Critical

Thinking
Chapter 3
Daniele Mezzadri
Brent Madison
Simon Langford
Chapter 3

The Analysis
of Arguments

1. Arguments
2. Argument Indicators
3. Arguments with no Indicators
4. Argument Structure
S ECTION 1 But what is an argument? What form does it take? We
saw that presenting an argument means to give reasons
Arguments for a conclusion. An argument is a set of claims, some
of which work as reasons for supporting a conclusion,
We do many things when we reason, for example, we and one of them is the conclusion of the argument. In
describe things, give summaries, give explanations, re- logical and critical thinking jargon, the reasons support-
port events, tell stories, jokes, make promises, and so ing a conclusions are called ‘premises’ (or ‘reasons’ or
forth. In previous chapters we discussed some of these ‘assumptions’); ‘premises’ and the ‘conclusion’, in turn,
things, focusing of explanations, descriptions, illustra- are called ‘propositions’: a proposition is the affirma-
tions. tive content of a declarative sentence. With this in
mind, we can say that an argument is:
We also learnt to distin-
guish those purposes of
reasoning from that of pre- A set of propositions (at least) one of which is a
senting an argument. This conclusion and the remainder are premises
is indeed very common. (reasons), intended to support the conclusion.
We very often try to per-
What is a proposition?
suade or convince people
of our point of view, by pre- A proposition is what is expressed by a sentence by
senting to them reasons means of which we say something about the world,
for accepting our conclu- something which is either true or false. A proposition is
sion, or to judge and evaluate other people’s points of expressed by a declarative sentence, or a state-
views and opinions (by evaluating the reasons that sup- ment, or an assertion.
port their conclusion). This is what is called ‘arguing a
Not all sentences of language are declarative, as state-
case’, or ‘presenting an argument’. A crucial compo-
ments are. Sometimes we do other things with lan-
nent of critical thinking is precisely to identify, con-
struct, and evaluate arguments.
2
guage than making statements. Can you think of any ex- It is vital for our developing critical thinking skills
ample? (skills for analyzing and evaluating arguments) to get
clear on which propositions in an argument work as
premises (reasons) and which of them is the conclu-
sion. Premises and the conclusion have different func-
Exercise 1: Which of the following sentences are proposi-
tions, and which are not propositions? tions in an argument. The conclusion is the position de-
fended, the premises are the reasons given to support
Question 1 of 10 the conclusion.

The sun is shining. An argument might have many different premises, that
is, many different reasons which are supposed to sup-
port its conclusion; schematically, an argument takes
the following form:

A. Proposition Premise 1

B. Not a proposition Premise 2

Premise 3

....

Check Answer

Premise n

________
Questions, commands, expressions of wishes, interjec-
tions or exclamations are typically not propositions.
Conclusion
3
An example:

This argument, thus, conforms to the schema we pre-

Philosophy is both challenging and interesting. sented earlier on page 3:
Fatima is always saying that she wants a major that
is not only interesting, but also challenging. So,
Fatima ought to major in philosophy.
Proposition 1 is Premise 1

Proposition 2 is Premise 2

Proposition 3 is the Conclusion

This is an argument that tries to persuade or convince
the reader that Fatima should major in philosophy.
What are the propositions/statements in this argu-
ments? That schema, however, might be misleading, because it
encourages one to think that the conclusion of an argu-
Proposition 1: Philosophy is both challenging and in- ment is always the last proposition of the argument. In
teresting. fact, this is often not the case. One can present a conclu-
sion first and then give reasons (premises) for that con-
Proposition 2: Fatima is always saying that she
clusion; in that case, the conclusion of the argument
wants a major that is not only interesting, but also chal-
will be the first proposition of the argument and the
lenging.
premises will come afterwards. Also, although less com-
Proposition 3: Fatima ought to major in philosophy. monly, the conclusion can be found in the middle of
the argument.
The last proposition (proposition 3) is the conclusion
of the argument (what the argument tries to convince
one of) while the other propositions (proposition 1 and
In order to be able to distinguish premises and a conclu-
2) are the premises of the argument, namely the rea-
sion, one should look at the role played by them in an
sons supporting the conclusion.
4
argument, and not at their positions in the argument.
So, in order to identify the conclusion of an argument,
think about what the author tries to convince their audi- Al Ain has a number of historic sites of interna-
ence of, and in order to identify their premises, think of tional significance. Also, it is cheaper than rival
3
cities Abu Dhabi and Dubai. So, Al Ain should
the reasons brought forward for the conclusion.
be a more popular tourist destination than it
Exercise 2 currently is. In addition, the weather is much
less humid than those coastal cities.
Consider the following examples of argument:
Which is the conclusion of the argument?
Which are the premises? If exams are too easy, students will
perform well but won’t learn the
4 skills that they need to learn. Learn-
ing skills, and not just getting good
1 Shamma deserves a very good grade. She has grades, should be the goal of univer-
performed very well in many quizzes during sity educations. So exams should
the semester; plus she always came to class on not be too easy.
time and took an active role in class.

Fatima has a natural talent for acting. Plus,

A college education increases your earn-
when people do what they love, they usually
2 ing potential. In addition, it makes you
have greater job satisfaction. Fatima also has
aware of interests you didn’t know you 5
a real passion for acting. It’s for these reasons
had. Most important, it teaches the
that Fatima should become an actor.
value of knowledge. So, college educa-
tion is worth pursuing.

5
S ECTION 2 reached on the basis of some reasons/
premises?
Argument Indicators
We have seen that in order to identify the component Shamma is crying. So, she must be very sad.
parts of an argument (that is, its conclusion and its
premises), one should look at the role played by the
propositions of the argument. However, there are also
It is clear that the word that indicates the conclusion of
certain words or expressions that usually (but not al-
the argument in the example above is ‘so’. Of course
ways!) help us in identifying the component part of an
there are many other words in English that are gener-
argument.
ally used to introduce the conclusion of an argument.
These expressions are called argument indicators, Words that indicate the conclusion in an argument are
because they signal the fact that an argument (with called conclusion indicators.
premises/reasons and a conclusion) has been ad-
These include:
vanced. These are linguistic clues that help us grasp
whether an argument is present. We divide argument So
indicators into premise indicators and conclusion
Therefore
indicators.
Hence
Exercise 3
Thus
Consider the example of argument in the blue
box: Which word in it indicates that an argu- Then
ment has been presented? That is, which word Consequently
in it indicates that a conclusion has been
It follows that

6
That/This is why indicators (or premise indicators) and they in-
clude such words as:
Accordingly
Because
Which proves/establishes/shows that
Since
From which we can infer that
For
Because of this
As
Implies that
Furthermore
As a result
For one thing/for another
and others.
Given that
However, be very careful. Not always does the occur-
rence of these words indicate that a conclusion has The reasons are
been reached, and, more importantly, arguments can
After all
be presented even without the use of these words. We
will consider a few examples later. However, these Follows from that fact that
words are often used to present the conclusion of an ar-
firstly….secondly...thirdly
gument, and this is the reason why they are commonly
called conclusion indicators. They indicate the pres- Is implied by
ence of a conclusion, for which reasons have been pre-
Is established by
sented.
as shown by
We not only have in English words that characteristi-
cally indicate the presence of a conclusion, we also considering that
have words that we commonly use to indicate the pres- and others.
ence of reasons (or premises), These are called reason
7
Exercise 4 Exercise 6

The lists of argument indicators above is not ex- Consider the following examples of arguments;
haustive (namely, there can be others). Can you first identify the propositions in them, and iden-
think of any argument indicators (either prem- tify which words, if any, are argument indica-
ise or conclusion indicators) not included in tors; also say which are ‘reason/premise indica-
the lists above? tors’ and which are ‘conclusion indicators’. Fi-
nally, identify the premises and the conclusion
of the arguments.
Exercise 5
1. During the football game he committed a serious
Rewrite the argument in the blue box on page 6 foul, so he deserved to be sent off.
by replacing the argument indicator in it (‘so’)
2. If Al Nasr win against Ajman Club, Al Ain will go to
with each of the following (not all at once)
the top of the league. Since Al Nasr have beaten
(You’ll need to modify the argument a bit when
Ajman Club, Al Ain will be top of the league.
using the new indicators)
3. I am in a traffic jam, so I’m probably going to be late.

• Because 4. Students should not pay any tuition fees for higher
education, because a well educated population bene-
• The reason is fits the country and the country should be prepared
to pay for those benefits.
• Since
5. Studying critical thinking can help you clarify your
thinking and make better choices in belief and ac-
tion. This shows that everyone should study critical
thinking.

8
6. Many substantial environmental problems cannot be 11.The patient’s fever and cough are getting worse. The
solved by individual or local action. Given that, for ex- therapy the doctor prescribed, therefore, is not very
ample, the pollution caused by automobile exhaust effective.
gases is a world-wide problem, it follows that such
12.Given the intensity of the sun, the UV levels are ex-
problems can only be addressed by international ac-
tremely high in the UAE. High levels of UV can be
tion.
harmful, causing skin cancer as well as genetic muta-
7. Bill will pay the ransom. After all, he loves his wife tions. Therefore, it’s important for UAE residents
and children and would do everything to save them. who spend a lot of time outdoors to wear hats and
sunscreen when exposed to the sun for more than a
8. Takeaway food is cheap, but it is not always nutri-
few minutes.
tious. On the other hand, cooking for oneself is more
time consuming, but one can ensure that all the ma- 13. After all that physical activity you must be very de-
jor food groups are covered. Thus, if one cares more hydrated and tired. So, I suggest you drink a lot of
about one’s health than convenience, then one water and go to bed.
should try to cook for oneself as much as possible.
14. If it’s Friday morning then many shops will be
9. We should increase the minimum wage of workers. closed. So, you should avoid going shopping then.
After all, they’re human beings and deserve to be
Exercise 7
paid fairly. Also, by spending more, they would con-
tribute to the growth of the national economy. Produce one argument of your own, by support-
ing your conclusion with reasons and using ar-
10.In the next few years, more and more people will
gument indicators.
turn to solar energy, especially in the Middle East, be-
cause oil will finish soon, and is likely to become very
expensive for most consumers as well. Solar energy,
on the other hand, will never finish and is cheap to
exploit.
9
S ECTION 3 Here the conclusion of the argument is that “it is a

Arguments with No good picture”, while its premises are that “the colours
create a powerful effect of a sunset, which is pleasant to
Indicators look at”, and that “The figures are interesting and very
well drawn”. The conclusion of the argument, however,
is not introduced by any conclusion indicator. How-
In the previous section we saw that some words or ex- ever, the author of the argument could have just as well
pressions are typically used to indicate that a conclu- presented it by saying:
sion of an argument, or that reasons supporting a con-
clusion, are put forward. We called these words argu-
The colours create a powerful effect of a sunset,
ment indicators, and we distinguished between conclu-
which is pleasant to look at. The figures are inter-
sion indicators and reason/premise indicators. esting and very well drawn. Therefore, it is a good
picture.
Again, it would be mistaken to think that in arguments
these words are always present. Sometimes arguments
are presented without the use of any argument indica-
tors. Here is another example:

Let’s consider the following example

The test was unfair. I studied for days, reading
the material many times, underlining important
The colours create a powerful effect of a sunset, details and then studying them. After doing all
which is pleasant to look at. The figures are interest- this, I should have got a good grade, but I
ing and very well drawn. It is a good picture. didn’t.

10
Again, in this argument there are no conclusion indica- The ‘Therefore’ Test
tors or premise indicators, but it is clear that the conclu-
When you are unclear about whether a proposition in
sion of the argument is that the test was unfair, and
an argument works as a premise or as the conclusion of
that this is supported by the reason that “I studied for
the argument, try inserting “therefore” (a “conclusion
days, reading the material many times, underlining im-
indicator”) before it, and consider whether the results
portant details and then studying them” and that “After
makes sense at all. For example, consider one of our ar-
doing all this, I should have got a good grade, but I
guments above:
didn’t”. There are many different ways in which this ar-
gument can be rephrased so that it contains argument
indicators. The most straightforward is probably the fol- The test was unfair. I studied for days, reading
lowing: the material many times, underlining important
details and then studying them. After doing all
this, I should have got a good grade, but I didn’t.
I studied for days, reading the material many
times, underlining important details and then
Does it make sense, for instance, to stick “therefore” af-
studying them. After doing all this, I should have
got a good grade, but I didn’t. So/therefore/thus, ter the first proposition, so that you have this:
the test was unfair.

The test was unfair. Therefore I stud-

ied for days, reading the material many
times, underlining important details
Exercise 6
and then studying them. After doing all
Can you think of other ways in which the argu- this, I should have got a good grade,
but I didn’t.
ment in the blue box on the last page can be re-
phrased so that it contains argument indica-
tors?

11
The answer is clearly ‘no’. This shows that “I studied When you analyse arguments, think of which proposi-
for days, reading the material many times, underlining tions function as premises and which as the conclu-
important details and then studying them” cannot be sion; don’t be misled by the superficial structure of the
the conclusion of the argument. How about this? argument (the conclusion might or might not be the
first proposition in it) nor by the absence of ‘argument
The test was unfair. I studied for indicators’. If uncertain about which of the proposi-
days, reading the material many tions of the argument are the premises and which is the
times, underlining important details conclusion, apply the therefore test.
and then studying them. Therefore,
after doing all this, I should have Exercise 8
got a good grade, but I didn’t.
Consider the following examples of arguments
without any argument indicators; first, identify
the propositions in them, and then identify the
premises and the conclusion of the arguments
This perhaps sounds a little better, but still does not (you can do the ‘therefore test’).
make much sense. It is clear that the best place where
‘therefore’ should go is before “the test was unfair”, be- 1. Certain areas of big European cities are unsafe. Trav-
cause this is the conclusion of the argument. elers should pay extra attention and be careful.

2. You shouldn’t insult people. It’s wrong.

I studied for days, reading the mate-
3. Ahmed does not deserve an A. He has failed too
rial many times, underlining impor-
tant details and then studying them. many quizzes during the semester.
After doing all this, I should have got a
4. All drugs which enhance performance should be
good grade, but I didn’t. Therefore,
the test was unfair. banned from sport; they confer an unfair advantage
on those who take them. And in a sport competition

12
no athlete should have an unfair advantage over oth-
ers.

5. It is good for young people to learn a foreign lan-

guage. Learning a foreign language would help them
to know and understand a foreign culture, and this
would enrich them as human beings. It would also
help them to acquire thinking skills that can be use-
ful in many circumstances.

6. International students at UAEU are few compared to

National students; but having a significant interna-
tional student population is essential to improve in
the major University Rankings. And UAEU is cer-
tainly committed to improving its position in the Uni-
versity Rankings. UAEU should do more to increase
the number of its international students.

7. It is essential to wear a hat when crossing the cam-

pus. The sun in UAE is very strong, especially in the
summer, and if you don’t cover your head you run
the risk of sunstroke.

8. Reading is the best pastime. It is very relaxing. It

stimulates your imagination. It can also enrich your
v o c a b u l a r y a n d t h i n k i n g s k i l l s .


13
S ECTION 4

Argument Structure Bill will pay the ransom. After all,

he would do everything to save
them.

Patterns of Reasoning (different kinds of argu-

ments) Another one is the following:

Arguments, although they are invariably sets of proposi-

Students only succeed in their
tions with premises and a conclusion, may have differ- classes if they enjoy them. So,
ent structures, different shapes. In this section we will if we want students to suc-
consider different structures of arguments. ceed, we need to make classes
enjoyable and fun.
The Simplest Case:

Consider this example: The arguments above have one premise that supports
the conclusion. We can highlight the common structure
of these arguments by means of the following diagram:
During the football game he committed a se-
rious foul, so he deserved to be sent off. Premise P

The conclusion of this argument is that “he deserved to

be sent off”. In this argument, only one premise is put
forward to support the conclusion, the reason that “dur-
ing the football game he committed a serious foul”.
Conclusion C
A similar example is this:

14
Side-by-Side Reasons (or Independent Rea- goes some way in supporting the conclusion, whereas
sons) the premises do not support one another, and are not
necessarily related to one another.
The arguments above are very simple, because they are
single-premise arguments. But generally arguments The side-by-side structure of the argument above can
are more complex than that, because we often give be represented by the following diagram:
more than one premise to support our conclusion. An
example of this is the following:
P1 P2

The Gulf region needs a rail network for the

transportation of passengers and goods as
soon as possible, because the current road
and air network cannot deliver everything
that the Gulf’s fast growth demands. An-
other reason is that the train is much
greener than oil-based ways of transporta- C
tion such as planes and trucks.

Each of the two premises (P1 and P2) independently

Here the conclusion (C) is that the Gulf region needs a support the conclusion.
rail network for transportation of passengers and
Obviously a side-by-side argument can have more than
goods soon and the premises (reasons) are that the cur-
two premises.
rent network cannot keep up with the region’s growth
(P1), and further that the train is more environmentally Exercise 8
friendly than current ways of transportation (P2).
For each of the following arguments, 1) identify
The important thing to notice here is that these two rea- the propositions in them, 2) identify their prem-
sons are independent of one another. Each of them ises and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator
15
words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the Premises that Have to be Taken Together (Joint
argument, showing if the argument has a sim- Premises)
plest case or a side-by-side structure.
Commonly, when an author presents an argument with
1. All students should receive basic first-aid training. side-by-side reasons supporting its conclusion, they see
For one thing, this training could save a life during each of the reasons put forward as providing some evi-
an emergency. For another, first-aid skills are sought dence for the conclusion, even independently of the
after by many employers in popular industries, such other reasons offered. Sometimes this is not the case.
as the travel and tourism sector. Also, learning a Consider the following argument:
new set of skills, like first-aid, can give a real sense of
accomplishment.
The city should build a second bridge to
2. Visa requirements for the USA have recently cross the river instead of a tunnel, since this
is the cheapest solution to the traffic conges-
changed. Visitors going to the USA, therefore, should tion, and traffic congestion is a serious prob-
check with their embassies to see if visas are now re- lem. We clearly should adopt whatever solu-
quired. tion is cheapest.

3. Everybody should have some sort of hobby. Having a

hobby can relieve stress, and take one’s mind off of
Here the conclusion of the argument (C) is that the city
work.
should build a second bridge, and not a tunnel. The
4. Lulu is the closest supermarket to where Ali lives. It first premise (P1) is that building a bridge is the cheap-
also has some of the lowest prices in town. In addi- est solution to traffic congestion, the second premise
tion, Lulu offers the widest selection of fresh pro- (P2) is that that traffic congestion is a serious problem,
duce. It is just obvious that Lulu is the best super- and the third premise (P3) is that the city should adopt
market to serve Ali’s needs. whatever solution is cheapest.

16
Here the three premises are clearly related to one an- Exercise 9
other, and it is only the combination of the three that
For each of the following arguments, 1) identify
provides support to the conclusion. The fact that the
the propositions in them, 2) identify their prem-
bridge is a cheaper option than the tunnel (P1) does not
ises and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator
constitute a reason for the conclusion that we should
words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the
build a bridge and not a tunnel, unless we combine it
argument, showing if the argument has a sim-
with the reason that the problem is serious enough to
plest case, side-by-side, or joint-reasons struc-
be solved (P2) and with the further reason (P3) that we
ture.
should adopt whatever option is cheaper. So, clearly, in
the above argument, the premises offered are meant to 1. If they can, students should travel often and widely.
work together to support the conclusion. Premises like For one thing, travel can allow one to practice a for-
these, which have to be taken together to give support eign language outside the classroom. For another,
to their conclusion, are commonly called joint reasons. travel exposes one to diverse cultures. Lastly, travel
can expose one to fun and adventure that one might
We can represent the argument above diagrammati-
be lacking in one’s daily life.
cally in the following way:
2. Field trips for university students should be strongly
P1 P2 P3
encouraged, since university education is not just the-
ory, but also involves the practical application of the-
ory to the real world. Field trips are the ideal opportu-
nity to see theory in practice.
C
3. Eating meat is wrong, since cows, sheep and chick-
ens are conscious creatures that can feel pain, just
like us, and the meat industry makes cows, sheep
Of course, we can have joint-reasons arguments that and chickens suffer a lot. It’s wrong to make con-
present less (or more) than three joint premises. scious beings suffer a lot.
17
4. Let's not go to the cinema to watch ‘X-Men’ tonight. 8. Istanbul has a rich and fascinating history and com-
I'm very tired, and the reviews in the newspaper say pared with UAE prices in shops and restaurants are
the film is really bad; Furthermore, we still have all low. Moreover, the flight from Dubai to Istanbul is
those dishes to do, and we need to save some money only four hours. Consequently, for people living in
this month. the UAE Istanbul is an excellent holiday destination.

5. Across the world, in homes, schools and communi- 9. The aim of universities is to provide a well-rounded
ties, millions of children are subject to physical and education. Students, therefore, should major in what
sexual abuse on a daily basis. It is the duty of every intellectually interests them, not what might get
country, therefore, to ensure that it punishes the indi- them the highest paid job after graduation.
viduals who perpetrate these acts of brutality against
10.Caffeine is a stimulant. Stimulants keep people
children.
awake at night. Coffee contains a lot of caffeine. It is
6. Governments around the world must introduce for these reasons that coffee should be avoided, espe-
screenings at airports to prevent Ebola-infected trav- cially at night, by those who have difficulty falling
ellers from spreading the virus. Ebola is a terrible asleep.
disease, with a mortality rate of up to 70%. It can eas-
ily be transmitted through physical contact; and in a
plane, where passengers sit very close to one an-
other, physical contact is very likely to happen.

7. Education is a defence against radicalism and vio-

lence. Education helps people appreciate the values
of other cultures and religions; it stimulates under-
standing and tolerance between cultures and relig-
ions; and it promotes peaceful ways to deal with dis-
agreements and differences.

18
More than One Conclusion (a Chain of Reason-
ing)

Sometimes arguments have neither side-by-side rea-

sons nor joint reason, but a completely different struc-
Answers to question 4 of Exercise 9
ture. Consider the following argument:
Question 1 of 10
Passage 1

I have to take over a class for a colleague of

mine who is sick today. So, I can’t go pick up
A. Simplest case my daughter at school. Therefore, I should
ask my wife to do it instead.
B. Side-by-side

C. Joint

Look at the argument indicators here. There are two

Check Answer conclusion indicators, ‘so’ and ‘therefore’. The argu-
ment has the following structure:

[Premise] so [conclusion1] therefore [conclu-

sion2]

19
Where the premise is that “I have to take over a class Exercise 10
for a colleague of mine who is sick today”, conclusion 1
For each of the following arguments, 1) identify
is that “I can’t go pick up my daughter at school”, and
the propositions in them, 2) identify their prem-
conclusion 2 is that “I should ask my wife to do it in-
ises and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator
stead”. Conclusion 1 is itself a premise for conclusion 2.
words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the
This is what we call a chain of reasoning, because
argument.
premises are not simply listed together to support a
conclusion, but one premise leads to a conclusion (an 1. Classes should not conclude with students evalua-
intermediate conclusion) which itself leads (as a tions, because students judge their instructors only
premise) to another conclusion, the final conclusion. on the basis of the grades that they think they are go-
ing to get, and so cannot be fair judges.
Diagrammatically, we can represent the structure of
the argument in the green box like this: 2. All world leaders must get together to provide solu-
tions to global warming, because global warming is a
global threat and thus could not be solved by a single
P1 country.

3. The great success of Ted’s company, which was

launched against the advice, and without the sup-
port, of bankers and business consultants, shows
C1 that one person’s vision can prove that all the experts
in the world are wrong. Anyone thinking of setting
up a business therefore, should trust their own judge-
ment, and not be influenced by the advice of others.

C2

20
Answers to exercise 10:

We have considered the follow-

ing cases:

Arguments presenting one premise to support a conclu-

sion, called the simplest case.

Arguments presenting side-by-side premises, each

of which is meant to provide support for a conclusion.

Arguments presenting joint premises, which are

meant to work together to establish a conclusion.

Arguments presenting a chain of reasoning, where a

conclusion is in turn used as a premise for a further
conclusion.

21
Why is it important to distinguish between dif- Mixed Structures
ferent argument structures?
It is very often the case that arguments present a multi-
In critical thinking we are concerned with the analysis plicity of structures all at once; often, that is, argu-
and evaluation of arguments. Our goal is thus to evalu- ments can incorporate more than one structure. An ar-
ate arguments (to distinguish between good and bad ar- gument can thus be side-by-side and joint, or side-by-
guments) and to produce good arguments of our own. side and chain etc.
If we are to evaluate arguments, we have to have a clear
Consider the following argument:
idea of what the conclusion of an argument is, and how
that conclusion is seen as supported by its premises;
this requires that we get clear on what the structure of All university students should study critical
the argument in question is. For example, if the argu- thinking. After all, critical thinking is neces-
ment in question presents side-by-side premises, in or- sary for surviving in the new economy, because
we need to adapt to rapid changes, and make
der to refute the argument (to qualify it as bad) it is not
critical use of information in making decisions.
sufficient to show that one of its premises is bad, be- Also, critical thinking can help us reflect on
cause the other premises, independently of the wrong our values and purposes in life. Finally, critical
one, can provide enough evidence for the conclusion. thinking helps us improve our study skills.
On the other hand, if the argument depends on a joint-
reason structure, showing that a premise is false might
be a reason for rejecting the whole argument. For exam-
ple, consider the argument in the box on page 16: the Let’s analyse the first half of the argument.
fact that the building a bridge is cheaper than building The first proposition “All university students should
a tunnel is not a reason for building a bridge if it is not study critical thinking” is a conclusion derived from the
true that we should adopt the cheapest solution. The premise “critical thinking is necessary for surviving in
same can be said for the chain of reasoning case. the new economy” (notice the “after all” premise indica-
tor there). The latter proposition, in turn, is supported

22
by the proposition (premise) that “we need to adapt to But look at the rest of the argument, namely at the two
rapid changes and make critical use of information in propositions “critical thinking can help us reflect on
making decisions”. our values and purposes in life” and “critical thinking
helps us improve our study skills”. These are two addi-
Prop. 1: “All university students should study critical
tional reasons (and independent of one another) for
thinking”. (Conclusion 2)
why university students should study critical thinking.
Prop. 2: “Critical thinking is necessary for surviving in So we can complete the analysis of the argument as fol-
the new economy”. (Conclusion 1) lows:

Prop. 3: “We need to adapt to rapid changes, and Prop. 4: “Critical thinking can help us reflect on our
make critical use of information in making decisions”. values and purposes in life”. (Premise 2)
(Premise 1)
Prop. 5: “Critical thinking helps us improve our study
So the diagram so far looks like a chain of reasoning. skills”. (Premise 3)

P1 We can complete the diagram of the argument as fol-

lows:

P1

C1
C1 P2 P3

C2
C2

23
Let’s consider a different example: The final conclusion in this argument is proposition 1,
“Arabic should be the language of instruction at
Arabic should be the language of instruction at UAEU”. This conclusion is supported by the two joint
UAEU, because Arabic is the official language of premises “Arabic is the official language of the UAE”
the UAE; and UAEU is the national university in (proposition 2/premise1) and “UAEU is the national
the UAE. Furthermore, if teaching were in Arabic, university in the UAE” (proposition 3/premise2).
students would learn more deeply and more
quickly, so they would perform better overall. So far, then, the diagram looks like this:

P1 P2
Let’s first identify all the propositions in the argument.

Prop. 1: “Arabic should be the language of instruction

C
at UAEU”.

Prop. 2: “Arabic is the official language of the UAE”.

Proposition 4 “If teaching were in Arabic, students
Prop. 3: “UAEU is the national university in the
would learn more deeply and more quickly” is a prem-
UAE”.
ise (P3) for the intermediate conclusion (C1) (proposi-
Prop. 4: “If teaching were in Arabic, students would tion 5) that “They (students) would perform better over-
learn more deeply and more quickly”. all”, which, in turn is a further premise for the final con-
clusion of the argument, proposition 1.
Prop. 5: “They would perform better overall”.
So, we can complete the diagram like this:

24
beings as mere products. Also, the meat industry is
environmentally damaging because it requires large
P1 P2 P3
areas of forest to be cut down to provide space for
the animals to graze.

C1 2. Public sector jobs have higher salaries than private

sector ones. They also have longer holidays and
shorter working hours, thus allowing for much more
C2 free time. So, it is natural that public sector jobs are
more appealing to nationals than private sector ones.
Therefore, in order to increase the percentage of Na-
Exercise 11 tionals working in the private sector, it would be nec-
essary to equate salaries, working hours, and holi-
Devise an argument with a complex (mixed) days between the two.
structure for the final conclusion that “English
should be the language of instruction at Exercise 13
UAEU”. For each of the following arguments, 1) identify
Exercise 12 the propositions in them, 2) identify their prem-
ises and conclusion(s), 3) identify the indicator
In your group and for the following arguments, words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the
1) identify the propositions in them, 2) identify argument.
their premises and conclusion(s), 3) identify
the indicator words (if any), and 4) provide a 1. You should have family barbecues as much as possi-
diagram of the argument. ble in the winter months. First, having outdoor fam-
ily gatherings in the winter is much more pleasant
1. Eating meat is wrong. Cows and sheep are conscious than in the summer. Second, you are always saying
creatures, just like us. It’s wrong to treat conscious that want to do more things outside when the
25
weather is cool, and the weather is only cool enough vited us to her wedding reception this weekend in Du-
in the winter to do things outside for extended peri- bai.
ods.
5. That book on world religions is bad. First of all, it dis-
2. Many residents in this city rely on public transport to cusses Islam and Christianity, but Buddhism is not
get to work. Also, tourists to the city tend not to have mentioned at all. Buddhism is one of the most prac-
rental cars, so they too rely on public transport. It is ticed religions in the world. In addition, it’s badly
for at least these reasons that the government needs written with lots of long, boring passages. Also, its
to invest more in developing and improving the pub- author is not a specialist of the subject.
lic transportation network. Plus, improving public
6. A new hotel resort should not be built in this area.
transport would create jobs, as well as benefit the en-
This area is highly seismic; and this would put tour-
vironment.
ists at risk. Also, this area is the natural habitat of
3. If a UAEU student wants to practice their reading many animal and plant species; a new hotel would
and writing skills, then they should take a course in destroy such natural habitat.
critical thinking. Fatima is a student at the UAEU.
7. Leaving lights on when no one is home is a waste of
She also wants to practice her reading and writing
energy . Wasting energy is a waste of money. So one
skills. Therefore Fatima should enroll in critical
should always turn ones house lights off when one is
thinking. Plus, taking critical thinking would satisfy
away from home. This is besides the fact that wast-
a degree requirement, and she wants to graduate as
ing energy by leaving one’s lights on when no one is
soon as possible.
home is bad for the environment.
4. On the weekend we can either go to Dubai or Abu
8. Plastic bags should be banned if we want to protect
Dhabi. There are lots of reasons why we shouldn’t go
the environment. They are left around by people
to Abu Dhabi this weekend. Therefore, we should go
and seriously threaten wildlife. They are hardly de-
to Dubai this weekend. This is all besides the fact
gradable, and so they would contaminate the envi-
that Mariam is one of our best friends, and she in-
ronment for hundreds of years. Furthermore, they
26
are made of plastic the production of which pro- 12. Malala Yousafzai is a well-deserved winner of the
duces lots of greenhouse gasses. And greenhouse 2014 Nobel Peace prize. She has spent most of her
gasses contribute to damaging the environment. young life campaigning for education for young
women. And this is very important, since no coun-
9. Many people in this city do all-night shift-work and
try whose young female population is uneducated
so cannot shop for groceries during regular busi-
can promise them a good future.
ness hours. Also, people should be free to do their
grocery shopping whenever they want. It is for
these reasons that at least some grocery stores in
this city should be open 24 hours. Plus, doing so Answers to Exercise 13
would create work for people by making need for
employees to cover the night shift.

10. You will become a very good lawyer, because you

can easily learn things by heart and have a talent
for arguing in all kinds of disputes. In conclusion, I
think you will earn a lot, because all the good law-
yers have wonderful salaries.

11. It is wrong to honk one’s horn to order take away

food at restaurants. It is very annoying for custom-
ers who are sitting outside enjoying their dinner. It
also puts lots of pressure on restaurant staff, given
that they have to run from car to car to take orders.
Finally, it is just a very rude way to order one’s
food. 1 of 13

27
Notes

Here you can add your notes on Chapter 3

28
S ECTION 5

Mid-Term Practice
Mid-Term Practice

The Mid-Term will have questions covering material from

chapter 2 and 3.

The following slide box gives you an example of a past Mid-

Term used in the PHI180 course. Your final will have the
same structure and the same type of questions. Use it for revi-
sion and answer all the questions.

29
Mid-Term Practice Answer Key

30