DAYLIGHTING FOR INDOOR SPACES

COURSE FOR UNDERGRADUATE ARCHITECTURE STUDENTS

LECTURES

PREPARED BY
MUHAMMAD ZAHID RAHMAN KHAN
INTRODUCTION

In indoor spaces, daylighting is an environmentally sustainable

method of scientifically exploiting sunlight in a controlled manner
without any glare or any negative impact on building envelope
since this clean natural light helps to save electrical energy and
building energy loads, provide full spectrum lighting and maintain
human health (Sundolier, 2015).

2
A downtown district in
the Chinese city of
Shenzhen is a negative
example. The distance
URBAN PLANNING

between the apartment

DAYLIGHTING
blocks is extremely small.
As a result, there is no
WITHOUT

more than a minumum

of air movement and no
light penetrates into the
spaces.

URBAN DİSTRİCT İN SHENZHEN, CHİNA (2001)

3
4
DAYLIGHT
VS.
DIRECT SUNLIGHT
DIRECT SUNLIGHT
DAYLIGHT
CIRCADIAN
RHYTHMS

Many studies have proved that circadian rhythms can be maintained

through the balanced spectrum of daylight in indoor spaces. The
natural change of daylight supports the functioning of key glands to
relax human bodies otherwise the absence of daylight will cause
sleep disorders, hormone imbalances or depression to humans
5
(Sundolier, 2015).
Useful Daylight Illuminances (UDI) are the occupant-
friendly indoor space Illuminances ranging from 100 lx to
2000 lx over the work plane since the occupants can
ILLUMINANCES
benefit from these daylight amounts for the purpose of
performing their day-to-day duties with visual comfort in
DAYLIGHT

indoor spaces. The complete data of occurring UDIs can

USEFUL

help several architects and designers to know the real

daylighting performance of buildings on yearly basis.
Daylight levels between 500 lx and 2000 lx are ideal
illuminances for visual perception in indoor spaces
(Mardaljevic & Nabil, The Useful Daylight Illuminance
Paradigm: A Replacement for Daylight Factors, 2005).

6
Visual Comfort is the subjective perception which is achieved due to the
presence of quality distribution of light indoors without causing any
exhaustion. It is concerned with the comfort and health of occupants in order
to maintain their visual performance in a reliable manner (Cauwerts, n.d.).

A few parameters of visual comfort in relation to daylighting will be:

VISUAL COMFORT

• Visual work Illumination Levels

• Indoor Luminous Distribution
• Outside Views
• Eradication of Sun Glare
• Elimination of Disturbing Shadows in Indoor Spaces
• Uniform Distribution of Daylight in Indoor Spaces
(Cauwerts, n.d.)

For proving visual comfort, four crucial factors should be borne in mind: glare
dangers, illumination levels, brightness and luminance and luminous
spectrum (Cauwerts, n.d.)

7
1. Prevention of glare and right location of
workstations
2. Exterior shading devices required to convert
direct sunlight into indirect diffused sunlight e.g.
light shelves. Interior shading devices should
ARCHITECTURAL

venetian blinds and sunscreens.

3. South-oriented windows
STANDARDS
GRAPHIC

4. Room depth=2.5 times the window head height

or 15’-20’ from the translucent openings
5. Light-colored finishes
6. Place glazing above work plane (0.85m) and
clerestories away from direct sun
7. Glass should be placed in the upper side of
interior partitions

8
PASSIVE PASSIVE DAYLIGHTING ACTIVE DAYLIGHTING

ACTIVE

Passive daylighting systems are Active daylighting systems are high-

low-tech, stationary, non-powered tech mechanically powered devices for
VS

and non-tracking devices for distributing daylight in indoor spaces,

bringing sunlight into indoor spaces which not only detect the sun, but also
e.g. translucent glazing, skylights, redirect daylight through their built-in
clerestories, light tubes, light reflectors indoors with acceptable
shelves, glass doors, sidelights intensity for saving electrical energy
and so forth (Tawada Clean Tech, through the day.
2013) (Climate CoLab, n.d.)
(Pfister Energy, 2016) (Surhone,
9 Tennoe, & Henssonow, 2011).
PASSIVE DAYLIGHTING SYSTEMS

A FEW EXAMPLES

10
Window glazing is the process of installing glass part in window
with the help of an adhesive and support frame which firmly
holds the joined panes of glass in windows. Reglazing is the
replacing of old broken glass with new clear glass. In the past,
WINDOW GLAZING
single glazing was done, but double and triple glazing is possible
for both daylighting and heat-removing purposes in today’s world
(wiseGEEK Team, n.d.).

11
12
WINDOW GLAZING
13
SOLAR TUBES
LIGHT SHELVES

A light shelf is a horizontal surface that reflects daylight deep into

a building. Light shelves are placed above eye-level and have
high-reflectance upper surfaces, which reflect daylight onto the
ceiling and deeper into the space. Wikipedia

14
15
SIDE
DAYLIGHTING
REDIRECTING
DAYLIGHT
INDOORS

Apart from light shelves, another optical passive

sunlight redirecting device, the LightLouverTM
daylighting system can also be utilized which
consists of patented reflective slat design for the
indirect admittance of daylight with solar control
and without glare in interior spaces. LightLouver
should be installed in east, west or south
elevations for achieving better daylight levels
(LightLouver LLC, 2010). Moreover, daylight
redirecting films made of micro-structured
prisms can also redirect diffused sunlight upto
80% indoors (3M, n.d.).

16
ACTIVE DAYLIGHTING SYSTEMS

THREE TYPES

17
• Closed loop solar tracking systems are those active daylighting systems which tracks the sun from sensors like
photodiodes or photoresistors and afterwards they position themselves through their actuators according to sun
movement all day long.
• Unlike closed loop systems, open loop solar tracking systems use solar equations of annually calculating sun
angles after the setting of geographical location and their actuators move the solar concentrator according to a
given solar chart. Such information is electronically feeded in their PLC controllers so that daylight shall be captured
through astronomical algorithm whether the sun is obstructed from clouds or not and photosensors will detect the
available daylight only but fail to assess the photometric quantity of outdoor natural light (Prinsloo & Dobson, 2015).
• Hybrid loop solar tracking systems are designed by integrating the functions of both closed loop and open loop
systems in order to detect changing real-time sun angles and spread daylight inside the rooms through installed
astronomical algorithm and unobstructed direct sunlight in a simultaneous manner (Prinsloo & Dobson, 2015).
DAYLIGHTING
ACTIVE

18
19
CIRALIGHT
SUNTRACKER
DAYLIGHT DEFLECTION

ONLY A FEW EXAMPLES

20
With glare protection, daylight deflection procedures must ensure that
natural light is controllably distributed indoors in a well-directed manner.
Also, daylighting levels and daylight factors can be efficiently increased in
those gloomy indoor spaces which are placed far away from sun path or
on north direction (Sheikh & Kensek, 2011).
DEFLECTION
DAYLIGHT

SYSTEMS

21
22
ANIDOLIC
DAYLIGHTING
Anidolic daylighting systems (ADS) are static façade-integrated means of
collecting natural light, the adjoining horizontal-mirror light duct of which
is installed in indoor spaces. Its anidolic integrated ceiling (AIC) has 90%
global specular reflectance and consists of double-glazed sky-facing
daylight collector, two anidolic collector elements for bringing sunlight into
5m light duct and distributor element which shifts collected sunlight from
light duct to indoor spaces through organic glazing fixed on ceiling
DAYLIGHTING
(Linhart, Wittkopf, & Scartezzini, 2009).
ANIDOLIC

23
24
HELIOSTAT
• Every heliostat can redirect its
accumulated sunlight to user’s desired
location all day long (Wikoda, 2012).
Heliostats are the fixed sunlight reflecting
equipment with internal microprocessor for
sun sensor and movable plane mirrors
which they position towards sun for
transporting natural light indoors
(LightManufacturing, n.d.) (Wikoda, 2012).
Larger mirrors will facilitate the delivery of
HELIOSTAT

more energy and natural light in indoor

spaces. Heliostats are capable of
collecting heat and transferring it to interior
spaces in an economical manner
(LightManufacturing, n.d.). However, in
case of factories, heliostats can create
outdoor glare since every employee has to
go from indoor space to another through
outdoor passages so their limitations
should be considered before using or
recommending in such industrial spaces.
• All these reflective systems for daylight
deflection are used for the provision of
controlled sunlight admittance into indoor
spaces.
25
DAYLIGHT HARVESTING

DIAGRAMMATIC
REPRESENTATION

26
HARVESTING
DAYLIGHT

Daylight harvesting is a crucial energy-saving sustainable strategy of

interior lighting which facilitates the reduction of electrical loads and
energy consumption in daytime by switching electric lights to low
beams through automation, especially when outdoor light is sufficient
27 enough to make indoor spaces well-lit (Leviton, n.d.).
Automatic daylight harvesting control systems are comprised of:

• The electric lighting system—lamps, ballasts, wiring to the fixtures,

number of fixtures per circuit, and fixture placement and spacing.

• Photosensor—ceiling-, wall- or fixture-mounted device that

HARVESTING

automatically measures light level entering the space or at the task

surface, and signals the controller when a threshold is reached (light
DAYLIGHT
PARTS OF

levels are increasing or decreasing).

SYSTEM

• Controller—a control unit, such as a dimmable ballast or low-voltage

relay, that receives the photosensor signal as an input and issues a
command to connected dimming or switching controls to adjust light
output accordingly.

• Dimming or switching controls—devices that receive the command

signal from the controller as an input and as an output adjusts the light
output of the controlled electric lighting system by dimming or switching
28
HARVESTING
DAYLIGHT
TYPICAL

SYSTEM

http://www.automatedbuildings.com/news/au
29 g07/articles/zing/070723051101dilouie.htm
Step 1: Select the control method (dimming vs. switching)

Step 2: Select the degree of automation (manual vs.

automated)

Step 3: Select the control method (open vs. closed loop)

HOW TO DESGN

Step 4: Select the control method (system vs. stand-alone)

Step 5: Select the photosensor

Step 6: Establish control zones

Step 7: Place photosensors

IT?

Step 8: Place controllers

Step 9: Establish set-points

Step 10: Integrate the daylighting controls with other controls

Step 11: Specify the control system

Step 12: Commissioning

30 Step 13: Occupant acceptance

Dimming: Dimming is continuous over the dimmable ballast’s

range, allowing a wide range of light output. Although the cost of

dimmable ballasts is falling, dimming can cost about twice as

much as switching; however, dimming is preferable for many

applications because it can be more acceptable to occupants.

SWITCHING
Switching: Switching may be bi-level, with selection of three
DIMMING

conditions—ON, 50% light output and OFF—based on separately

circuiting ballasts in each fixture or separately circuiting select

VS.

light fixtures, or multi-level (also called stepped dimming), with

selection of four conditions—ON, 66%, 33% and OFF—based on

separately circuiting ballasts operating the lamps in three-lamp

fixtures. In occupied spaces, multi-level switching may be

preferable because it offers smaller changes in light output.

According to the New Buildings Institute, in high-ceiling

applications, users generally do not notice changes in light level

31
that are less than one-third of the current light level. Creston Open-Loop Photocell
CLOSED LOOP OPEN LOOP CONTROL CLOSED LOOP CONTROL

OPEN LOOP

Closed Loop: Closed-loop systems Open Loop: Open-loop systems measure only
measure the combined contribution to light the incoming daylight, not the contribution from
VS.

level from both daylight and the electric the electric lighting. The photosensor should
lighting system, then adjust light output to not see any electric light and therefore it is
maintain the desired level of illumination. mounted outside the building or inside near a
Because the photosensor measures the daylight aperture. Because there is no
electric lighting system’s light output, it feedback, it is an open loop. In the case of a
“sees” the results of its adjustment and switching system, the photosensor signals the
may make further adjustments based on lights to shut off when daylight reaches a
this feedback—creating a closed loop. predetermined level. In the case of a dimming
system, the photosensor measures incoming
daylight and signals a controller to
proportionately dim the lights based on the
32 estimated daylight contribution.
UNDERSTANDING GLARE IN
INTERNAL SPACES
DIFERENT FORMS OF GLARE

33
WHAT IS GLARE?

According to CIE (International Commission on Illumination), glare is an

uncomfortable unrestrained brightness entering directly or indirectly into eyes
from any artificial light or sunlight which has the capacity to irritate or debilitate
the eyes of any person indoors or outdoors. Glare is an eye-annoying issue
produced by intensely dazzling light sources, which makes people face
difficulties in clearly observing object details due to inaccurate indoor light
distribution and also weakens human body by putting strain on eyes. The
position of shoulders and neck can also be disturbed when the occupants
have to move backwards or forwards during work for saving themselves from
the unwanted interference of glare in especially in workplaces throughout the
day (Eldridge, 2015). To be precise, glare occurs due to exorbitantly high
contrast between brightness and darkness in interior spaces and also
because of having excessive and unwanted amount of light indoors
34 (AZoOptics, 2007).
DISABILITY GLARE DISCOMFORT GLARE
4 TYPES OF
GLARE

VEILING REFLECTION

BLINDING GLARE

35
• Veiling Luminance (L v) - A measure of disability glare, Veiling Luminance is a luminance
superimposed over the eye's retinal image produced by stray light within the eye. ... Relative
Threshold Increment (TI) - A measure of the effect of disability glare produced by the lighting
system.(http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1477153513510168)
• The problem of glare can typically be solved by moving or changing the task, moving the
observer, or moving or shielding the light source. Consider the glossy magazine page seen
in this image. On the left, the image is washed out by reflected disability glare. Simply
moving the magazine a little fixes the problem. Alternately, the observer could move a little,
AVOIDNG GLARE

or, if the light source is portable, he or she could move the source.
• Similarly, suppose your desk in your home office faces a window, exposing you to direct
discomfort glare coming in through a window, as well as reflected discomfort glare from
sunlight striking a car outside. One solution is to orient the desk so that it’s perpendicular to
the window. Another is to shield the light source, in this case by adding manual blinds.
• Otherwise, avoid exposed bright lamps and specular (extremely shiny surfaces) that can
produce reflected discomfort glare. If shiny surfaces cannot be avoided, consider a very
diffuse light source such as indirect light. If there is an exposed lamp, shield it or use a light
that is not as bright. Or simply move the light source above the field of view, where direct
glare is less likely to be noticeable.
• A final tip is to reduce extreme contrast either by reducing the brightness of the light source
or increasing the brightness of its surround. For example, if a window appears very bright,
consider putting some light on the wall around it, which will reduce contrast and thus reduce
the potential for glare.

http://ieslightlogic.org/how-to-reduce-glare/
36
37
EXTERIOR
SHADING
DEVICES
In most lighting standards, the famous "1:3:10" rule of thumb is
often quoted. The principle is based on the idea that the
luminance in the visual field of someone who's doing a static
task, must remain in reasonable ratios in order to prevent glaring
situations caused by a heavy contrast, hence impairing visual
performances. It is recommended that luminance ratios do not
exceed the following values:
LUMINANCE

• 3:1 or 1:3 between paper and VDU screen,

• 3:1 or 1:3 between the visual task (paper or screen) and the
RATIOS

adjacent surfaces,
• 10:1 or 1:10 between the visual task and the non-adjacent
surfaces.

https://www.new-
learn.info/packages/clear/visual/people/performance/luminance_r
atios.html

38
Luminance meters are single element
detectors that measure photometric
brightness. It is measured in lumens.
The Konica Minolta luminance meter
measures the amount of light that
strikes a surface. These instruments
display luminance in either lux or foot-
candles and they are lightweight,
LUMINANCE

compact and portable. They can be

connected to a PC which can store
METERS

the measurement data and control

the device. The LS-100 series has a
single lens reflex optical system to
precisely measure very small
(0.4mm) diameters at very short
distances, making it extremely easy
to use.
https://sensing.konicaminolta.us/tech
nologies/luminance-meters/

39
40
EXAMPLE OF A
LUMINANCE
METER
REQUIRED
SHADING
DEVICES

41 VENETIAN BLINDS VERTICAL LOUVERS

• A light meter is a device used to measure the
amount of light. In photography, a light meter is
often used to determine the proper exposure for
a photograph. Typically a light meter will include
either digital or analog electronic circuit, which
allows the photographer to determine
which shutter speed and f-number should be
selected for an optimum exposure, given a
LIGHT METER

certain lighting situation and film speed.

• Light meters or light detectors are also used
in illumination. Their purpose is to measure the
illumination level in the interior and to switch off
or reduce the output level of luminaires. This can
greatly reduce the energy burden of the building
by significantly increasing the efficiency of its
lighting system. It is therefore recommended to
use light meters in lighting systems, especially in
rooms where one cannot expect users to pay
attention to manually switching off the lights.
Examples include hallways, stairs, and big halls.
WIKIPEDIA

42
DAYLIGHTING EQUATIONS

A FEW MATHEMATICAL
RELATIONS

43
• Point Daylight Factor
• Average Daylight Factor
• Daylight Uniformity Ratio
• Vertical Sky Component
FORMULAE

• No-Sky Line Position

CHOSEN

• Sky Asymmetry Index (SAI)

• Room Depth Test
• Window-to-Wall Area Ratio (WWR)
• Daylight Feasibility Factor
44
• The concept of daylight factor originated from Britain in the first place. A
British engineer, Alexander Pelham Trotter (1857-1947), was the first to
conceive the idea of daylight factor in 1895 (Mardaljevic & Nabil, The
Useful Daylight Illuminance Paradigm: A Replacement for Daylight
Factors, 2005). The daylight factor (DF) is the percentage of daylight
penetration which is calculated by dividing indoor space illuminance on
floor (Ei) by outdoor sun illuminance (Eo) on ground level from an
unhindered overcast sky and the value of indoor daylight amount is taken
at a specific point of one room (Lewis, 2015) (Mardaljevic, Rethinking
DAYLIGHT

daylighting and compliance, 2013) (Tregenza & Loe, 2014) (CLEAR

Team, n.d.). The purpose of this evaluation metric is to roughly calculate
FACTOR

the indoor amount of daylight and the expected hours of artificial lighting
POINT

on working plane surface (Tregenza & Loe, 2014). Despite the fact that
daylight factor was developed for assessing available daylight indoors
before the advent of computers, daylight factor is still a handy yardstick
for knowing the penetration of outdoor natural light indoors in today’s
world (Tregenza & Loe, 2014). The formula of daylight factor is:

Ei (Specific Illumination on room surface)

• DF= x100%
Eo (Unobstructed Illumination outdoors)
(Tregenza & Loe, 2014) (Lewis, 2015)
45
DAYLIGHT
FACTOR
POINT

DF=SC+ERC+IRC
Where,

• SC=(Si) (Light coming from the unobstructed sky))/(Eo (Unobstructed Illumination outdoors)) x 100%

• ERC=(ERi(External Light Reflections from Obstructions))/Eo (Unobstructed Illumination outdoors) ) x 100%

• IRC=(IRi)(Internal Light Reflections from Sky and Ground))/(Eo) (Unobstructed Illumination outdoors)) x 100%

(Grondzik & Kwok, 2015)

46
• The average daylight factor is the mean of all daylight factors in one given
indoor space area on horizontal plane which is used to quantify the indoor
total inter-reflected daylight and judge indoor daylight penetration on the
basis of whole field of vision. It is used to predict the overall daylight
penetration in an indoor space or to assess whether the interior space is
gloomy or well-lit with daylight (Tregenza & Loe, 2014).
T Aw Ө
• BRE FORMULA: ADF = %
A(1−R2 )
• T stands for glazing’s diffuse visible transmittance, Aw is the window’s net
DAYLIGHT
AVERAGE

glazed area, Ө is the visible sky angle in degrees, A means the gross total
FACTOR

of total room surface area including ceilings, floors, walls and windows
and R denotes the average reflectance of all room surfaces
• The values of average daylight factor highlight the amount of daylight
appearance in indoor spaces. Gloominess occurs when average daylight
factor is less than 2%. If the average daylight factor of any indoor space
fluctuates between 2% and 5%, then it has balanced daylight admittance
but electric lights are still needed. Rooms with more than 5% ADF are
well-lit rooms with stronger daylight appearance but thermal problems
may exist due to heat gains from single-glazed windows (CLEAR Team,
n.d.).
47
• Uniformity ratio is the mathematical daylighting formula of a selected
interior space in which the smallest daylight factor (DF) is the dividend
and average daylight factor (ADF) is taken as a divisor. Smallest daylight
factor does not include any perimeter zone near the walls (Schoen, 2015).

• Uniformity Ratio=(Minimum Point Daylight Factor)/(Average Daylight

Factor)
UNIFORMITY

(Schoen, 2015)
DAYLIGHT

RATIO

• In case of average daylight factor, if the value of selected interior space

comes according to the given daylighting standards, then the space is
considerably adequate. Whereas, the minimal daylight factor should be
above 2% for better daylight performance. If daylight uniformity ratio is
bigger, then daylight in indoor space is equally distributed. If all these
criteria are achieved, then the selected space will be perfectly satisfactory
for daylight penetration (De Luminae, n.d.). Uniformity ratio should be
higher than 0.3 (BREEAM, 2014).

48
• The purpose of carrying out VSC test is to check out the hindering effects of
neighboring buildings on daylight admittance in indoor spaces so that
designers might decide whether skylight is needed to be installed or not. The
Vertical Sky Component (VSC) is the available amount of visible sky
illuminance taken on a vertical plane (window or wall) calculated from the
reference point (the centre of window’s vertical face) of one single window
interior space. If one room contains more than one window, all the VSC’s of
VERTICAL SKY

existing windows will be calculated in order to calculate the mean VSC of one
COMPONENT

interior space (RICS, 2013). To be precise, it is a result of dividing vertical wall

illumination from direct sky by a clear sky illuminance falling on the ground level
(Jacobs, 2013). The formula will be:
TEST

Sky Illuminance falling across Vertical Plane

• VSC = Unobstructed Horizontal Sky Illumination
x 100%
(Jacobs, 2013)

• In accordance with BRE guide, VSC should be at least 27% or under 40% for
making well-lit interior spaces and facilitating daylight distribution indoors
(RICS, 2013). The more obstruction angle from horizontal plane increases, the
lesser will be VSC on the central exterior vertical face of windows (Jacobs,
49 2013).
The no-sky line is the ratio of direct sky illuminance receiving areas to obstruction height (BRE, 2006). The
mathematical formula of no-sky line position calculation is:-
d=( x*h )/(y )
(BRE, 2006)

NO-SKY LINE
POSITION

(BRE, 2006)
Where x is the outside wall distance, y is the obstruction height above window head and h is the window
head height above working desk height. This criterion is used for checking out the impairment of daylight
illuminance and quality due to bigger hindering buildings since daylight admittance is interdependent on
the design of both indoor and outdoor environments within the premises of building. If x and h are smaller
and y is greater, than the resulting value of d will highlight the absence of visible sky in indoor spaces
(BRE, 2006).

0
50
Mostly appropriate for cloudy skies but providing accurate results, the
sky asymmetry index (SAI) is the co-efficient of standard deviation
resulting from the mathematical division of standard deviation of four
outdoor daylight illuminances measured on vertical planes of four
building faces by their mean (Scartezzini, et al., 1997) (Courret,
Scartezzini, Francioli, & Meyer, 1998). This mathematical criterion is
used for anodilic ceilings in large part. If σE is the standard deviation of
ASYMMETRY

four externally measured daylight amounts Eo, Ē is their average, then

SAI will equal to:
INDEX
SKY

51
• Appropriate room depth is one of the crucial factors of day-lit interior spaces because the
deeper interior spaces are designed, the lesser will be the daylight uniformity ratio. According
to a limiting depth rule, lesser room depths will definitely support the daylight admittance in a
uniform manner so indoor spaces should be at most two times deeper than the height of
window head (ICAEN Team, 2004). Mostly, room depth test is required for new construction
projects but this method can also be used for checking out the existing situations of daylight
penetration in indoor spaces (RICS, 2013). The room depth test is necessary only for one-
sided window wall interior space and will be numerically expressed as:-

L L 2
ROOM DEPTH

+ <
W Hw 1 − Rb
(RICS, 2013)

OR
2
1 − Rb
Limiting Depth = L =
1 1
W + Hw

(Deshmukh, Pathan, Bhusale, & Lohar, 2015)

•
• Where L is the interior space depth, W is the interior space width, Hw is the height of window
head over floor level and Rb is the mean reflectance of room surfaces in the rear half (RICS,
2013). So, the room depth should not exceed the value calculated from above formula of
limiting depth for the purpose of promoting quality daylight admittance in any indoor space
52 (Deshmukh, Pathan, Bhusale, & Lohar, 2015).
• Window to Wall Area Ratio (WWR) is the ratio which tells how
much percent of overall window glass area or openable area
is used on exterior floor-to-floor height opaque walls in one
indoor space. According to ASHRAE, artificial lighting and its
relative cooling generally consume energy around 30% to
WINDOW-TO-WALL
40% in buildings, so the right WWR can contribute to the
economical creation of right balance between thermal
AREA RATIO

performance and daylight admittance in indoor spaces

(Byers, 2013) (Autodesk, n.d.).

• Its mathematical representation is:

Total Glazing Area

• WWR = x 100%
Total Floor to Floor Exterior Wall Area

(Autodesk, n.d.)
53
• Daylight feasibility factor (DFF) is the measurement of the daylight illumination
efficacy in indoor spaces (Gherri, 2015).

• AEA=WWR x Ʈvis x OF ≥ DFF (%)

(Kittler, Kocifaj, & Darula, 2011)

• Where AEA is the adjusted effective aperture (the window’s real efficiency), Ʈvis
FEASIBILITY

is the average light transmission from glazing, OF is the obstruction factor

DAYLIGHT

(OF=Ө/90˚) and WWR is the window to wall area ratio (Kittler, Kocifaj, & Darula,
FACTOR

2011).
• If the window is at most 50% blocked by obstructions, then obstruction factor
equals to 1. If there are more than 50% hindrances, the value of obstruction
factor (OF) will be 0.85. For 70% plus and 90% plus obstructions, the values of
obstruction factor (OF) will be 0.65 and 0.40 respectively. It is required that
daylight feasility factor (DFF) should be at least 0.25 or 25% for saving energy
through daylighting (Berkeley Lab, n.d.) (Bristolite, n.d.). In accordance with the
“Daylighting Guide for Canadian Commercial Buildings”, latitudes between 42˚
and 46˚ should have at least 59˚ sky exposure angle, whereas, latitudes greater
than 54˚ need greater than or equal to 66˚ sky exposure angle

54
DAYLIGHT-ORIENTED INDOOR
SPACE PLANNING
CREATING DAYLIGHTING
PERIMETER SPACES

55
• Daylight-oriented indoor space planning is a key to
penetration of handy daylight illuminances in indoor
spaces. Visual task areas should be placed near
daylight glare-free windows in order to provide good
photometric amount of daylight with visual comfort
inside interior spaces (California Energy Commission
HOW TO SPREAD

Team, 1993).
• For equal spreading of daylight, openly-planned office
DAYLIGHT?

areas or other workplaces should be placed inside the

perimeter zone from 18’ to 20’ and at indirect daylight-
receiving spots oriented in a northerly or southerly
direction. This means that the central zones of large
indoor spaces cannot become daylighting zones
without skylights or other daylighting systems installed
on ceiling (NBI;idl;IA, 2015).

56
Here, the word ‘perimeter’ means the
PERIMETER outer edge of your territory.
ZONES

57
• Long and narrow perimeter space planning plays a primary
role in the improvement of daylight performance in indoor
spaces (Ander, Daylighting Performance and Design, 2003).
In comparison to central zones, perimeter zones can be
possibly transformed into daylighting zones but due to
SPACE PLANNING existing architectural limitations and high occupancy level,
indirect daylight can not be uniformly spread through the
building (Baker, Fanchiotti, & Steemers, 1993). Window-
based perimeter areas of interior spaces with good sky
PERIMETER

exposure angles should be designed in bigger sizes for

simplifying the indoor placement of workstations and other
working spots for daylight-exploitation in all building types.

• Unlike newly designed interiors, the existing indoor spaces

offer lesser chances of improving daylight entry to designers
so it is crucial to inspect the check out the outdoor
neighboring physical hindrances and fully understand the
existing space planning of indoor spaces (Walker, 2009).

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• As for workstation panel design, lower height will permit daylight access in
workspaces (Binggeli, 2012). Workstation panels should be at most 3’-6” high
and if 4’ high or bigger panels are demanded for ensuring personal seclusion,
then such tall panels should be perpendicularly positioned towards daylight
apertures especially in perimeter zones otherwise high panels will hinder
daylight entry in workspaces (NBI;idl;IA, 2015). Sometimes, higher working
panels in open transparent interior spaces are used for blocking noise so
transparent glass panels can be used in workspaces which will also enable
WORKSTATION
PANEL DESIGN
outdoor views to occupants, instead of solid panels which act as hard
boundaries but the avoidance of uncontrolled direct sunlight intrusion is
compulsory in indoor spaces (Penny Bonda, 2007).

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