CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

A working woman has a more interesting life than one who does not work and

there is also the charm of a pay-pocket- but she often has to pay a heavy price for all

this.

- Manjit Bhatia

"To awaken the people, it is the women who must be awakened. Once she is

on the move, the family moves, the village moves and the nation moves"

- Jawaharlal Nehru.

Importance of Women - As a Human Resource

Women who constitute half of the world's population are not fully harnessed

as a human resource. Any society cannot go ahead if 50 per cent of the population do

not participate in its developmental activities. Indira Gandhi, the former Prime

Minister of India observed that neglect of women would be criminal since

humanity had been deprived of half of the energy and creative talents. Right through

history, in all religions and cultures women have been assigned a secondary status.

(Shakuntala Baiaraman, 1986).

ra

e.
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The world wars proved to be a turning point in the history of mankind. The

participation of women in the work force started increasing since then. This trend is

observed in developing nations (Kakpana Sharma, 1988).

In tune with the world wide trend, Indian women are marching towards self-

development. In India, women played a secondary role for centuries together. During

the colonial rule, women lived a miserable and horrible life in diverse situations

(Krishnamurthy, 1990).

Mahatma Gandhi, Father of Indian Nation helped women to find a new

dignity in public life, a new place in the national mainstream, a new confidence and

a consciousness that they could act against oppression (Madhu Kishwar, 1985).

The socio-economic changes that were set in motion in India after

independence provided women with better educational and employment

opportunities. Besides, a series of laws such as the Special Marriage Act 1954, the

Hindu marriage Act 1955, Equal Remuneration Act 1976 passed by the government

of India helped to improve the lot of women. Today educated Indian women have

made a landmark in the non-conventional fields like consultancy, marketing,

advertising, garment exporting, interior decoration, beauty parlours, road and

building construction. Women have started coming forward in considerable number

in certain spheres of higher category jobs like civil service, judiciary, foreign service,
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medicine and architecture. In organised sectors like banking, insurance,

communication and air transport women's share in employment has recently doubled

over the decade and governments intervention played an important role in this regard

(Nirmala Banerjee, 1989).

1.2. Role of Women

Women are at the heart of development. They control most of the non-money

economy (subsistence agriculture, bearing and raring children, domestic labour) and

take an important part in the money economy (trading, the 'informal sector', wage

employment). Everywhere in the world women have two jobs - around the home and

outside it.

Women are half the world's population, receive one-tenth of the world's

income, account for two-thirds of the world's working hours, and own only one-

hundredth: of the world's property. The process of industrialisation, urbanisation and

the increased educational and employment opportunities for women have brought

about changes in the traditional attitudes and values of urban women in India.

The role of women in our society even as career women, not to speak of

householders is not insignificant. They have played a significant role in the socio -

economic and political development of our country. The old order which confined

women to the home as servants, and helpers to their men folk, is being replaced now
4

by a new one in which women increasingly undertake to fulfil many roles, within the

home as wives, mothers and home makers and outside it, as partners and co-workers

of men in all types of enterprises. The few fortunate women who have the benefits of

higher education seem to be quite obvious of their immense responsibilities for the

emancipation of the women in the country side and of the working and middle class

families in urban areas. The production side of women's work at home is gradually

decreasing leading to a reduction of woman's role at home. Women perceive more

and more clearly that if they really want to contribute to the welfare of their family

and society the most effective way is to go out of home and earn money (Sumit

Gupta and Mukta Gupta, 1989).

Besides, soaring prices and rise in materialism make man work against time in

his attempt to survive in the fast changing society, and also to accumulate more and

more goods. If he cannot do it alone, his wife has to provide more, either by bringing

in a fat dowry or by going out to work. Thus we have a working woman (Kalpana

Roy, 1999).

Today, the state has accepted women's empowerment, and women as active

agents participating in their own development. Most of the countries now recognise

the need for gender justice and equality. Women can change the nature of power

rather than power change the nature of women. Women try to devote most of their
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time for maintaining their living standard with the help of earnings through

employment in urban areas.

Emancipation of women is one of the indicators of economic development and

social changes. The position of women in a society is an index of its level of

civilisation. Women constitute one half of the population, that is one half of the

country's human resources. Apart from the fact that they constitute one half of the

country's 'man power', women play an important role in shaping the personalities of

the nations' young human resources (Rani Moses, 1992).

The position of women has changed not only in the sphere of marriage and

family but also in the spheres of education, employment and political life. Women's

employment has an important role in women's empowerment. Employing of women

particularly in the organised sector ensures better living conditions for herself and her

family.

If women are to empower themselves they have to be provided with

wholesome opportunities and rights, access to basic civic amenities, right to

education, right to earn a livelihood, right to equal wages, right to question, and fight

justice, right to decision-making to live way they want, protection against violence

and injustice to them. They need the strength to free themselves from the oppressive

and dependent conditions of living. If national development and women's

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development have to be purposive and relevant, women have to be equal partners

with men and participants. The powerful and deep rooted cultural forces, outdated

value systems, discriminatory socialisation process, and oppressive social structural

forces that obstruct such an access need to be confronted and reversed.

Women have achieved only limited access to some fields of life. More often

they are the implementers of decisions, and not the decision makers for their own

cause or any other related cause. She is under constant pressure on the home front

and at the work place. The dual roles and responsibilities have resulted in a lot of

tension, stress and strain for the women. She is therefore hard pressed in finding time

to devote to herself, for her own personality development.

At present, women occupy positions in every field of activity, and command

honour and respect similar to men. Thus it may be understood that some of the

sociological, economic, and psychological characterization of women have been

changed because of education and employment (Murali Manohar, 1989).

Mahatma Gandhi referred to women as the nobler sex. According to him, "If

she is weak in striking, she is strong in suffering." In Indian society, the women are

visualised in two extreme positions. On the one side, Indian women are celebrated as

'Sakthi', the source of power. On the other side, from the sociological set up, women

are being considered as the weaker sex and hence they are left with closed
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commitments only. In modem society women are said to be equal to men. The actual

situation is far from this. The fact is that in modem society women constitute its

disadvantaged, if not depressed, section. Irrespective of their social status, women

play a very active role in the economic activity either as workers, or as producers of

various goods and services or in the domestic side as house-maids. (Sahab Deen

Maurya, 1988).

Indian women are patient in nature and do have the capacity to accept every

thing. Normally they do have more confidence in the male members of the family.

Our culture makes them good subordinates and executors of decisions made by the

male members. Moreover in general women are capable of working hard physically

on all occasions and mostly at all ages. The women's uplift depends upon two

requisites, self-reliance and economic independence. Women's participation in the

economic activity is important for their personal advancement and improvement of

their status in society. Women must join the labour force of the country on an equal

feeling with men and get integrated into the system (Kalpana Roy, 1999).

Strandt said that, 'setting resources into women's hands, integrating women in

the wage labour force and securing female rights to enable and empower women for

other actions are deemed significant in themselves". Urbanisation, higher education,

recognition of talents and abilities and meaningful employment have provided

women with new avenues to express and assert themselves. The rural women have
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been working for a living in the fields alongside of their men. The middle class

Indian working women in the cities have stepped out in search of economic gains as

well as the fulfillment of their personal hopes and desires. Now, it is admissible even

for married women to take up gainful employment. The upper and middle class

women are finding a purpose in their lives. Women with education and employment

make a mark for themselves in society by the flowering of their personality while

retaining their essential womanliness. Their mental orientn is more prepared than

a typical household. In the event of working outside, the traditional division of labour

has been rearranged to meet the situation (Strandt Kathleen, 1986).

Educational, political, economic and social changes have changed women's

status, their roles and way of life. But this could also change their feminine character

a little. Indeed they work, but they work for the family that too from economic

impulses. They work to support their family. The working women, on the whole,

never sought to sublimate or bypass the demands of family life. Rather their homes

and families have either come first, or have stood at par with their work.

This role is very significant, as far as the art of maintaining a stable family life

and thereby a stable society is concerned.

1.3 Women Work Force in the Labour Market

Traditionally women's occupational status has always been closely associated

with the home and family. She has only a secondary status because she is

economically dependent on her father or husband (Mary Billington, 1978).

In order to improve the status and position of women at home and in the

society at large, it is necessary to achieve economic independence for women.

Freedom depends on economic condition even more than political. If a woman

is not economically free, without self-employment and self-earnings she will have to

depend on her husband or some one else and dependants are never free (Azad Singh

Gulab, 1988).

For a woman, an opportunity to productive work is not merely a means to

higher income but also to self respect, to the development of her personality and to a

sense of participation in the common cause of the society. The low status of women

in large segments of Indian society cannot be raised without the opening up of

opportunity of independent employment and income.

Economic independence makes women conscious of their rights. By working

outside the home and coming into contact with other people they have broadened

their outlook and mental horizon (Margret Cormack, 1976).

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The image of women in society is fast changing. But it is difficult to define

clearly the changing shape of the image. One thing is clear; women are entering the

labour force in a large number (Devaki Jam, 1975).

Employment is considered to be an important indicator of women's

achievements in the economic sphere. In the organised and industrial sectors

employment of women has gone up rapidly. A similar increase could be seen in the

unorganised sectors which are outside the reach of public regulation, labour laws and

other forms of public control. They are employed in considerable numbers in public

services in several countries. They are employed in all services not in the same

proportion as that of western countries.

The labour force participation rates particularly of women and teenagers are

very sensitive to the general level economic activity. The impact of economic

conditions on female labour force participation can take two forms. In times of

economic down turn, the wife or other members of the household may enter the

labour force to supplement the family income. These additional workers often leave

the labour force once the major breadwinner is reemployed on a regular basis. If an

employed woman loses her job, and cannot find a new one after a prolonged search,

she may become discouraged and leave the labour force. Despite the rapid growth of

the female labour force in recent years, women still primarily confine themselves to

certain areas and occupations. Women are largely employed in primary sector of the
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economy. In the secondary and tertiary sectors the female working force is much less

as compared to male employed in transport, storage and communications (Subba

L,cSIIIO]

The phrase 'working women' is generally understood to mean women who

take up jobs usually outside the home, the work being mostly of a remunerative

nature. The term is however a misnomer in so far as it implies that the housewife is

not a 'working woman'. It is indeed surprising that housewives all over the world

have not taken exception to this usage (Annupa Gupta, 1971).

Women are employed in all fields. They are shouldering official, family and

social burdens. While working in the mixed group, their need to keep up with the

status, which can be higher, compared with non-working housewives. Working

women can be defined as the employed women ranging from those who are

employed in small scale industries and organisation to those who, possess ownership,

and authority in organizations, in government, private and quasi-government

(Lawrence Marry, 1996).

Working women could be brought under three categories on socio economic

basis. The first category includes agricultural workers and those engaged in

traditional menial services, construction work and domestic works such as cleaning,

cooking and washing.

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The second category mostly consists of those women who work in offices or

in factories. They can be called the blue-collar women workers.

The third category of women workers are well educated. They are quite well

off in life. They have both vertical and horizontal mobility (Gangrade, 1993).

The employment of women under the next three types of industries,

electricity, gas and water supply, construction and trade and commerce reveal a

downward trend.

These three categories of industries seem to provide the largest avenue of

employment to women job - seekers in India. Under the division of transport, storage

and, commerce, there was a substantial increase both in the number of workers as

well as in their proportion.

The majority of women under these divisions take up the white collar jobs and

work as clerks, typists, steno, telephone operators, secretaries, assistants etc. Women

workers are preferred in these jobs because of their docile nature. They do not take

in general active part in strikes and other trade union activities. This is an important

feature of women workers. (Kurukshetra, 1984).

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Two-way ANOVA was carried out to examine whether there was any

significant variation in quality of work life and job satisfaction.

Step-wise regression model was computed to assess the contribution of

independent variables to quality of work life and empowerment.

The correlation coefficient technique has been used to analyse among the

variables of work-family conflict.

One way ANOVA was carried Out to examine the variation in empowerment

of different sectors.

In order to find out the level of empowerment, arithmetic mean and standard

deviation were computed.

To examine the relationship between the level of empowerment and socio-

economic factors, Chi-square test was employed.

Lii Concepts

Meaning and definitions

A clear definition of certain concepts that one might come across in the

discussion of the subject would be helpful in the proper understanding of the issues,

hence before proceeding with the actual discussion of the problem on hand an
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attempt is made in this chapter to provide clear meaning and definitions of certain

concepts which are used in this study.

House Holds

A group of persons normally living together and taking food from the same

kitchen constitute a household. It usually excludes guests and includes temporary

absentees.

Age has been considered as the number of full years completed by women

workers at the time of investigation.

Caste

It may be defined as a small and named group of persons characterised by

endogamy, hereditary membership and a specific style of life, which also includes the

pursuit by tradition of a particular occupation and is usually associated with a more

or less distinct ritual status in a hierarchical system.

jeligion

A system of beliefs, practices and philosophical values concerned with the

definition of the sacred comprehension of life and salvation from the problems of
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human existence. Religion is essentially an institutionalized or traditional path to

salvation.

Family Size
/

This term means the number of members in a household.

Joint Family
//
More then one family is sharing food from the same kitchen.

Nuclear Family

It is a family in which the Husband and wife live with any number of their

unmarried children.

Separation

When husband and wife do not live together and they have no marital

relations that is called separation.

Divorce

It means when either of the party approaches the court or follows some other

legal method claiming that relations between them have so much deteriorated that it
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is impossible for them to lead a married life as husband and wife and a request is

made that the marriage be legally dissolved, it inevitably leads to a divorce.

Socio-Economic Background
/
John.P. Dececo states that socio-eco-background is of special significance to

the investigator. He states that "socio-economic background assumes a continuous

ranking from high to low on the basis of occupation, education income and so on".

Education
/

The term Education in the widest sense may be held to include the whole

process of development through which a human being passes from infancy to

maturity, gradually adapting himself to his physical and social environment.

Educational Status

The educational status of the populations of the sample households has been

classified as illiterate, primary, middle, high, higher secondary and collegiate

education.

Literate
/

According to 2001 census a literate is defined as a person who can both read

and write with understanding in any language.

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Illiterate
/

It is defined as a person who does not know how to read or write any

language.

Occupation
/

The nature of work which the person has to perform is denoted by occupation.

Income
/

It refers to the wealth measured in money which has been at the disposal of an

individual or a community per year of other unit to time. It may be considered to be a

flow of purchasing power which may be expended at once on goods or services or

retained for the purposes of capital accumulation.

Income is derived from various sources such as land, labour or capital. The

word "Income" in this study refers to family monthly's income or earnings from

various sources for the entire family,

Wages
/

The term 'wage' denotes all payments for labour services irrespective of the

form or shape in which they are received such as daily basis, weekly basis, monthly

basis and other payments in monetary or real terms (Stephen Pictchnis, G., 1975).

N
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Expenditure

The term expenditure here is defined as family size expenditure and

investment expenditure.

Public Sector

That part of the economy in which the state acts as entrepreneur.

Private sector

That part of the economy which is left to private enterprise.

Status
/
Status is defined as the degree to which a person possesses characteristics

valued in a particular society or has been discussed in terms of categories or kinds of

persons.

Status of women
/
At micro level the status of women is defined as a conjunction of the position

she occupies as a student, worker, a wife and a mother.

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Empowerment

It is a process giving employees more power to exercise control and take

responsibility for their work. It gives more scope for individuals to exhibit their

abilities by encouraging them to take decisions close to the point of impact. It is

about encouraging both hands and minds of the people involved. It speeds up

decision making process. It accelerates the response to time to meet the changing

needs of the customer. It exhorts creativity of employees. It provides greater job

satisfaction to them. Finally it leads to motivation, commitment and responsibility of

the employees.

Organisation

/
An organisation maybe defined as a consciously co-ordinated social unit,

composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to

achieve a common goal or a set of goals.

Work-family Conflict Variables:

The concept of work-family conflict used in the present study is an extension

and modification of Kopetman et.al ., (1983) and used by E.D. Linda et.al . (1991) in

their articles. In this extended model, a) work involvement and work expectation are

predictors of work conflict and work-family conflict, b) family involvement and

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family expectation are predictors of family conflict and work-family conflict, c) work

conflict is a predictor of family conflict, d) work conflict and family conflict are
/
predictors of work-family conflict, e) work conflict and work-family conflict affect

an individual's quality of work life (QWL), 1) family conflict and work-family

conflict affect an individual's quality of family life (QFL) and g) QWL and QFL

jointly affect life satisfaction.

The definition of work-family conflict variables is given in the following

paragraphs.

i) Work Involvement:

The work involvement is defined as "a person's psychological response to his

or her current work-role or job, the degree to which a person identifies

psychologically with the job, and the importance of the job to the person's self-image

and self concept" (Yoger, S. and Brett, J).

The work involvement is positively related to number of hours spent in the

work. The hours spent in turn have been linked to increased work-conflict resulting

from role overload (Staines, G. and et at., 1978).

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ii) Family Involvement:

Family involvement is conceptualized as the 'degree to which a person

identifies psychologically with family roles, the importance of the family to the

person's self-image and self-concept, and the individual's commitment to family

roles" (Yoger, S. and Brett, J.).

As work involvement, family involvement have also been shown to be

positively related to the number of hours spent in family activities which in turn is to

be linked to increased family conflict.

"Women's self-concept has traditionally been associated with their

performance of the parenting and spouse roles" (Pleck, J., 1985). Sensitization theory

predicts that when women are involved in the family role, it raises anxiety and guilt

regarding their performance in non-traditional roles. Higher family involvement

leads to more work-family conflict for women because they are playing a traditional

family role along with a non-traditional role.

iii) Work Expectations:

Work expectations are defined as the pressure an individual perceives in

assuming increased role responsibilities.

High work expectations have been significantly linked to high levels of work

conflict (Greehnauns, J., and Beutell, N., 1985). Women do have mutually supportive

and family roles. Central to the traditional roles of wife and mother is the obligation

to be available to meet the needs of the family. Career women are unable to take

time away from their family roles to satisfy work expectations. Several researchers

have reported a positive association between work role expectations and work-family

conflict. High work expectations have also been found to be positively associated

with work-family conflict (Pleck, J., 1979).

iv) Family Expectations:

Family expectations are more in women employees. High family expectations

have been linked to greater perception of family conflict (Bohen, H. and et al., 1981).

Expectations surrounding the family role can evoke pressures that dominate the time

of an individual. Family expectations are associated with the performance of the

work role. Women have traditionally experienced stronger sanctions for non-

compliance with family demands (Greehnauns, J. and Beutell, N.) Women's lack of

control in balancing family needs against the demands of their job leads to greater

work-family conflict.
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v) Work Conflict:

The work expectations cause work conflict since the women employees have

to play two roles as mother and employee. The work-role characteristics such as the

amount and scheduling of work time, that place demands and restrictions on an

individual's work behaviour must be accommodated by women employees. These

requirements contribute to work conflict. The conflict at work drains and pre-

occupies the individual, making it difficult for her to participate adequately in family

matters. The inaccessibility of the woman worker to a family member while she is

working can create psychological problems in the family and lead to family conflict.

vi) Family Conflict:

The women are expected to manage their home domain, and such family

responsibilities are likely to enter their work life. Since women have to take full

responsibility for domestic work, the women's families are expected to make

adjustments to accommodate the demands of her work-roles. Pleck (1977) claimed

that there is an asymmetrical boundary between work and non-work and that for

women, th is boundary is permeable in the sense that non-work responsibilities are

likely to enter and affect work life.

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vii) Work-Family Conflict:

Work-family conflict occurs when an individual has to perform multiple roles:

worker, spouse and in many cases, parent. Each of these roles imposes demands

requiring time, energy and commitment. The cumulative demands of multiple roles

can result in role strain of two types, namely overload and interference" (Kelly, R.

and Voydanoof, P., 1985).

When the total demands of time and energy associated with the prescribed

activity of multiple roles are too great for the roles to be performed adequately or

comfortably, overload exists. Interference occurs when conflicting demands make it

difficult to fulfil the requirements of multiple roles.

Women are more likely to allow the demands of the family role to intrude into

the work role. This vulnerability of the female work role to family demands is a

major source of work-family conflict because the sex role norm that women should

take responsibility for the family, conflicts with the norms of the job role (Pleck, J.,

1984).
Viii) Quality of Work Life:

There is a link between the quality of work life and the levels of job

satisfaction. Similarly work-family conflict is predicted to affect the quality of

family life also.

Quality of work life is a comprehensive construct that includes an individual's

job-related well-being to the extent to which work experiences are rewarding,

fulfilling and devoid of stress and other negative personal consequences (Shamir, B.

and Salomon, J., 1985).

ix) Quality of Family Life:

"Quality of family life is a construct that includes an individual's family-

related well-being and the extent to which his or her roles as parent and spouse are

rewarding, fulfilling and devoid of stress and other negative personal consequences"

(Burke, R. and Weir, T., 1976). Family conflict has been negatively associated with

quality of family life.

x) Life Satisfaction:

"Life satisfaction is conceptualised as deriving from satisfaction experienced

through having a good job and family life" (Sekaran, V., 1983). The women
33

employees receive more life satisfaction from family on account of their traditional

roles. Hence, the life satisfaction also influences the work-family conflict variables.

1.12 Chapter Scheme:

The study is organized in seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the subject, role of women, women work force and

empowerment in the labour market, statement of the problem, objectives of the study,

significance of the study, limitations, methodology, concepts and chapter scheme.

Chapter II reviews the earlier studies relating to women working in organized

sector, and further the theoretical perspectives of women labour participation are

discussed in this chapter.

Chapter III describes women work participation. Further the profile of the

study area is also presented in this chapter.

Chapter IV analyses the characteristics of the sample women employees, the

relationship between the characteristics of women employees and their familial

characteristics and women workers' contribution towards family income.

Chapter V explains the work-family conflict, quality of work life and job

satisfaction. Further it examines the inter-correlation among work-family conflict

34

variables and assesses the contribution of independent variables to work-family

conflict.

Chapter VI deals with women work participation and empowerment of women

through decision making. The factors which influence the empowerment of women

are also analysed.

Chapter VII presents the summary of findings along with conclusion and

suggestions based on the study.