ANAPHY REVIEWER

NERVOUS SYSTEM  Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the

 Master control and communication system of the body spinal cord
 Communicates with body cells using electrical  Cranial nerves: carry impulses to and from the
impulses which are rapid and specific and cause brain
almost immediate responses
b) Functions
FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  These nerves serve as communication lines
1. Sensory Input among sensory organs, the brain and spinal cord,
 Gathering information and glands/muscles
 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the  Link all parts of the body by carting impulses
body from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from
 Changes: stimuli the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles
 Sensory organs
NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON FUNCTIONAL
2. Integration CLASSIFICATION
 To process and interpret sensory input and decide 1. Sensory (Afferent) Division
whether action is needed  Afferent: towards the CNS
 Occurs in the CNS (brain)  Consists of nerves (composed of many individual
3. Motor Output nerve fibers) that convey impulses to the CNS from
 A response to integrated stimuli sensory receptors located in various parts of the body
 Activates muscles or glands (effectors)  Keeps the body constantly informed of events going
on both inside and outside the body
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  Acts as spy that detects different changes happening in
and out the body

a) Somatic Sensory Fibers

 soma = body
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints

b) Visceral Sensory Fibers

 Transmitting impulses from the visceral
organs

2. Motor (Efferent) Division

 Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the
muscles and glands; that is, they effect (bring about or
cause) a motor response
 Output to the integrated NS
 Issue fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS
organs
a) Somatic Nervous System
 Allows us to consciously, or voluntarily,
control our skeletal muscles
 Voluntary nervous system
 Not all skeletal muscle activity controlled by
this motor division is voluntary – stretch
NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON STRUCTURAL reflex
CLASSIFICATION
1. Central Nervous System b) Autonomic Nervous System
a) Organs  Regulates events that are automatic, or
involuntary, such as the activity of smooth
 Brain and spinal cord
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
 Involuntary nervous system which has two
b) Functions
parts – what one stimulates, the other
 Integration; command center
inhibits
 Interpret incoming sensory information o Sympathetic
 Issue instructions based on past experience and
 vigorous and strenuous acts
current conditions
o Parasympathetic
2. Peripheral Nervous System  Inhibit certain stimulus
a) Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
NERVE TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CELLS

 Supporting Cells: mainly for support
 Neurons: send electrical impulses

SUPPORTING CELLS
 Are lumped or grouped together in the CNS as
neuroglia (nerve glue, glial cells / glia) 4. OLIGODENDROCYTES
 General Functions of Neuroglia: support, insulate, and  Wrap their flat extensions (processes) tightly around
protect delicate neurons the nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings
1. Astrocytes called myelin sheaths
2. Microglia  Exclusive to CNS only
3. Ependymal
4. Oligodendrocytes

1. ASTROCYTES
 Abundant star-shaped cells that account nearly half of
neural tissue
 Their numerous projections have swollen ends that
cling to neurons, bracing them and anchoring them to
their nutrient supply lines – blood capillaries
 Form a living barrier between capillaries and neurons,
help determine capillary permeability, and play a role The glial cells are said to be mitotic. They divide rapidly,
in making exchanges between the two while neurons don’t divide.
 Help protect the neurons from harmful substances Consequently, most brain tumors are gliomas – tumors
that might be in the blood formed by neuroglia
 Help control the chemical environment in the brain by
“mopping up” leaked potassium ions, which are
involved in generating a nerve impulse, and
recapturing chemicals released for communication PNS GLIAL CELLS
purposes 1. Satellite Cells
 Protect neuron cell bodies

2. Schwann Cells
 Form myelin sheaths in the PNS
2. MICROGLIA
 Spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the health of NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS
nearby neurons and dispose debris, such as dead brain  Nerve cells
cells and bacteria  Highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve
 Immunity and self-defense impulses) from one part of the body to another
 Neurons differ structurally from one another, but they
have many common features
 Have a cell body that contains the nucleus and one or
more slender processes extending from the cell body

MAJOR REGIONS OF NEURONS

1. Cell Body
 Is the metabolic center of the neuron
 Its transparent nucleus contains a large nucleolus
3. EPENDYMAL  The cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus contains the
 Line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal usual organelles, except that it lacks centrioles –
cord amitotic
 The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the  Contains Rough ER or Nissl Bodies and neurofibrils
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and forms a  Neurofibirils: intermediate filaments that are
protective watery cushion around the CNS important in maintaining cell shape and are abundant
in the cell body
 Interneurons: connect sensory and motor neurons
2. Processes
 Armlike processes or fibers, vary in length from 1. Tracts
microscopic to about 7ft in the tallest humans  Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running
 The longest ones reach from the lumbar region of the through the CNS
spine to the great toe 2. Nerves
a) Dendrites  Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running
 Neuron processes that convey incoming messages through the PNS
(electrical signals) toward the cell body 3. White Matter
 Neurons may have hundreds of branching  Collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
dendrites (dendr = tree), depending on the neuron 4. Gray Matter
type  Collections of mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
bodies
b) Axons
 Generate nerve impulses and typically conduct
them away from the cell body CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Each neuron has only one axon, which arises from  Develops from the embryonic neutral tube
a conelike region of the cell body called the axon
hillock  NEURAL TUBE
 An occasional axon gives off a collateral branch  Becomes the brain and the spinal cord
along its length, but all axons branch profusely at  It extends the dorsal median plane
their terminal end, forming hundreds to thousands  Its opening becomes the ventricles
of axon terminals  Four chambers within the brain
 Axon terminals: contain hundreds of tiny vesicles,  Filled with cerebrospinal fluid which is
or membranous sacs, that contain chemicals called used for cushioning and lubrication
neurotransmitters
 When impulses reach the axon terminals, they FOUR MAJOR REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
stimulate the release of neurotransmitters into the 1. Cerebral Hemispheres
extracellular space between neurons, or between a 2. Diencephalon
neuron and its target cell. 3. Brain Stem
 Synaptic Cleft: a tiny gap that separates each axon 4. Cerebellum
terminal to the next neuron
. I. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (PAIRED)
 Synapse: junction between nerves
 Collectively called the cerebrum
 Synapse: where an impulse is transmitted from one
 Most superior part of the brain
neuron to another (syn = to clasp or join)
 Larger than the other three brain regions combined
3. Myelin sheaths  As they develop and grow, they enclose and obscure
 Whitish, fatty material covering axons most of the brain stem (so many brain stem structures
cannot be normally seen unless a sagittal region is
 Has waxy appearance
made)
 Protects and insulates the fibers and increases the
 The right and left hemisphere performs higher
transmission rate of nerve impulses.
functions (interpret, touch, hear, speak) – sense
a) Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by
organs for cognitive reasoning
Schwann Cells which wrap themselves
around axons in a jelly-roll fashion (nodes  Have three basic regions:
of Ranvier: gaps or indentations at regular  a superficial cortex of gray matter
intervals)  an internal are of white matter
 Neurilemma: outermost part of plasma  basal nuclei – islands of matter situated deep
membrane external to the myelin sheath within the white matter (innermost)
 Neurilemma: important role in fiber
regeneration where peripheral nerve is  GYRI
damaged  Elevated ridges of tissue exhibited by the entire
surface of the cerebral hemispheres
b) Oligodendrocytes  Singular; twisters
 Produce myelin sheaths around axons of the
CNS  SULCI
 Shallow grooves separating gyri
NEURON CELL BODY LOCATIONS
 Most neuron cell bodies are found in the CNS  LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
 Nuclei: cluster of cell bodies within the bony skull or  Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral
vertebral column hemisphere into these
 Ganglia: small collections of cell bodies outside the  Named for the cranial bones that lie over them
CNS; associated with PNS (can be found in a few sites
outside the CNS in the PNS)  FISSURES
 Ganglion: relay station for the ganglia signals  Deeper grooves which are less numerous
 Separates the right and left hemisphere - large  Body regions with the most sensory receptors – the
regions of the brain lips and fingertips – send impulses to neurons that
 Longitudinal Fissure: single deep fissures that make up a large part of the sensory area
separates the cerebral hemisphere  Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives
impulses from the right side (vice versa) – Sensory
pathways are crossed-pathways

 SENSORY HOMUNCULUS
 “little man”
 Is a spatial map that has been used to show how much
tissue in the primary somatic area is developed to
sensory functions various

2. Cerebral Area Involved in Special Areas

 Impulses from the special sense organs are
interpreted in other cortical areas
 Visual area is located in the posterior part of the
occipital lobe bordering the lateral sulcus
 Olfactory area us deep inside the temporal lobe

 PRIMARY MOTOR AREA

 Anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Sends impulses to skeletal muscles
 Allows us to consciously move our skeletal
muscles
 The axons of these motor neurons form the
pyramidal tract
 SURFACE LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
1. Frontal Lobe
 Recognizing PYRAMIDAL TRACT /
CORTICOSPINAL TRACT
 Motor skills
 Major voluntary tract formed by the
 Higher level of recognition
primary motor area which descends to the
 Expressive language
cord
 Damage results to behavioral changes
 Most of the neurons located here control body areas
2. Parietal Lobe
having the finest motor control – face, mouth, and
 Tactile sensory information hands
 Pressure
 Motor homunculus is the body map on the motor
 Pain
cortex; spatial map
 Touch
 Process information corresponding to pressure 3. Broca’s Area
and touch
 Motor Speech Area
 Damage results to numbness
 Specialized cortical area involved in our ability to
speak
3. Occipital Lobe
 Found at the base of the precentral gyrus (anterior to
 Visual stimuli and information
the central sulcus)
 Damage results to blindness and dyslexia
 Base of the primary motor cortex
 Damage to this area, which is only located in one
4. Temporal Lobe
hemisphere (usually left), causes the inability to say
 Interpreting sounds and language that we hear
words
properly
SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM
 OTHER
1. Primary Somatic Area
 Located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central
sulcus
 Receives, localizes, and interprets impulses traveling
from the body’s sensory receptors (except for the
special senses)
 Allows you to recognize pain, coldness
(temperature), or light touch SPECIALIZED AREAS
 Intellectual reasoning and socially acceptable
behavior
 Posterior: recognize patterns and faces and REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: DIENCEPHALON
blending of several inputs to understand the whole
situation; abstract reasoning
 Anterior and posterior association area II. DIENCEPHALON
 Speech area (Wernicke’s): located at the  Interbrain
junction of frontal, parietal, and occipital lobe  Sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the
cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three parts (major strucures):
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBRUM  Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
1. GRAY MATTER  Epithalamus
 Outer layer in the cerebral cortex
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies 1. THALAMUS
 Encloses the third ventricle the brain
2. WHITE MATTER  Relay station for sensory impulses passing
 Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter upward sensory cortex
 Corpus callosum connect hemisphere  Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
 Most of the remaining cerebral hemisphere tissue localization and interpretation – primary somatic
 Composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, or sensory area
within the cortex  As impulses surge through it, crude recognition of
whether the sensation is pleasant or unpleasant
 CORPUS CALLOSUM  Judgement center of the brain because it interprets
 Very large fiber tract
 Connects the cerebral hemispheres 2. HYPOTHALAMUS
 Fiber tracts: commissures  Under the thalamus
 Arches above the structures of the brain stem and  Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
allow the cerebral hemispheres to communicate  Regulates temperature, water balance, metabolism
with one another  Center for many drives and emotions
 Important because some of the cortical  Ex. Thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure
functional areas are in only one hemisphere  Limbic System “emotional-visceral brain”
 Association fiber tracts connect areas  Regulates the pituitary gland (an endocrine organ)
within hemisphere and produces two hormones of its own
 Protection fiber tracts connect the  Two hormones:
cerebrum with lower CNS centers – brain  Thyrotropin
stem  Corticotropin
 Pituitary Gland: hangs from the anterior floor of the
3. BASAL NUCLEI hypothalamus by a slender stalk
 Innermost portion  Mamillary bodies: reflex centers involved in
 Several islands of gray matter olfaction (the sense of smell), bulge from the floor of
 Buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral the hypothalamus posterior to the pituitary gland
hemispheres  Important autonomic nervous system – involuntary
 Help regulate voluntary activities (skeletal muscles)
 Modify instruction sent into the skeletal muscle by 3. EPITHALAMUS
primary motor cortex  Forms the roof of the third ventricle
 A tight band of projection fibers called the internal  Important parts are the pineal gland (endocrine) and
capsule, passes between the thalamus and the basal choroid plexus of the third ventricle
nuclei  Choroid plexus: knots of capillaries within each of
 Damage: unable to walk/move properly because it the four ventricles, form the cerebrospinal fluid
mainly affects skeletal system  Ependymal cells possess tiny hairlike structures
 Parkinson’s Disease called cilia
 Hereditary  The layer of ependymal-derived cells surrounding the
 All ages blood vessels of the choroid plexus functions mainly
 Males are prone to produce cerebrospinal fluid
 New degenerative disorder  Cilia regulates CSF
 Neurons undergo degeneration
 Involved in melatonin secretion
 Tremors, stiffness, and slow movement
 Melatonin – sleep hormone and produced by
pineal gland
 Huntington’s Disease
 Which type of functional classes of globular
 Both genders are affected
proteins ---- to diencephalon
 Younger are more vulnerable
 Hormones maintain body homeostasis
 Primarily affect our brain with a gradual loss in
control of movement and memory, mental
ability
III. BRAIN STEM
 Is about the size of a thumb in diameter and RETICULAR FORMATION
approximately 3 inches (7.5 cm) long  Extends to the entire length of the brain stem
 Major structures:  Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
 Midbrain  Its neurons are involved in motor control of the
 Pons visceral organs
 Medulla Oblongata  Controlling smooth muscle in the digestive
 Provides a pathway for ascending and descending tracts tract
 Has many small gray matter areas
 Produce the rigidly programmed autonomic behaviors  RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)
necessary for survival.  Plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep
 Some are associated with the cranial nerves and control cycle
vital activities such as breathing and blood pressure  Acts as a filter for the flood of sensory inputs that
streams up the spinal cord and brain stem daily
 Filters weak or repetitive signals, but unusual or
1. MIDBRAIN strong impulses do reach consciousness.
 A relatively small part of the brain stem  Damage to this area can result in prolonged
 Extends from thee mammillary bodies to the pons unconsciousness or coma
inferiorly
 Cerebral Aqueduct: tiny canal that travels RADIATIONS TO CEREBRAL CORTEX
through the midbrain, connects the third ventricle  Wakes up consciousness
of the diencephalon to the fourth ventricle  Will produce motor – efferent output
 Forms a canal between the ventricles  Descending motor projections to spinal
located in third and fourth ventricles cord
where cerebrospinal fluid will be located  Ascending sensory tracts – touch, pain,
 Cerebral Peduncles: two bulging fiber tracts temperature
located in the midbrain, anteriorly that convey
ascending and descending impulses REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBELLUM
 Little feet of the cerebrum  Large, cauliflower-like
 Cerebral Quadrigemina: four rounded  Projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of
protrusions that are dorsally located. the cerebrum
 They reminded some anatomist of two pairs  Has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface
of twins (gemini).  Also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter
 These bulging nuclei are reflecx centers and an inner region of white matter
involves with vision and hearing.  Difference to cerebrum, it does not have basal
 Pupillary and auditory reflex nuclei
 Smallest muscle that can be found in human body  Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
responsible for auditory reflex – stapes / activity and controls our balance
stapedius muscle  Because of its activity, body movements are
smooth and coordinated
2. PONS  It plays its role less well when it is sedated by
 Is the rounded structure that protrudes just below alcohol
the midbrain  Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium
 Means “bridge” and this area of the brain stem is apparatus of the inner ear, the eye, the
mostly fiber tracts (bundle of nerve fibers in the proprioceptors of the skeletal muscles and
CNS). tendons, and many other areas
 However, it does have important nuclei involved  Automatic pilot – constantly compares the brain’s
in the control of breathing. “intentions” with actual body performance by
monitoring body position and the amount of
3. MEDULLA OBLONGATA tension in various body parts
 Most inferior part of the brain stem  Sends messages to initiate proper measures
 Below the brain  If damaged, movements become clumsy and
 Merges into the spinal cord below without any disorganized – ataxia
obvious change in structure
 Like the pons, it is an important fiber tract area. PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
 Area where the pyramidal tracts (motor fibers) SYSTEM
cross over to the opposite side  Nervous tissue is soft and delicate
 Also contains many nuclei that regulate vistal  Irreplaceable neurons are easily subjected
visceral activities to injury even if subjected to light pressure
 Contains centers that control heart rate, blood  Neuron: amitotic
pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting,  Cell structure: lack centrioles
among others.
 Fourth Ventricle lies posterior to the pons and I. MENINGES
medulla and anterior to the cerebellum
 Three connective tissue membranes covering and  A watery “broth” with components similar to blood
protecting the CNS structures plasma, from which it forms
 It contains less protein and more Vitamin C, and its
1. DURA MATTER ion composition is different
 Tough or hard mother  Formed by the choroid plexuses
 A double layered membrane where it surrounds  Choroid Plexuses: clusters of capillaries
the brain hanging from the “roof” in each of the brain’s
 One of its layers is attached to the inner ventricles, or enlarged chambers
surface of the skull, forming the periosteum  Forms a water cushion that protects the fragile
(periosteal layer) nervous tissue from blows and other trauma
 The other called meningeal layer, forms the  Helps the brain “float” so it is not damaged by the
outermost covering layer of the brain and pressure of its own weight
continues as the dura matter of the spinal cord  It is continually moving inside the brain
 The dural layers are fused together except in  Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central
three areas where they separate to enclose dural canal of the spinal cord
venous sinuses that collect venous blood –  It circulates from the two lateral ventricles (in the
superior sagittal sinus cerebral hemispheres) into the third ventricle (in the
 In several places, the inner dural membrane diencephalon) and then through the cerebral aqueduct
extends inward to form a fold that attaches the of the midbrain into the fourth ventricle dorsal to the
brain to the cranial cavity pons and medulla oblongata
 Falx Cerebri  Some of the fluid reaching the fourth ventricle simply
 Tentorium Cerebelli continues down into the spinal cord, but most of it
 Separates the cerebellum from the circulates into the subarachnoid space through three
cerebrum openings, the paired lateral apertures and the median
aperture (aper = open), in the walls of the fourth
2. ARACHNOID LAYER ventricle
 Middle meningeal layer, weblike  The CSF returns to the blood in the dural venous
 Arachnida means “spider”, and some think the sinuses through the arachnoid granulations – CSF is
arachnid membrane looks like a cobweb continually replaced
 Its threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid
space to attach it to the innermost membrane – pia  HYDROCEPHALUS
matter  CSF begins to accumulate and exert pressure on the
 The subarachnoid space is filled with brain
cerebrospinal fluid  “water on the brain”
 The CSF is absorbed into the venous blood in  Possible in an infant because the skull bones have not
the dural sinuses through the arachnoid yet fused
granulations  Causes the head to enlarge as the brain increases in
 Will reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid size
 Defect absorption of cerebrospinal fluid will possibly  In adults, this situation results to brain damage
accumulate and exert pressure to the brain which can  Because the skull is hard, and the accumulating
lead to hydrocephalus fluid creates pressure that crushes soft nervous
tissue and could restrict blood flow into the
 ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS brain
 Specialized projections of the arachnoid membrane  Infants’ bones aren’t fully developed so they have the
 Protrude through the dura matter greater tendency to survive than adults
 Today, it is treated surgically by inserting a shunt (a
plastic tube) to drain the excess fluid into a vein in
3. PIA MATTER the neck or abdomen
 “gentle mother”
 Innermost membrane III. BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
 Clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal  Separates neurons from bloodborne substances
cord  Composed of the least permeable capillaries in the
whole body
 MENINGITIS  These capillaries are almost seamlessly bound
 An inflammation of the meninges together by tight junctions all around
 Serious threat to the brain because bacterial or viral  Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose,
meningitis may spread into the nervous tissue of the and essential amino acids pass easily through the
CNS walls of these capillaries
 Encephalitis: brain inflammation  Metabolic wastes, such as urea, toxins, proteins,
 Usually diagnosed by taking a sample of CSF from and most drugs, are prevented from entering the
the subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord brain tissue because they normalizes the voltage
of cells
II. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID  Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless as a barrier against some substances that motor cortex of the frontal lobe is most likely
diffuse easily through plasma membrane involved
 Fats and fat-soluble molecules  Aphasias are a common result of damage to the
 Respiratory gases left cerebral hemisphere, where the language
… that explains why these can affect the brain: areas are located
 Alcohol  Motor Aphasia is the most common,
 Nicotine which involves damage to Broca’s area abd
 Anesthesia a iss if ability to speak
 Na ions can’t enter  Sensory Aphasia, in which a person loses
 Alters the permeability of neurons the ability to understand written or spoken
 No influx of ions, no action potential language
 Non-essential amino acids and potassium ions not Brain lesions can also cause marked changes in a
only ae prevented from entering the brain, but also person’s disposition
are actively pumped from the brain into the blood  A change from a sunny to foul personality
across the capillary walls.
 Although the bulbous “feet” of the astrocytes that  TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA)
cling to the capillaries may contribute to the barrier,  Temporary brain ischemia
the relative impermeability of the brain capillaries is  Restricted blood flow
most responsible for providing this protection  Last from 5 to 15 minutes and are characterized by
 Composed of tight junctions to prevent leakage Numbness
Temporary paralysis
Impaired speech
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES  Although these defects are not permanent, they do
1. CONCUSSION constitute “red flags” that warn of impending,
 Occurs when the brain injury is slight more serious CVAs
 The victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose
consciousness briefly, but typically little permanent CEREBRAL CORTEX
brain damage occurs  Functions: Speech, memory, logical and emotional
 No permanent brain damage responses, consciousness, the interpretation of
sensation, and voluntary movements
2. CONTUSION
 Result of marked tissue destruction
 If the cerebral cortex is injured, the individual may
remain conscious, but severe brain stem contusions
always result in a coma lasting from hours to a lifetime
due to injury to the reticular activating system
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate

3. CEREBRAL EDEMA
 Swelling of the brain due to inflammatory response to
injury
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Individuals who are initially alert and lucid following
head trauma and then begin to deteriorate
neurologically are most likely hemorrhaging or
suffering the delayed consequences of edema, both of
which compress vital brain tissue
 After head blow, death may result from:
 Intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding from ruptured
vessels)
 Cerebral edema

CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS
 Strokes
 Fifth leading cause of death in the US
 Occur when blood circulation to a brain area is
blocked, as by a blood clot or a ruptured blood vessel,
and vital brain tissue dies
 After a CVA, it is often possible to determine the area
of brain damage by observing the patient’s symptoms
 If the patient has left-sided paralysis
(hemiplegia = one-sided paralysis), the right