p w o r k .
equipment. Many people buy unwisely, spending too much
money and g e t t i n g the w r o n g equipment for their needs.
Here are some general hints. T h e r e a r e no s e t r u l e s a b o u t w h a t a c c e s s o r y l e n s e s t o
T h e r e is no s i n g l e c o r r e c t a n s w e r t o q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s , b u y . It d e p e n d s on p e r s o n a l n e e d a n d b u d g e t . B u y a tele-
W h a t c a m e r a s h o u l d I b u y ? T r y t o find a f e w k n o w l e d g e - p h o t o l e n s f o r close p o r t r a i t w o r k or f o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g
a b l e a n d t r u s t w o r t h y p e o p l e a n d a s k t h e i r o p i n i o n s , or s u b j e c t s a t a d i s t a n c e , s u c h a s s p o r t s a c t i o n . B u y a wide-
c o n s u l t c o n s u m e r g u i d e s s u c h a s Consumer Reports mag- a n g l e lens for i n t e r i o r s a n d s u b j e c t s n e e d i n g a b r o a d e r
azine. v i e w , s u c h a s b u i l d i n g s , l a n d s c a p e s , a n d p e o p l e in t h e i r
L i s t e n t o s a l e s p i t c h e s in c a m e r a s h o p s , b u t a s k a r o u n d environment.
f o r o t h e r o p i n i o n s . C a m e r a s h o p s c a r r y c e r t a i n lines of T h e m o s t c o m m o n w i d e - a n g l e - l e n s focal l e n g t h s f o r 35-
e q u i p m e n t , a n d will t r y t o sell t h e i r lines. C a m e r a s a l e s - m i l l i m e t e r c a m e r a s a r e 35 m i l l i m e t e r s a n d 2 8 m i l l i m e t e r s .
people sound knowledgeable t o a beginner, and most are, L e n s e s that a r e s h o r t e r than t h e s e distort noticeably, and
but some are not. Don't b e intimidated. are generally more expensive.
Most b r a n d - n a m e c a m e r a s and lenses a r e good, reliable S o m e c o m m o n t e l e p h o t o - l e n s sizes a r e 105, 135. a n d 200
products. T h e more important questions are: Does the millimeters. L e n s e s that a r e longer are more expensive
e q u i p m e n t feel c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n h a n d l i n g it? W h a t m o d e l a n d b u l k y , t h e r e f o r e difficult t o hand-hold w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g
of a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a b r a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d ? W h a t a blurry image.
a b o u t b u y i n g a c c e s s o r y l e n s e s ? A n d , of c o u r s e , h o w m u c h All m a n u f a c t u r e r s sell a c c e s s o r y l e n s e s t h a t fit t h e i r o w n
is t h i s all g o i n g t o cost? c a m e r a s , b u t m a n y i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n i e s sell g e n e r i c
I n g e n e r a l , it's b e s t to be conservative. Most beginning lenses that a r e adaptable to most c a m e r a b r a n d s . Some
p h o t o g r a p h e r s d o nicely w i t h less — a less e x p e n s i v e g e n e r i c l e n s e s fit specific c a m e r a m o d e l s ; o t h e r s h a v e a n
m o d e l c a m e r a a n d no a c c e s s o r y l e n s e s . I n e x p e n s i v e c a m - a d a p t e r m o u n t t h a t fits on t h e b a c k of t h e lens. A c h a n g e
e r a s h a v e f e w e r frills t h a n m o r e e x p e n s i v e m o d e l s , b u t of m o u n t s a d a p t s t h e l e n s t o v a r i o u s c a m e r a m o d e l s . Ge-
t h e y t a k e t h e s a m e p i c t u r e s . A c c e s s o r y l e n s e s can b e neric lenses a r e almost always cheaper and, though vari-
bought at any time. a b l e in q u a l i t y , m a n y a r e e x c e l l e n t a n d m o s t a r e good
The m a i n c o n c e r n s h o u l d b e l e a r n i n g t o t a k e good pic- e n o u g h f o r t h e occasional p h o t o g r a p h e r .
tures, not acquiring e q u i p m e n t . J u d g i n g a p h o t o g r a p h e r L e n s e s a r e sold b y m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e size. T h e w i d e r
b y his o r h e r c a m e r a i s like j u d g i n g a good d r i v e r b y h i s a l e n s o p e n s , t h e m o r e e x p e n s i v e it is. A n f 1.4 l e n s a l l o w s
or her car. Don't be misled. t w i c e a s m u c h light t h r o u g h a s a n f 2 l e n s of t h e s a m e
focal l e n g t h a n d b r a n d . It a l s o c o s t s a n d w e i g h s m o r e . T h e
T h e choice b e t w e e n a r a n g e f i n d e r a n d a s i n g l e - l e n s re- a d v a n t a g e s of a l a r g e r a p e r t u r e size a r e e a s i e r e x p o s u r e
flex c a m e r a is basic. M o s t r a n g e f i n d e r s a r e s i m p l e r , l e s s in low-light s i t u a t i o n s a n d b r i g h t e r v i e w i n g w i t h single-
e x p e n s i v e , q u i e t e r , a n d o f t e n l i g h t e r t h a n S L R s . Single- l e n s r e f l e x (and v i e w ) c a m e r a s . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e
lens reflex cameras, however, a r e far more versatile: t h e y e x p e n s e a n d s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r bulk. T h e e x t r a cash m a y b e
B U Y I N G A N D M A I N T A I N I N G K Q U I I ' M K N T

b o l t e r u s e d f o r a n e l e c t r o n i c f l a s h , a good h a n d light m e t e r , at $40 t o $60. C e r t a i n b r a n d - n a m e e q u i p m e n t d e p r e c i a t e s

or a camera bag. less.
B u y i n g u s e d e q u i p m e n t i n v o l v e s r i s k s — poor w o r k i n g
c o n d i t i o n , e x p e n s i v e r e p a i r s , a n d so f o r t h . H e r e a r e s o m e
C a m e r a e q u i p m e n t is e x p e n s i v e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n p u r - hints to help minimize these risks:
chased new. However, there are some w a y s to save a Look for obvious abuse. C h e c k t h e overall a p p e a r a n c e
little. of t h e e q u i p m e n t . If it l o o k s g o o d , c h a n c e s a r e t h a t it h a s
T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' list p r i c e s f o r e q u i p m e n t , p a r t i c u - b e e n little u s e d o r well c a r e d f o r . If it h a s d e n t s , e x c e s s i v e
larly c a m e r a s a n d l e n s e s , a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s d i s c o u n t e d , s c r a t c h e s , w o r n a r e a s , o r r u s t , f o r g e t it. It m a y still b e
s o m e t i m e s considerably. S h o p around carefully before pur- u s a b l e , b u t is n o t w o r t h t h e r i s k . M i n o r s c r a t c h e s , h o w -
c h a s i n g . e s p e c i a l l y in c i t i e s w i t h s e v e r a l c o m p e t i n g c a m e r a e v e r . particularly on painted s u r f a c e s , should not cause
s t o r e s . S o m e d e a l e r s h a v e flexible p r i c i n g policies: t h e i r concern.
posted prices may be negotiable. Inspect the lens condition. With camera and enlarger
S o m e c a m e r a s h o p s claim t h e y o f f e r b e t t e r s e r v i c e t h a n lenses, check t h e f r o n t and rear glass for scratches and
competing stores. Do t h e y offer g u a r a n t e e s , in-shop repair s u r f a c e a b r a s i o n s . L o o k c a r e f u l l y a t t h e g l a s s u n d e r good
s e r v i c e , liberal r e t u r n o r e x c h a n g e policies? If so. it m a y light a n d a t d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . M a k e s u r e t h e a p e r t u r e r i n g
b e w o r t h p a y i n g a little m o r e . o n t h e l e n s t u r n s a n d s t o p s at e a c h f - s t o p s e t t i n g . T h e
M o s t m a n u f a c t u r e r s r e g u l a r l y d i s c o n t i n u e e q u i p m e n t in f o c u s i n g r i n g s h o u l d t u r n s m o o t h l y , n o t too t i g h t l y or
f a v o r of " i m p r o v e d " m o d e l s . T h e d i s c o n t i n u e d m o d e l s a r e l o o s e l y . S h a k e t h e l e n s t o m a k e s u r e it h a s no loose i n t e r n a l
o f t e n good b u y s . p a r t s . The lens casing should h a v e no d e n t s o r e x t e n s i v e
Consider buying equipment and materials from indepen- s c r a t c h i n g . T h e l e n s m o u n t s h o u l d fit w i t h n o play, b u t
d e n t o r g e n e r i c c o m p a n i e s t h a t sell l e n s e s , filters, c a s e s , easily a n d s e c u r e l y onto the c a m e r a body.
flash u n i t s , d a r k r o o m e q u i p m e n t , a n d m a t e r i a l s . T h e q u a l - Check the shutter condition. Open the c a m e r a back,
ity v a r i e s , b u t t h e p r i c e is u s u a l l y a p p e a l i n g . T h e s e com- p r e s s t h e s h u t t e r b u t t o n , a n d w a t c h t h e s h u t t e r a s it o p e n s
p a n i e s sell t h r o u g h c a m e r a s t o r e s a n d t h r o u g h t h e mail. a n d closes. T e s t e a c h s h u t t e r s p e e d f r o m t h e f a s t e s t t o t h e
Mail o r d e r c a n b e a good w a y t o b u y , e s p e c i a l l y in a r e a s s l o w e s t : e a c h s p e e d s h o u l d b e a bit s l o w e r t h a n t h e p r e -
with few (or expensive) camera shops. Large-circulation v i o u s o n e . If t h e s h u t t e r s e e m s t o s t a y o p e n t o o long (or
m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e s , s u c h a s Popular Photography and s t i c k s ) , it m a y n e e d a c o s t l y o v e r h a u l . S h u t t e r s t i c k i n g is
Modern Photography, f e a t u r e much mail-order advertis- especially likely at slow s h u t t e r s p e e d s .
ing. a n d t h e p r i c e s a r e c o m p e t i t i v e . M o s t all t h e c o m p a n i e s Try the equipment. S h o o t a roll of film w i t h t h e c a m e r a .
a r e r e l i a b l e , b u t t o b e s a f e , o r d e r C . O . D . or w i t h a c r e d i t M o s t d e f e c t s will b e o b v i o u s . U s e a 3 6 - e x p o s u r e roll of 35-
c a r d t o g u a r a n t e e d e l i v e r y b e f o r e p a y m e n t . M a n y mail- m i l l i m e t e r film t o f u l l y t e s t t h e film-advance m e c h a n i s m ,
order houses have toll-free numbers-for ordering. a n d check f o r poorly spaced o r o v e r l a p p i n g f r a m e s on t h e
T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of m a i l - o r d e r s h o p p i n g is t h a t t h e s e p r o c e s s e d film.
s h o p s r a r e l y o f f e r s e r v i c e s or h e l p w i t h t h e e q u i p m e n t : If p o s s i b l e , e n l a r g e a n e g a t i v e s h o t w i t h t h e c a m e r a or
t h e y j u s t sell it. If a local d e a l e r is p r i c e d c o m p e t i t i v e l y o r lens. T h e results should have even e x p o s u r e and even
e v e n a little h i g h e r t h a n a m a i l - o r d e r h o u s e , c h o o s e t h e s h a r p n e s s from e d g e to edge, with no scratches.
local d e a l e r . T h e y will b e f a r m o r e likely t o a n s w e r q u e s - W i t h a u s e d e n l a r g e r . p l u g it in a n d m a k e s u r e t h e light
t i o n s a n d follow u p o n p r o b l e m s . g o e s o n a n d off. T e s t t h e f o c u s a n d u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e -
U s e d e q u i p m e n t c a n m e a n s u b s t a n t i a l s a v i n g s . If well m e n t s . T h e y should w o r k smoothly. Check t h e bellows for
cared for. photographic equipment lasts for a long time, holes, and t h e electrical cord for f r a y e d insulation. S h a k e
y e t e v e n t h e b e s t c a m e r a s a n d l e n s e s d e p r e c i a t e in v a l u e t h e e n t i r e u n i t t o t e s t its s t a b i l i t y . R e m o v e t h e c o n d e n s e r s
rapidly when used. or d i f f u s e r s . a n d e x a m i n e t h e m f o r s c r a t c h e s a n d c r a c k s .
P r i c e s of u s e d e q u i p m e n t v a r y w i d e l y . U s e 40 f r t o 6<«rr F l a s h u n i t s a r e d e l i c a t e , so t e s t t h e m t h o r o u g h l y . S h o o t
of t h e list p r i c e ( n o t t h e s e l l i n g p r i c e ) of t h e i t e m w h e n a roll of film u s i n g t h e flash. D o e s it fire at all? D o e s it
n e w a s a g u i d e l i n e . A l e n s l i s t i n g at $1(10 s h o u l d sell u s e d s v n e h r o n i z e w i t h t h e c a m e r a s h u t t e r e a c h t i m e ? If n o t .
t h e r e w i l l b e b l a n k o r p a r t i a l l y e x p o s e d f r a m e s ; i f so, each s o f t b r u s h o r r u b b e r a i r b l o w e r ) , a n d l e n s - c l e a n i n g solu-
frame w i l l be fully exposed. W i t h automatic exposure mod- tion.
e l s , check t h e p r o c e s s e d f i l m f o r c o r r e c t exposure. All C l e a n o n l y t h e accessible p a i t s of t h e c a m e r a and lens,
n e g a t i v e s s h o u l d h a v e good, c o n s i s t e n t d e n s i t y . e s p e c i a l l y t h e o u t s i d e p a r t s . D u s t and d i r t t h a t a c c u m u l a t e
Bring it to a repair shop. I f possible, have the equipment on t h e o u t s i d e c a n find t h e i r w a y i n s i d e . T a k e special c a r e
e x a m i n e d a t a c a m e r a r e p a i r s h o p w h e r e t h e r e is t h e w h e n cleaning inside a camera. I n particular, do not handle
n e c e s s a r y m a c h i n e r y a n d e x p e r t i s e t o check it t h o r o u g h l y . e i t h e r t h e focal-plane s h u t t e r c u r t a i n o r the m i r r o r . B o t h
F o r e x a m p l e , s h u t t e r s p e e d and m e t e r accuracy can m o r e d a m a g e easily. N e v e r t a k e a p a r t e i t h e r a c a m e r a o r a lens.
e a s i l y be v e r i f i e d b y m a c h i n e t h a n b y eye. A r e p a i r s h o p ' s E i t h e r b r u s h o f f d u s t ( o r d i r t ) w i t h a soft b r u s h , b l o w i t
fee w i l l be w e l l w o r t h t h e assurance t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t o f f w i t h c a n n e d a i r ( o r a r u b b e r a i r b l o w e r ) , o r use lens
is w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y . t i s s u e ( o r c h a m o i s c l o t h ) w i t h a d r o p o f l e n s - c l e a n i n g so-
Get a guarantee. R e l i a b l e c a m e r a shops s h o u l d p r o v i d e lution.
a short-term, w r i t t e n guarantee for used equipment. A A l w a y s p r o t e c t p h o t o g r a p h i c e q u i p m e n t , especially i f i t
p r i v a t e s e l l e r w i l l be less w i l l i n g t o do t h e s a m e . is b e i n g used o r k e p t i n a d u s t y o r d i r t y e n v i r o n m e n t . F o r
Get good advice. A s k q u e s t i o n s and d o n ' t shop alone. p r o t e c t i o n , use a case, b o x , o r plastic c o v e r i n g . B e espe-
B r i n g along someone knowledgeable about photography c i a l l y c a r e f u l a b o u t t a k i n g e q u i p m e n t t o a beach o r on a
w h e n b u y i n g used e q u i p m e n t . c a m p i n g t r i p ; use a t i g h t l y w r a p p e d p l a s t i c b a g t o c o v e r
Explore the sources. A c a m e r a s h o p is t h e m o s t l i k e l y t h e e q u i p m e n t t o k e e p o u t s a n d , d i r t , and w a t e r w h e n t h e
place t o find used e q u i p m e n t , b u t p r i v a t e - p a r t y sales m a y c a m e r a is n o t i n use.
offer b e t t e r bargains. T r y "for-sale" ads in newspaper Equipment repairs. P h o t o g r a p h y e q u i p m e n t is e x p e n -
classified s e c t i o n s , g a r a g e sales, a u c t i o n s , a n d college and s i v e t o r e p a i r , so t r e a t it w i t h c a r e . I f a piece o f e q u i p m e n t
s u p e r m a r k e t b u l l e t i n b o a r d s . Schools t h a t t e a c h p h o t o g - needs r e p a i r , o b t a i n a w r i t t e n e s t i m a t e o f t h e r e p a i r cost
r a p h y usually have bulletin boards w i t h for-sale notices f r o m a c o m p e t e n t r e p a i r shop b e f o r e a p p r o v i n g a n y w o r k .
p o s t e d . M a n y t o w n s h a v e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f classified ad l i s t - I f t h e cost seems h i g h , g e l a s e c o n d e s t i m a t e .
ings w i t h v a r i o u s i t e m s f o r sale b y p r i v a t e p a r t i e s . I f p o s s i b l e , d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h a r e p a i r shop o r c a m e r a
s t o r e w i t h an i n - h o u s e r e p a i r s e r v i c e . C e r t a i n k i n d s of
H e r e a r e some a d d i t i o n a l h i n t s a b o u t c a r i n g f o r p h o t o - r e p a i r a n d m o s t w a r r a n t y w o r k m u s t be p e r f o r m e d b y t h e
graphic equipment: manufacturer. I f so, pack t h e e q u i p m e n t w i t h c a r e (in
Cleaning. Cameras, lenses, and o t h e r photographic- o r i g i n a l b o x e s i f a v a i l a b l e ) , and send i t d i r e c t l y t o t h e
e q u i p m e n t m u s t be w e l l m a i n t a i n e d t o e n s u r e g o o d r e s u l t s m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e p a i r o u t l e t . Use a s h i p p i n g s e r v i c e t h a t
a n d a v o i d h i g h r e p a i r b i l l s . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e needed f o r p r o v i d e s i n s u r a n c e a n d a r e t u r n r e c e i p t s i g n e d on t h e
safe c l e a n i n g : l e n s t i s s u e ( o r chamois c l o t h ) , canned a i r ( o r r e c e i v i n g end.
APPENDIX 2 BULK-LOADING FILM

The least expensive way to buy 35-millimeter film is in

bulk — long rolls that can be loaded by hand into empty
roll of bulk film
film cassettes. The following are needed for bulk loading:
h u l k film
reusable
daylight bulk-film loader
cassette
r e u s a b l e film c a s s e t t e s
scissors
tape

Bulk film. Most commonly used 35-millimeter films can

be purchased in varying bulk lengths, commonly 27'//,
50", and 100' rolls. One hundred feet of film is equal to
approximately 20 rolls of 36-exposure film, and costs con-
siderably less than the same quantity of packaged film.
The longer the bulk-film length, the greater the savings. Daylight bulk loader.
Daylight bulk loader. This is a light-tight container that
allows bulk film to be loaded safely into empty 35-milli-
meter cassettes in room light. Several models are availa-
ble. but all serve the same function.
Reusable cassettes. These cassettes look like the kind in
which packaged film is sold, and are available from any
good camera shop. They consist of a spool within a metal
shell with a felt-protected opening in the shell through
which film travels. The ends of the cassette open up and
close tight to allow the spool to be removed and film to be
taped to it.
Scissors. A sharp pair of scissors is needed to cut film.
Tape. Masking tape is best for attaching the end of the
bulk film to the empty spool, though other types of tape
will also work.

Hulk loading has two main advantages. It is less expen-

sive than packaged film, and, unlike packaged film, it al-
lows for a wide choice of exposures per roll. Either a small
number of exposures, say 5, or a large number, say 36,
can be loaded into a cassette.
The biggest disadvantages of bulk loading are the dan- P a r t s of a reusable film cassette.
bi lk-loadim; film

To Bulk-Load Film gel's of s c r a t c h e d n e g a t i v e s (if t h e l o a d e r a n d t h e c a s s e t t e s

a r e not k e p t clean) a n d f o g g e d film (if t h e l o a d e r is not
closed t i g h t or t h e c a s s e t t e h a s a light leak). A single piece
of dirt on t h e felt of t h e c a s s e t t e can s c r a t c h a n e n t i r e roll
of film a s it w i n d s its w a y o n t o t h e spool, a n d a minor light
leak c a n r u i n a n e n t i r e roll of film. N e i t h e r p r o b l e m will
be e v i d e n t until t h e roll is p r o c e s s e d .
T o p r e v e n t t h e s e p r o b l e m s , be s u r e t h a t t h e inside of
t h e l o a d e r is clean b e f o r e each roll of hulk film is loaded.
Blow out d u s t f r o m t h e felt of both t h e l o a d e r a n d t h e
c a s s e t t e w i t h a r u b b e r air b l o w e r or canned air. T h r o w
out c a s s e t t e s a f t e r t h e y have b e e n u s e d f o u r or five t i m e s
( o r if t h e y a r e a t all s u s p e c t ) to g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e y h a v e
not picked u p d i r t o r d e v e l o p e d light leaks. W h e n not in
u s e , s t o r e t h e l o a d e r a n d t h e film c a s s e t t e s in closed plastic
b a g s t o k e e p d u s t o u t . K e e p c h e c k i n g to s e e t h a t t h e l o a d e r
a n d c a s s e t t e s a r e closed tight t o avoid a c c i d e n t a l light
T a p e t h e end of t h e bulk film o n t o t h e spool. leaks.
W h e n p r o p e r l y d o n e , bulk loading can p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t
financial relief for 8 5 - m i l l i m e t e r film u s e r s . Sloppily d o n e ,
it can be t h e s o u r c e of frustration, a n d r e s u l t in s c r a t c h e d
or fogged negatives.
T h e bulk-loading p r o c e d u r e v a r i e s w i t h t h e model
l o a d e r , so r e a d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s c a r e f u l l y b e f o r e p r o c e e d -
ing. H e r e a r e s o m e g e n e r a l guidelines:
1. In total darkness, unwrap the packaging from the
bulk roll and drop the film in its place in the daylight bulk-
loader.
2. Pull the end of the roll through the light trap in the
loader, so that a few inches of the film stick out into the
compartment where the cassette Jits.
3. Close the bulk loader tightly and tu.ru on the room
light
4. Take apart a reusable cassette, and tape the end of
the bulk film to the spool.
5. Reassemble the cassette. T h e end of t h e film should
s t i c k out of t h e f e l t - p r o t e c t e d opening.
6. Position the cassette in its compartment in the loader
P l a c e t h e c a s s e t t e in t h e daylight bulk loader.
and close up the compartment.
7. Fit the knob on the loader into the end of the spool.
Turn the knob and the spool will rotate, picking up and
winding the film onto it. T h e n u m b e r of t i m e s t h e k n o b
t u r n s d e t e r m i n e s t h e l e n g t h of t h e film b e i n g loaded. This
n u m b e r v a r i e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e model loader u s e d : each
model h a s a c o u n t e r t h a t i n d i c a t e s h o w m a n y t u r n s e q u a l s
how many exposures.
S. Once the desired length of jihn has been loaded, re-
mow the cassette Ron the loader, ana cat off the end of
the film into a curved shape to wake a leader.
Note that the s:v. the er..l each roll : bulk
r.'.:r. cets e\y- > r : . a^h: during the loading process.
Therefore. waste c ayle of extra exposures at the be-
ginning of the roll: start when the film counter on the
camera indicates """ instead of "I." And don't shoo: a roil
;U1 the way its end. If there are supposed to be
ev.v-sares or. a 11. >h ;• : frames to be safe.

Cut off the end of the film into a

curved leader.
APPENDIX 3 NEGATIVE A N D PRINT PROBLEMS

Some problem negatives and prints can be treated; others cannot. Here are
common problems with some probable causes and possible remedies.

NEGATIVES
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

Low contrast with no shadow detail Film underexposed, and possibly Print on high-contrast paper grade:
underdeveloped* next time expose and develop for
correct time

Low contrast with adequate shadow Film exposed correctly, but under- Print on high-contrast paper grade;
detail developed* next time develop for longer time

Low contrast with dense shadows, Film overexposed and under- Print 011 high-contrast paper grade;
but too little highlight density developed* next time expose and develop for
correct time

High contrast with no shadow de- Film underexposed and overdevel- Print on low-contrast paper grade;
tail, and dense highlight areas oped* next time expose and develop for
correct time

High contrast with good shadow de- Film correctly exposed but over- Print on low-contrast paper grade;
tail but dense highlights developed* next time develop for correct time

Entire image blurry Camera moved during exposure or Xo immediate remedy. Hold the
focused inaccurately camera steady next time; shoot
either with faster film or at a
faster shutter speed; or use a tri-
pod; or focus with more care

Part of image in focus, part out of Not enough depth of field: or inac- No immediate remedy. Use a
focus curate focusing; or film not lying smaller aperture for more depth
fiat enough in camera of field in future; take more care
focusing; have repair shop check
camera hack

" T h e s e " c a u s e s " a s s u m e t h e film w a s s h u t i n a v e r a g e l i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . H i g h - c o n t r a s t t i g h t w i l l a d d t o n e g a t i v e c o n t r a s t , a n d l o w - c o n t r a s t l i g h t w i l l

reduce negative contrast.
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

Overlapping negative frames,

caused by film not advancing fully in
the camera.

fiA -77 -»27A -»2SA ~> 29

Overlapping negative frames Film-advance mechanism on camera No immediate remedy. Tighten film
not working on take-up spool in camera before
shooting a roll; have advance
mechanism fixed

Pinholes (tiny clear dots) on nega- Stop-bath concentration too strong; No immediate remedy. Use more di-
tives or d u s t o n film in c a m e r a b e f o r e lute stop bath in future; blow out
exposure dust from inside of camera body

Discoloration of negatives sometime Film not fixed or washed adequately Try refixing and rewashing nega-
after processing tives; in future, fix and wash
thoroughly with fresh solutions

Dark, crescent-shaped marks on Film bent while being rolled onto No immediate remedy. Load film
negatives reel with care; use spotting solution on
print

Entire roll of negatives with more Too much agitation during develop- No immediate remedy. Agitate for
density on edges than in the ment less time or with less intensity;
middle burn in edges when making print

Black streaks on clear edges of neg- Film exposed to light before fixing; No immediate remedy. Use fresh
atives either camera back opened, room cassette when bulk-loading film;
not dark when loading film on be sure lights are out when film is
reel, or light leak in film cassette, unprotected; check out camera
camera, or processing tank and processing tank for light
leaks

Muddy, cream-colored negatives or Negatives not fixed for long enough Fix them again and rewash; always
brownish strip down center of time or fixed in exhausted or con- use fresh fixer for correct amount
processed negatives taminated solution of time
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

F r a m e s p a r t l y e x p o s e d , p a r t l y blank Flash not s y n c h r o n i z i n g w i t h s h u t - N o i m m e d i a t e r e m e d y . U s e t h e cor-

ter rect s h u t t e r speed when using
flash (usually 1/60 o r s l o w e r w h e n
u s i n g focal-plane s h u t t e r ) ; o r h a v e
s h u t t e r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n fixed

Film t o t a l l y clear, i n c l u d i n g e d g e F i l m p r o c e s s e d in fixer b e f o r e N o i m m e d i a t e r e m e d y . In f u t u r e , be

n u m b e r s a n d p r o d u c t identifica- developer c a r e f u l not to c o n f u s e which solu-
tion m a r k i n g s tion is w h i c h ; u s e d e v e l o p e r , s t o p ,
a n d f i x e r in t h a t o r d e r

F i l m w i t h black s t r e a k s , c a u s e d by
e x p o s u r e to light while in t h e cam-
e r a , film c a s s e t t e , o r p r o c e s s i n g
tank.

P a r t i a l l y e x p o s e d f r a m e s , c a u s e d by
Hash not s y n c h r o n i z i n g w i t h c a m e r a
shutter.

.134VS xvaow C9os wiij Ai3j».s vvaox f 9 0 ^ Wild A13JV.S

C l e a r film, with no e d g e n u m b e r s or
p r o d u c t identification, c a u s e d b y film
b e i n g p r o c e s s e d in fixer b e f o r e
developer.
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

Film totally clear, except for edge Film not exposed: it did not go No immediate remedy. In future, be
numbers and product identifica- through camera, but was devel- sure film is loaded correctly: have
tion markings oped correctly film advance mechanism checked

Clear film, with edge numbers and K O O A K s»m» M N * K O O A K S A F E T Y FILM S 0 6 2 KC

product identification showing, oc-

curs when an unexposed roll of film
is accidentally developed. *

PRINTS
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

Dark print Too much exposure Reprint, reducing exposure time or

closing down enlarging lens aper-
ture

Light print Not enough exposure Reprint, increasing exposure time

or opening up enlarging lens ap-
erture

Low-contrast print Printing paper grade too '•soft" for Reprint, using higher-contrast paper
negative grade

High-contrast print Printing paper grade too "'hard" for Reprint, using lower-contrast paper
negative grade

Shadow areas mottled (blotchy) with Print overexposed and developed for Reprint, reducing exposure and in-
no solid black areas too little time creasing developing time

Spots on print: thin, dark lines Paper scratched before or during Reprint with new sheet of paper
development

Spots on print: off-color blotches Inadequate fixing Reprint, agitating well during fixer:
use fresh solution for correct
a m o u n t of t i m e
Defect Probable Cause Remedy

Spots on print; brown-red blotches Water rust Filter water before using, then re-
print

Spots on print: brown-purple stains Bad developer Reprint with fresh developer

Spots on print: fingerprints Paper touched with wet or greasy Reprint; use tongs; handle paper on
hands before processing edges only; and be sure hands are
dry when touching paper

Spots on print: yellow stains after Print not washed for long enough Reprint with adequate wash; use a
print is dry time fixer remover prior to water wash

Spots on print: large dark or black Paper fogged, exposed to light prior Reprint with fresh, unexposed pa-
marks on white border or in im- to exposure by enlarger per
age area

Image blurry: throughout entire Negative out of focus in enlarger, or Recheck focus in enlarger and re-
print when picture was taken print

Image blurry: in part of print, same Enlarger out of alignment Align enlarger and reprint
area in all prints

Image blurry: in pan of print, a dif- Negative curling in negative carrier Reprint; be sure negative carrier
ferent area from print to print or paper curling in easel and easel hold paper fiat

Print curled when dry Drying air too humid; too much har- Rewash and dry; if fiber-based pa-
dener in fix per, put in dry-mounting press
for a while; let it cool down under
heavy weight
APPENDIX 4 FILM, PAPER, A N D C H E M I C A L BRANDS

Here is a list of common and obscure brands of films, papers, and chemicals
for black-and-white films. These brand names change often, so be sure to
check with the supplier for current availability and new products.

FILMS PRINTING PAPERS Kodak Kodabromide II RC, grades

soft to ultra-hard, warm-tone
Slow Fiber-base Kodak Polycontrast Rapid II RC.
Adox KB 14 (32 ASA) Agfa Brovira, grades 1 to 5, cold- variable-contrast, warm-tone
Adox KBIT (64 ASA) tone Oriental Seagull RP. grades 2 to 4,
Agfa Agfapan 25 (25 ASA) Agfa Portriga Rapid, grades 1 to 3, cold-tone
H and W VTE Pan (50 ASA) warm-tone Supra Supre-Tone, grades 2 to 4,
IIford Pan F (50 ASA) Brilliant, grades 1 to 4, cold-tone cold-tone
Kodak Panatomic-X (32 ASA) Ilford Ilfobrom, grades 0 to 5, cold- Unicolor Resin Coated, grades 1 to
tone 3. warm-tone
Medium Ilford Ilfobrom Galerie, grades 1 to
Adox KB21 (125 ASA) 3, cold-tone
Agfa Agfapan 100 (100 ASA) Kodak Kodabromide, grades 1 to 5,
FILM D E V E L O P E R S
Ilford FP1 (125 ASA) cold-tone
Kodak Plus-X (125 ASA) Kodak Medalist, grades 1 to 4. Normal Development
Luminos Lumipan (100 ASA) warm-tone Acufine
Supra Imperiale (125 ASA) Kodak Polycontrast, variable-con- Agfa Atomal
trast, warm-tone Agfa Rodinal
Kodak Polycontrast Rapid, variable- Diafine
Fast
contrast, cold-tone Edwal FG-7
Agfa Agfapan 400 <400 ASA)
Oriental Center, grades 2 to 4, Edwal Minicol II
Ilford IIP5 (400 ASA)
warm-tone Edwal Super 20
Kodak Tri-X (400 ASA)
Oriental New Seagull, grades 2 to 4. Ethol Blue
Kodak 2475 Recording (1000 ASA)
cold-tone Ethol 90
Supra Imperiale S (400 ASA)
Supra Supre-Brome, grades 1 to 4. Ethol TEC
cold-tone Ethol UFG
Chromogenic Unicolor Baryta Exhibition, grades H and W Control
Agfa Agfapan Vario-XL 2 and 3, warm-tone Ilford ID-11 Plus
Ilford XP-1 Ilford Ilfosol 2
Resin-coated Ilford Perceptol
High Contrast Agfa Brovira Speed, grades 1 to 5, Kodak D-76
Ilford Ilfolith cold-tone Kodak DK-50
Kodak Kodalith Ortho Agfa Portriga Speed, grades 1 to 3. Kodak Microdol X
Kodak Technical Pan Film warm-tone Kodak Polydol
Ilford llfospeed. grades 0 to 5, cold- Nacco Super 76
Special tone Sprint All Star Pyro
Kodak Fine-Grain Positive 7302 Ilford Multigrade, variable-contrast, Sprint Standard
Kodak High-Speed Infrared 4143 cold-tone Unicolor B and W
Pushed Development Ilford Ilfospeed Multigrade FIXER CHECK
Acufine Kodak Dektol
Edwal Hypo-Chek
Edwal FG-7 Kodak Ektallo
Nacco Check
Ilford Microphen Kodak Selectol
Kodak HC-110 Kodak Selectol Soft
Nacco Printol-12 FIXER REMOVER
C' h romogenic I)eve 1 opment Nacco Regular
BPl Liquid Hypo Neutralize!'
Agfa Color Process F Sprint Quicksilver
Edwal 4 and 1 Hypo Eliminator
Ilford XP-1 Unicolor B and W
Heico Per ma Wash
Kodak C-41 Unicolor Cold Tone
Ilford Ilfobrom Archival Wash Aid
Sprint Color Team
Kodak Hypo Clearing Agent
STOP BATH Sprint Archive
High-Contrast Development
TKO Orbit Bath
Edwal Litho F Edwal Signal
Kodak D-ll Ilford Ilfobrom
Kodak Kodalith Kodak Rktafio WETTING AGENT
Naccolith (511 Kodak Indicator Stop Bath
BPl #40
Sprint Line-Up Sprint Block
Ecco 121
Edwal Kwik-Wet
PAPER DEVELOPERS FIXER Edwal LFN
Kodak Photo-Flo 200
Acufine BP1 #90
Paterson Anti-Static
Agfa Metinol Edwal Quick-Fix
Sprint End Run
Agfa Neutal Heico NH-5
Edwal "G" Ilford Ilfobrom
Edwal Platinum 11 Ilford Ilfospeed TONER
Edwal TST Kodak Ektaflo
Berg Color-Toning System
Ethol LPD Kodak Fixer
Edwal Color Toners
Fotofine Kodak Kodafix
Kodak Brown Toner
Ilford Bromophen Kodak Rapid Fix
Kodak Polytoner
Ilford Ilfobrom Sprint Record
Kodak Rapid Selenium
Kodak Sepia
GLOSSARY

ASA (American Standards Association): system used to bayonet mount: rapid mounting system for attaching a
rate film speed. The higher the ASA number, the more lens to a camera or a filter to a lens. To attach firmly, the
sensitive the film is to light, hence the "faster." lens or filter is dropped into place and turned slightly,
acetic acid: chemical used (in extremely diluted form) as bellows: light-tight, collapsible cloth or cardboard tube
a stop bath for processing film and paper, mounted between the lens and the film in a camera or an
angle of view: area that a lens sees or a light meter reads. enlarger, and used for focusing the image,
A telephoto lens takes in a narrow view, whereas a wide- bounced light: refers to reflecting a flash or other artificial
angle lens takes in a wide view. A spot meter reads light light off a surface, usually a ceiling or wall, rather than
from a narrow angle, and an averaging meter reads from aiming it directly at a subject. It has the effect of softening
a wider angle. the light.
aperture (or lens opening): hole in the lens through which bracketing: a way to ensure a well-exposed negative; first
light travels to strike the film (or paper). In most photo- take an exposure of a subject according to the light-meter
graphic lenses, the aperture size is adjustable and mea- reading, then take extra exposures of the same subject at
sured in f-stops. f-stops or shutter speeds on either side to allow both more
aperture priority: camera type in which the photographer and less light to reach the film.
selects the f-stop (aperture size), and the camera auto- bulb (or h>: shutter-speed setting that permits the shutter
matically sets the shutter speed. to stay open for as long as the shutter button is pressed
archival: refers to the relative permanence of photo- down.
graphic materials. When processed and stored to archival bulk film: long rolls of film that can be manually loaded
standards, negatives and prints are less likely to fade or into reusable film cassettes. "Bulk loading" is more eco-
deteriorate with time. nomical than buying film packaged in individual cassettes,
automatic lens: one that remains open to its maximum burning: printing technique used to darken areas of a print
aperture for viewing until the shutter button is pressed, by selectively adding more light after the initial exposure.
then closes down automatically to a preset f-stop.
averaging meter: type of light meter that reads a large cable release: flexible wire that screws onto a shutter
area (or angle) of light. button, making it possible to release the shutter button
while standing away from the camera,
h: see bulb. center-weighted meter: light meter that combines an av-
back litfhtintf: refers to a lighting situation in which most erage and a spot reading, but gives more value to the spot
of the light is in back of, rather than directed at, the reading in recommending the exposure,
subject. chromogenic: refers to films with chemical dyes rather
than silver compounds making up the negative image,
base: supporting material that holds the light-sensitive
close-up lens: accessory that is attached to the front of a
emulsion — clear plastic for negatives and white paper for
lens, like a filter, and allows the subject to be focused at
prints.
a close distance.
cold-tone: refers to a neutral black-and-white print color, dodging: printing technique used to lighten areas of a print
condenser: glass lens(es) used in an enlarger to spread by selectively withholding light during the print exposure,
evenly the light that projects through the negative, dry-mounting: method of attaching prints directly to
contact print: a print that is the same size as its negative, mount board using dry-mounting tissue, which becomes
contact sheet: sheet of printing paper that contains a sticky when heated.
series of contact prints, usually from a single roll of neg- dry-mounting press: large press used to dry-mount
atives. prints.
contrast: difference between the dark and the light tones dry-mounting tissue: thin paper that becomes sticky
in a negative, a print, or a lighting situation. High contrast when heated that is used for dry-mounting prints.
refers to a large tonal difference — a lot of darks and
lights with few grays. Low contrast refers to little tonal easel: darkroom accessory used to hold printing paper flat
difference — mostly grays. and in place under the enlarger.
covering power: the circle of even illumination that a lens electronic flash: reusable flash tube powered by an elec-
projects. trical source, usually a battery,
cropping: printing part of the negative rather than the emulsion: light-sensitive layer of film or paper,
whole image. exposure: combination of f-stop and shutter speed (or
time) used to allow the correct amount of light to reach
darkroom: literally a room without light used to process the film (or printing paper).
photographic materials. Safelights are used to illuminate extension tubes: accessory that fits between the lens and
darkrooms when making prints and in processing some the camera body to allow the subject to be focused close
films. up.
dedicated flash: fully automatic Hash units; with these
units, just set the ASA of the film used and shoot, f-stop: numerical indication of how large a lens opening
density: thickness of the silver buildup on a negative or (aperture) is. The larger the f-stop number, the smaller
print; high-density areas are dark and low-density areas the opening; for example, f 1(5 represents a smaller opening
are light. The greater the exposure to light, the greater than f 2.
the accumulation of silver, and the denser (blacker) the fast film: film that is particularly sensitive to light; the
result once the film or paper is developed, higher the ASA rating, the faster the film.
depth of field: zone from the points closest to the camera fast lens: one that opens wide to allow a lot of light
to the points farthest from the camera that are in accept- through. A lens with a maximum aperture of f 1.4 is
able focus. "faster" than one with a maximum aperture of f 2.
depth-of-field scale: set of numbers on a lens that indi- film format: negative size, such as 35 millimeter,
cates how much depth of field each f-stop will produce, 2'/i" x 2'/.", and 4" x 5".
developer: chemical that converts exposed silver-halide film plane (or focal plane): plane in the camera back
crystals into black metallic silver, making the latent image behind the lens along which the film rests and the image
visible. is focused.
diffuser: translucent piece of glass or plastic used in some film speed: sensitivity of film to light, commonly measured
enlargers to spread evenly the light that projects through by an ASA rating. The higher the ASA number, the more
the negative to be printed. sensitive the film is to light, and the "faster" it is.
distance scale: one that indicates how far the focused filter: piece of glass, acetate, or gelatin usually placed in
subject is from the camera. It is generally located on the front of a camera lens to protect the lens, or alter the
camera lens. nature of the light reaching the film. Filters are used for
such purposes as darkening sky tones and reducing un- half-frame: film format approximately half the size of a
wanted reflections. They can also be used in printing with 35-millimeter negative.
variable-contrast papers to control print contrast, hard: describes a negative or a print with high contrast.
filter factor: number that indicates how much extra ex- "Hard" can also refer to a high-contrast lighting situation,
posure is needed when a filter is used, hardener: chemical usually in the fixer that toughens the
fixed lens: lens that is permanently attached to a camera film or print emulsion, making it more scratch-resistant,
body. highlight areas: those parts of a negative or print rep-
fixer: chemical used in film and print processing to remove resenting light areas of the subject. In a negative, high-
unexposed silver and make the image safe to view under light areas are dense (dark); in a print, they are thin
room light. (light).
holding bath: tray of water where prints are kept after
fixer check: solution used to test whether a fixer solution
is exhausted. the fixing bath until they are washed,
fixer remover: solution used in negative and print pro- hot shoe: slotted coupling on the camera body that incor-
cessing before the final wash to shorten the final wash porates an electric contact allowing a flash unit to syn-
times. chronize with the shutter without a pc cord.
flare: dark spots or streaks on a negative caused by un- hypo: slang for fixer.
wanted, extraneous light reflections.
incident light: light that falls onto the subject,
flash bulbs: glass or plastic tubes that produce a single
burst of artificial light. infrared: a part of the light spectrum that is invisible to
the human eye. It can be recorded with infrared film,
flat: describes a negative or print with low contrast. "Flat"
interchangeable lens: lens that can be removed from a
can also refer to a low-contrast lighting situation.
camera body and exchanged for a different focal-length
Hush mount: method of dry-mounting prints without bor-
lens or other accessory.
ders.
ISO: international standard for rating film speed.
focal length: measurement of the size of a lens. Focal
lengt h is the distance between the film plane of the camera
latent image: invisible image created by light striking film
and the optical center of the lens when the lens is focused
or paper. The image becomes visible when developed
on infinity.
chemically.
focal-plane shutter: shutter located in the camera body,
leader: curved part of film at the beginning of a roll of
just in front of the film, that moves horizontally or verti-
35-millimeter film.
cally across the focal plane.
leaf shutter: shutter located in the rear of a camera lens,
fog: non-image light that exposes film or paper, usually
consisting of overlapping blades.
by accident. Fog appears as dark or black marks or spots
on negatives or prints. lens: part that fits on a camera or enlarger to focus light
and help control film or print exposure,
grain: clumps of silver crystals on a negative that appear lens opening: see aperture.
as tiny, sandlike particles in a print. lens shade: accessory that attaches to the front of a lens
gray card: piece of cardboard used to determine correct to keep extraneous light from entering and causing flare,
film exposure. light-intensity scale: usually found in hand-held light me-
guide number: measurement of the intensity of light pro- ters, this scale indicates the quantity of light the meter
duced by a flash unit. Guide numbers can be used to figure reads.
film exposure with flash. light meter: instrument used to measure light and trans-
late that measurement into the correct combination of separate, such as with rangefinder or twin-lens reflex ca-
f-stop and shutter speed for the given light conditions. meras.
Some meters are built into the camera and others are pc cord (or synch cord): electrical connection between a
separate from the camera. flash unit and a camera body that allows the flash and
light stand: tripod that holds photofioods and other arti- shutter to synchronize.
ficial light equipment. photoflood: bright light bulb used as a source of artificial
light.
macro lens: lens specially made to focus close up.
photogram: photograph made without a camera by posi-
manual lens (or preset lens): lens that must be opened
tioning one or more objects between a light source and
manually to its widest f-stop for focusing, then closed down
photographic film or paper.
manually to the correct f-stop to expose film,
motor drive: accessory that attaches to the bottom of a polarizing filter: filter used in front of a camera lens to
camera body and rapidly advances film automatically after reduce or eliminate undesired glare or reflections of light,
each exposure. positive: image normally rendered. In a positive, the dark
areas of the subject render as dark and the light areas as
mounting: refers to affixing a print to a support — usually light.
a piece of stiff board — for display.
power winder: accessory that attaches to the bottom of a
camera body and rapidly advances film after each expo-
negative: reversed image. In a negative, the dark areas
sure. Similar to a motor drive, but slower,
of a subject appear light and the light areas appear dark,
preset lens: see manual lens.
negative print: negative image rendered on printing pa-
per. preview setting: setting on most single-lens reflex cameras
that allows previsualizing depth of field at any
neutral density filter: filter that cuts down the quantity
f-stop.
of light reaching the film. It only affects exposure and does
not alter the image in any other way. pushing film: artifically increasing film speed by under-
normal lens: lens that sees and records an image much as exposing and overdeveloping film. Pushing is generally
the eye sees it. used in low-light situations.

rangefinder: focusing system that uses two superimposed

orthochromatic: refers to materials that are not sensitive
images. The image is out of focus when the images are
to red light.
separate, and in focus when they come together,
overdevelopment: developing negatives or prints for more reciprocity failure: breakdown of reciprocal relationship
time than the manufacturer recommends, of f-stop and shutter speed. It generally occurs at expo-
overexposure: exposing film or paper to more light than sures slower than 1 second (and 1 1000 of a second or
the meter or test strip recommends, faster) with black-and-white films.
overmatting: method of mounting a print behind a piece
recycling time: time an electronic flash requires to reach
of mount board with a "window" cut out of the board to
full power after firing.
display the image.
reflected light: light that bounces or reflects off the sub-
panning: moving a camera in the direction of a moving ject.
subject to keep the subject sharp and cause the rest of the reflectors: curved metal units that house photofioods and
picture to blur. other artificial light sources.
parallax: difference between what the eye sees and the replenishes chemical added to film developers to extend
lens takes. It occurs when the viewer and the lens are their useful life.
resin-coated (RC) paper: printing paper coated with clear and the lens. The mirror swings up when the shutter opens
plastic. RC papers require shorter processing, washing, to allow the film to be exposed.
and drying times than fiber-based papers, slow film: film that is not particularly sensitive to light;
reticulation: cracks in the film emulsion caused by hot the lower the ASA rating, the slower the film,
processing temperatures or temperature variations during soft: describes a negative or a print with low contrast.
processing. "Soft" can also refer to a low-contrast lighting situation,
roll film: film packaged in rolls and protected from light solarization: reversed effect that occurs when film is
by a paper backing. The most common roll film is size 120. grossly overexposed in the camera. The term is commonly
used to refer to the Sabattier effect,
Sabattier effect: occurs when reexposing film or paper to spot meter: type of light meter that reads a narrow area
light during development. The Sabattier effect is often,
(or angle) of light.
though inaccurately, referred to as solarization.
safelight: colored light used to illuminate darkrooms. spotting: technique of using dyes to fill in scratch, dust,
Safelights can be used with printing papers and a few or dirt spots on a print Sifter the print is dry.
types of film. stock solution: liquid form in which chemicals are stored,
sandwiching negatives: positioning two (or more) nega- stop bath: weak solution of acetic acid that neutralizes the
tives together and printing them. developing action on film and prints. A water rinse is
screw mount: way of attaching a lens to a camera (or a sometimes used as a stop bath instead of acetic acid,
filter to a lens) by screwing one into the other, strobe: slang term for electronic flash,
selective focus: when pail of the image is in focus and the synch cord: see pc cord.
background or foreground is blurred, synchronization: when the camera shutter opens to ex-
shadow area: those parts of a negative or print repre- pose the film at the same time the flash fires.
senting dark areas of the subject. In a negative, shadow
areas are thin (or light); in a print, they are dense (or t: see time.
dark). teleconverter: tube that fits between a camera body and
sheet film: film in sheet form rather than in rolls, a lens to increase the effective focal length of that lens,
shoe: slotted coupling, usually located on the camera, used telephoto lens: lens with a long focal length and a narrow
primarily to connect a flash unit to the camera, angle of view. Subjects seen through a telephoto lens ap-
shutter: shield in a camera or lens that protects film from pear to be closer to the camera and larger than they really
light. When the shutter is opened, the film is exposed, are.
shutter priority: camera type in which the photographer test strip: section of printing paper, with several different
selects the shutter speed, and the camera automatically exposures from a single negative, used to determine cor-
sets the aperture (f-stop). rect print exposure.
thyristor: feature in an electronic Hash that extends bat-
shutter speed: length of time the shutter stays open dur-
tery life by retaining unused electric power in the flash's
ing exposure. With most cameras this time is adjustable,
capacitor for reuse.
silver halidc: collective term for the combination of silver
with the halogen elements (particularly bromine, chlorine, time (or t): shutter setting on which the shutter opens
and iodine) used in the emulsion of most black-and-white when the shutter button is pressed down, and remains
films and papers. open until the button is pressed a second time,
time-temperature chart: chart indicating for how much
single-lens reflex (SLR): camera type with one lens
through which the picture is seen, focused, and taken. The time film must be developed at different temperatures,
viewing system includes a mirror located between the film toner: chemical that changes the color or tone of a print.
tripod: stand, usually with three adjustable legs, that at- viewfinder: piece of glass or plastic on a camera through
taches to the bottom of a camera to hold it steady, which the subject is viewed.
twin-lens reflex (TLR): camera type with two lenses —
one on top for viewing and focusing the image, and one on warm tone: refers to print color that tends toward brown,
the bottom for taking the picture. wetting agent: last solution used in negative processing.
It reduces the surface tension of the film, and promotes
underdevelopment: developing negatives or prints for less quicker, more even drying.
time than the manufacturer recommends, wide-angle lens: lens with a short focal length and a large
underexposure: exposing film or prints to less light than angle of view. Subjects seen through a wide-angle lens
the meter or test strip recommends. appear to be smaller and farther away than they really
are.
view camera: camera type that allows through-the-lens working solution: chemical solution that has been diluted
viewing directly onto a ground glass. It focuses with the and is ready for use.
aid of a bellows and usually uses sheet film.
zoom lens: lens with adjustable focal lengths.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and magazines are wonderful sources of information This best-selling photographic text is excellent:
about photography and photographers. Technical books
Upton. Barbara and -John. Photography.
and articles can teach about a wide range of photographic
Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1981.
techniques or concentrate on specific areas. Books of good
photographs provide creative ideas and inspiration. The Aperture History of Photography is a series of
Kodak publishes data books that cover a wide range of small, inexpensive monographs, each concentrating on the
subjects. They are inexpensive and available in many cam- work of one important photographer. They provide a good
era stores or directly from Kodak. A free index of Kodak introduction to some of the most important photographers
publications is available by writing to: in the history of photography. Published by Aperture,
Inc., of Millerton, New .York, the titles include:
Department 412- L
Eastman Kodak Company Eugene Atget
Rochester, New York 14650 Wynn Bullock
Henri Cartier-Bresson
These are a few of the many useful Kodak publications,
Walker Evans
with their order numbers in parentheses:
Andre Kertesz
Black-and-White Processing for Permanence (J-19) Dorothea Lange
Creative Darkroom Techniques (AG-18) Ja cq ues-Hen ri La rtigu e
Kodak Darkroom Dataguide (R-20) Man Ray
Kodak Professional Black-and-While Films (F-5) Erich Salomon
Preservation of Photographs (F-30) .4 ugust Sander
Edward Steichen
The Life Library of Photography, published by Time- Alfred Stieglitz
Life Books, is a handsomely produced series of books cov- Frank Meadow Sutcliffe
ering a wide range of photographic topics. Here are some Weegee
of their most useful titles: Clarence H. White
The Art of Photography This widely read narrative of the history of photography
The Camera provides an excellent general perspective:
Frontiers of Photography
Great Photographers Newhall, Beaumont.
Light and Film The History of Photography:
The Print From 18.19 to the Present Day
Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1982
The New Ansel Adams Photography Series, written by
Ansel Adams with Robert Baker and published by New Light Impressions is a mail-order house specializing in
York Graphic Society, Boston, is another important source a wide range of photographic books and supplies. For a
of technical information. These books are more complex free catalogue, write to:
than most "basic" books, but they are excellent reference Light Impressions
guides. The series consists of the following titles:
Box 3012
The Camera Rochester, New York 14614
The Negative Here is a listing of some of the many important written
Polaroid Land Photography sources relating to all aspects of photography — technical,
The Print historical, collections of photographs, and magazines.
S o m e of t h e b o o k s a r e o u t of p r i n t a n d a v a i l a b l e only E d g e r t o n , H a r o l d . Electronic Flash/Strobe. Cambridge,
t h r o u g h l i b r a r i e s a n d good p r i v a t e collections. M a s s a c h u s e t t s : M . I . T . P r e s s , 1979.
F e i n i n g e r , A n d r e a s . The Complete Photographer. En-
g l e w o o d Cliffs, N e w J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1965.
TECHNICAL BOOKS AND REFERENCES
Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. N e w Y o r k : Mc-
B a l s v s , Algis, a n d L i l i a n e D e C o c k - M o r g a n , e d s . The G r a w - H i l l , 1969.
Morgan and Morgan Darkroom Book. D o b b s F e r r y , N e w G a s s a n , A r n o l d . Handbook for Contemporary Photog-
Y o r k : M o r g a n a n d M o r g a n , 1980. raphy. R o c h e s t e r , N e w Y o r k : L i g h t I m p r e s s i o n s , 1977.
B l a k e r , A l f r e d A . Photography: Art and Technique. San H a t t e r s l e y , R a l p h . Beginner's Guide to Photography.
F r a n c i s c o : W . H . F r e e m a n , 1980. G a r d e n C i t y , N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1982.
B o d i n , F r e d r i k I). The Freelance Photographer's Hand- H a t t e r s l e y , R a l p h . Photographic Printing. Englewood
book. Somerville, Massachusetts: Curtin and London. Cliffs, N e w J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l . 1977.
1981. H e d g e c o e , J o h n . The Photographer's Handbook. New
Boni, A l b e r t , e d . , 2 vols. Photographic Literature. Y o r k : A l f r e d A . K n o p f , 1977.
D o b b s F e r r y , N e w Y o r k : M o r g a n a n d M o r g a n , 1972. H o r e n s t e i n , H e n r y . Beyond Basic Photography: A
C a r r o l l , J o h n S . Photographic Lab Handbook. New Technical Manual. B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n a n d Co., 1977.
Y o r k : A m p h o t o , 1979. K o b r e , K e n n e t h , Photojournalism: The Professionals'
C o l e m a n . A . D., P a t r i c i a G r a n t z , a n d D o u g l a s I. S h e e r . Approach. Somerville, Massachusetts: Curtin and London,
The Photography A-V Program Directory. Staten Island. 1980.
N e w Y o r k : P h o t o g r a p h y M e d i a I n s t i t u t e , I n c . , 1980. L e w i s , S t e v e n . J a m e s M c Q u a i d . a n d D a v i d T a t e . Pho-
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INDEX

Acetic acid (as s t o p bath). 73-74. 112. 120 Clearing b a t h . Sec F i x e r remover Easel, 10(5 7. 106, 113
Angle of view. 21, 23, 25. 27 Close-up photography: accessories. 175- Emulsion (film). 3, 76
A p e r t u r e (camera), 6. 20, 27. 1(M; and 77. /;'."; and depth of field, 175-77. 178; Emulsion (paper), 6
depth of field, 33, 35; and film exposure. film. 177: and s h u t t e r speed, 177-79; use Enlargement: and negative grain, 99. 114-
19, 36: and Hash, 169: for low-light pho- of tripod, 177. 181; underexposure in, 15; and p r i n t contrast, 128
tography. 65-67. See also F-stop; 179 Knlarger(s). 101-1. 10J. 113; filters for.
Lens(es) Condenser, 103 Ill
A p e r t u r e (enlarger), 117 Contact prints. 138-40, 1.19, 188 E n l a r g e r housing, 101, 104, 114
Artificial lighting, 67. 165, 184. See also Contact sheet, 138 Enlarging timer, 104-5
Flash: Light Contrast (in negatives), 86-!M). 87.8.9, 124, E x p o s u r e m e t e r s , 117. See also Light me-
ASA number/setting, -15. 17—18: and over- 125-26 ters
exposure. 92: and pushing film. 97: and Contrast (in prints), 109, 123-24, m , 125; E x p o s u r e s y s t e m s , 55-60
underexposure, 92. See also Film speed and developer. 128: and enlargement, E x p o s u r e time (film): and a p e r t u r e . 13-
128; and filters. 125-2(5; and negative 44; automatic, 21, 170; for backlighting.
Backlighting. 62-63, 62 quality. 125-26; anil p a p e r grade, 125- 62-63, 62; and blocking up, 63; in close-
Bellows (camera). 17. 18. 176, 177-Til 28 up photography. 177-79; and contrast,
Bellows (enlarger). 104. 115 8(5-92; control 'of. 49. 91; for d a r k sub-
Bracketing, 59, 60, 17!) Darkroom: equipment, 69-71; light leaks, j e c t s . 57, 59-60, 61: and depth of field.
Bulk-loading procedure, 205-6. 204-1' 47: anil f-stop stilting, 19-21, 45-49; and
77: safelights, 106, 106; safety, 77: ven-
Burning, 128-31. I-.'If film speed, 44-45, 47; with filters. 164—
tilation. (58. 77, 114 65; with flash. 167-74; for infrared film,
Dark slide. 12 196; for light subjects. 56, 59. 66,157; for
Cable release, 181-183, 181 Depth of field, 28, 29, .10, .12; in close-up low-light conditions, 6$. 65, 67; for neg-
Camera accessories/equipment, 179-84; photography, 175-77. 178; defined. 27: ative prints, 193; overexposure, 61, 8 8 -
buying guide, 201-3: cleaning, 203: re- determining factors, 27. 35: maximized, 92: for photograms, 192-93: and reci-
pairs. 203. See also specific accessories 29: p r evisualized, 33-35; scale. 3:5-35, procity failure, 48-49: for sandwiched
Camera(s): buying guide, 201-2: classifi- -ly. and s h u t t e r speed, 96; zone of focus, negatives, 195; and s h u t t e r speed, 36-
cations, 8, 12; cleaning, 203; exposure 27, 29 38. 11. 45-19: underexposure, 88-92,
compensation setting, 92; focusing sys- Developer (film), 72-73, 75, 81-82. 112; 179, 188. 191
tems. 12 (see also Focus/focusing sys- buying guide, 213; and grain structure, Exposure time (prints), 6. 117. 118-19,
tems: specific camera types)-, function. 98; high-contrast, 187; high-speed, 97 121 23. 128. 140. 142: for contact prints.
6, 8; movement. 3&-40, h , JO. 96: view- Developer (prints), 112, 120; buying 110: and b r i g h t n e s s . 123, 12',; in burn-
ing systems, 12 (see also Viewing/focus- guide, 213; and paper type, 109: and ing. 130-31: in dodging. 131-34: for
ing systems; Focusing s y s t e m s ) print contrast. 128
Camera types: aperture-priority, 49: au- Developing reel, 77, 84 highlights, 14(1—41; and paper grade.
tomatic. 21, 49-50; half-frame, 8; insta- Developing time (prints), 142. 187, 188, 128, 141: and p a p e r size, 142
matic. 3, 10; instant. 10: large format. 199 Extension tubes. 175-77. 176
10: manual, 19-50: medium-format. 10:
p r e s s , 17.1 7, 18;rangefinder, 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 , . Diffuser. 103
18. 21. 41. 1(57, 175; reflex. 41; roll-film. DIN film-speed rating, 45 F-stop, 19-21, 2o, 43-14; and aperture, 47:
8-10, 12: semiautomatic, 49-50; sheet Distance: camera -to subject, 27. 35, 167: and filter factor, 164-65: anil flash, 168-
film. 10. 12: single-lens reflex: see sep- flash-to-subject, 167-458: scale. 33-34 71; half-stop, 20; for printing, 117; and
arate listing; snapshot, 10: sub-minia- Dodging. 128. 131-31. 1JJ s h u t t e r speed, 45-49. See also Aper-
ture. 10; 35-millimeter, II: twin-lens re- Dodging tool. 133, 188 ture: Lens(es)
flex: see separate listing', view: see Dry mounting: by iron, 15.!. 157; by press, Fiber-based paper prints. 108. 193; buy-
separate listing; viewfinder, 12, 18 152-57. 153 ing guide. 212: curling, 157; developing
Changing bag. 71. 77 Drying screens, 135-36 time. 119-20: drying, 136-38; fixing
time. 121: h a r d e n e r for. 112: stop bath
for, 112, 120; washing, 1:54-35. See also Flare, 182, 183 stop: see separate listing; fast. 20; fixed,
Paper; Prints, Resin-coaled paper Flash/flash units, 67, 166-69; automatic, 18; focal length. 21-28, 25, 27, 104, 177-
Film. 10; advancing. 11-12; bulk, 8, 204- 170: for blocking up. 63: bounced, 167- 79; function of, 6, 18; interchangeable,
6, 201,-6; buying guide, 212: cassette, 68, 171,173; direct, 172; electronic, 165, 18; macro, 177; nodal point of, 23; open-
11, 7«S; chromogenic, 198-99; for close- 166, 170, 171; features, 174-75; and film ing: see Aperture; preset (manual). 21;
up photography, 177; composition of, 3: speed, 169, 170-71; guide number, 169: shade, 1X2. 183; slow, 20; taking, 16;
copy, 1X5; dense areas, 4; development; light, 167-68, 171. 175; manual. 170, viewing. 16. See also Aperture; F-stop;
see separate fisting-, emulsion, 3; for- 174: and quantity of light, 168, 169; re- Focus; and specific camera types
mats, 8. 9, 10, 23; gelatin emulsion, 6; cycling time, 171; and s h u t t e r synchro- Lens(es) (enlarging), 7. 104, 113
grain structure, 98-99; for high-contrast nization, 165-67, 169; and s h u t t e r type, Lens categories: normal. 22, 23, 21,, 27,
photography, 185. 187; infrared, 196— 42, 166-67 35; telepholo. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 35,
98, 197; and light, 3; light-sensitivity. Focal lengt h (of lenses), 21-23, 10.',, 177- 201: wide-angle, 22, 23-24, 24, 26, 27,
48; loading, 10-11, 205-6; orthochro- 79; and depth of field, 27; and film for- 35, 201; zoom. 28, 25-27
matic, 185, 187; for photograms, 191; mat, 28; and image distortion, 25; with Light: artificial, 67, 165, 184; backlighting,
roll. 8-10, 9, 78; sheet, 9, 90, 187-8«; teleconverter, 25 62-63, 62; bounced, 167-68, 171: dif-
35-millimeter, 8, 9; unloading. 11. See Focus/focusing systems, 12, 18: in close- fused, 171-74; and film, 3: flash, 167-68;
a/so Negative(s) up photography, 175-77; by distance high-contrast, 90; incident, 53, 53, 59;
Film-advance lever, 11 scale, 33-34; on ground glass, 13-14, 17. indoor, 67; low-contrast, 90-92, 96; and
Film developmenL'processing, 8, 91; for 21; guess, 35; for infrared film, 198; low-light conditions, 64, 65-67, 92-96,
blocked-up negatives, 63; chemicals for, rangefinder (prism), 15; reversed im- 175; natural, 175; non-image, 188; re-
72-77, 75, 81-82; and contrast, 88-90, age, 16; screen pattern, 14; selective. flected, 4, 4, 53, 53. 67
S9\ equipment, 69-71; evaluation of, 99- 29, 31: split-image screen, 14; zone, 85; Light meters, 49; accuracy of, 53-55. 65;
100; for high-contrast negatives, 186- zone of, 27. 29. See a/so Viewing/focus- and ASA setting, 49; averaging, 53, 51,;
87; loading film for. 77-80, 79; for low- ing systems center-weighted. 53: digital readout
light photography, 65-67; overdevel- Focusing hood. 16. 17 system, 51, 52; electronic diode system,
oped, 88-92: procedure, 82-85, 83, 8/,; 51, 51; general reading from, 55-57, 56-
and reciprocity failure, 48-49; time-tem- 57; hand-held, 50, 51-52, 52, 54, 55; in-
p e r a t u r e chart for, 73, 82; underdevel- camera, 3, 49; and incident light, 49, 53,
oped, 88-92. See also Negative(s): Gelatin emulsion, 6 59; and infrared film, 1%; light-intensity
Printing process Grain, graininess, 17. 46, $7; of negatives, scale, 51-52: and low-light photography,
Film exposure, i , 6, 99-100. See also Ex- 47, 76. 98. 98-99. 18G: of prints, 97-99, 65. 96; matching-rieedle system, 50, 51,
posure time (film) 114-15 52; principle of, 54-55; and reflected
Film plane, 23 Gray card. 57-58, 58, 177 light. 53; separate, 3; and shadow den-
Ground glass: viewing focusing on. 13-14, sity, 60: spot. 53, 51,, 60; through-the-
17, 21 lens. 50-51, 50-51, 54, 55, 165. 177
Film speed: and a p e r t u r e , 48; chromo- Light readings: averaged shadows and
genic film, 199; and depth of field, 47; H a r d e n e r s , 74, 112 highlights, 59; bracketed, 59; from gray
and exposure time, 44-45, 47; fast. 4 4 - Highlight density, 88. 90, 92, 100 card, 57-58; from incident light, 59;
45, 47. 48; and Hash. 169, 170-71: and Holding bath. 112-13, 121 from shadows. 59-60, 61: from skin, 5 8 -
grain structure, 98; for low-light pho- Hot shoe, 166, 167 59
tography, 65, 67, 92-%; rating, 45; Hypo. See F i x e r
slow, 14-45, 47, 48
Filter factor. 164-65, 198
Filters (camera): and black and white
Image: area. 21. 22, 24; blurred, 88, 39; Mackie lines, 190
prints, 161-62; clear. 159; colored, 159-
65, 160; density, 162; glass, 159; for distortion, 24-25, 26\ latent. 3,117. 119: Manufacturers: chemicals, film, and pa-
infrared film, 196-98; neutral density, reversed. 16; size, 113. 151 per, 212-13
162: polarizing, 162, 163, 164; principle Infrared, 196 .Mat c u t t e r , 150
of, 159-62; sizes, 159; use of, 161-64 ISO film-speed rating, 45 Motor drive, 184, 18.',
Filters (enlarging), 111 Mounting, 149-57, 149, 154: dry-mount-
Filters (printing), 109-11, 125-28 Kodak Kodalith film, 185. 187-88, 190, ing, 152-57, 153. 156; flush-mounting,
Fixer {hypo): buying guide, 213; for film. 191, 200 157. 157
74. 81-82, 84: for prints, 111. 112. 120. Mounting board: for overmats, 149-52,
121 Latent image, 3, 117, 119 149, 151.154; size of, vs. print size, 149-
Lens(es) (camera), 18. 19; angles of view, 51
Fixer (hypo) check, 74. 84: buying guide. 21, 23, 25, 27: aperture: see separate
213 listing; automatic, 21: board, 17; buying Negative(s), 5, 6; blocked up, 63, 90;
Fixer remover, 74, 81, 84, 111. 112, 120; guide, 201; cleaning, 184, 203; close-up, cleaning of, 107, 115; contact-printing
buying guide, 213 176, 177; covering power, 101, 105; f- of, 138; contrast, 86-90.87, 89, 124,124,
125-26; cropping, 114-15, 116; defects, 193-94, 195; preserving. 142—43; quality 199; for printing, 113. 119
207-10, 208, 209; density, 43. 44-45, 99; of, 123-24; solarized (reexposed), 189- Test strip: for contact prints, 140. 188;
evaluation of, 99-100; exposure: see Ex- 91, 189; spotting. 145-48, 156; toning, developing, 119-21; for exposure time,
posure time; film, flare on. 182, 183; fo- 144-45; viewing, 121; washing, 121. 128; how to make. 117-19, 118, 122; for
cusing, 115; graininess, 57, 76, 98-99, 134-35, 135, 136 photograms, 193; for spotting, 147—18
98, 186; high-contrast (hard), 86, 185- Processing tank, 70, 77, 80 Through-the-lens viewing/focusing, 13,
86; highlight (dense) area, 5-6, 6-7; low- Pushing film, 65-67, 92-97, 93-95 13, 15, 17. 165; and depth of field, 33;
contrast (flat), 86; Mackie lines on, 190; with lenses, 20; with light meters, 5 0 -
preparation for printing, 113-15, 115- 51
Reciprocity failure. 48-49, 179
15; preserving, 142-43; properties of, 4:
Reel, (59, 70 Thyristor circuitry (in flash units), 175
sandwiched, 195-96, 195: shadow (thin)
area, 6-7; sizes, 8, 99: solarized (reex- Replenisher (for developer), 73 Toners, 144-45; buying guide. 213
posed). 189-91; transfer, 187-88; under- Resin-coated (RC) paper/prints, 108, 113, Tripod, 179-81, 179; and s h u t t e r speed,
exposed, 67; vignetting on, 183. See also 193; buying guide, 212; developing time, 40,180; with slow film, 185; used in tele-
Film 119-20; drying, 136-38; fixing time, 121; photography. 25, 181
h a r d e n e r for, 112; spotting solution for, Twin-lens reflex (TLR) camera: and close-
Negative carrier, 103-4, /'/J, 113 148; stop bath for. 112. 120; washing. up photography, 175; film for, 17; and
Negative envelopes, 71, 71 134-35. See also Fiber-based paper, flash. 167: lenses, 18, 21; shutters. 41;
prints; Paper; Prints viewing/focusing system, 16
Reticulation, 75, 76
Overmats, 149-52; and framing, 158
Rewind button, 11
View camera, Hi. 17; and close-up photog-
Panning, 38-40, 50 raphy, 175: and depth of field, 3:?; and
Paper (photographic/printing): base type, Sabattier effect. 189-91 flash. 167; lenses, 16, 18, 20-21; shut-
108; buying guide, 212; contrast grades, Selenium toner. 144-45 t e r s . 11
109, 110, 125-28, 141, 142; developing Sensor (in Hash units), 170 Viewing/focusing systems, 18; on ground
time, 119-20; emulsion, 6. 108; exposure Sepia toner. 144 glass. 13-14. 17, 21; preview setting. 33;
time, 6, 7, 117, 118-19. 121-23, 128; Shadow density, 88, 90-92, 96 through-the-lens, 13, 13, 17, 20, 33, 165.
high-contrast, 187; kinds: see Fiber- Shutter(s): button, 6, 37, 38; electronic, See also Focus-focusing systems
based paper; resin-coated paper for neg- 37; and film exposure. 36-38; and flash, Vignetting. 183. 183
ative prints, 193; for sandwiched nega- 42; focal plane, 41, 52. 166; functions,
tives, 196; tone, 109; variable-contrast, 36: leaf. 4 1 , 5 1 , 167; mechanical. 37
Wetting agent/solution. 75. 81-82, 84-85;
Shutter speed. 6. 36-37; and blurred im-
109, 125-2(5; weight. 108-9 age. 39, 40; in close-up photography, buying guide, 213
Parallax, 12 178-79; dial settings, 36-38, 37, 14; and Working solutions. 72. 75-77
Pc (synch) cord, 166, 167 exposure time, 36-38, 44; and f-stop,
Photoflood, 184, 185 45-49: for low-light photography, 05-67,
Photograms, 191-93, 192 96-97: and movement of camera, 38-40,
Print blotters, 136 39: and movement of subject, 38; and
Print driers, 107; electric, 138 tripod. 40. 180
Print washer, 135 Silver halide, 3. 6. 108
Printing process(es), 120; burning in, 63, Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera, 12-13,
128—31, 129, 130, 134, 141; chemicals. 13: and camera movement, 40; and
111-13, ill, 120: dodging, 128, 131-34, close-up photography, 175 77: and
122; equipment. 101-8; filters in, 109- depth of field, 33: and flash, 166; focus-
111; gang-printing. 142; high-contrast, ing viewing mechanism, 13-14, 13;
185-88; for infrared film, 198; negative lenses, 18, 20, 21; shutters. 42
preparation, 113-15, 114-15; pushing Solarization, 189-91, 200
film. 65-67, 92-97. 93, 95; temperature. Spotting, 145-48
113. 119: two-bath fixing system. 112, Stock solutions, 72-75
120. 123 Stop bath: buying guide, 213; for film. 73-
74, 81-82; for prints. 111. 112, 120, 121
Prints. 5: archival standards for, 142-43;
contact. 138-40, 139, 188; contrast, 109.
110, 123-24, 124, 126; curling of, 135,
136, 157: defects, 210-11; drying. 135- Tacking iron, 153, 153
38, 137; fine-tuning. 141; flare on. 182, Take-up spool, 10
183; framing, 150, 158; graininess of, Teleconverter, 25, 25
97-99, 114-15: high-contrast, 186-88, Temperature: of dry-mounting press. 155:
186; mounting. 149-57, 155: negative, for film development, 73, 75-77, 82. 99,
PHOTOGRAPHY

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T h e C a m e r a B o d y T h e C a m e r a Lens T h e Shutter Film E x p o s u r e Film D e v e l o p i n g
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