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COSC 50: DISCRETE

STRUCTURE I
Introduction to Logic
OBJECTIVES:

1. Describe what is logic

2. Describe what is argument

3. Explain different kinds of terms

4. Differentiate concept from terms; and

Lesson 1:Logic
How do we define Logic?

❖ Logic comes from the word “logos” which means “REASON”

❖ the science of correct reasoning

❖ Pertains to the study of rules and principles for

making correct argument

❖ Serve as a tool for the mind to reason out correctly

❖ is a “prescriptive” or “normative” science, and not

a “descriptive” science
How do we define Logic?

❖ Rules should be understood, not memorized

❖ Unsdertanding means to apply

❖ Pertains to the study of rules and principles for

making correct argument

❖ Serve as a tool for the mind to reason out correctly

❖ is a “prescriptive” or “normative” science, and not

a “descriptive” science
What is the core logic?

❖ The core of the science of logic lies in its collection of

universal and eternal rules that ascertains truth in the flow
of man’s statements.
❖ a discovery of the “norms” of correct thinking

❖ primarily concerned with “arguments.”

Descriptive vs Normative

Descriptive Normative
Gives an account of how the Expresses an evaluation,
world is, without saying its saying that something is good
good or bad or bad, right or wrong,
better or worse to some
standard
Concerned with what is what ought to de done
believed to be good, right or
virtous
Reasoning

❖ special kind of thinking in which problems are solved, in

which inference takes place, that is, in which conclusion is
drawn from premises.
❖ Logic/reason is a precondition of all intelligible
thinking. Without logic, there would be no such
things or concepts as true or false.
Operation of Mind

1. Simple apprehension - is the first act of the intellect wherein

by the acts of our senses we mentally grasp a thing without
affirming or denying anything about it.
2. Judgement - is the second act of the intellect wherein we join
two understood terms obtain or acquired in simple apprehension
and deconstruct them either by affirmation or by negation. .

3. The inference or Reasoning - is the third act of

intellect wherein we draw conclusions from a given
act of validity.
Concept

❖ The representation of an object by the intellect through

which man understands or comprehends a thing

Kind of Concept
A. 1. First Intention: we understand what the thing is according to what it is
in reality. Ex. A dog is an animal.
2. Second Intention: we understand not only what the thing is according to
what it is in reality but also how it is in the mind Ex. “Monte Vista”
(Mountain View) is the name of my subdivision.
Kind of Concept

B. 1. Concrete concepts: expresses a “form” and a “subject”

Ex. The flower rose
2. Abstract concepts: has a “form” only, has intangible
quality, that which cannot be perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman

C. 1. Absolute concepts: signifies the meaning of a concept. All

definitions are absolute concepts.
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.
2. Connotative concepts: signifies the existence or possession of
something. Ex. Drummer boy
Kind of Concept

D. 1. Positive concepts: signifies the existence or possession of something.

Ex. happy
2. Negative concepts: signifies the absence of something.
Ex. Sad
Lesson 2:Argument
What is Argument?

Statement 1: “The weather today is terrible’

Statement 2: “Classes should be suspended because of

terrible weather’’

Argument is a set of sentences to persuade the listener or

reader their copnclusions
What is Argument?

▪ a group of statements including one or more premises

and one and only one conclusion. It can also be defined as
a claim defended with reasons.

▪ An argument contains a set of one or more

statements or propositions

▪ Propositions are statement either TRUE or

FALSE
Argument

Two part of Argument

A premise is a statement in an argument that provides

reason or support for the conclusion. There can be one or
many premises in a single argument.

A conclusion is a statement in an argument that indicates of

what the arguer is trying to convince the reader/listener.
What is the argument trying to prove? There can be only one
conclusion in a single argument.
Argument

Example:

All men are mortal. (premise)

Tungi is a man. (additional premise)

Therefore, Tungi is moral. (conclusion)

Fundamental term to evaluate Argument

1.Validity an argument is valid if and only if it is not possible

for all of the premises to be true and the conclusion false .
Fundamental term to evaluate Argument

2.Truth
Although a deductive argument must be valid to be a good
argument, validity is not enough. One reason is that an
argument can be valid even when all of the statements that it
contains are false.
Fundamental term to evaluate Argument

3. Soundness
When an argument is both valid and all its premises are true,
then it said to be sound. If it fails to meet either one, it is
unsound. A sound argument must have a true conclusion.
8 types of Logical Arguments

1.Practical
Practical logic is based on three components: claim, grounds,
and warrant. A claim is your conclusion, grounds are
supporting evidence, and a warrant shows how the evidence
maps to the claim.
8 types of Logical Arguments

2.Premise
Any fact, assertion, probability or data inserted into an argument can be
viewed as a logical premise that makes your argument somewhat logical. This
often takes the form of “conclusion because premise.”

Example:
They were a bad employer because they didn’t treat the customer
with respect.
8 types of Logical Arguments
3. Deductive
These are arguments that start with a more universal statement and conclude
with a less universal statement. Deductive arguments are constructed in such
a way as to produce conclusions that follow with certainty or with logical
necessity from the premises. In a valid deductive argument, the reasoning
process between the premises and the conclusion is so well-connected so as to
guarantee or ensure the conclusion.
Example:
All Filipinos are Asians. (most universal)
All Cagayanos are Asians. (least universal)
Therefore, all Cagayanos are Asians. (least universal)
8 types of Logical Arguments
4.Inductive
These are arguments that start with Example:
a sufficient list of particular Mike, Paul, Bond, and Ton are
statements and end with a probable Cagayanos.
universal statement as inferred from Mike has a dark complexion.
the premises. Inductive arguments Paul has a dark complexion.
are constructed to produce Bong has a dark complexion.
conclusions that will probably follow Ton also has a dark complexion.
form the premises. A strong Therefore, Cagayanos probably have dark
inductive argument offers enough complexions.
evidence to make the conclusion
likely (or highly likely).
8 types of Logical Arguments
5. Extrapolation
Estimating the future based on current or historical observations.

Example:
Premise: The economy has faced dozens of recessions and
recovered each time.
Conclusion: The economy will recover again
8 types of Logical Arguments
6. Analogy
Analogy, particularly metaphors, can be used to construct complex inductive
arguments by suggesting that two entities are essentially the same in some
way. .
Example:
Premise (metaphor): The Earth is a living organism. Premise:
Organisms can become ill and die.
Conclusion: The Earth can become ill and die.
8 types of Logical Arguments
7. Cold Logic
Cold logic is a logical argument that neglects human society, culture, values, and emotions.
This isn’t likely to get you anywhere with people. It is certainly possible for logic to consider
human factors. However, human factors are extremely complex. As a result, it is common
for logic embedded in processes, rules, practices, validations, and algorithms to ignore
human factors. This produces suboptimal results that fail to accountfor social, legal, and
business realities that are driven by human needs and judgment.
.
Example:
Premise: Cats consume resources such as food.
Premise: Cats do not contribute to economic production.
Premise: It is a waste to spend resources without creating
economic value.Conclusion: Cats are a waste of resources.
8 types of Logical Arguments
8. Fallacy
Fallacies are flaws in logic. These can be complex and difficult to detect. As
such, most of the work of having a logical conversation or constructing a
logical argument is vetting logic for fallacies. (bad method of argument)
.
.Example:
A: Our AI detected that Eric was cheating on the test.
B: Our AI scanned 1 million students.
C: Only one student was actually cheating.
D: Our AI has a 1% false positive rate.
Conclusion: There is only a 1% chance Eric is innocent.
Lesson 3: Term
What is Term?

TERM is the verbal expression of an idea. It is an articulate sound

which serves as a conventional sign of an idea. It may also be
understood as an idea or group of ideas expressed in words.

In logic, TERM is the subject or predicate of a categorical

proposition or statement.
Term

Acts of the Mind Verbal Expresson

Simple Apprehension Terms/Name

Jugdment Proposition

Inference Argument/Syllogism
Intension (Comprehension) and Extension of terms

Intension (Comprehension)
The set of attributes or traits that members of a term possess
which includes not only essential qualities but also those
deducible from them

Example:
Dog-is an animal, a mammal, a living organism, a sentient being,
-being an animal, a dog, for instance, can multiply. Being a living organism,
somedayit will die.
Intension (Comprehension) and Extension of terms

Extension
refers to the totality of individuals or classes to which the
intension is applicable.

Example:
Dalmatians, canines, etc., and any literal dog are extension of
the simple term dog.
Kinds of terms

A. According to quantity/extension:
1. Singular – refers to only one individual or thing. the indicators or
signifiers of singularity are
. a. proper nouns/proper names
b. superlatives such as “the best actor”
c. demonstrative adjectives/pronouns such as this book, that room, that
teacher
d. personal pronouns (I, he, you, she, her, etc. as long as they definitelystand
for one specific person.
e. the definite article “the”/ specific modifiers such as the lady in red
Kinds of terms

A. According to quantity/extension:
2. Particular – stands for an indefinite part of a whole. In Logic, a term is
considered particular if it represents “at least one but not all” of the individuals
composing a class. The following are indicators or signifiers of particularity
.
a. Indefinite pronouns/adjectives (some, many, several, few, most,certain)
b. Indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an” used in particular contexts
c. Number modifiers e.g. 7 dwarfs, 2 princesses

d. Modifiers such as majority, almost all, generally all, nearly all

e. Subject terms in propositions that are true to only some of the

denotations of the term, e.g. Belgians are religious.

Kinds of terms

A. According to quantity/extension:
3. Universal – or general. This refers to all individuals signified by the term.
The following indicates universality

a. Universal affirmative quantifiers such as all, each, every, any, everything,

everyone, anything, anyone, whatever, whichever,whenever, wherever, whoever.
b. Universal negative modifiers such as no, none, nothing, no one,nobody, never
c. Indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ (when taken to refer to all denotations of the term.
Kinds of terms

A. According to quantity/extension:
4. Collective – or general. This refers to all individuals signified by the term.
The following indicates universality
-refers to a group of individuals considered as a single unit.
Collective nouns such as audience, committee, crowd, flock,
government, jury, gang, and orchestra are collective terms. A
collective term may be universal (e.g. squad, all squads, every
squad), or particular (e.g. some family, several crowds), or
singular(e.g. this jury).
Kinds of terms

B. According to quality:
1.Affirmative or positive – expresses what is real, true, or essential of a thing
- predicate is affirmed of the subject

e.g.
existence, life, and optimism.

2. Negative– indicates the non-appearance of some trait.

`` -Predicate is denied of the subject
Kinds of terms

B. According to origin:
1. 1.Immediate– terms formed through direct perception of things.
e.g. bag, pencil ball pen, yellow paper, cellphone

1. 2. Mediate– terms formed indirectly, that is, through the mediation of other ideas
e.g. God, soul, spirit, universe
Kinds of terms

D. According to nature of referents:

1.Concrete– referent is tangible or can be perceived by the senses. Also refers to that
which indicates a quality or characteristics as inherent in a subject. e.g. black, big, tall

2. Abstract– referent is tangible or can be understood only by the mind and

cannot be perceived by the senses. e.g. freedom, democracy, faith, love,
patriotism, compassion
Kinds of terms

D. According to nature of referents:

3.Logical – terms formulated to serve as linguistic device to aid learning. e.g. copula,
subject, predicate, velocity, momentum, phylum

4. Null or empty– terms that have no actual or real referents but is only
imaginary. e.g. unicorn, fairy, elf, dragon, batman, spiderman, superman, x-men
Kinds of terms

E. According to definiteness of meaning:

1.Univocal – exhibits exactly identical sense and meaning in different incidents.

4. Null or empty– terms that have no actual or real referents but is only
imaginary. e.g. unicorn, fairy, elf, dragon, batman, spiderman, superman, x-men
8 types of Logical Arguments
7. Cold Logic
Cold logic is a logical argument that neglects human society, culture, values, and emotions.
This isn’t likely to get you anywhere with people. It is certainly possible for logic to consider
human factors. However, human factors are extremely complex. As a result, it is common
for logic embedded in processes, rules, practices, validations, and algorithms to ignore
human factors. This produces suboptimal results that fail to accountfor social, legal, and
business realities that are driven by human needs and judgment.
.
Example:
Premise: Cats consume resources such as food.
Premise: Cats do not contribute to economic production.
Premise: It is a waste to spend resources without creating
economic value.Conclusion: Cats are a waste of resources.
8 types of Logical Arguments
7. Cold Logic
Cold logic is a logical argument that neglects human society, culture, values, and emotions.
This isn’t likely to get you anywhere with people. It is certainly possible for logic to consider
human factors. However, human factors are extremely complex. As a result, it is common
for logic embedded in processes, rules, practices, validations, and algorithms to ignore
human factors. This produces suboptimal results that fail to accountfor social, legal, and
business realities that are driven by human needs and judgment.
.
Example:
Premise: Cats consume resources such as food.
Premise: Cats do not contribute to economic production.
Premise: It is a waste to spend resources without creating
economic value.Conclusion: Cats are a waste of resources.
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COSC 55-DISCRETE
STRUCTURE II
Description

This course is a continuation of Discrete Structures

1. It provides the background in combinatorics and
probability theory required in design and analysis
of algorithms, in system analysis, and in other areas
of computer science.