Indian Political Thought Block 1 PDF
Indian Political Thought Block 1 PDF
Indian Political Thought Block 1 PDF
SEMESTER - I
POLITICAL SCIENCE
BLOCK - 1
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
Editorial Team
Content : Dr. Manashi Sarma, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati
Language : Dr. Bipul Das , KKHSOU
Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Bipul Das, KKHSOU
April , 2018
ISBN NO 978-93-87940-15-4
This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University is made available
under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License (international): http:/
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Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University.
The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.
The third course of the First Semester of MA Programme in Political Science of KKHSOU is
titled as “Indian Political Thought”. It is designed to help the learners to have a deep understanding of
the various dimensions of the Indian Political Thought. It is supposed that the learners of the Master
Degree Programme in Political Science should have thorough knowledge about various aspects of the
political thought of the prominent thinkers of the country where he/she resides. Keeping this in view,
the course begins with the political ideas of different political thinkers of ancient as well as modern
India. Their ideas and contributions have significantly helped in the development of Indian Political
Thought. The first unit of the course deals with the political ideas of Manu who is regarded as the father
of ancient Indian polity and the author of the famous book “Manu Smriti”. In this unit, we have discussed
Manu’s contributions towards the development of political ideas in ancient India. The second unit of the
course discusses the political ideas of Kautilya who is known as the father of Indian Political Thought
and also known by the name ‘Chanakya’. In this unit, Kautilya’s views on State, King and his theory of
Saptang are discussed. In the third unit, the political ideas of Raja Ram Mohan Roy are explained.
Through this unit, the learners will be familiar with the various theories of Roy specially his views on
Brahmo Samaj. The fourth and fifth units are related with the political ideas of M. K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru. Gandhi’s views on Satya and Ahimsa, State, Satyagraha and perspective on Peace are discussed
in the fourth unit. Similarly, Nehru’s views on Nationalism, Democracy, Modernism and Internationalism
are analysed in the fifth unit. The sixth unit deals with the political ideas of Madan Mohan Malaviya. This
unit is related with the contributions of Malaviya as an educationist and social reformer, his views and
role in freedom struggle and his views as a liberal Hindu nationalist. The seventh unit discusses the
political ideas of M. N. Roy. Here, Roy’s views on humanist ideology, materialism, party-less democracy
and his involvement in India’s freedom struggle are elaborately explained. The unit eighth deals with
Ambikagiri Raicoudhury’s ideas of humanism, freedom and state, Assamese nationalism, etc. along
with his contributions to the freedom struggle of India. Subsequently, the ideas of Jyotiba Phule and B.
R. Ambedkar are discussed in the ninth and tenth units respectively. Phule was a social reformer who
contributed a lot towards the development of the Indian political thought. Phule’s views on religion,
Indian economy, varna and caste system and solution to the Agrarian problem are analysed in unit
nine. The views of another social reformer and the father of the Indian Constitution, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
are discussed in the tenth unit. Throughout his life, he tried to eradicate all social evils like untouchability
and caste restrictions, problems of women and labour etc. which are explained in this unit. The eleventh
The course “Indian Political Thought” is divided into two blocks- Block 1 and Block 2. Block 1
contains seven units (Unit 1 - 7) and Block 2 contains eight units (Unit 8 - 15).
This is the first block of the third course of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University’s M.
A. First Semester Programme in Political Science.The third course of the MA First Semester
Programme in Political Science is titled as “Indian Political Thought”. The first block of this course
contains seven units- (Units 1-7).
The first unit introduces the learners with the political ideas of Manu and his contributions
towards the development of political ideas in ancient India. The second unit of the course highlights
the political ideas of Kautilya. In the third unit, the political ideas of Raja Ram Mohan Roy are explained
including his views on BrahmoSamaj. Gandhi’s views on Satya and Ahimsa, State, Satyagraha and
perspective on Peace are discussed in the fourth unit. Similarly, Nehru’s views on Nationalism,
Democracy, Modernism and Internationalism are analysed in the fifth unit. The sixth unit deals with the
political ideas and contributions of Madan Mohan Malaviya. The seventh unit discusses the political
ideas of M. N. Roy. Here, Roy’s views on humanist ideology, materialism, party-less Democracy and
his involvement in India’s freedom struggle are elaborately explained.
While going through the units of the block, you will find that the units are further divided into
certain sections and sub-sections, wherever necessary, for your better understanding. Besides, in
order to give you additional information on certain relevant topics, you will find a category called “LET
US KNOW”after the sections in each unit. Another category that has been included at the end of each
section of a particular unit is “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”. The purpose of this category is to help
you to asses for yourself as to how thoroughly you have understood a particular section. You may then
match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end of each unit.
The section “FURTHER READING” in each unit contains the names of a few books which you might
want to consult if you are interested in learning more elaborately about the concepts discussed in a
particular unit. Furthermore, the category called “POSSIBLE QUESTIONS” is intended to give you a
hint of the type of questions you are likely to get in the examination.
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Manu, the father of ancient Indian polity and the author of the book
“Manu Smriti” had analysed the different aspects of administration. He was
the great thinker of ancient Indian political ideas and thought. In this unit,
we will discuss Manu’s contributions towards the development of political
ideas in ancient India. After reading this unit, you will be able to analyse the
major contributions of Manu to Indian political thought.
The very essence of Manu’s Philosophy was rooted in his belief that
in the universe there exists only one ultimate reality which he termed it as
the ‘supreme spirit.’ This supreme spirit of Manu was transcendental and
infinite. In it itself as the ‘Upanishads’ describe; it is Nirguna, i.e. it has no
shape. The social and political order which Manu envisaged is designed
with a view to help the human souls to attain their ultimate goal i.e. merging
one’s identity in the supreme Infinite spirit. To Manu, the purpose of any
social organization is to create conditions so that the individual living in the
society can reach its destination ‘the ultimate goal. If any social organization
however fails to deliver this service, then Manu considers such an
organization meaningless. It needs to be mentioned here that Manu was
very much aware of the fact that attainment of this goal i.e. the state supreme
reality is not possible within a span of a single life. It is therefore Manu
postulated the notion of rebirths and held the view that the process of rebirth
shall continue till the purpose of life is achieved. Manu herein highlights the
significance of ‘Karma’ or deals. To him what body the soul would take in
subsequent births would be determined by one’s deeds in his previous life
span.
Thus it can rightly be stated from the above discussion that Manu
believed in spiritual Monoism and also in the doctrine of ‘Karma’ and
reincarnation.
material body determine the various types of men and their characteristics.
On this basis Manu has divided the society into four classes. According to
Manu, the man in whom the element of ‘Sattva’ predominates over the other
two is a Brahmin; he who has the ‘Rajas’ Kshatriya; and the man in whom
the ‘Tamas’ element is more marked than other elements is a vaishya. To
Manu, the fourth class do not posses any significant proportion of these
elements. This class is the Shudra class, who in the view of Manu lacks
personality of his own. Infact to Manu the mind and thinking pattern of this
class is like that of a child who constantly needs guidance and assistance
in every step of life. As much Manu debars them from participation in the
higher life of society.
organism, the feet are not despised and treated in a discriminative manner
because they occupy the lowest position and have to carry the entire burden
of the body. Likewise the Shudra’s should also not be looked down upon.
Manu did not only emphasized upon the duties and obligation
of the king towards his subjects or vice-versa, but also prescribed
certain do’s and don’ts for the king. Manu specified certain things
which the king should avoid, such as drinking , dice, woman, hunting,
gambling, inordinate love for singing wroth, violence, treachery, envy,
slandering, seizure of property, assault to name a few. He declasses
greed to be the root cause of all vices and therefore a wise rules
should sheen and avoid. Among the do’s prescribed by Manu to the
king, Manu emphasized upon the role of the king in appointment of
his ministers. As in his opinion, it is the most critical aspect of
administration. The king should appoint seven or eight ministers
talking into account the principles of hereditary and virtues of courage
and wisdom. Besides appointment of ministers, the king must also
appoint ambassadors to other states so that the king remains
informed about the activities of the other states. Manu also has given
guidelines which the king needs to follow while collecting revenues,
organizing local government, maintaining army, appointing civil
servant and other important matters thus in the opinion of Manu, the
king should regulate both the social and political life of the subjects
and protect them from all possible aggression and keep them fully
safe.
l Manu postulated the notion of rebirths and held the view that the
process of rebirth shall continue till the purpose of life is achieved.
Indian Political Thought (Block-1) 15
Unit 1 Manu
Ans to Q. No. 2 : According to Manu the king should avoid certain things
as drinking , dice, woman, hunting, gambling, inordinate love for
singing wroth, violence, treachery, envy, slandering, seizure of
property, assault to name a few. He declasses greed to be the
root cause of all vices and therefore a wise rules should sheen
and avoid.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : With a view to regulate the political affairs, Manu attached
utmost importance to Danda or punishment. According to Manu,
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UNIT STRUCTURE
2.2 INTRODUCTION
b) Amatya-The ministers
c) Janapada-The population
d) Kosha-the treasury
e) Durga-the fort
g) Mitra-the ally.
f) Bala (the Army) : Bala refers to the armed forces to protect the
state from aggressions and maintain law and order within the state.
Kautilya divides the armies into six categories i.e.
1) Hereditary forces
2) Hired troops
1) The King should have the best qualities of both head and heart. The
entire Arthashastra is addressed to the King, who to Kautilya is the
role ruler of the state.
4) The king should get rid of the following six passions i.e. lust, anger,
greed, attachment jealousy and pride. In other words the King must
shun these six vices which affect every human beings.
7) The king should also avoid injuring the women and the property of
others and should shun falsehood, haughtiness and evil activities.
8) Again Kautilya also suggested that the king should see through the
eyes of his aged ministers and follow the course of conduct that is
approved by them. Kautilya never wanted the King to depend on the
advice of any single minister because such an advice may be based
on selfish motives. He wanted that the king should consult a number
of ministers and then come to a conclusion.
l Much of our knowledge about state policy under the Mauryas comes
from the Arthashastra written by Kautilya. Though it was written at the
end of the fourth century B.C, it appears to have been rediscovered
only in 1905. Kautilya is described by historians as both the emperor’s
prime Minister and economist of the Mauryan state. Most agree that
his work can be read as an adequate description of his time yet also
serving as a practical manual of how to govern. Kautilya stresses on
the importance of religion as an important force to depoliticize the
masses when confronted with state power, thus reducing the risk of
rebellion.
l Again Kautilya’s insistence on clear and just laws that must be
backed by force are reminiscent of Hobbes, who warned of the perils
of internal anarchy and strife. However Kautilya’s policy making
remains his ‘mandala’ theory. Kautilya’s major concern was to always
have enough money available to finance. In sum, what is perhaps the
most fascinating is how many ideas Kautilya articulated that would
appear in the western centuries later- while Kautilya wrote Arthashastra
Ans to Q. No. 1 : The Swamin (the king) : According to Kautilya the King is
an indispensable, integral and inspirable part of the state. The king
belonged to the noble and royal family who possessed both the
qualities of head and heart. The king must be able to gain confidence
in others. He must be easily accessible, truthful and pioneer. He
should have a sharp intellect, be brave, prompt and must possess
a strong mind. To Kautilya, the swamin could be one person or a
number of persons. However to Kautilya the swamin is a veritable
sovereign owing allegiance to none.
Ans to Q. No. 2 : Bala (the Army) : Bala refers to the armed forces to
protect the state from aggressions and maintain law and order
within the state. Kautilya divides the armies into six categories i.e.
7) Hereditary forces
8) Hired troops
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UNIT STRUCTURE
3.2 Introduction
3.4 Conclusion
3.2 : INTRODUCTION
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in the year 1772. He was a
contemporary of Hegel. He is regarded as the promulgator of the modern
age in the Indian history. Roy had studied Persian and Arabic at Patna. His
study of Islamic metaphysics and sociology made him critical of some of
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Ram Mohan Roy was not only the pioneer of religious reform
but he was also the first advocate of social reconstruction in India.
He is known as the father of all progressive moments in modern
India. He rendered a great service to the cause of education in India.
He realized that without a radical reform of educational system
prevailing in India at that time it would not be possible to awaken the
nation from the slumber of centuries. Ram Mohan Roy was very
keen about introducing scientific education in India which would throw
off superstition and ignorance and open the path of enlightenment.
He felt unhappy to see the economic plight of the Indian people under
the rule of East India Company. He pointed out that the zamindars
had greatly benefitted by the permanent settlement of 1793, the poor
peasants was no better off at all. Rent was exorbitantly high and it
3.4 CONCLUSION
l The most important event which brought fame to Raja Ram Mohan
Roy was the establishment of Brahmo Samaj in 1828.He is known
as the father of all progressive moments in modern India.
l Ram Mohan was also the first person to give importance to the
development of the mother tongue.
l Ram Mohan Roy’s death in the year 1833 was a major setback for
the Brahmo Samaj’s mission.
Ans to Q. No. 1 : Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in the year 1772.
Ans to Q. No. 5 : Raja Ram Mohan Roy established Brahmo Samaj in the
year 1828.
Ans to Q. No. 8 : Ram Mohan Roy was a progressive and liberal thinker.
He had a deep passion for liberty and equality, yet he showed his
respect for property and believed in freedom of contract. He pleaded
Q5: Discuss about the Political ideas of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.2 Introduction
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Putulibai, his mother was a religious minded lady who influenced Gandhi a
lot. He was married to Kasturba Gandhi at the age of 19.
The word ‘Satya’ implies being truthful in one’s thought speech and
action. Gandhi always described his religion as the religion of truth.
According to Gandhi,
“God is Truth and Truth is God”, it implies that in reality nothing exists
The term peace has been defined in several ways and as such
peace has a variety of meanings that are different in accordance with the
context of usage. Historically, the word peace was essentially defined as
the absence of war i.e. ‘negative peace.’ Over a period of time it is seen
that, the definition of negative peace was becoming insufficient for proper
understanding of peace. Hence, the scholars put forward another definition
of peace which they termed as ‘positive peace’. It is seen that, mainly from
1950’s onwards the divide between negative and positive peace in peace
studies emerged. Positive peace has been defined as selflessness, a
pattern of co-operation and integration between major human groups, as
well as a willingness to see fellow humans as brothers and sisters. It aims
at establishing a peaceful world where wars are made impossible and the
people of the world stays together as one family.
He was of the view that the state would perform the minimum
protective functions. Moreover, it should not be entrusted with so
much of functions that the individuality of the man and his values
could be kept intact. It may be mentioned here that Gandhi was in
favour of making the state as Rama Rajya or Welfare State. In the
Rama Rajya, there would be the total domination of the principle of
Ahimsa and freedom of the people.
LET US KNOW
l He always stood for truth, peace and non-violent for securing every
objective in the society.
l His thoughts and deeds were based on two main pillars named as
Ahimsa and Satyagraha.
l Despite the criticism, it can be stated that this philosophy has its
own importance and it involves a spiritual and moral view of social
life.
9) Parel, Antony J.(ed.), (2011): Gandhi, Freedom and Self- Rule. New
Delhi: Vistaar Publication.
Ans to Q. No. 12 : The word ‘Rama Rajya’ implies the kingdom of God.
Here Gandhi acknowledged no other God but the one God of
truth and righteousness with the presence of equality for all in
the society.
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UNIT STRUCTURE
5.1 Learning Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.2 INTRODUCTION
2. Non-aggression;
Dr. Rasheeduddin Khan, was also of the view that, “In his
life and work Nehru reflected the great synthesis between the three
dominant trends and what may be called the heritage of enlightened
man. These may be identified as the vedantic vision imbued with a
sense of toleration and respect for many paths to truth, the composite
culture of India incorporating the elegance and the ethos of the Indian
Muslim, the passion of the tribal, the cosmopolitanism of the urban-
cultural streams and the vibrant propositions of liberty, nationalism,
secular polity and the democratic socialism that had governed the
modernisation process of contemporary civilization. His sense of
history, his mystic communion with the Indian people, his ever
present concern for the relevant, the rational and the progressive,
and the incessant longing for the transformation of the traditional
society into a modern polity committed him to a life long mission for
the completion of the socio-economic revolution in India. Nehru as
a Prime Minister contributed significantly to the strengthening of the
foundations of national unity, secularism and democracy. He laid
the base for a modern industrial society in our amidst, scientific in
temper, socialist in content, democratic in spirit and secular in its
ethos. He also launched India on the path of planned development.
He made economic planning an integral part of our political system.
The development of modern science in India is another field in which
he played a pivotal role. In the opinion of Prof. Bipan Chandra, “Nehru
was neither a party builder and organisor nor a political strategiest
but an ideologue, an inspirer and an agitator. He did not know how to
transform the party (congress) into a viable modern political party
with a strong institutional structure.”
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were laid down in the course of join declaration by Nehru and Chou-
En-Lai. (Fill in the Blank)
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l Nehru was a firm believer in the ideals of United Nations and was
opposed to the bipolarization of world politics and refused to join
any of the blocs.
2. Non-aggresion;
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.2 Introduction
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Indian freedom struggle, like many others across the world, have
produced leaders of immense repute, caliber, and strength. From leaders
like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
who held the commands of the freedom movement in the initial phase, to
Mahatma Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru who
commanded later on, each one of them and several other leaders have
72 Indian Political Thought (Block-1)
Madan Mohan Malaviya Unit 6
Towards this end, Mallaviya along with Annie Besant worked very
hard for almost eleven years. Initially, on 10th December 1908, Mallaviya
had proposed to the Government of the United Province about establishing
three colleges: a Vaidik College, which would train teachers of religion; an
Ayurvaidik College for training Vidayas (ayurvedic medical practitioners);
and a technical institute for teaching those sciences which would promote
industries. Along with this scheme, there was two other proposals submitted
by Besant and Maharaja Rameshwar Singh of Darbhanga for establishing
a University in Benaras. The government, however, rejected all the three
schemes as impracticable. Mallaviya, in the mean time toured the country
and started his campaign for enlisting support of the population towards
this noble goal. Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner, extended his support, on
the condition that there should be only one scheme (and not three as it
existed), for the establishment of this university. He felt that having three
distinct schemes for the same university rendered the situation complex
and unlikely to be accepted by the government. Most of the Indian states
such as Mysore, Gwalior, and Bikaner agreed with Mallaviya’s proposals
and the British government finally assented to it.
Mallaviya was one of the early and active members of the Congress
party and participated in its work since its formation. He attended the second
session of the Congress in Calcutta in 1886 and spoke on the matter of
representation of Indians in the Councils. Dadabhai Naoroji, the chairman
of this session was highly impressed with Mallaviya’s speech, so was the
ruler of Kalakankar estate in UP, Raja Rampal Singh. The latter thereby
offered Mallaviya the post of editor of the weekly ‘Hindustan’. He worked
there as an editor for two and half years before going ahead to pursue his
Bachelor of Law degree. This speech helped Mallaviya get recognition in
the political arena. Further, he also opposed the Press Bill and justified his
stance with very strong arguments, speaking in the Council on April 4, 1910.
In a similar vein he also opposed the Seditious Meeting Act by arguing that
such a law could be easily misused by the government. He supported the
motion on education put forward by Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s, portraying
his resolve towards supporting education. To ensure the entry of Indians in
the Civil Service, Mallaviya appealed for simultaneous conduct of Civil
Service examination in India as well as England. During this period, Indians
who wanted to enter this service had to travel all the way to England to
appear in the civil services exam, which many of them could not afford.
person from his national and cultural traditions. An attempt is made to turn
him into an Englishman.’ (Tanwar, 2015)
all be the source of happiness to others; may all see auspicious days; may
none suffer any injury.’ He believed that,
Mallaviya realised that the country can progress only when it people
lived in harmony with each other. Unity provided strength while discord and
division weakened the country. A proud Hindu, he did not consider it to be
antagonistic to his nationalistic zeal. He believed in equal treatment of all
people irrespective of one’s faith and that even minorities should feel proud
of India’s ancient culture and heritage.
need to ‘devise means to arrest the deterioration and decline of Hindus and
to effect the improvement of the Hindus as a community’. He further stated
that, ‘If the Hindus made themselves strong and the rowdy section among
the Mahomedans were convinced they could not safely rob and dishonour
Hindus, unity would be established on a stable basis.’ Therefore, it is important
that the untouchables be included and accepted by the caste Hindus as
‘true Hindus’, abolishing untouchability and providing them access to public
places such as schools, public wells and temples. He further provided that
those Hindus who had been converted, either forcibly or willingly, should be
brought back within the Hindu fold through ‘Shuddhi’(The Brotherhood in
Saffron, 1987, pages 28-29, cited in Noorani, 2015).
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UNIT STRUCTURE
7.2 INTRODUCTION
notably the founder of Mexican Communist Party and also one of the
members who founded the Communist Party of India. In the year 1940,
Roy was instrumental in the formation ofthe Radical Democratic Party, an
organisation in which he played a leading role for much of the decade of
the 1940s. Roy later moved away from Marxism to become an exponent of
the philosophy of radical humanism.
Roy was also a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the
Communist Party of India. He made sincere and meticulous efforts to
establish contact with the communist world and belonged to Congresses
Q 1 : When and where was M.N. Roy born and brought up?
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Q 2 : What are the basic tenets on which Roy’s humanism is based?
Explain about M.N. Roy’s concept of humanism.
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Q 3 : Write in brief how young Naren was involved in India’s freedom
struggle?
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M.N. Roy and his wife, Evelyn established the Communist Party of
Mexico, the first such party to be formed outside of Russia. Roy played an
important role in the Mexican political scenario and was popular among
higher power circles. He also contributed several theoretical articles in
Spanish and wrote for El Heraldo de Mexico which had English sections
too.
Following his expulsion from high school for organising a meeting and a
march against the partition of Bengal, Bhattacharya then moved to Kolkata
and joined in the active work of the national freedom struggle.
After his return to India for the first time in December 1930, Roy
began his work as a critical Marxist. However, his political activity in India
proved to be quite short as he was arrested in Bombay on an arrest warrant
I. Co operative planning
7.10 CRITICISM
Though, M.N. Roy is remembered as one of the most modern Indian
political thinker to challenge the traditional viewpoints,he was criticised in
certain areas. His Marxist view of the Indian society was criticised on the
grounds that it was not applicable in that time. Moreover, he was strictly
against liberal political institutions like political parties, elections, and
parliament and supported a new harmonious approach with a scientific
outlook. Even, the picture he drew of the Indian society was inconsistent
and superficial.
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Q 6 : On what grounds M.N. Roy’s views are criticised?
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l Roy was also a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the
Communist Party of India.He was an ardent follower of the philosopher
Bentham, and addressed Indians to believe in concepts like self-denial
and simplicity, and the joy of satisfying one’s desires.
l Roy believed in the idea of party less democracy. He attacked the goal
of power to be the main priority of politics. He also believed that the
party system is an inadequate medium to represent the people.
Ans. To Q. No. 1 : M.N. Roy was born in the year 1887 in Arebelia, which is
a village near Calcutta in the district of 24 parganas. His father,
Dinabandu Bhattacharya was the head-priest of the temple of
goddess Ksheputeshwari in the village. He was an ardent follower
of the Swami Vivekananda’s philosophy of life and national
devotion. Naren Bhattacharya’s early schooling took place at
Arbelia and after his parents moved to another village named
Kodalia, he started studying in Harinabhi Anglo-Sanskrit school.
Ans. To Q. No. 2 : The basic tenets of humanism were rationality, morality
and freedom.
The theory of new Humanism of Roy aims at inculcating a
sense of primacy of values and the urge for attaining eternal
freedom. The new Humanist Ideology enunciates the importance
of freedom, knowledge and truth in one’s life. The re-assertion of
the value foundations of politics and society is a contribution
welcome to the modern political thought and behavioural political
analysis.
Ans. To Q. No. 3 : Like any Bengali Brahman born in Calcutta, Roy was
attracted to politics in his teens, and before he was twenty he
was deeply involved in the struggle for independence. Young Naren
was fully involved in the protest movements opposing the partition
of Bengal. He was eventually expelled from School for doing
so. Soon after, Naren developed contact with the local revolutionary
groups and got involved full time in politics. Towards the end of
the 19th Century revolutionary nationalism began to spread among