Table of Contents

Title Pages

Theory X 2

Theory Y 4

Theory Z 7

Contingency Theory 12

Classical Management Theory 15

Bureaucracy 19

Motivation-Hygiene Theory 24

Behavioral Theory 32

Human Relations Theory 36

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The McGregor Theory X and Theory Y
In 1960, Douglas McGregor developed a leadership theory (McGregor Theory X and
Theory Y) about organization and management in which he represented two opposing
perceptions about people. He referred to these two perceptions as Theory X and Theory
Y. Douglas McGregor then arrived at the conclusion that the style of leadership depends on
the manager’s perception of people.

Theory X

In Theory X, Douglas McGregor summarizes the traditional view of management in a

number of characteristic assumptions in which autocratic leadership style, close supervision
and the hierarchical principle are the key elements.

Theory X starts from the assumption that people are naturally lazy, want to avoid
work as much as possible, do not wish to take responsibility, have no ambition and prefer to
be supervised. The authoritarian leadership style is therefore the most appropriate
leadership style in Theory X. According to this theory, pure work motivation consists of
financial incentives. People want to avoid work and they must be continually coerced and
controlled. Therefore, the system of rewards and punishments works best for them.
Furthermore, their tasks and how these should execute must be laid down in detail.
According to this theory, people definitely do not wish to bear any responsibility for their
work.

Theory X managers tend to take a pessimistic view of their people, and assume that
they are naturally unmotivated and dislike work. As a result, they think that team members
need to be prompted, rewarded or punished constantly to make sure that they complete their
tasks.

Work in organizations that are managed like this can be repetitive, and people are
often motivated with a "carrot and stick" approach. Performance appraisals and
remuneration are usually based on tangible results, such as sales figures or product output,
and are used to control staff and "keep tabs" on them.

This style of management assumes that workers:

• Dislike their work.

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• Avoid responsibility and need constant direction.

• Have to be controlled, forced and threatened to deliver work.

• Need to be supervised at every step.

• Have no incentive to work or ambition, and therefore need to be enticed by

rewards to achieve goals.

According to McGregor, organizations with a Theory X approach tend to have several

tiers of managers and supervisors to oversee and direct workers. Authority is rarely
delegated, and control remains firmly centralized. Managers are more authoritarian and
actively intervene to get things done.

Although Theory X management has largely fallen out of fashion in recent times, big
organizations may find that adopting it is unavoidable due to the sheer number of people
that they employ and the tight deadlines that they have to meet.

According to McGregor, Theory X management assumes the following:

 Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work
whenever possible.

 Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be
directed.

 Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems.

 Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs.

 Most people are self-centered. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often
coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

 Most people resist change.

 Most people are gullible and unintelligent.

Essentially, Theory X assumes that the primary source of employee motivation is monetary,
with security as a strong second. Under Theory X, one can take a hard or soft approach to
getting results.

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Theory Y

Theory Y assumes that people are inherently happy to work, they want to exert themselves
and they are motivated to pursue objectives. There is no need for the system that involves
rewards and punishments. People are prepared to take responsibility for everything they do.
People want to use their creativity and they like to take a creative problem solving approach.

Theory Y managers have an optimistic, positive opinion of their people, and they use
a decentralized, participative management style. This encourages a more collaborative,
trust-based relationship between managers and their team members.

People have greater responsibility, and managers encourage them to develop their skills and
suggest improvements. Appraisals are regular but, unlike in Theory X organizations, they are
used to encourage open communication rather than control staff.

Theory Y organizations also give employees frequent opportunities for promotion.

This style of management assumes that workers are:

• Happy to work on their own initiative.

• More involved in decision making.

• Self-motivated to complete their tasks.

• Enjoy taking ownership of their work.

• Seek and accept responsibility, and need little direction.

• View work as fulfilling and challenging.

• Solve problems creatively and imaginatively.

Theory Y has become more popular among organizations. This reflects workers' increasing
desire for more meaningful careers that provide them with more than just money.

It's also viewed by McGregor as superior to Theory X, which, he says, reduces workers to
"cogs in a machine," and likely demotivates people in the long term.

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The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are ongoing needs that, for most
people, are never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which
employees can best be motivated.

In strong contrast to Theory X, Theory Y management makes the following assumptions:

 Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favorable.

 People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational
objectives if they are committed to them.

 People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in
place that addresses higher needs such as self-fulfilment.

 The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations.

 Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common
in the population.

 Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.

Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational
goals by using the employee’s own need for fulfilment as the motivator. McGregor stressed
that Theory Y management does not imply a soft approach.

McGregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity assumed
by Theory Y and may initially need tighter controls that can be relaxed as the employee
develops.

If Theory Y holds true, an organization can apply the following principles of scientific

management to improve employee motivation:

 Decentralization and delegation: If firms decentralize control and reduce the

number of levels of management, managers will have more subordinates and
consequently need to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.

 Job enlargement: Broadening the scope of an employee’s job adds variety and
opportunities to satisfy ego needs.

 Participative management: Consulting employees in the decision-making process

taps their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work
environment.

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 Performance appraisals: Having the employee set objectives and participate in the
process of self-evaluation increases engagement and dedication.

If properly implemented, such an environment can increase and continually fuel motivation

as employees work to satisfy their higher-level personal needs through their jobs.

Capabilities

A democratic leadership style arises on the basis of Theory Y which allows the
employees to have a greater say. Encouragement and rewards are used rather than control
and coercion. Employees are given an opportunity to develop themselves and put their
capabilities to good use. When an organization does not respond to this, employees will start
looking for possibilities to deploy their skills outside their work. Initially, they will focus on
hobbies, committee and voluntary work, but eventually this could result in a hunt for another
job.

Critical note on the McGregor Theory

The McGregor Theory X and Theory Y are not based on a single truth. Theory X
managers and Theory Y managers often see their perceptions of people confirmed. The
democratic approach of Theory Y makes people feel comfortable as a result of which they
commit themselves wholeheartedly to the organization. Managers, who build on the basic
principles of Theory X, are often met with a vicious circle in which their suppositions become
reality and in which cause and effect are reversed. Their employees are accustomed to
coercion and control and will therefore not make any effort at all or bear responsibility.

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Ouchi’s Theory Z

Theory Z is an approach to management based upon a combination of American and

Japanese management philosophies and characterized by, among other things, long-term
job security, consensual decision making, slow evaluation and promotion procedures, and
individual responsibility within a group context. Proponents of Theory Z suggest that it leads
to improvements in organizational performance. The following sections highlight the
development of Theory Z, Theory Z as an approach to management including each of the
characteristics noted above, and an evaluation of Theory Z. Realizing the historical context
in which Theory Z emerged is helpful in understanding its underlying principles. The
following section provides this context.

Management professor William Ouchi argued that Western organizations could

learn from their Japanese counterparts. Although born and educated in America, Ouchi was
of Japanese descent and spent a lot of time in Japan studying the country’s approach to
workplace teamwork and participative management. The result was Theory Z—a
development beyond Theory X and Theory Y that blended the best of Eastern and Western
management practices. Ouchi’s theory first appeared in his 1981 book, Theory Z: How
American Management Can Meet the Japanese Challenge. The benefits of Theory Z, Ouchi
claimed, would be reduced employee turnover, increased commitment, improved morale and
job satisfaction, and drastic increases in productivity.

Theory Z stresses the need to help workers become generalists, rather than

specialists. It views job rotations and continual training as a means of increasing employees’
knowledge of the company and its processes while building a variety of skills and
abilities. Since workers are given much more time to receive training, rotate through jobs,
and master the intricacies of the company’s operations, promotions tend to be slower. The
rationale for the drawn-out time frame is that it helps develop a more dedicated, loyal, and
permanent workforce, which benefits the company; the employees, meanwhile, have the
opportunity to fully develop their careers at one company. When employees rise to a higher
level of management, it is expected that they will use Theory Z to “bring up,” train, and
develop other employees in a similar fashion.

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Ouchi’s Theory Z makes certain assumptions about workers. One assumption is that
they seek to build cooperative and intimate working relationships with their co-workers. In
other words, employees have a strong desire for affiliation. Another assumption is that
workers expect reciprocity and support from the company. According to Theory Z, people
want to maintain a work-life balance, and they value a working environment in which things
like family, culture, and traditions are considered to be just as important as the work itself.
Under Theory Z management, not only do workers have a sense of cohesion with their
fellow workers, they also develop a sense of order, discipline, and a moral obligation to work
hard. Finally, Theory Z assumes that given the right management support, workers can be
trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability and look after for their own and others’ well-
being.

Theory Z also makes assumptions about company culture. If a company wants to realize
the benefits described above, it need to have the following:

 A strong company philosophy and culture: The company philosophy and culture

need to be understood and embodied by all employees, and employees need to
believe in the work they’re doing.

 Long-term staff development and employment: The organization and

management team need to have measures and programs in place to develop
employees. Employment is usually long-term, and promotion is steady and
measured. This leads to loyalty from team members.

 Consensus in decisions: Employees are encouraged and expected to take part in

organizational decisions.

 Generalist employees: Because employees have a greater responsibility in making

decisions and understand all aspects of the organization, they ought to be
generalists. However, employees are still expected to have specialized career
responsibilities.

 Concern for the happiness and well-being of workers: The organization shows

sincere concern for the health and happiness of its employees and their families. It
takes measures and creates programs to help foster this happiness and well-being.

 Informal control with formalized measures: Employees are empowered to perform

tasks the way they see fit, and management is quite hands-off. However, there
should be formalized measures in place to assess work quality and performance.

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 Individual responsibility: The organization recognizes the individual contributions
but always within the context of the team as a whole.

Theory Z is not the last word on management, however, as it does have its limitations. It can
be difficult for organizations and employees to make life-time employment commitments.
Also, participative decision-making may not always be feasible or successful due to the
nature of the work or the willingness of the workers. Slow promotions, group decision-
making, and life-time employment may not be a good fit with companies operating in cultural,
social, and economic environments where those work practices are not the norm.

THEORY Z AS AN APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT

Theory Z represents a humanistic approach to management. Although it is based on

Japanese management principles, it is not a pure form of Japanese management. Instead,
Theory Z is a hybrid management approach combining Japanese management philosophies
with U.S. culture. In addition, Theory Z breaks away from McGregor's Theory Y. Theory Y is
a largely psychological perspective focusing on individual dyads of employer-employee
relationships while Theory Z changes the level of analysis to the entire organization.

According to Professor Ouchi, Theory Z organizations exhibit a strong, homogeneous

set of cultural values that are similar to clan cultures. The clan culture is characterized by
homogeneity of values, beliefs, and objectives. Clan cultures emphasize complete
socialization of members to achieve congruence of individual and group goals. Although
Theory Z organizations exhibit characteristics of clan cultures, they retain some elements of
bureaucratic hierarchies, such as formal authority relationships, performance evaluation, and
some work specialization. Proponents of Theory Z suggest that the common cultural values
should promote greater organizational commitment among employees. The primary features
of Theory Z are summarized in the paragraphs that follow.

LONG-TERM EMPLOYMENT

Traditional U.S. organizations are plagued with short-term commitments by employees, but
employers using more traditional management perspective may inadvertently encourage this
by treating employees simply as replaceable cogs in the profit-making machinery. In the
United States, employment at will, which essentially means the employer or the employee
can terminate the employment relationship at any time, has been among the dominant forms
of employment relationships. Conversely, Type J organizations generally make life-long
commitments to their employees and expect loyalty in return, but Type J organizations set

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the conditions to encourage this. This promotes stability in the organization and job security
among employees.

CONSENSUAL DECISION MAKING

The Type Z organization emphasizes communication, collaboration, and consensus in

decision making. This marks a contrast from the traditional Type A organization that
emphasizes individual decision-making.

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY

Type A organizations emphasize individual accountability and performance appraisal.

Traditionally, performance measures in Type J companies have been oriented to the group.
Thus, Type Z organizations retain the emphasis on individual contributions that are
characteristic of most American firms by recognizing individual achievements, albeit within
the context of the wider group.

SLOW EVALUATION AND PROMOTION

The Type A organization has generally been characterized by short-term evaluations of

performance and rapid promotion of high achievers. The Type J organization, conversely,
adopts the Japanese model of slow evaluation and promotion.

INFORMAL CONTROL WITH FORMALIZED MEASURES

The Type Z organization relies on informal methods of control, but does measure
performance through formal mechanisms. This is an attempt to combine elements of both
the Type A and Type J organizations.

MODERATELY SPECIALIZED CAREER PATH

Type A organizations have generally had quite specialized career paths, with employees
avoiding jumps from functional area to another. Conversely, the Type J organization has
generally had quite non-specialized career paths. The Type Z organization adopts a middle-
of-the-road posture, with career paths that are less specialized than the traditional U.S.
model but more specialized than the traditional Japanese model.

HOLISTIC CONCERN

The Type Z organization is characterized by concern for employees that goes beyond the
workplace. This philosophy is more consistent with the Japanese model than the U.S.
model.

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EVALUATION OF THEORY Z

Research into whether Theory Z organizations outperform others has yielded mixed results.
Some studies suggest that Type Z organizations achieve benefits both in terms of employee
satisfaction, motivation, and commitment as well as in terms of financial performance. Other
studies conclude that Type Z organizations do not outperform other organizations.

Difficulties in the Japanese economy in the 1990s led some researchers to suggest that the
widespread admiration of Japanese management practices in the 1970s and 1980s might
have been misplaced. As a result, Theory Z has also received considerable criticism. It is
unclear whether Theory Z will have a lasting impact on management practices in the U. S.
and around the world into the twenty-first century, but by positioning target research at the
organizational level rather than the individual level, Ouchi will surely leave his mark on
management practice for years to come.

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Contingency Theory  

The Contingency Theory of Leadership states that a leader’s effectiveness is

contingent upon with how his or her leadership style matches to the situation (Leadership
Theories, n.d). That is, the leader must find out what kind of leadership style and situation he
or she thrives in. The Contingency Theory is concerned with the following:

 “There is no one best style of leadership” (Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d)

 A leader is effective when his or her style of leadership fits with the situation
(Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d)

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

This theory puts forth the idea that effective leadership hinges not only on the style used by
the leader, but also on the control held over the situation. In order to succeed, there must be
strong leader-member relations. Leaders must also present tasks clearly and with goals and
procedures outlined. They need to possess the ability to hand out punishments and rewards,
as well.

This particular theory only fits situations where groups are closely supervised and not team-
based. It also uses a least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale to help determine the type of
worker the leader least likes working with. This theory emphasizes the leader’s disposition
as the main trait that defines the ability to lead.

How Fiedler’s Contingency Theory Works

The Contingency theory is not concerned with having the leader adapt to a situation, rather
the goal is to match the leader’s style with a compatible situation (Gupta, 2009). To make
best use of this theory, it is important to find what style a leader has (Gupta, 2009). This is
done through the Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC) (Gupta, 2009).

The LPC is a list of questions designed to find out what kind of employee a leader would
most like to work with, and in turn shows the leaders style (Gupta, 2009). Fiedler’s

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Contingency Model attempts to match the leader’s style using LPC to the situation in which
they would thrive (Gupta, 2009).

 High LPC Score– leader with good personal skills and relies on relationships with
others to accomplish tasks (Fiedler’s, n.d); people-oriented

 Low LPC Score– leader that accomplishes goals through focus on the task and
positional power (Fiedler’s, n.d); task-oriented

Task-oriented leaders are most effective when their positional power is high, as well as the
task structure (Gupta, 2009). People or relation-oriented leaders perform their best when the
relationship levels between themselves and followers are at their greatest (Gupta, 2009).
After finding the style of the leader, Fiedler’s Model states that finding the best situation for
the leader, also known as “situational favorableness” (Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d).

A situation is defined by three factors in the contingency theory:

1. Leader-Member Relation- how the leader interacts with employees (Gupta, 2009).

2. Task Structure- how tasks are set up by the leader (Gupta, 2009).

3. Positional Power- the amount of power a leader has over followers (Gupta, 2009).

These three factors combine to form the situation in which a leader’s style is effective or
ineffective. If the three factors match up to the style of the leader, success is projected
(Gupta, 2009). It is important to remember that the opposite can happen as well. If a leader
is put into a situation opposite of his or her favored task structure, member relation, and level
of power, then failure is to ensue (Gupta, 2009). The three factors of contingency situation
have less of an impact on leaders who are task-oriented, or score low LPC’s, than leaders
who are people-oriented and score high LPC’s (Fiedler’s, n.d). By using the results from the
LPC to find a person’s leadership style, and analyzing their preferred leader-member
relation, task structure, and positional power, finding the right job or position for someone
can be more accurately accomplished (Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d). 

Comparisons to other Leadership Theories

Comparing Fiedler’s Contingency Theory to other theories, we see that the contingency
theory incorporates some parts of other theories. In many ways, the contingency theory
derives from the trait theory (Leadership, n.d). A leader’s traits are directly related to the
most effective style and situation in which they lead (Leadership, n.d). The factor of relations
with followers related to the transactional and transformational theories (Leadership, n.d).

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The Contingency Theory states that a leader’s relations impact their effectiveness, which is
the basis of these two theories (Leadership, n.d). In transactional leadership, a leader’s
ability to influence followers with rewards and punishments for behavior to ensure member
goals is the basis of the style (Leadership, n.d). In Transformational Theory, the leader relies
on building relationships between themselves and followers (Leadership, n.d). Leaders who
are people-oriented rely on these relationships to be effective and have influence over his or
her followers (Fiedler’s, n.d).

Strengths of Contingency Theory

 Used to create leadership profiles for organizations

 Puts emphasis on combination of leaders style and the situation

 “It is predictive; there is a well-defined method to evaluate LPC and Situations”

(Gupta, 2009).

The Contingency Theory can be used to create leadership profiles for organizations,
in which certain styles can be matched with situations that have proven to be successful
(Gupta, 2009). Companies can know what type of person would fit in each position of the
organization whenever there is an opening. This theory also helps to reduce what is
expected from leaders, and instead puts emphasis on finding a match to the situation
(Gupta, 2009). This theory, although complex, is very useful in matching professionals to the
right situations and determining the best person for a job (Gupta, 2009).

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Classical management theory
Classical management theory is based on the belief that workers only have physical
and economic needs. It does not take into account social needs or job satisfaction, but
instead advocates a specialization of labor, centralized leadership and decision-making, and
profit maximization.

There are different views of management and classical views of management or

classical management theory is also one of them. Management has always remained a
challenge for people. Planning, organizing, recruiting, directing and controlling, etc
everything comes under the Responsibilities of Manager. In early 90’s, when industrialization
got boom, managers realized that there should be some scientific methods to increase
productivity. Different managers provided their views to describe the classical viewpoint,
which are also known as classical management theory, such as scientific, bureaucratic and
administrative, etc.

It was introduced in the late 19th century. It became widespread in the first half of the
20th century, as organizations tried to address issues of industrial management, including
specialization, efficiency, higher quality, cost reduction and management-worker
relationships. It designed solely to streamline operations, increase productivity and enhance
the bottom line. While other management theories have evolved since then, classical
management approaches are still used today by many small-business owners to build their
companies and to succeed, and also this theory offers some principles that remain valid, to
an extent, in small business settings in regards to manufacturing.

Concepts of the Ideal Workplace

The theory outlines an ideal workplace as one that rests on three main concepts:

 Hierarchical structure – One of the advantages of the classical management

structure is a clear organizational hierarchy with three distinct layers of management
(distinct management levels) and each management group/level has its own
objectives and responsibilities. At the very top are the owners, board of directors and
executives that was responsible and set the long-range objectives for a firm. Middle
management takes on the responsibility of overseeing supervisors while setting goals

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at the department level to fit within the confines of the managers’ budget. At the
lowest level of the chain are supervisors, who manage day-to-day activities, address
employee problems and provide training.
 Specialization/ Division of Labor – It is one of the advantages of classical
management theory that involves an assembly line view of the workplace/projects in
which large tasks are broken down into smaller tasks that are easy to complete.
Workers understand their roles and typically narrow their field of expertise to
specialize in a single area. This helps increase productivity and efficiency while
eliminating the need for employees to multi-task. Employees' responsibilities and
expectations are clearly defined. The division of labor approach leads to increased
productivity and higher efficiency, as workers are not expected to multitask. Small-
businesses owners can benefit from taking this approach if they are looking to
increase production with minimal expense.
 Incentives/Monetary Incentive– This theory believes that employees are motivated by
financial rewards. It proposes that employees will work harder and be more
productive if they are awarded incentives based on their work. Employers who can
motivate their employees using this tactic may be able to achieve increased
production, efficiency and profit. This gives management easier control over the
workforce. Employees feel appreciated when being rewarded for hard work. A small-
business owner can take this approach to motivate the employees to achieve
production goals.
 Autocratic leadership model– The central part of classical management theory. In this
system, there is no need to consult large groups of people for decisions to be made.
It states that an organization should have a single leader to make decisions, to
organize and direct the employees. All decisions are made at the top level and
communicated down. This leadership approach can be beneficial when decisions
need to be made quickly by one leader, rather than a group of company officials.
Small businesses, especially sole proprietorships, can have an advantage in taking
this approach, as they need a strong leader to grow.

Strengths of the Theory

While not typically used in today’s workplaces, the classical management theory does have
some strong points. They include:

 A clear structure for management, its functions and operations

 The division of labor that can make tasks easier and more efficient to accomplish,
which can enhance productivity

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 Clear definition of employee roles and tasks with little left to guesswork

Flaws in the Model

When the theory is put into action, companies can see their production numbers increase.
There are, however, some flaws that make this particular management model less than
attractive in workplaces. These pitfalls include:

 By attempting to predict and control human behavior, this theory overlooks the
importance of human relations and creativity.
 In essence, this theory views workers almost as machines, but fails to take into
account what job satisfaction, employee input and morale can bring to the workplace.
 The reliance on prior experience and the ability to apply it almost solely to
manufacturing settings is another drawback of this theory.

The classical management theory can help streamline manufacturing operations where high
productivity is a must. However, it fell out of favor after the rise of the human relations
movement, which sought to gain a better understanding of the human motivation for
productivity. Although some of its facets are viable for certain circumstances, this theory
generally does not translate well to workplaces today.

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Bureaucracy

The term bureaucracy refers to all those processes, characterized by

excessive complexity resulting in undue delay or inaction in education and administration.
The uncontrolled swelling, which dominates the entire educational and administrative
system, leads to a complicated, cumbersome and time consuming operation of these
systems, causing stiffness, resulting in higher costs, in sharp drop to service quality, in
wasted delays and in citizen’s justified grievances. Although the term bureaucracy is usually
used with a cynical sense, and in order to describe the bad aspects of the
education and the administration, in the case of these institutions, the bureaucracy
refers to a complex organizational and operating system. This system consists of a huge
number of relations, activities, roles and hierarchical dependencies, developed in the field of
education and administration, to carry out policies, which are set by the current political
leadership and cover in an unusual way the entire range functions. In its ideal form,
bureaucracy requires by its rates consistency, loyalty and adaptability to the environment
and to the changing circumstances.

Introduction

Bureaucracy in its modern form was developed parallel with the development of the
nation’s state, which undertook the exercise of many powers formerly exercised by other
bodies, which had a weak dependence on central power. A first form of bureaucratic
administration with the current concept was the Army, who took the exercise of powers
very early, having the survival of the nation as its primary purpose, taking into account that
all the authorities during the medieval period and during the feudalism was concentrated in
certain individuals. Then, it was mercantilism that also encouraged the growth of
bureaucracy, as states that emerged, at least in their early steps, with their bureaucratic
structures promoted the strengthening of the foreign trade and developed a number
of formalistic rules, which aimed at trade’s and industry’s promotion.

Furthermore, bureaucracy during the development of the state combined with the
efficient administration, which had as basic requirements training of various projects and
programs, making decisions, issuing instructions, carrying the mail, processing different
data, record keeping and the need of handling the details, which provided for the

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implementation of all these conditions, which had as its main feature the
complexity of procedures and methods.

The above range of bureaucracy imposed the need for permanent staff,
in education and administration (Peter Blau and Marshall Meyer, 1997). Nevertheless
during the procession, bureaucracy was connected with the pathologies and failures, so the
misuse of the term will dominate, due to the combination of officials’
authoritarian arrogance, which was the result of dishonest administration methods.

Bureaucracy definition: “Bureaucracy is an organizational structure that is characterized by

many rules, standardized processes, procedures and requirements, number of desks,
meticulous division of labour and responsibility, clear hierarchies and professional, almost
impersonal interactions between employees”.

According to the bureaucratic theory of Max Weber, such a structure was indispensable in
large organizations in structurally performing all tasks by a great number of employees. In
addition, in a bureaucratic organization, selection and promotion only occur on the basis of
technical qualifications.

Legal responsibility

According to the bureaucratic theory of Max Weber, three types of power can be found in
organizations; traditional power, charismatic power and legal power. He refers in his
bureaucratic theory to the latter as a bureaucracy. All aspects of a democracy are organised
on the basis of rules and laws, making the principle of established jurisdiction prevail.

The following three elements support bureaucratic management:

1. All regular activities within a bureaucracy can be regarded as official duties;

2. Management has the authority to impose rules;

3. Rules can easily be respected on the basis of established methods.

What is a bureaucratic organization?

According to the bureaucratic theory of Max Weber, bureaucracy is the basis for the
systematic formation of any organisation and is designed to ensure efficiency and economic
effectiveness. It is an ideal model for management and its administration to bring an
organisation’s power structure into focus. With these observations, he lays down the basic
principles of bureaucracy and emphasises the division of labour, hierarchy, rules and
impersonal relationship.

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Max Weber’s bureaucratic management principles

Below is a more detailed explanation of the 6 bureaucratic management principles:

1. Task specialisation

Tasks are divided into simple, routine categories on the basis of competencies and
functional specializations. Every employee is responsible for what he/she does best and
knows exactly what is expected of him/her. By dividing work on the basis of specialisation,
the organization directly benefits. Each department has specific powers. As a result, there is
a delineation of tasks and managers can approach their employees more easily when they
do not stick to their tasks. Every employee knows exactly what is expected of him/ her and
what his/ her powers are within the organisation. Every employee has a specific place within
the organisation and is expected to solely focus on his/ her area of expertise. Going beyond
your responsibilities and taking on tasks of colleagues is not permitted within a bureaucracy.

2. Hierarchical of authority

Managers are organised into hierarchical layers, where each layer of management is
responsible for its staff and overall performance. In bureaucratic organizational structures,
there are many hierarchical positions. This is essentially the trademark and foundation of a
bureaucracy. The hierarchy of authority is a system in which different positions are related in
order of precedence and in which the highest rung on the ladder has the greatest power.
The bottom layers of bureaucratic organizational structures are always subject to supervision

20
and control of higher layers. This hierarchy reflects lines of bureaucratic communication and
the degree of delegation and clearly lays out how powers and responsibilities are divided.

3. Formal selection

All employees are selected on the basis of technical skills and competences, which have
been acquired through training, education and experience. One of the basic principles is that
employees are paid for their services and that level of their salary is dependent on their
position. Their contract terms are determined by organisational rules and requirements and
the employee has no ownership interest in the company.

4. Rules and requirements

Formal rules and requirements are required to ensure uniformity, so that employees know
exactly what is expected of them. In this sense, the rules and requirements can be
considered predictable. All administrative processes are defined in the official rules. By
enforcing strict rules, the organisation can more easily achieve uniformity and all employee
efforts can be better coordinated. The rules and requirements are more or less stable and
always formalized in so-called official reports. Should new rules and requirements be
introduced, then senior management or directors are responsible for this.

5. Impersonal

Regulations and clear requirements create distant and impersonal relationships between
employees, with the additional advantage of preventing nepotism or involvement from
outsiders or politics. These impersonal relationship are a prominent feature of
bureaucracies. Interpersonal relationships are solely characterised by a system of public law
and rules and requirements. Official views are free from any personal involvement, emotions
and feelings. Decisions are solely made on the basis of rational factors, rather than personal
factors.

6. Career orientation

Employees of a bureaucratic organisation are selected on the basis of their expertise. This
helps in the deployment of the right people in the right positions and thereby optimally
utilising human capital. In a bureaucracy, it is possible to build a career on the basis of
experience and expertise. As a result, it offers lifetime employment. The right division of
labour within a bureaucratic organisation also allows employees to specialise themselves

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further, so that they may become experts in their own field and significantly improve their
performance.

Advantages and disadvantages of the Bureaucratic Theory

Advantages

Generally speaking, the term bureaucracy has a negative connotation and is often linked to
government agencies and large organisations. Nevertheless, the great benefit of a
bureacracy is that large organisations with many hierarchical layers can become structured
and work effectively. It is precisely the established rules and procedures that allows for high
efficiency and consistent execution of work by all employees.

All this makes it easier for management to maintain control and make adjustments when
necessary. Bureaucracy is especially inevitable in organisations where legislation plays an
important role in delivering a consistent output.

Disadvantages

Bureaucracy is characterised by a large amount of red tape, paperwork, many desks, certain
office culture and slow bureaucratic communication due to its many hierarchical layers. This
is the system’s biggest disadvantage of a bureaucratic organization. It is also unfortunate
that employees remain fairly distanced from each other and the organisation, making them
less loyal.

Bureaucracy is also extremely dependent on regulatory and policy compliance. This restricts
employees to come up with innovative ideas, making them feel like just a number instead of
an individual. Later research (the human relations theory) demonstrated that employees
appreciate attention and want to have a voice in decision making.

Problems

Because employees of an bureaucratic organization have no opportunity to voice their

opinion or influence decision making, a bureaucracy may demotivate employees in the long
run.

Moreover, over the course of time, employees may start to get annoyed at the various rules
and requirements, with the risk that they may start boycotting and/ or abusing these rules

22
and standing up to the established order. It is therefore very important that bureaucratic
organisations properly inform employees well in advance about their approach to work and
requires them to accept this. Only employees who agree to this approach are suitable to
work within a bureaucratic organisation.

In addition, the term bureaucracy refers to all those processes, characterized by excessive
complexity, resulting in undue delay or inaction in education and administration. The
uncontrolled swelling, which dominates the entire educational and administrative
system, leads to a complicated, cumbersome and time consuming operation of these
systems, causing stiffness, resulting in higher costs, in sharp drop to service quality, in
wasted delays and in citizen’s justified grievances. Although the term bureaucracy is usually
used with a cynical sense, and in order to describe the bad aspects of the
education and the administration, in the case of these institutions, the bureaucracy
refers to a complex organizational and operating system. This system consists of a huge
number of relations, activities, roles and hierarchical dependencies, developed in the field of
education and administration, to carry out policies, which are set by the current political
leadership and cover in an unusual way the entire range functions. In its ideal form,
bureaucracy requires by its rates consistency, loyalty and adaptability to the environment
and to the changing circumstances.

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Motivation- Hygiene Theory

The Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory is given by Fredrick Herzberg and his

associates, who studied the variables that are perceived to be desirable to achieve goals
and the undesirable conditions to avoid.

In this context, the study was conducted wherein the experiences and feelings of 200
engineers and accountants were analyzed. They were asked to share their previous job
experiences in which they felt “exceptionally good” or “exceptionally bad.” Through this
study, Herzberg concluded that there are two job conditions independent of each other that
affect the behavior differently.

The first set of job conditions has been referred to as maintenance or hygiene factor,
wherein the same job conditions provide the same level of dissatisfaction, in case the
conditions are absent, however, their presence does not motivate in a strong way.

The second set of job conditions is referred to as motivational factors, which primarily
operate to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction, but their absence does not result
in strong dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors: Herzberg identified ten maintenance or hygiene factors that are not
intrinsic parts of a job, but are related to the conditions in which the job has to be performed.
These are company policy and administration, technical supervision, job security, working

24
conditions, interpersonal relationship with peers, subordinates and supervisors, salary, job
security, personal life, etc.

Motivational factors: These factors have a positive effect on the functioning of the

employees in the organization. There are six factors that motivate employees: Achievement,
Recognition, Advancement, Work-itself, Possibility of growth and Responsibility. An increase
in these factors satisfies the employees and the decrease in these will not affect the level of
satisfaction.

Thus, Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory studied the variables which were responsible
for the level of satisfaction and had been applied in the industry that has given several new
insights.

What are the basic components of Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory?

Another important contribution to our understanding of individual motivation came

from Frederick Herzberg’s studies, which addressed the question, “What do people really
want from their work experience?” In the late 1950s, Herzberg surveyed numerous
employees to find out what particular work elements made them feel exceptionally good or
bad about their jobs. The results indicated that certain job factors are consistently related to
employee job satisfaction, while others can create job dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg,
motivating factors (also called job satisfiers) are primarily intrinsic job elements that lead to
satisfaction. Hygiene factors (also called job dissatisfiers) are extrinsic elements of the work
environment. A summary of motivating and hygiene factors appears in (Figure).

One of the most interesting results of Herzberg’s studies was the implication that the
opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Herzberg believed that proper management of
hygiene factors could prevent employee dissatisfaction, but that these factors could not
serve as a source of satisfaction or motivation. Good working conditions, for instance, will
keep employees at a job but won’t make them work harder. But poor working conditions,
which are job dissatisfiers, may make employees quit. According to Herzberg, a manager
who wants to increase employee satisfaction needs to focus on the motivating factors, or
satisfiers. A job with many satisfiers will usually motivate workers, provide job satisfaction,
and prompt effective performance. But a lack of job satisfiers doesn’t always lead to
dissatisfaction and poor performance; instead, a lack of job satisfiers may merely lead to
workers doing an adequate job, rather than their best.

25
Although Herzberg’s ideas have been widely read and his recommendations
implemented at numerous companies over the years, there are some very legitimate
concerns about Herzberg’s work. Although his findings have been used to explain employee
motivation, in fact his studies focused on job satisfaction, a different (though related) concept
from motivation. Other criticisms focus on the unreliability of Herzberg’s methodology, the
fact that the theory ignores the impact of situational variables, and the assumed relationship
between satisfaction and productivity. Nevertheless, the questions raised by Herzberg about
the nature of job satisfaction and the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on employee
behavior have proved a valuable contribution to the evolution of theories of motivation and
job satisfaction.

Herzberg’s Motivating and Hygiene Factors

Motivating
Factors Hygiene Factors

Achievement Company policy

Recognition Supervision

Work itself Working conditions

Responsibility Interpersonal relationships at work

Advancement Salary and benefits

Growth Job security

 What is Herzberg’s theory, and how does it relate to an understanding of motivation?

26
 How can a manager use an understanding of Herzberg’s theory to motivate
employees?
 What are the limitations of Herzberg’s theory?
 What are the basic components of Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory?


Summary of Learning Outcomes

Frederick Herzberg’s studies indicated that certain job factors are consistently related to
employee job satisfaction whereas others can create job dissatisfaction. According to
Herzberg, motivating factors (also called satisfiers) are primarily intrinsic job elements that
lead to satisfaction, such as achievement, recognition, the (nature of) work itself,
responsibility, advancement, and growth. What Herzberg termed hygiene factors (also called
dissatisfiers) are extrinsic elements of the work environment such as company policy,
relationships with supervisors, working conditions, relationships with peers and
subordinates, salary and benefits, and job security. These are factors that can result in job
dissatisfaction if not well managed. One of the most interesting results of Herzberg’s studies
was the implication that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Herzberg believed
that proper management of hygiene factors could prevent employee dissatisfaction, but that
these factors could not serve as a source of satisfaction or motivation.

This theory, also called the Two Factor Theory or the dual-factor theory, was penned
by Frederick Herzberg in 1959. This American psychologist, who was very interested in
people’s motivation and job satisfaction, came up with the theory. He conducted his research
by asking a group of people about their good and bad experiences at work. He was
surprised that the group answered questions about their good experiences very differently
from the ones about their bad experiences.

Based on this, he developed the theory that people’s job satisfaction depends on two
kinds of factors. Factors for satisfaction (motivators/satisfiers) and factors for dissatisfaction
(hygiene factors/ dissatisfiers).

- Performance, recognition, job status, responsibility and opportunities for growth

all fall under motivators/ satisfiers.
- Hygiene factors/dissatisfiers are about salary, secondary working conditions, the
relationship with colleagues, physical work place and the relationship between
supervisor and employee.

In his theory, Herzberg claims these factors function on the same plane. In other words,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction aren’t polar opposites. Taking away an employee’s

27
dissatisfaction – for example by offering a higher salary – doesn’t necessarily mean the
employee will then be satisfied. The employee is just no longer dissatisfied.

Four different combinations can exist at work:

1: High hygiene and high motivation

This is the ideal situation. Employees are very motivated and barely have any complaints.

2: High hygiene and low motivation

Employees have few complaints, but they’re not really motivated, they see their work simply
as a pay check.

3: Low hygiene and high motivation

Employees are motivated, their job is challenging, but they have complaints about salary or
work conditions.

4: Low hygiene and low motivation

This is the worst possible situation; employees are not motivated and have a lot of
complaints.

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Illustration of the Two Factor Theory in practice

High

High hygiene and low High hygiene and high

motivation motivation
Employee’s have few Ideal situation. Employee’s have
complaints but are not no complaints and motivated
Hygiene motivated

Factors
Low hygiene and low Low hygiene and high
motivation motivation
Worst situation. Employee’s are Employee’s are motivated to work
not motivated and have but they have complaints
Low complaints

Low High

Motivation Factors

KITA

Adjusting the hygiene factors, also called the KITA (Kick in the Ass) factors by Herzberg,
often have a short-term effect that doesn’t last very long. Changing the motivation factors on
the other hand often has a more lasting, long-term effect on employee performance.

How to apply the Two Factor Theory?

Organisations and their managers want teams with the best possible performance. But how
do you motivate that team? There’s not much point in motivating employees if the hygiene
factors aren’t taken care off. Motivating people really works when the things that bother them
– the things they complain about -disappear.

Take away the dissatisfaction

To do this, it’s important to figure out all the important factors first. What are the complaints
about, what’s going on, how do the employees interact with each other? Generally speaking,
the following aspects are important:

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 Work on the bureaucracy within the organization
 Make sure there’s supportive and effective supervision
 Create a work environment where all employees are respected
 Pay an honest salary
 Make sure all employees do worthwhile work to build up the status of their functions
 Give job guarantees

When the dissatisfaction is taken away, the organisation can focus on motivating its
employees effectively.

Create conditions for satisfaction

For motivation within the organisation, think about:

 Creating conditions for good performance

 Appreciating your employees’ contributions
 Tailoring the work to your employees’ talents and abilities
 Giving each team as much responsibility as possible
 Offering opportunities for growth within the organisation
 Offering training and development opportunities

Organisations are prone to take Kick in the Ass measures in the short term, because they
don’t affect the organisational structure that much. A higher salary, better work conditions
etc. Measures for motivation require bigger investments and changes to the organisational
culture.

Critique

The Two Factor Theory is widely used, but there are a few points’ issues with it. One
issue is the fact that humans tend to look at the aspects of their work that they like and
project them onto themselves when things are going well. When times are bad, external
factors seem to play a larger part.

Another point of criticism is that the Two Factor Theory assumes that job satisfaction
equals higher productivity. There are plenty of reasons to disagree, like external factors that
might influence productivity. Herzberg didn’t take this into account while researching and
coming up with his theory.

To summarise

30
The Two Factor Theory by Herzberg is a theory about motivation of employees. The
Two Factor Theory assumes on the one hand, that employees can be dissatisfied with their
jobs. This often has something to do with so-called hygiene factors, such as salary and work
conditions. On the other hand, employees’ satisfaction has to do with so-called motivation
factors. These factors have to do with development opportunities, responsibility and
appreciation.

Herzberg claims these factors exist side by side. Taking away the dissatisfaction factors
doesn’t necessarily mean employees will be satisfied. To motivate a team using motivation
factors, the hygiene factors need to be taken care of first.

- hygiene factors
Extrinsic elements of the work environment that do not serve as a source of
employee satisfaction or motivation.

- motivating factors

Intrinsic job elements that lead to worker satisfaction.

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Behaivioral Theory

A Brief History

Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's
classic paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the
following quote from Watson, who is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man
and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of
his ancestors." Simply put, strict behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of
experience. Any person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a
particular manner given the right conditioning.

From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviorism grew to become the dominant
school of thought in psychology. Some suggest that the popularity of behavioral psychology
grew out of the desire to establish psychology as an objective and measurable science.
Researchers were interested in creating theories that could be clearly described and
empirically measured, but also used to make contributions that might have an influence on
the fabric of everyday human lives.

Behavioral theory seeks to explain human behavior by analyzing the antecedents

and consequences present in the individual's environment and the learned associations he
or she has acquired through previous experience. This entry describes the various traditions
within the behavioral perspective (classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitively
mediated behavioral theory, and functional contextualism) and the clinical applications that
are derived from them. Common criticisms are discussed in light of the ongoing evolution of
behavioral theory and the fit of its tenets with the field of social work.

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on

the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through
interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental
stimuli shape our actions.

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According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and
observable manner regardless of internal mental states. Basically, only observable behavior
should be considered—cognitions, emotions, and moods are far too subjective.

Strict behaviorists believed that any person can potentially be trained to perform any
task, regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the
limits of their physical capabilities). It only requires the right conditioning.

There are two major types of conditioning:

 Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a

neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral
stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus,
even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself. The associated
stimulus is now known as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is
known as the conditioned response.
 Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a
method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments. Through
operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence
for that behavior. When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes
more likely to occur again in the future. Responses followed by adverse outcomes,
on the other hand, become less likely to happen again in the future.

Top Things to Know

Learning can occur through associations. The classical conditioning process works

by developing an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus. In physiologist Ivan Pavlov's classic experiments, dogs associated the presentation
of food (something that naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response) with the
sound of a bell, at first, and then the sight of a lab assistant's white coat. Eventually, the lab
coat alone elicited a salivation response from the dogs.

Different factors can influence the classical conditioning process. During the first part
of the classical conditioning process, known as acquisition, a response is established and
strengthened. Factors such as the prominence of the stimuli and the timing of presentation
can play an important role in how quickly an association is formed.

When an association disappears, this is known as extinction, causing the behavior to

weaken gradually or vanish. Factors such as the strength of the original response can play a

33
role in how quickly extinction occurs. The longer a response has been conditioned, for
example, the longer it may take for it to become extinct.

Learning can also occur through rewards and punishments. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner
described operant conditioning as the process in which learning can occur through
reinforcement and punishment. More specifically, by forming an association between a
certain behavior and the consequences of that behavior, you learn. For example, if a parent
rewards their child with praise every time they pick up their toys, the desired behavior is
consistenly reinforced. As a result, the child will become more likely to clean up messes.

Reinforcement schedules are important in operant conditioning. This process seems

fairly straight forward—simply observes a behavior and then offer a reward or punishment.
However, Skinner discovered that the timing of these rewards and punishments has an
important influence on how quickly a new behavior is acquired and the strength of the
corresponding response.

Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every single instance of a behavior. It

is often utilized at the beginning of the operant conditioning process. But as the behavior is
learned, the schedule might switch to one of a partial reinforcement. This involves offering a
reward after a number of responses or after a period of time has elapsed. Sometimes, partial
reinforcement occurs on a consistent or fixed schedule. In other instances, a variable and
unpredictable number of responses or time must occur before the reinforcement is delivered.
Several thinkers influenced behavioral psychology. In addition to those already mentioned,
there are a number of prominent theorists and psychologists who left an indelible mark on
behavioral psychology. Among these are Edward Thorndike, a pioneering psychologist who
described the law of effect, and Clark Hull, who proposed the drive theory of learning.

There are a number of therapeutic techniques rooted in behavioral

psychology. Though behavioral psychology assumed more of a background position after
1950, its principles still remain important. Even today, behavior analysis is often used as a
therapeutic technique to help children with autism and developmental delays acquire new
skills. It frequently involves processes such as shaping (rewarding closer approximations to
the desired behavior) and chaining (breaking a task down into smaller parts and then
teaching and chaining the subsequent steps together). Other behavioral therapy techniques
include aversion therapy, systematic desensitization, token economies, modeling, and
contingency management.

Behavioral psychology has some strengths. Behaviorism is based on observable

behaviors, so it is sometimes easier to quantify and collect data when conducting research.

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Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis,
token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches
are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and
adults.

It also has some weaknesses. Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional

approach to understanding human behavior. They suggest that behavioral theories do not
account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Also, it
does not account for other types of learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and
punishment. Moreover, people and animals can adapt their behavior when new information
is introduced even if that behavior was established through reinforcement.

Behavioral psychology differs from other perspectives. One of the major benefits of

behaviorism is that it allowed researchers to investigate observable behavior in a scientific
and systematic manner. However, many thinkers believed it fell short by neglecting some
important influences on behavior. Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not
accounting for the unconscious mind's thoughts, feelings, and desires that influence people's
actions. Other thinkers, such as Carl Rogers and the other humanistic psychologists,
believed that behaviorism was too rigid and limited, failing to take into consideration personal
agency. More recently, biological psychology has emphasized the power the brain and
genetics play in determining and influencing human actions. The cognitive approach to
psychology focuses on mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, language, and
problem-solving. In both cases, behaviorism neglects these processes and influences in
favor of studying just observable behaviors.

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Human Relations Theory

Origins Human Relations Theory

The immediate period after World War Two saw a different approach in organisational
studies. Until that time, there was only talk of Scientific Management, which mainly focused
on productivity, efficient division of labour and workers as an extension of machinery. In
1950 saw a change to this discourse with the introduction of the Human Relations Theory.
This movement saw workers in a different light; they were now seen as thinking beings with
needs, who liked to receive attention. Companies realised that attention motivated
employees and even allowed them to get more out of themselves for the benefit of the
organisation.

Key Ideas in Human Relations

Before we can jump right in and discuss the major theoretical thinkers that spawned
the human relations movement, we first need to understand the basic characteristics of the
theoretical developments in this time period. As with many theoretical movements, the notion
of “human relations” is one that is drawn by researchers after the fact. Specifically, a
business professor at the University of California at Berkley named Raymond E. Miles is
responsible for much of the work on crystalizing the notion of “human relations.”Miles, R. E.
(1965). Human relations or human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157.

Miles, in a famous article in the Harvard Business ReviewMiles, R. E. (1965). Human

relations or human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157., discussed
human relations as the natural knee-jerk reaction that many management theorists (along
with workers and managers as well) had to Fredrick Taylor’s scientific management. Where
Taylor viewed people as parts of a working machine, the human relations approach shifted
the viewpoint from the task to the worker. For the first time, workers were viewed as an
important part of the organization that should be viewed holistically instead of bundles of
skills and aptitudes. As Miles noted, managers “were urged to create a ‘sense of satisfaction’
among their subordinates by showing interest in the employees’ personal success and
welfare.”Miles, R. E. (1965). Human relations or human resources? Harvard Business

36
Review, 43(4), 148–157.Most importantly, the goal of human relations was to make workers
feel like they belonged to something bigger than themselves, and thus the worker’s work
was important to the overall effort of the organization.

For communication scholars, the human relations approach is important because it is

the first time that two-way communication was encouraged, or communication between a
worker and her or his manager was like a dialogue instead of unidirectional communication
from the manager targeted at the worker. Furthermore, the human relations perspective
sees communication as a tool that can be used by management to “buy” cooperation from
subordinates. Robert DubinDubin, R. (1958). The world of work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall. coined the term “privilege pay” to refer to a tool managers can utilize with
subordinates when the manager provides subordinates departmental information and allows
the subordinate to engage in open communication about various departmental issues with
the manager. Dubin sees this as a form of payment a manager makes in order to “buy”
cooperation from subordinates because the manager has to give up some of her or his
access to private information and control over subordinates because this process enables
subordinates to engage in some self-direction.

In sum, the human relations perspective on organizational management notes that

the world would be easier for managers if they could just make decisions and have
subordinates follow those decisions. However, because employees are more productive
when they are satisfied, it becomes the job of the manager to open engage with
subordinates. As Miles notes, “this model suggests, the manager might do better to ‘waste
time’ in discussing the problem with subordinates, and perhaps even to accept suggestions
that he believes may be less efficient, in order to get the decision carried out.” Miles, R. E.
(1965). Human relations or human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157,
pg. 150.

Key People in Human Relations

Now that we’ve explore some of the theoretical underpinnings of the human relations
approach to management, we’re going to explore two of the most important thinkers who are
seen as falling into this category: Elton Mayo and Kurt Lewin.

Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo was a Harvard Professor who had a huge interest in Federick Taylor’s
work. He was interested in learning about ways to increase productivity. In 1924, Elton Mayo
and his protégé Fritz Roethlisberger were awarded a grant by the National Research Council

37
(NRC) of the National Academy of Science to study productivity and lighting at the
Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. The Hawthorne experiments, as Elton
Mayo’s body of work became known as, are a series of experiments in human relations
conducted between 1924 and 1932 at Western Electric Company's Hawthorne Works in
Cicero, Illinois.

The Hawthorne Experiment

Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the Human Relations Theory. Prior to this
trend, Elton Mayo already started an experiment in the Hawthorne plants in 1924; the
Hawthorne experiment. There was a great deal of discontent among the 30,000 workers in
the Hawthorne plants in Chicago in the early twenties of the last century. This was
somewhat peculiar, because this phone parts plant already acted extremely progressively
towards its workers (through pensions and sickness benefits), something which was almost
unthinkable in this period. Elton Mayo and his assistants, including Fritz Roetlishberger,
conducted research into changing working conditions.

They experimented with light, duration of breaks and working hours. A group of women were
exposed to either more or less light. It turned out that, regardless of the amount and duration
of lighting, this had a positive effect on their performances. The same was true for rest
periods; shorter or longer breaks both led to an increase in labour productivity.

Personal Attention

The conclusion drawn from the Hawthorne research was that giving attention to employees
resulted in improved performances.

The group of workers who were involved in the search felt their voices heard and
experienced a feeling of greater personal freedom. The workers were pleased that their
assistance was requested, which they believed led to their higher job performances.

Moreover, during the study, senior officials regularly visited the workplace, making the
workers feel like they belonged to a certain elite group. This personal attention stimulated
the group to work even harder together and give their all for the organisation. Collaboration
in an informal group is also one of the main aspects of the Human Relations Theory.

Elton Mayo concluded that the needs of workers were often based on sentiment (belonging
to a group and thus having a sense of value) and that this could lead to conflicts with
managers, who mainly focused on cost reduction and efficiency.

And thus he came to the following final conclusions:

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 Individual employees must be seen as members of a group;

 Salary and good working conditions are less important for employees and a sense of
belonging to a group;

 Informal groups in the workplace have a strong influence on the behaviour of

employees in said group;

 Managers must take social needs, such as belonging to an (informal) group,

seriously.

Labour Motivation

In the era of the Human Relations Theory, the concept of ‘labour motivation’ is given a new
meaning compared to the Scientific Management era.

The fact that personal attention led to improved performances was a completely new
perspective.

The term workers is gradually replaced with employee, which more explicitly implies that
these people are thinking people who can positively contribute to the organisation.

Characteristics

Starting in the 1950s, a definitive different approach to management emerges. Employee

behaviour is placed centrally and the Human Relations theory places strong emphasis on
the fact that organisations consist of groups of people. Human Relations supporters thus
replace the mechanistic perspective on management with a people-oriented perspective.
Every person is unique and therefore unpredictable. Their behaviour is complex and to fully
understand them it is important to recognise their personal motivations.

Soft side

The way employees think and act at work is not only influenced by rules, procedures and
requirements imposed by management.

Attention, respect, interest shown and social/ interpersonal relationships are just as
important. These kind of human interactions trigger an emotional sense in employees, which
is often referred to as a person’s soft side. This soft side consists of emotional or irrational
logic and can strengthen rational logic, but at the same time also weaken or eliminate it.
Rational logic focuses on production and effectiveness, and both can thus diametrically be
opposed to each other, which in turn leads to internal conflicts and dilemmas.

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Complex humanity

The complexity of human behaviour increases even more if an employee indicates

his desires and knows when he will make certain decisions. From a behavioural perspective,
employees can also decide what behaviour they prefer and how this behaviour manifests
itself. As a result, there is no single pattern that can automatically be associated with a
specific situation.

Every person is very much different in terms of character and behaviour. Everyone has
different values, standards and desires, which results in demonstrably different behaviour.
This complex humanity is an important factor in guiding employees. It is therefore the task of
managers to identify the individual needs of employees and act accordingly. This is the
essence of the Human Relations Theory.

THEORIES IN
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SOCIAL WORK
ADMINISTRATION

Arah Mae N. Bonilla

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